Nervous System

Chapter 38

Pages 731-757

Nerve Cell Neurons or nerve cells - receive, process,

transmit information

Glia - which assist neuron function. Provide nutrients

Regulate the composition of the extracellular fluid (brain & spinal cord)

Regulate communication between neurons

Speed up the movement of electrical signals within neurons

Functions of Nerve Cells Localized in separate parts of the cell

A neuron must perform four functions: Receive information from the environment

Process the information and produce electrical signals

Conduct electrical signals to a junction where it meets another cell

Transmit information to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Structures of Nerve Cells Typical neurons have four distinct parts that carry

out the functions:

Dendrites

A cell body

An axon

Synaptic terminals

Dendrites – respond to stimuli Dendrites are branched tendrils protruding from the cell

body

Perform the “receive information” function

Branches provide a large surface area for receiving signals

Dendrites of sensory neurons respond to specific stimuli- pressure, odor, light, body temperature, blood pH, or position of a joint

Dendrites of neurons in the brain and spinal cord respond to chemicals or neurotransmitters, released by other neurons

Cell Body – processes dendrite signals Performing the “process information”

function

Electrical signals travel down the dendrite to the cell body, which integrates incoming information If incoming signals are strong enough, a large,

rapid electrical signal called an action potential is produced

Contains other organelles - nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus

Axon – conducts action potentials In a typical neuron, a long, thin axon extends

outward from the cell body and conducts action potentials from the cell body to synaptic terminals at the axon’s end

Single axons may stretch from our spinal cord to our toes, a distance of about 3 feet

Axons are typically bundled together into nerves, much like wires are bundled within an electrical cable

Synapses – transmit signals between cells The site where a neuron communicates with

another cell is a synapse A synapse consists of:

The synaptic terminal - a swelling at the end of an axon of the “sending” neuron

A dendrite or cell body of a “receiving” neuron, muscle, or gland cell

A small gap separates the two cells Contain neurotransmitters that are released in

response to an action potential reaching the terminal

The plasma membrane of the receiving neuron has receptors that bind the neurotransmitters and stimulate a response in this cell

So the output of the first cell becomes the input to the second

Dendrites:Receive signalsfrom other neurons

2

Cell body:Integrates signals;coordinates theneuron’s metabolicactivities

3

An actionpotential starts here4

Axon: Conductsthe action potential5

Dendrites(of other neurons):Receive signals

synapse

dendritereceptors

synapticterminal

7

Synaptic terminals:Transmit signals toother neurons

6

Synaptic terminals:Transmit signals fromother neurons

1

neurotransmitters

A Neuron

How is information carried? Information is carried within a neuron by

electrical signals and is transmitted between neurons by neurotransmitters released from one neuron and received by a second

An unstimulated, inactive neuron maintains a constant electrical voltage difference, or potential, across its plasma membrane, called a resting potential

The voltage inside the cell is always negative and ranges from about –40 to –90 millivolts (mV)

Produce and Transmit Information If the membrane potential becomes less

negative, it reaches a threshold level and triggers an action potential

During action potential, the membrane potential

rises rapidly to +50 mV inside the cell, then returns to resting potential

The action potential signal flows down the axon to the synaptic terminals with no change in voltage from the cell body to the synaptic terminals

5

3

4

1 2

time(milliseconds)

restingpotential

action potential

threshold

lessnegativemore

negative

Electrical Events During an Action Potential

Myelin Myelin speeds up the conduction of action potentials

The thicker an axon, the faster the action potential moves

Neurons increase the rate of action potential conduction by covering portions of the axon with a fatty insulation called myelin

Formed by glial cells that wrap themselves around the axon, leaving nodes between myelin segments

In myelinated neurons, action potentials “jump” from node to node, traveling at a rate of 10 - 330 ft/ second

A Myelinated Axon An action potential jumpsfrom node to node, greatlyspeeding up conductiondown the axon

node

axon

myelin myelinsheath

axon

Schwann cell

Neurons use chemicals to communicate at synapses

A synapse is where the synaptic terminal of one neuron meets the dendrite of another. They do not actually touch at a synapse

A tiny gap or synaptic cleft, separates the first or presynaptic neuron, from the second or postsynaptic neuron

