Elizabeth A. McCormack University of Reading

MA Archaeology Archaeology Department

September 20, 2007

Passages:The Neolithic passage grave as tiered

cosmos

Dedicated to Russell Chaffee

All the gods, all the heavens, all the worlds, are within us.

Joseph Campbell

I am extremely grateful to the following people for their love and support: Mom, Dad, Suzanne and Kara McCormack of the McCormack clan; Steve Hempstead for laughing at just the right moments; Birdie and Nina for waiting; Steven Taylor, Alan Hartway, and Priscilla Inkpen of Naropa for their faith and encouragement; Julian Thomas for letting me come along; Colin Richards for the luxurious tent; Andrew Selkirk for being interested; Andy Johnson of Logaston Press, who has done more for me than he could ever possibly know; Miss Rita for sharing her Montgomery haven; Miss Jess for late-night chat-fests; Annette Baus for endless cups of coffee; Scott Walley for reading and critiquing looooooooooong excerpts; Lone Mountain Archaeology for giving me a job (!!!); the cast of Hollyoaks for easing the pain; all my wonderful classmates and friends at Reading University; and Linda Hulin, Rob Hosfield, Margaret Mathews, and especially Richard Bradley, Fay Stevens, Wendy Matthews, and Heinrich Härke for their kindness, patience, and generosity toward an American in the rain…

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Table of Contents Table of Contents ........................................................................................................1 List of Figures ..............................................................................................................3 List of Tables ................................................................................................................3 Introduction .................................................................................................................4 Consciousness and the tiered cosmos......................................................................6

Introduction to Consciousness..............................................................................6 Overview of the Limbic System........................................................................6 Brain-wave Oscillations .....................................................................................6

Alpha:................................................................................................................7 Gamma: ............................................................................................................7 Theta: 4-8 Hz....................................................................................................7

Altered States of Consciousness ...........................................................................8 Induction Methods and Physiological Conditions ........................................8 Hallucination .......................................................................................................9 Extrasomatic Experience ....................................................................................9 Hyperquiescent and Hyperarousal States.......................................................9

The origin of the multi-tiered cosmos................................................................10 The 3-stage model .............................................................................................10

Passage Grave as Multi-Tiered Cosmos ................................................................14 Association with ASC...........................................................................................14

Entoptics .............................................................................................................14 Neolithic Entoptics....................................................................................16

Audial Phenomena ...........................................................................................18 Drumming and Ritual ..................................................................................18 Neurological Effects and Inductive Agents ..............................................18

Standing Waves and Traveling Sound ..................................................19 Infrasonics: Helmholtz resonance ..........................................................19

Music at the Graves?.....................................................................................20 Optical Effects in the Passage Graves ............................................................21

Neurology of flickering light.......................................................................21 Would These Frequencies Have Been Possible at the Passage Graves?22 Conclusion .....................................................................................................23

Locales: Are architectural elements of passage graves a reflection of the neurologically-generated tiered cosmos?..........................................................24

Introduction: ......................................................................................................24 Structure of space: Stages of hallucination and their correlation to elements of architecture ...................................................................................24

Forecourt: Realm of the living; Entrance: borderzone to the realm of the dead.................................................................................................................26

Newgrange.................................................................................................27 Knowth .......................................................................................................28 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................29 Knockmany ................................................................................................30 Fourknocks.................................................................................................30

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Loughcrew .................................................................................................30 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................31

Passage as vortex...........................................................................................32 Newgrange.................................................................................................33 Knowth .......................................................................................................35 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................35 Knockmany ................................................................................................36 Fourknocks.................................................................................................36 Loughcrew .................................................................................................37 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................38

Chamber as realm of the spirits or realm of the dead .............................39 Newgrange.................................................................................................40

Newgrange Summary...............................................................................42 Knowth .......................................................................................................43 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................45 Knockmany ................................................................................................47 Fourknocks.................................................................................................48 Loughcrew .................................................................................................50 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................52

Leaving the Tomb .........................................................................................53 Newgrange.................................................................................................54 Knowth .......................................................................................................54 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................55 Knockmany ................................................................................................55 Fourknocks:................................................................................................55 Loughcrew .................................................................................................55 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................58

Discussion: .....................................................................................................59 Artwork and composition................................................................................59

