Neurophysiology of Religious Neurophysiology of Religious ExperienceExperience

Elaine HullElaine HullProfessor of Psychology and Professor of Psychology and

Neuroscience, FSUNeuroscience, FSU

OutlineOutline

•• Brief review of Brief review of neuroanatomyneuroanatomy•• Correlations of brain activity with religious Correlations of brain activity with religious

experiencesexperiences•• Epilepsy and religious experienceEpilepsy and religious experience•• Induction of religious experience with Induction of religious experience with

magnetic stimuli or drugsmagnetic stimuli or drugs•• Where do we go from here?Where do we go from here?

Lobes of the cerebral cortex

Brain regions implicated in emotion:Brain regions implicated in emotion:Yellow: Yellow: orbitofrontalorbitofrontal prefrontal cortexprefrontal cortexBlue: Anterior Blue: Anterior cingulatecingulate cortexcortexGreen: Posterior Green: Posterior cingulatecingulate cortexcortexPurple: Purple: InsulaInsula; Red: amygdala; Red: amygdala

Two different hemispheresTwo different hemispheresLeft Brain Right BrainLeft Brain Right Brain

•• Expressive, verbalExpressive, verbal•• Logical, detailedLogical, detailed•• ConcreteConcrete•• Social emotionsSocial emotions•• Factual MemoryFactual Memory•• Positive emotions and Positive emotions and

approach behaviors approach behaviors

•• Perceptual,spatialPerceptual,spatial•• Holistic, creativeHolistic, creative•• MetaphoricalMetaphorical•• Primary emotionsPrimary emotions•• Emotional Emotional

autobiographical autobiographical memorymemory

Right HemisphereRight Hemisphere

•• Close relationship to limbic system and Close relationship to limbic system and emotional expression.emotional expression.

•• RhythmicityRhythmicity, including chanting, poetry , including chanting, poetry and music (whirling dervishes, Voodoo)and music (whirling dervishes, Voodoo)

•• Stimulation of right temporalStimulation of right temporal--parietal parietal junction junction out of body experiences. out of body experiences.

Universal spiritual behavior includes:Universal spiritual behavior includes:

•• A feeling of extended self, awe, ecstasy A feeling of extended self, awe, ecstasy or serenity.or serenity.

•• A connection with a nonA connection with a non--material world.material world.•• Belief in magic or the supernatural.Belief in magic or the supernatural.•• Priesthood, sacred objects and places, Priesthood, sacred objects and places,

communication with spirits of the deadcommunication with spirits of the dead•• Dualism: Physical and spiritualDualism: Physical and spiritual

HeredityHeredity•• Minnesota Twin ExperimentMinnesota Twin Experiment

-- Identical and fraternal twins reared apartIdentical and fraternal twins reared apart-- 43% of religiosity is inherited.43% of religiosity is inherited.

•• The God GeneThe God Gene-- proposed by Dean Hamerproposed by Dean Hamer-- The gene for the The gene for the ““pumppump”” that puts serotonin that puts serotonin

into vesicles in the axon terminal has been into vesicles in the axon terminal has been linked in one study to predisposition tolinked in one study to predisposition tospirituality. spirituality.

Disease and InjuryDisease and Injury•• Alzheimer patients lose spirituality with decline Alzheimer patients lose spirituality with decline

in cognitive function.in cognitive function.•• Head injury is frequently associated with Head injury is frequently associated with

change in religious attitudes.change in religious attitudes.•• Dementias due to injury to the frontal and Dementias due to injury to the frontal and

temporal lobes have been associated with temporal lobes have been associated with religious experiences.religious experiences.

•• Out of body experiences have been triggered Out of body experiences have been triggered by brain hypoxia from cardiac arrest.by brain hypoxia from cardiac arrest.

•• Schizophrenics attribute internal thoughts to Schizophrenics attribute internal thoughts to external sourcesexternal sources

Brain imagingBrain imaging

•• Note in the slides below that various Note in the slides below that various emotions activate overlapping brain areas.emotions activate overlapping brain areas.