The presynaptic neuron sends neurotransmitter chemicals across the gap to the postsynaptic neuron

There are many types of neurotransmitters A synaptic terminal contains vesicles, each full of

neurotransmitter molecules When an action potential is initiated, it travels down an

axon until it reaches its synaptic terminal

Neurotransmitters

Across the Synapse The inside of the terminal

becomes positively charged and triggers a cascade of changes that cause the vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synapatic cleft

The outer surface of the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic neuron is packed with receptor proteins that are specialized to bind the neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic neuron

The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the gap and bind to these receptors

Synapses produce excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials The binding of neurotransmitter molecules to receptors on a

postsynaptic neuron opens ion channels in the neuron’s plasma membrane

Depending on which channels are associated with the receptors, ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, or Cl– may move through these channels causing a small, brief change in voltage, called a postsynaptic potential or PSP

If the postsynaptic neuron becomes more negative, its resting potential moves farther away from threshold, reducing the likelihood of firing an action potential This change in voltage is an inhibitory postsynaptic

potential (IPSP) If the postsynaptic neuron becomes less negative, then its

resting potential will move closer to threshold, and it will be more likely to fire an action potential This voltage change is an excitatory postsynaptic

potential (EPSP)

Signaling in Neurons

Neurotransmitter action is brief Some neurotransmitters are rapidly broken down

by enzymes in the synaptic cleft acetylcholine, the transmitter that stimulates skeletal

muscle cells

Many other neurotransmitters are transported back into the presynaptic neuron

How Do Neurons Produce and Transmit Information? Summation of postsynaptic potentials determines

the activity of a neuron

The dendrites and cell body of a single neuron receive EPSPs and IPSPs from the synaptic terminals of presynaptic neurons

The voltages of all the PSPs that reach the postsynaptic cell body are added up, a process called integration

If the excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials added together raise the electrical potential inside the neuron above threshold, the postsynaptic cell produces an action potential

Nervous System Must be able to perform four operations:

Determine the type of stimulus Determine and signal the intensity of a stimulus Integrate information from many sources Initiate and direct appropriate responses

Determine the type of Stimulus The nature of a stimulus is determined by

connections between the senses and the brain All nervous systems interpret what a stimulus is

by monitoring which neurons are firing action potentials For example, the brain interprets action

potentials that occur in the axons of the eye and travel to the visual areas of the brain as the sensation of light

Therefore, you distinguish the sound of music from the taste of coffee, or the bitterness of coffee from the sweetness of sugar, because these different stimuli result in action potentials in different axons that connect to different areas of the brain

Intensity is coded for by frequency of action potentials Because all action potentials are the same size and

duration, no information about the strength or intensity of a stimulus can be encoded in a single action potential

Intensity is coded in two ways: First, the intensity can be signaled by the frequency of

action potentials in a single neuron—the more intense the stimulus, the faster the neuron fires action potentials

Second, most nervous systems have many neurons that respond to the same input Stronger stimuli excite more of neurons, whereas weaker

stimuli excite fewer neurons that fire at the same time A gentle touch may cause a single touch receptor in the skin

to fire action potentials very slowly; a hard poke may cause several touch receptors to fire, some very rapidly

(a) Gentle touch

sensoryneuron 1

sensoryneuron 2

sensoryneuron 1

sensoryneuron 2

sensory neuron 1

sensory neuron 2

time

sensory neuron 2

(b) Hard poke

sensory neuron 1 Sensory neuron 1fires slowly;sensory neuron 2is silent

Sensory neurons1 and 2 both fire

Signaling Stimulus Intensity

The nervous system processes information from many sources The brain is bombarded by sensory stimuli from inside and

outside the body

The brain evaluates inputs, determines which are important, and decides how to respond

A number of neurons may funnel their signals to fewer neurons Many sensory neurons may converge onto a small number of brain cells

Some brain cells act as “decision-making” cells, adding up the PSP that result from the synaptic activity of the sensory neurons

Depending on their strength (and other factors, as hormones or metabolic activity), they produce appropriate outputs

The nervous system produces outputs to muscles and glands Action potentials from the decision-making

neurons may travel to other parts of the brain, the spinal cord, or the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

