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Two Cell Types in Nervous Systems Neurons –Cells that conduct the nerve impulses Supporting Cells –Neuroglia
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Nervous SystemsThree MainFunctions:
1. Sensory Input2. Integration3. Motor Output
Two Main Parts of Vertebrate Nervous Systems
• Central nervous system (CNS) – brain and spinal cord – integration
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)– network of nerves extending into different parts
of the body– carries sensory input to the CNS and motor
output away from the CNS
Two Cell Types in Nervous Systems
• Neurons– Cells that conduct the nerve impulses
• Supporting Cells – Neuroglia
Figure 48.2x Neurons
Three Major Types of Nerve Cells
• Sensory neurons – communicate info about the external or internal
environment to the CNS• Interneurons
– integrate sensory input and motor output– makes synapses only with other neurons
• Motor neurons – convey impulses from the CNS to effector cells
Supporting Cells - Neuroglia
• provide neurons with nutrients, remove wastes
Two important types in vertebrates– Oligodendrocytes – myelin sheath in CNS– Schwann cells -myelin sheath in PNS
Myelin Sheath Formation
Conduction of the Nerve Impulse
• Membrane Potential– Voltage measured across a membrane due to
differences in electrical charge– Inside of cell is negative wrt outside
• Resting potential of neuron = -70 mV
Figure 48.6 Measuring membrane potentials
1. Carrier in membrane binds intracellular sodium.
2. ATP phosphorylates protein with bound sodium.
3. Phosphorylation causes conformational change in protein, reducing its affinity for Na+. The Na+ then diffuses out.4. This conformation has higher
affinity for K+. Extracellular K+ binds to exposed sites.
5. Binding of potassium causes dephosphorylation of protein.
Extracellular
IntracellularATP
ADP
Pi
P+
K+
Na+
6. Dephosphorylation of protein triggers change to original conformation, with low affinity for K+. K+ diffuses into the cell, and the cycle repeats.
Pi
Pi
Pi
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Excitable Cells
• Neurons & muscle cells• Have gated ion channels that allow cell to
change its membrane potential in response to stimuli
Gated Ion Channels
• Some stimuli open K+ channels– K+ leaves cell– Membrane potential more negative– hyperpolarization
• Some stimuli open Na+ channels– Na+ enters cell– Membrane potential less negative– depolarization
Gated Ion Channels
• Strength of stimuli determines how many ion channels open= graded response
Nerve Impulse Transmission
Action Potentials
• Occur once a threshold of depolarization is reached– -50 to –55 mV
• All or none response (not graded)– Magnitude of action potential is independent of
strength of depolarizing stimuli• Hyperpolarization makes them less likely
Mem
bran
e po
tent
ial (
mV)
2. Rising Phase
Stimulus causes above threshold voltage
+50
0
1 2 3
–70
Time (ms)1. Resting Phase
Equilibrium between diffusion of K+ outof cell and voltage pulling K+ into cell
Voltage-gatedpotassium channel
Potassiumchannel
Voltage-gatedsodium channel
Potassium channelgate closes
Sodium channelactivation gate closes.
Inactivation gate opens.
Sodium channelactivation gate opens
3. Top curve
Maximum voltage reached
Potassiumgate opens
4. Falling Phase
Potassiumgate open
Undershoot occurs as excess potassiumdiffuses out before potassium channel closes
Equilibriumrestored
Na+ channelinactivation gate
closes
K+
Na+
Na+ channelinactivation gate
closed
Refractory Period
• During undershoot the membrane is less likely to depolarize
• Keeps the action potential moving in one direction
Propagation of Action Potential
• Action potential are very localized events• DO NOT travel down membrane• Are generated anew in a sequence along the
neuron
Cellmembrane
Cytoplasm
restingrepolarizeddepolarized
+ + + + + + + + + – – – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + – – – – – – – – –
– – + + + + + + + + + – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + – – – – – – – – – + +
+ + – – + + + + + – – + + – – – – –
+ + + + + – – + + – – – – – + + – –
+ + + + – – – + + – – – – + + + – –
+ + – – – + + + + – – + + + – – – –
+ + + + + + + – –– – – – – – – + +
– – + + + + + + + + + – – – – – – –
Na+
K+
Na+
K+
Na+
K+
Na+
K+
K+
K+
Saltatory Conduction
Transfer of Nerve Impulse to Next Cell
• Synapse– the gap between the synaptic terminals of an
axon and a target cell
Transfer of Nerve Impulse to Next Cell
• Electrical synapses– Gap junctions allow ion currents to continue
• Chemical synapses– More common– Electrical impulses must be changed to a
chemical signal that crosses the synapse
Synapses
Neurotransmitters
Effects of Cocaine
Receptor proteinDrug
moleculeSynapse
1. Reuptake of neuro- transmitter by transporter at a normal synapse.
2. Drug molecules block transporter and cause overstimulation of the postsynaptic membrane.
3. Neuron adjusts to overstimulation by decreasing the number of receptors.
4. Decreased number of receptors make the synapse less sensitive when the drug is removed.
Neurotransmitter
Transporter protein
Transporterprotein
Dopamine
CocaineReceptorprotein
Human
CerebrumCerebellum
Spinal cord
Cervicalnerves
ThoracicnervesLumbarnerves
Femoralnerve
SciaticnerveTibialnerve
Sacralnerves
Nervenet
Nerve cords Associativeneurons
BrainGiant axon
Mollusk
Echinoderm
Central nervoussystem
Peripheralnerves
Brain
Ventralnerve cords
Radialnerve
Nerveribs
Cnidarian
Flatworm
Earthworm
Arthropod
Diversity of Nervous Systems