•• Also, note that a lot of the brain areas that Also, note that a lot of the brain areas that were activated or deactivated are not were activated or deactivated are not labeled.labeled.

PET images during recall of emotionsPET images during recall of emotionsRed, yellow: increase; Purple: decreaseRed, yellow: increase; Purple: decrease

Perceived pain in anterior Perceived pain in anterior cingulatecingulate cortexcortex

•• There is no simple oneThere is no simple one--toto--one relation one relation between an emotion and brain areas between an emotion and brain areas activatedactivated

•• Much overlap among different emotionsMuch overlap among different emotions

How about religious experience?How about religious experience?•• Beauregard & Paquette (2006): Used Beauregard & Paquette (2006): Used

fMRIfMRI to study Carmelite nuns in a state to study Carmelite nuns in a state of union with God.of union with God.–– This state was characterized as being This state was characterized as being

timeless, timeless, spacelessspaceless, in union with , in union with mankind & the universe, peaceful, mankind & the universe, peaceful, joyful, and full of unconditional love.joyful, and full of unconditional love.

–– fMRIfMRI: subtract Baseline from Mystical : subtract Baseline from Mystical and Control conditions.and Control conditions.

How about religious experience?How about religious experience?•• To produce the mystical condition: Nuns To produce the mystical condition: Nuns

were told to relive the most intense were told to relive the most intense mystical experience they had ever felt.mystical experience they had ever felt.

•• For the control condition: They were to For the control condition: They were to relive the most intense state of union relive the most intense state of union with another human.with another human.

Phenomenology:Phenomenology:•• Scores of 15 or greater were scored for Scores of 15 or greater were scored for

3 items of Mysticism Scale:3 items of Mysticism Scale:–– I have had an experience in which I have had an experience in which

something greater than my self something greater than my self seemed to absorb me.seemed to absorb me.

–– I have experienced profound joy.I have experienced profound joy.–– I have had an experience that I know I have had an experience that I know

to be sacred.to be sacred.

In the mystical state: Increased blood flow to numerous areas

MysticalMystical vs. Baselinevs. Baseline•• Medial Medial orbitofrontalorbitofrontal cortex: subjective cortex: subjective

pleasantness, conscious awareness of pleasantness, conscious awareness of feelingsfeelings

•• Caudate nucleus: positive emotions (also Caudate nucleus: positive emotions (also motor ability & obsessivemotor ability & obsessive--compulsive compulsive disorder!!)disorder!!)

•• InsulaInsula: integrates visceral stimuli (including : integrates visceral stimuli (including disgust!!)disgust!!)–– Face recognitionFace recognition–– Recent report: lesion of Recent report: lesion of insulainsula loss of loss of

nicotine addictionnicotine addiction

MysticalMystical vs. Baseline vs. Baseline (continued)(continued)

•• Superior parietal lobe: spatial Superior parietal lobe: spatial perception of selfperception of self

•• Inferior parietal lobe: distinction Inferior parietal lobe: distinction between self and other, motor imagerybetween self and other, motor imagery

•• Medial occipital cortex: visual imageryMedial occipital cortex: visual imagery

ControlControl vs. Baselinevs. Baseline

•• Superior parietal lobe (same as with Superior parietal lobe (same as with Mystical condition): spatial perception of Mystical condition): spatial perception of selfself

•• Left caudate nucleus (same as with Left caudate nucleus (same as with Mystical condition): positive emotions (& Mystical condition): positive emotions (& motor ability & obsessivemotor ability & obsessive--compulsive compulsive disorder (OCD)disorder (OCD)

•• Inferior occipital cortex: visual imageryInferior occipital cortex: visual imagery•• Dorsal Dorsal cingulatecingulate cortex: emotional cortex: emotional

awarenessawareness

SummarySummary

•• Considerable overlap between Mystical Considerable overlap between Mystical and Control areas of activation:and Control areas of activation:–– Superior parietal lobe: spatial sense Superior parietal lobe: spatial sense

of selfof self–– Caudate nucleus: positive emotions + Caudate nucleus: positive emotions +