Ultimately, the output of the nervous system will stimulate activity in the muscles or glands that produce behaviors

The same principles of connectivity and intensity coding for sensory inputs are used for the brain’s outputs

Which muscles or glands are activated is determined by their connections to the brain or spinal cord

How hard a muscle contracts is determined by how many neurons connect to it and how fast those neurons fire action potentials

How are behaviors controlled? Most behaviors are controlled by pathways

composed of four elements: Sensory neurons respond to a stimulus, either

internal or external Interneurons receive signals from sensory

neurons, hormones, or neurons that store memories; based on this input, interneurons often activate motor neurons

Motor neurons receive information from sensory neurons or interneurons and activate muscles or glands

Effectors, usually muscles or glands, perform the response directed by the nervous system

Reflexes are simple behaviors Simple behaviors, such as reflexes, may be

controlled by activity in as few as two or three neurons—a sensory neuron, a motor neuron, and an interneuron in between, usually stimulating a single muscle

In humans, simple reflexes such as the knee-jerk

or pain-withdrawal reflexes are produced by neurons in the spinal cord

Complex behaviors

Complex behaviors are organized by interconnected neural pathways in which several types of sensory input converge on a set of interneurons

By integrating the postsynaptic potentials from multiple sources, the interneurons “decide” what to do and stimulate motor neurons to direct the appropriate activity in muscles and glands

Hundreds, or even millions of neurons, mostly in the brain, may be required to perform complex actions such as playing the piano

Simple nervous systems In the animal kingdom, there are two nervous

system designs.

A diffuse nervous system Cnidarians (Hydra, jellyfish, and their relatives)

Radially symmetrical cnidarians have no “front end,” so there is no evolutionary pressure to concentrate the senses in one place

Cnidarian nervous systems are composed of a network of neurons, called a nerve net, woven through the animal’s tissues, with a cluster of neurons, called a ganglion, but nothing like a real brain

ring of ganglia

diffuse network of neurons

(a) Hydra

Nervous System Organization

More Complex A centralized nervous system, in more complex

organisms

Most animals are bilaterally symmetrical, with head and tail ends

The head is usually the first part of the body to encounter food, danger, and potential mates. It is advantageous to have sense organs concentrated there

Sizable ganglia evolved that integrate the information gathered by the senses and direct appropriate actions

Over evolutionary time, the major sense organs of became localized in the head, and the ganglia became centralized into a brain

This process, called cephalization, reached a peak in the vertebrates

Nervous System Organization

nerve cordscerebralganglia(brain)

brain

(b) Flatworm (c) Octopus

Nervous system divided into 2 parts The central nervous system (CNS) - brain and

spinal cord The peripheral nervous system (PNS) -

neurons that lie outside the CNS and axons that connect them with CNS

The cell bodies of neurons of the PNS are often located in ganglia alongside the spinal cord or in ganglia near target organs, such as ganglia in the head and neck that control the salivary glands

Organization and Functions of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The PNS links the CNS to the Body Nerves of the PNS –

Connect the brain and spinal cord with muscles, glands, sensory organs, and digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive, and circulatory systems

Contain axons of sensory neurons, bringing sensory information to the CNS from all parts of the body

These nerves also contain the axons of motor neurons that carry signals from the CNS to glands and muscles

The motor portion of the PNS consists of 2 parts: The somatic and Autonomic nervous systems

Somatic Nervous System Controls voluntary movement

Motor neurons of the somatic nervous system form synapses with skeletal muscles and control voluntary movement Lifting a cup of coffee or adjusting your iPod

The cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are located in the spinal cord, and their axons go directly to the muscles they control

Autonomic Nervous System Controls involuntary actions

Motor neurons of the autonomic nervous system innervate the heart, smooth muscles, and glands, and produce involuntary actions

It is controlled by the hypothalamus, medulla, and pons—parts of the brain

It consists of two divisions that innervate the same organs, but with opposing actions: The sympathetic division The parasympathetic division

Sympathetic Division The neurons of the sympathetic division

release the neurotransmitter norepinephrine onto their target organs, preparing the body for stressful or energetic actions, “fight or flight”

During these activities, it directs some of the blood supply from the digestive tract to the muscles of the arms and legs