Motifs emphasize architectural elements ..................................................59 Navigating the tomb: Signposts for the Dead, Signposts for the Living..........................................................................................................................60

Complex motifs as traps...........................................................................62 Simple motifs as guides ...........................................................................63 Data and findings......................................................................................64

Area A: Visible at entrance.....................................................................70 Area A: Visible at entrance.....................................................................71 Area B: Visible from passage, going into chamber .................................71 Area C: Visible in chamber, recesses, backs of kerbs, inside corbels, lintels, etc. ................................................................................................72 Area D: Visible from chamber and passage while exiting ......................74 Conclusion ...............................................................................................75

Discussion ......................................................................................................76 Conclusion and Discussion .....................................................................................77 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................81 Appendix....................................................................................................................88

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List of Figures Figure 1: Diagnostic endogenous and undiagnostic motifs…………………… Figure 2 Loughcrew T entrance/forecourt……………………………………. Figure 3: Newgrange Entrance Stone………………………………………… Figure 4: Knowth entrance stones ……………………………………………. Figure 5: Loughcrew T passage ……………………………………………… Figure 6: Newgrange L19 …………………………………………………… Figure 7: Knockmany C6 ……………………………………………………. Figure 8: Loughcrew T Chamber ………………………………………........... Figure 9: Newgrange chamber finds ………………………………………….. Figure 10: Newgrange stones X, Y and Z …………………………………….. Figure 11: Newgrange eastern recess roofslab ……………………………….. Figure 12: Knowth Eastern Tomb, Eastern Recess Burials …………………... Figure 13: Knowth Eastern Tomb Stones 48 and 54 …………………………. Figure 14: Knowth Eastern Recess Chamber Finds ………………………….. Figure 15 Barclodiad y Gawres Left recess back wall, Right rec. back wall … Figure 16: Knockmany C9 and C11 …………………………………………. Figure 17: Fourknocks Stone A ………………………………………………. Figure 18: Fourknocks C1 …………………………………………………… Figure 19: Loughcrew H Sill ………………………………………………….. Figure 20: Loughcrew L C16 …………………………………………………. Figure 21: Loughcrew T Rear Recess Roofstone……………………………… Figure 22: Loughcrew U C9 …………………………………………………... Figure 23: Knowth, eastern tomb, stones 56 and r. jamb ……………………... Figure 24: Loughcrew F L1 …………………………………………………... Figure 25: Loughcrew I C17 and C1 …………………………………………. Figure 26: Loughcrew L R1 …………………………………………………... Figure 27: Loughcrew T Passage edge-set stones…………………………….. Figure 28: Loughcrew U egress motifs ………………………………………. Figure 29: Loughcrew U R3 …………………………………………………. Figure 30: Loughcrew H C5 ………………………………………………….. Figure 31: Areas A and B ……………………………………………………... Figure 32: Area C……………………………………………………………… Figure 33: Area D……………………………………………………………… Figure 34: Compexity Indices by Area ……………………………………….. Figure 35: CI Proportions by tomb ……………………………………………. Figure 36: Stones with low ci………………………………………………….. Figure 37: Stones with mid ci………………………………………………….. Figure 38: Stones with high ci…………………………………………………. Figure 39: Loughcrew T L1 and L2 …………………………………………... Figure 40: Motif Visibility of Compositions…………………………………...

17 26 27 28 32 34 36 40 41 42 43 43 44 44 46 47 49 49 50 51 51 52 54 55 56 56 57 58 58 64 65 65 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 75

List of Tables Table 1: Elements of the entrance/forecourt …………………………………… Table 2: Elements of the passage ………………………………………………. Table 3: Elements of the chambers …………………………………………..... Table 4: Elements of the passage/egress ……………………………………..... Table 5: Complexity indices by area for each tomb …………………………… Table 6: CI of hidden compositions ……………………………………………

31 39 53 58 66 73

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Introduction

The aim of this paper is to prove that the Neolithic passage graves under

consideration are reifications of the tiered cosmos. They exhibit many characteristics

in common including an association with Altered States of Consciousness, the

inclusion of several perceptual and physical realms, and the experience of movement

or a journey into the realm of the ancestors.