OCDOCD–– Occipital cortex: visual imageryOccipital cortex: visual imagery

SummarySummary

•• Mystical > ControlMystical > Control–– InsulaInsula: visceral stimuli: visceral stimuli–– Prefrontal cortex: conscious Prefrontal cortex: conscious

awareness of feelingsawareness of feelings–– Medial temporal cortex: complex Medial temporal cortex: complex

visual imageryvisual imagery

AzariAzari et al. (2001) Neural Correlates of et al. (2001) Neural Correlates of Religious ExperienceReligious Experience

•• They studied positron emission tomography They studied positron emission tomography (PET) images of religious teachers vs. (PET) images of religious teachers vs. science students (6 of whom were religious science students (6 of whom were religious and 6 were not).and 6 were not).

•• Subjects did not differ on scales of Subjects did not differ on scales of imaginabilityimaginability or verbal traits or on or verbal traits or on personality or life satisfaction measures.personality or life satisfaction measures.

AzariAzari et al. (2001) continuedet al. (2001) continued

•• Subjects either read or recited (eyes Subjects either read or recited (eyes closed) 1closed) 1stst verse of Psalm 23 or a verse of Psalm 23 or a ““happyhappy”” childrenchildren’’s rhyme.s rhyme.

•• Control condition: read instructions for Control condition: read instructions for using a phone card from the using a phone card from the DDüüsseldorf phone booksseldorf phone book

Religious: Recite vs Rest

Dorsolateralprefrontal cortex

Dorsomedial frontal cortex

AzariAzari et al. (2001) Neural Correlates of et al. (2001) Neural Correlates of Religious ExperienceReligious Experience

•• Religious subjects reported a trend Religious subjects reported a trend toward a decrease in negative emotionstoward a decrease in negative emotions

•• Religious vs. nonreligious:Religious vs. nonreligious:–– Increased activation of right Increased activation of right

dorsolateraldorsolateral and and dorsomedialdorsomedialprefrontal cortex during the religious prefrontal cortex during the religious statestate

AzariAzari et al. (2001) Neural Correlates of et al. (2001) Neural Correlates of Religious ExperienceReligious Experience

•• Religious vs. nonreligious Religious vs. nonreligious (continued)(continued)::–– DorsolateralDorsolateral prefrontal cortex: memory prefrontal cortex: memory

retrieval and conscious monitoring of retrieval and conscious monitoring of thoughtthought

–– DorsomedialDorsomedial prefrontal cortex: readiness prefrontal cortex: readiness for actionfor action

AzariAzari et al. (2001) et al. (2001) continuedcontinued

•• Nonreligious vs. religious:Nonreligious vs. religious:Left amygdala activation during happy Left amygdala activation during happy

statestate

Comparison of the 2 studiesComparison of the 2 studies

•• Both showed activation of prefrontal Both showed activation of prefrontal cortex in religious statescortex in religious states

•• Only the study of nuns showed Only the study of nuns showed activation of areas that process visceral activation of areas that process visceral ((insulainsula) or visual (occipital, medial ) or visual (occipital, medial temporal) information or temporal) information or subcorticalsubcorticalareas (caudate).areas (caudate).

Cautionary notesCautionary notes

•• These studies show correlations, not These studies show correlations, not causes.causes.

•• There is much overlap of areas There is much overlap of areas activated in religious and nonreligious activated in religious and nonreligious states.states.

•• The descriptions of the functions of The descriptions of the functions of areas are extremely broad (!!)areas are extremely broad (!!)

•• There is great variability among There is great variability among subjects.subjects.

Try an experimental approach Try an experimental approach to get at causationto get at causation•• Administer magnetic stimulation or drugs Administer magnetic stimulation or drugs

and measure religious experience.and measure religious experience.