The heart rate accelerates, the pupils of the eyes open wider, and the air passages in the lungs expand

Parasympathetic Division The neurons of the parasympathetic division

release acetylcholine onto their target organs

The parasympathetic division controls maintenance activities that can be carried out at leisure, often called “rest and digest”

Under parasympathetic control, the digestive tract

becomes active, the heart rate slows, and air passages in the lungs constrict, because the body requires less blood flow and less oxygen

dilates pupileye

inhibitssalivationand tearing

relaxesairways

increasesheartbeat

stimulates glucoseproduction andrelease

inhibitsdigestion

heart

lungsconstrictsairways

reducesheartbeat

liver

pancreas

stomach

spleen

smallintestine large

intestine

urinarybladder

relaxesbladder

stimulatesorgasm

uterus

externalgenitalia

rectum

kidney

kidney

stimulatessecretion ofepinephrine andnorepinephrinefrom adrenalmedulla

stimulatespancreas torelease insulinand digestiveenzymes

dilates bloodvessels in gut

stimulates bladderto contract

stimulates sexual arousal

salivary andlacrimal glands

stimulates salivationand tears

stimulatesdigestion

sympatheticganglia

cranial

cervical

thoracic

lumbar

sacral

cranial

cervical

thoracic

lumbar

sacral

PARASYMPATHETICDIVISION

SYMPATHETICDIVISION

constricts pupil

The Autonomous Nervous System

Central Nervous System Receives and processes sensory information,

generates thoughts, directs responses

The brain and spinal cord are protected from physical damage in 3 ways: The skull surrounds the brain, and vertebrae protect the

spinal cord The triple connective tissue layer of meninges lies

between the bone and spinal cord

Between the meninges layers is the cerebrospinal fluid that cushions the brain and spinal cord, and nourishes the cells

Extra Brain Protection Protected from damaging chemicals by the

blood–brain barrier

Capillary system is less permeable than in the rest of the body and selectively transports needed materials into the brain while keeping many dangerous substances out

The blood–brain barrier keeps water-soluble substances from diffusing from the blood into the brain, but many lipid-soluble substances can still diffuse across the capillary walls

Spinal Cord Controls reflexes, conducts information to and

from the brain

Nerves carrying axons of sensory neurons emerge from the dorsal part of the spinal cord, and nerves carrying axons of motor neurons emerge from the ventral part

Merge to form the spinal nerves that innervate the body

Resemble tree roots tree that merge into a single trunk, the branches are called the dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal nerves

Swellings on each dorsal root - dorsal root ganglia, contain the cell bodies of sensory neurons

In the center of the spinal cord is a butterfly-shaped area of gray matter

Contain cell bodies of motor neurons that control voluntary muscles and the autonomic nervous system, plus interneurons that communicate with the brain and other parts of the spinal cord

white matter contains myelinated axons

spinalnerve

dorsal rootcontains theaxons ofsensoryneurons

dorsal rootganglioncontains thecell bodies ofsensory neurons

ventral rootcontains the axonsof motor neurons

gray mattercontains the cellbodies of motorneurons andinterneurons

The Spinal Cord

White Matter The gray matter is surrounded by white matter -

contains myelin-coated axons of neurons that extend up or down the spinal cord These axons carry sensory signals from internal organs,

muscles, and the skin up to the brain Axons also extend downward from the brain, carrying

signals that direct the motor portions of the peripheral nervous system

If the spinal cord is severed, body parts innervated by motor and sensory neurons located below the injured area are paralyzed and feel numb, though the motor and sensory neurons, the spinal nerves, and the muscles remain intact

white matter contains myelinated axons

spinalnerve

dorsal rootcontains theaxons ofsensoryneurons

dorsal rootganglioncontains thecell bodies ofsensory neurons

ventral rootcontains the axonsof motor neurons

gray mattercontains the cellbodies of motorneurons andinterneurons

The Spinal Cord

Reflexes The neuronal circuits for many reflexes reside

in the spinal cord

The simplest type of behavior is the reflex, an involuntary movement of a body part in response to a stimulus

In vertebrates, many reflexes are produced by the spinal cord and peripheral neurons, and do not include the brain