Passage tombs were in use in Britain and Ireland from the early fourth millennium

until some time in the third millennium (Dronfield 1996a, 37). Constructed of

megaliths, their design typically includes an entrance or portal often fronted by a

forecourt, a passage, and an inner chamber consisting of one or more cells. The entire

construction is generally surmounted by a cairn. This construction has been seen as an

iconographic replica of the tiered cosmos (Lewis Williams and Pearce 2005, 279).

The tiered cosmos is thought to be a perceptual manifestation of the neurologically

generated tunnel, 3-stages of ASC, and extrasomatic and other disorienting

experiences resulting from ASC (Siegel 1977, 134; Newberg et. al. 2001, 87; Lewis-

Williams and Pearce 2005, 85-86). As subjects move through the intensifying

spectrum of ASC they pass from an ordinary reality, move through the vortex/tunnel,

and arrive at an altered reality often featuring spirits and ancestors. These realms have

manifested in shamanism and many of the world’s religions as aspects of a tiered

cosmos comprising the realm of the living, the access route to, and the realm of the

dead.

The architectural areas of passage grave construction bear a striking resemblance to

those realms comprising the tiered cosmos. The realm of the living is represented by

the forecourt and entrance, the vortex by the passage, and the realm of the dead by the

chamber (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 268).

In order to prove that the passage graves under consideration are iconographic

replicas of the neurologically-generated tiered cosmos, it must be shown that a

sufficient number of characteristics are shared. These include: an association with

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ASC (inductive or reflective elements including the presence of entoptic motifs),

comparable internal locations, and similar functions in society.

We will look at Newgrange, Knowth, Knockmany, Loughcrew F, H, I, L, T, U, and

Fourknocks in Ireland, and Barclodiad y Gawres in Wales, selected due to their

inclusion of megalithic art. To illustrate an association with ASC, we will examine

audial and optic phenomena in order to determine if these were utilized within the

tombs. We will examine the presence of entoptic motifs. Finally, we will demonstrate

that the realms of the tiered cosmos are physically manifested in the architecture.

We will then examine Knockmany, Fourknocks, Loughcrew H, I, L, S, T, and U in

order to determine whether the artwork facilitates movement through the passage for

both the living and the deceased. Some of this will rely on Gell’s (1998) argument

that complex motifs serve as apotropaic devices, preventing the passage of the

observer. If it can be shown that there is artwork present in the tombs that is in

communication with the deceased, then the tomb, or at least the chamber, may be

thought of as a realm of the dead perceptually and physically separate from the land

of the living, or the outside world.

Rather than as a repository for human remains, Neolithic people may have perceived

the tomb as an alternate realm through which the ancestors moved and functioned

concurrently with the living community. This is a very similar concept to the

shamanic realm of the dead within the tiered cosmos. This may have been a very

important component of Neolithic ideology, facilitating social cohesion in a time of

economic change.

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Consciousness and the tiered cosmos

This section will give a general overview of the brain processes involved in Altered

States of Consciousness (ASC). The neurophysiological conditions brought about by

ASC induction may result in hallucination, states of religious awe and/or Absolute

Unitary Being (AUB) that effect the long-term consciousness of the individual,

including enhanced memory formation, associative learning, and social behaviour.

These are thought to be the origin of ritual practice and religion.

Introduction to Consciousness

Overview of the Limbic System

In cognitive processes related to spiritual and communal behaviour and

consciousness, the most active area of the brain is the Limbic system. The limbic

system is the most ancient part of the brain, providing the foundation for the brain's

evolution and development. It is located in the temporal lobe, connected to the

prefrontal cortex. It is responsible for monitoring and regulating emotion, orienting

the self in space, sexual and social behaviour, motivation, learning and memory,

internal homeostasis, and basic bodily needs such as hunger and thirst (Pare et al

2002, 306). It assigns emotional significance to stimuli. When an experience is

attached to a high emotional value, it is more successfully encoded as a memory

(Strange and Dolan 2004, 11454). The limbic system is also responsible for

homeostasis within the brain, regulating the quiescent and arousal reactions generated

by the autonomic nervous system (Joseph 1988, 633; Newberg et. al. 2001, 45). It

performs these functions partially via hormone secretion (a physical reward system)

(Newberg et al 2001, 45). Structures in the limbic system include the amygdala,

hippocampus, hypothalamus, septal nuclei, and cingulate gyrus (Wikipedia).