Bipolar EEG activity over the temporal lobes during applications of weak magnetic fields over the right hemisphere of a professional journalist who had experienced a "haunt." Top panel: normal activity; Middle panel: paroxysmal discharges during subjective experiences of intense fear and a sensed presence. Bottom panel: seconds marker. (M. A. Persinger, 2001)

EpilepsyEpilepsy

•• 25% temporal lobe epileptics report 25% temporal lobe epileptics report symptoms of religious fervor.symptoms of religious fervor.

•• Some historians report St. Paul, Joan of Some historians report St. Paul, Joan of Arc, and Mohammed were epileptic.Arc, and Mohammed were epileptic.

Reports of epileptic activity and Reports of epileptic activity and religious experiencereligious experience

•• Temporal lobe epilepsy has also been Temporal lobe epilepsy has also been associated with nonassociated with non--religious religious ““transcendenttranscendent””experience.experience.–– One agnostic woman was relieved to learn One agnostic woman was relieved to learn

that there was a physical explanation for her that there was a physical explanation for her experiences.experiences.

–– Several patients deliberately tried to reSeveral patients deliberately tried to re--initiate these experiences by putting initiate these experiences by putting themselves into the same state of mind as themselves into the same state of mind as before.before. (Hansen & (Hansen & BrodtkorbBrodtkorb, 2003), 2003)

LandtblomLandtblom, 2006,, 2006,The The ““sensed presencesensed presence””: An epileptic aura with : An epileptic aura with religious overtones.religious overtones. EpilEpil. . BehavBehav., 9:186., 9:186--188188•• The aura was described by the patient: The aura was described by the patient: ““I have I have

a feeling that someone stands behind me, a feeling that someone stands behind me, someone with a distinct wish to support and someone with a distinct wish to support and comfort me. This person will follow me comfort me. This person will follow me anywhere I would like to go.anywhere I would like to go.”” The sensation The sensation was characterized as pleasant, but it usually was characterized as pleasant, but it usually progressed to a state of altered consciousness, progressed to a state of altered consciousness, nausea, irritation of the throat, and an urge to nausea, irritation of the throat, and an urge to urinate. The patient did not interpret this urinate. The patient did not interpret this experience as religious. experience as religious.

Cerebral blood flow with decreased flow to the temporal lobe, especially on the left, during an epileptic aura with religious overtones.(Landtblom, 2006)

There was a bilateral decrease in blood flow to the temporal lobes (1) and local increase in activity in the left frontoparietal area (2).

EEG records showed INCREASED activity in temporal lobes. (Not clear why DECREASED blood flow there.)

Dostoyevsky’s report of his personal experience with epileptic religious experiences:

“The air was filled with a big noise and I tried to move. I felt the heaven was going down upon the earth and that it had engulfed me. I have really touched God. He came into me myself, yes God exists, I cried, and I don’t remember anything else. You all, healthy people can’t imagine the happiness which we epileptics feel during the second before our fit. Mahomet, in his Koran, said he had seen Paradise and had gone into it.

Dostoyevsky’s report of his personal experience with epileptic religious experiences (continued):

“All these stupid clever men are quite sure that he was a liar and a charlatan. But no, he was a victim of this disease like I was. I don’t know if this felicity lasts for seconds, hours or months, but believe me, for all the joys that life may bring, I would not exchange this one.”

Although he realized that this vision was due to his epilepsy, he insisted on the validity of these visions and the ultimate truth and knowledge he experienced.

Administer Administer serotonergicserotonergic drugsdrugs

•• LSD, mescaline, and other LSD, mescaline, and other serotonergicserotonergicdrugs have been used to elicit religious drugs have been used to elicit religious experiences for centuries.experiences for centuries.

•• They stimulate certain types of serotonin They stimulate certain types of serotonin receptors.receptors.

Drugs of Abuse: HallucinogensDrugs of Abuse: Hallucinogens

HallucinogensHallucinogens

•• Include:Include: LSD,LSD, psilocybin,psilocybin, mescalinemescaline, , MDMA or MDMA or ecstasy.ecstasy.