Pain-withdrawal Reflex, an example The pain-withdrawal reflex involves neurons of

both the central and peripheral nervous systems If you put your hand on a tack, tissue damage activates

pain sensory neurons Action potentials in the axons of pain sensory neurons

travel up the spinal nerve and enter the spinal cord through a dorsal root

Within the gray matter of the cord, the pain sensory neuron stimulates an interneuron, which stimulates a motor neuron

Action potentials in the axon of the motor neuron leave the spinal cord through a ventral root and travel in a spinal nerve to a skeletal muscle

The action potential stimulates the muscle, which contracts, and you withdraw your hand from the tack

stimulus

sensoryneuron spinal

cord

motorneuron

dorsal root

interneuron

ventralroot

The motorneuron stimulatesthe effector muscle

The effectormuscle causes awithdrawal response

A painfulstimulus activatesa pain sensoryneuron

The signal istransmitted by thepain sensory neuronto the spinal cord

The signal istransmitted to aninterneuron and thento a motor neuron

4

3

2

1

5

The Pain-withdrawal Reflex

Animation: Reflex Arcs

Many spinal cord interneurons also have axons that extend to the brain Action potentials in these axons inform the brain

about stuck hands and may trigger more complex behaviors, such as shrieks and learning about the dangers of thumbtacks

The brain sends action potentials down axons in the spinal cord white matter to interneurons and motor neurons in the gray matter, which modify spinal reflexes

With enough training, or motivation, you can suppress the pain-withdrawal reflex

Some complex actions coordinated within the spinal cord The wiring for some complex activities resides

within the spinal cord All the neurons needed for basic movements of

walking and running are contained in the spinal cord

The advantage of the semi-independent arrangement between brain and spinal cord increases speed and coordination, because messages do not travel up to the brain and back down, just to swing a leg forward while walking

The brain’s role in these semi-automatic behaviors is to initiate, guide, and modify spinal motor neuron activity

The Brain All vertebrate brains consist of three major

parts: The hindbrain - medulla, pons, and

cerebellum The midbrain The forebrain - thalamus, hypothalamus, and

cerebrum

In the earliest vertebrates, these three anatomical divisions were also functional divisions: The hindbrain governed breathing and heart

rate The midbrain controlled vision The forebrain dealt with the sense of smell

In nonmammalian vertebrates, the three divisions remain prominent

However, in mammals—particularly humans—the brain regions are significantly modified

Some have been reduced in size; others, especially the forebrain, are greatly enlarged

(a) Embryonic vertebrate brain

cerebrum

thalamus

midbrain

midbrain

optic lobe cerebellum

medulla

forebrain midbrain hindbrain

(b) Shark brain

(c) Goose brain

cerebrum cerebellum

cerebrum cerebellum

(e) Human brain

cerebrum

midbrain(inside cerebellum

(d) Horse brain

cerebrum

midbrain

cerebellum

A Comparison of Vertebrate Brains

Hindbrain - Medulla In structure and

function, the medulla is like an enlarged extension of the spinal cord

Like the spinal cord, the medulla has neuron cell bodies at its center, surrounded by a layer of myelin-covered axons

It controls automatic functions - breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing

Hindbrain - Pons

Located above the medulla,

Neurons influence transitions between sleep and wakefulness, affect the rate and pattern of breathing

Hindbrain - Cerebellum Coordinates body

movements

Receives information from command centers in the forebrain and position sensors in muscles and joints. By comparing information from these two sources, the cerebellum guides smooth, accurate motions and body position

The cerebellum is also

involved in motor learning as a result of practice of a repeated activity

The Cerebral Cortex The thin outer layer of each cerebral hemisphere,

with billions of neurons packed in a highly organized way into a sheet just a few mm. thick

Folded into convolutions - raised, wrinkled ridges that increase its surface area to over two square yards

Neurons in the cortex receive sensory information, process it, direct voluntary movements, create memories, and allow us to be creative and even envision the future

The cortexes in each hemisphere communicate

with each other through a band of axons, the corpus callosum

Midbrain Clusters of neurons that

contribute to movement, arousal, emotion

The midbrain is small in humans, and has an auditory relay center and clusters of neurons that control reflex movements of the eyes

For example, if you are sitting in class and someone races through the door, centers in your midbrain are alerted and direct your gaze to the new, and potentially interesting or threatening, visual stimulus

Midbrain The midbrain contains neurons that produce

dopamine Cluster of neurons, the substantia nigra, helps control

movement

Another cluster is an essential part of the “reward circuit” that is responsible for pleasurable sensations and addiction

Contains a portion of the reticular formation that consists of dozens of interconnected clusters of neurons in the medulla, pons, and midbrain, which send axons to the forebrain

Reticular Formation These neurons receive input from every sense,

part of the body and many areas of the brain Plays a role in sleep, wakefulness, emotion, muscle

tone, and some movements and reflexes. It filters sensory inputs before they reach the

conscious regions of the brain

Activities of the reticular formation allow you to read and concentrate in the presence of a variety of distracting stimuli, such as music or smells

Example - mother who wakes hearing the faint cry of her infant, but sleeps through loud traffic noise

Forebrain - Thalamus Complex relay station

that channels all sensory information except olfaction, from all parts of the body to the cerebral cortex

Signals traveling from the spinal cord, cerebellum, medulla, pons, and reticular formation pass through the thalamus

Forebrain - Hypothalamus Clusters of neurons that

release hormones into the blood or control the release of hormones from the pituitary gland

Other regions direct activities of the autonomic nervous system

The hypothalamus, by hormone production and neural connections, maintains homeostasis by influencing body temperature, food intake, water balance, heart rate, blood pressure, the menstrual cycle, and circadian rhythms

Forebrain - Cerebrum Two cerebral hemisphere

Outer cerebral cortex

Corpus Collosum - clusters of neurons beneath the cortex near the thalamus

Bundles of axons that interconnect the two hemispheres and connect the hemispheres to the midbrain and hindbrain

Structures of the interior cerebrum The amygdala - clusters of

neurons - produce sensations of pleasure, fear, or sexual arousal

The hippocampus plays an important role in the formation of long-term memory, particularly of places, and is required for learning

All vertebrates have a hippocampus

Birds, especially jays and nutcrackers, remember where they store seeds during the winter - have a larger hippocampus than other birds

The basal ganglia - deep within the cerebrum and substantia nigra in the midbrain

Important in the overall control of movement

The basal ganglia are essential to the decision to initiate a particular movement and to suppress other movements

Parkinson’s disease & substantia nigra

Huntington’s & basal ganglia

The Human Brain

(a) A lateral section of the human brain (b) A cross-section of the brain

hypothalamus

meninges skull

corpuscallosum

thalamus

cerebellum

pons

medulla

spinal cord

cerebral cortex(gray matter)

myelinated axons(white matter)

basalganglia

hypothalamus

hippocampus

thalamus

corpuscallosum

substantia nigra

MIDBRAIN

HINDBRAIN

FOREBRAIN(within dashedblue line)

cerebralcortex

pituitarygland

Limbic System A diverse group of structures The hypothalamus, the amygdala, and the

hippocampus, as well as nearby regions of the cerebral cortex, located in a ring between the thalamus and cerebral cortex

Helps to produce emotions and emotional behaviors - fear, rage, calm, hunger, thirst, pleasure, sexual responses

Other brain regions are involved in emotions, including other parts of the cerebral cortex, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord

hypothalamus

olfactorybulb

thalamus

hippocampusamygdala

cerebral cortexlimbic regionof cortex

corpus callosum

The Limbic System

4 Anatomical Regions The cerebral cortex is divided into four

anatomical regions: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal

It can also be divided into functional areas:

Primary areas are regions where signals originating in sensory organs such as the eyes and ears are received and converted into subjective impressions

Nearby association areas interpret the sounds as speech or music, and the visual stimuli as recognizable objects or words

primarysensory area

sensoryassociationarea

primaryvisualarea

visualassociationarea

auditory associationarea: languagecomprehension

memory

speechmotor area

higherintellectualfunctions

primaryauditoryarea

leg

trunk

arm

hand

face

tongue

ParietalLobe

FrontalLobe

TemporalLobe

Occipital Lobe

premotorarea

primarymotor area

The Cerebral Cortex

Primary Sensory Areas The parietal lobe - interpret sensations of touch

that originate in all parts of the body

In an adjacent region of the frontal lobe, primary motor areas command movements in corresponding areas of the body by stimulating the motor neurons in the spinal cord that innervate muscles, allowing you to walk