•• All stimulate (cortical) serotonin 5All stimulate (cortical) serotonin 5--HTHT2A2Areceptorsreceptors

•• These receptors usually These receptors usually ‘‘gategate’’ sensory sensory input to cortex: keep it from being too input to cortex: keep it from being too powerful.powerful.

•• Hallucinogen action at these receptors Hallucinogen action at these receptors may impair this sensory gating.may impair this sensory gating.

LSD by itself increases glutamate release in LSD by itself increases glutamate release in sensory association cortex. Administration of a sensory association cortex. Administration of a serotonin antagonist with LSD blocks the effect.serotonin antagonist with LSD blocks the effect.

Increased glutamate in sensory association cortex may produce the hallucinations elicited by LSD.

There were negative correlations between “self-transcendence” and binding of a different type of serotonin receptor (5-HT1A) (Lorenzi et al., 2006)

Am J Med Genet B NeuropsychiatrGenet. 2005 Aug 5;137(1):33-5.

•• The interpretation of this finding is not clear.The interpretation of this finding is not clear.•• Some 5Some 5--HT1A receptors are HT1A receptors are ““autoreceptorsautoreceptors””

that that negative feedback, keeping serotonin negative feedback, keeping serotonin release within release within ““normalnormal”” bounds. Therefore, bounds. Therefore, decreased decreased autoreceptorautoreceptor binding may suggest binding may suggest less negative feedback and higher serotonin less negative feedback and higher serotonin levels.levels.

•• Decreased binding may also result from a Decreased binding may also result from a generally high level of transmitter. generally high level of transmitter. –– I.e., this is a compensation for the high levels.I.e., this is a compensation for the high levels.–– This is similar to the decrease in This is similar to the decrease in cannabinoidcannabinoid

receptors when rats were given receptors when rats were given cannabinolcannabinolfor several weeks.for several weeks.

SummarySummary•• Religious experience has been Religious experience has been

associated with increased activity in associated with increased activity in several brain areas, including prefrontal several brain areas, including prefrontal cortex, occipital, temporal, and parietal cortex, occipital, temporal, and parietal cortex, and some cortex, and some subcorticalsubcortical areas.areas.

•• Temporal lobe epilepsy has been Temporal lobe epilepsy has been closely linked with closely linked with ““transcendenttranscendent””experience.experience.

•• However, there is a great deal of However, there is a great deal of overlap with other types of experience.overlap with other types of experience.

SummarySummary

•• There is considerable variability in brain There is considerable variability in brain areas activated, both between studies areas activated, both between studies and among individuals.and among individuals.

•• Often the functions ascribed to brain Often the functions ascribed to brain areas in these studies are very vague.areas in these studies are very vague.

•• Those brain areas participate in a wide Those brain areas participate in a wide range of activities.range of activities.

•• Blood flow is not always a good Blood flow is not always a good predictor of activity.predictor of activity.

SummarySummary

•• Temporal lobe epilepsy and alterations of Temporal lobe epilepsy and alterations of serotonin activity may be associated with serotonin activity may be associated with religious experience.religious experience.

•• Humans naturally try to find an explanation Humans naturally try to find an explanation for their feelings.for their feelings.–– If there is no obvious physical If there is no obvious physical

explanation, they may enlist a spiritual explanation, they may enlist a spiritual one.one.

SummarySummary•• Religious experience, like all other experience, Religious experience, like all other experience,

is brainis brain--based. based. •• However, the interpretation of the experience However, the interpretation of the experience

may be unique to the person who has the may be unique to the person who has the experience.experience.

•• Of course, one could always say that God Of course, one could always say that God caused the epileptic experience or caused the epileptic experience or serotonergicserotonergicactivity in order to impart a religious experience.activity in order to impart a religious experience.

•• However, when we induce magnetic stimulation However, when we induce magnetic stimulation or take LSD, WE are eliciting the aura. The or take LSD, WE are eliciting the aura. The person can still interpret its meaning.person can still interpret its meaning.