Like the primary sensory area, the primary motor area has adjacent association areas, including the motor association area which directs the motor area to produce movements

Frontal Lobe Behind the bones of the forehead lies the

association areas of the frontal lobe

They are important in complex reasoning functions such as short-term memory, decision making, predicting the consequences of actions, controlling aggression, planning for the future, and working for delayed rewards

Damage to the Cortex Damage to the cortex from trauma, stroke, or a

tumor results in specific deficits such as problems with speech, difficulty reading, or the inability to sense or move specific parts of the body

Most brain cells of adults cannot be replaced, so if a brain region is destroyed, these deficits may be permanent

Training sometimes allows undamaged regions of the cortex to take over and restore some of the lost functions

Animation: The Human Brain

How do neuroscientists learn about the functions of brain regions? The functions of different parts of the brain

were discovered by examining the behaviors and abilities of people who suffered brain injuries

In 1848, Phineas Gage was setting an explosive charge to clear rocks from a railroad line under construction when the gunpowder triggered prematurely

The blast blew a 13-pound steel rod through Gage’s skull, severely damaging both of his frontal lobes

Gage survived his wounds, but his personality changed radically

Before the accident, Gage was conscientious, industrious, and well-liked; after his recovery, he became impetuous, profane, and incapable of working toward a goal

A Revealing Accident

Studies of other people with brain injuries have revealed that many parts of the brain are highly specialized One patient with damage to the left frontal lobe

was unable to name fruits and vegetables, although he could name everything else

Other victims of brain damage are unable to recognize faces, suggesting that the brain has regions specialized to recognize categories of things

Modern neuroscience has powerful techniques for visualizing brain structure and activity, offering insights into the functioning of the human brain

Left Brain or Right Brain Specialized for different functions

The structural brain symmetry does not extend to brain function

In the 1950s, Roger Sperry of the California Institute of Technology studied people whose hemispheres had been separated by cutting the corpus callosum to prevent the spread of epilepsy from one hemisphere to the other

Severing the corpus callosum prevented the two hemispheres from communicating with each other

Sperry made use of the fact that axons from the eyes, which are not severed by the surgery, follow a pathway that causes the left half of each visual field to be “seen” by the high hemisphere and the right half to be seen by the left hemisphere

Sperry used a device that projected different images onto the left and right visual fields and thus sent different signals to each hemisphere When Sperry projected an image of a nude figure

onto only the left visual field, the subjects would blush and smile, but would claim to have seen nothing

The same figure projected onto the right visual field was readily described verbally

Left

LEFT HEMISPHERE1. Controls right side of body2. Input from right visual field,

right ear, left nostril3. Centers for language, speech,

reading, mathematics, logic

RIGHT HEMISPHERE1. Controls left side of body2. Input from left visual field,

left ear, right nostril3. Centers for spatial perception,

music, creativity, recognitionof faces and emotions

HEART

visual cortex

Right

retina

optic nerve

opticchiasma

corpuscallosum

Specialization of Cerebral Hemispheres

In right-handed people, the left hemisphere is dominant in speech, reading, writing, language, comprehension, mathematical ability, and logical problem solving

The right side of the brain is superior in musical skills, artistic ability, recognizing faces, spatial visualization, and the ability to recognize and express emotions

Recent experiments indicate that the left–right dichotomy is not as rigid as was once believed

Learning and Memory Involve biochemical and structural changes in

specific parts of the brain

Learning has two phases: working memory and long-term memory Remembering a telephone number long

enough to dial it is working memory; if the number is called often enough, it becomes remembered as long-term memory

The frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and some of the basal ganglia deep in the cerebrum are the primary sites of working memory

Most working memory probably requires the repeated activity of a particular neural circuit in the brain, and as long as the circuit is active, the memory stays

In contrast, long-term memory seems to be structural

and the result of persistent changes in the expression of certain genes It may require the formation of new, long-lasting

synaptic connections between specific neurons, or the long-term strengthening of existing, but weak, synapses

For many memories, converting working memory into long-term memory seems to involve the hippocampus, which is believed to process new memories and transfer them to the frontal and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex for permanent storage