Brain-wave Oscillations

The gray matter of the brain is comprised of neurons (nerve cells) relaying

information in the form of electrical activity between one another. Adjoining,

interconnected neurons embedded within the same area of the brain comprise local

neural networks. (Russell, 1996; Nunez 2000, 372). Sets of neural networks comprise

areas such as the frontal lobes, the auditory cortex, etc.

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When neural networks fire electrical information in rhythm as a group, they are

described as oscillating synchronously (Wang et al 1987, 9467). These oscillations are

the dynamic processes responsible for cognitive processes such as memory, attention,

and consciousness (Nunez 2000, 3; Miltner et al 1999, 435). An EEG or MEG traces

the frequency (Hz) of electrical activity at the surface of the skull (Ward 2003). The

frequencies relating to ASC are as follows:

Alpha: 8-13 Hz.

Alpha frequencies are linked to distraction-suppression function (Jensen et al 2002).

Alpha waves appear to suppress cortical activity in areas of the brain that are not

being used to focus on stimuli (Ward 2003). Musicians listening to music, meditators,

and cannabis users under the influence of cannabis also exhibit increased alpha

activity related to intense concentration (Ward 2003; Corby et al 1978, 575).

Gamma: 30-70 Hz.

Gamma oscillations are always found during synchronous oscillations across brain

areas and in conjunction with other frequencies (Lutz et al 2004, 16370). They are

thought to be instrumental in communication between global neural networks and as

such are crucial to processing multiple stimuli, forming memory, language, and

associative learning (Llinas and Pare 1991, 533; Miltner et al 1999, 434).

Theta: 4-8 Hz

Theta frequencies are linked to the encoding and retrieval of working and long-term

memory, especially during states of emotional arousal (Pare et al 2002, 314, Peterson

2007, 217). Thus, amygdala and hippocampal theta frequencies facilitate

consolidation of emotionally arousing memories (Pare et al 2002, 310; Strange and

Dolan 2004, 11456).

Theta states are also directly related to hallucinatory, dream-like images experienced

in hypnogogic states (the twilight state between sleep and wakefulness), certain types

of meditation, especially visualization meditations, and hypnosis (Wallace 1970,

1753, Budzynski 1977).

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Altered States of Consciousness

Induction Methods and Physiological Conditions

ASC is related to alterations of brain systems associated with the regulation of

consciousness, arousal and selective attention (Vaitl et al 2005, 115). During normal,

waking states, everyday consciousness and subjective reality depends upon

continuous neural processes. According to Vaitl (2005, 117), this requires “intact

brain tissue, metabolic homeostasis, a moderate level of arousal, a balanced interplay

of inhibitory and excitatory networks, and midrange environmental conditions. As

soon as one of these prerequisites for reliable assembly formation is lacking,

alterations of consciousness are likely to occur."

An interruption or breakdown of gamma activity results in a breakdown of the

connectivity between neural networks, causing cell assemblies to operate as

functionally independent units. This may be a basis for altered states of consciousness

(Vaitl et al 2005, 116). If gamma frequencies occur in conjunction with theta

frequencies, vivid imagery and hallucination will result.

ASC occurs in many situations, may be induced by a number of different causes, and

manifests itself in a variety of ways, ranging from mild dissociative to deep

hallucinatory states. ASC inductors include psychotropic substances, meditation,

hypnosis, physical disorders, rhythmic stimuli, dance, sensory deprivation, sensory

homogenization, and sensory overload. ASC may also be induced by any number of

spontaneously occurring events such as daydreaming, drowsiness, dreaming, and near

death experience (Vaitl et al 2005, 111).

ASC may also be caused by the depletion of Carbon Dioxide (Vaitl et al 2005, 104).

Confinement to small places may result in hypercapnia, which involves a rise in

Carbon Dioxide. Hypercapnia may be causative to near-death experiences such as

body detachment and perception of being drawn toward a bright light (Vaitl et al

2005, 105). This may be relevant to the experience of being in a chambered tomb,

particularly if a fire is alight within the space, further increasing Carbon dioxide levels

in proportion to oxygen levels within the tomb.

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Hallucination

Siegal (1977, 132) defines hallucination as "A false sensory perception in the absence

of an actual external stimulus." Characteristic of hallucination are magnified emotion

and a breakdown of self-other boundaries. As a result, visual and audial hallucinations

are perceived as originating from outside the body. A sense that one's own self is

outside the body is also a common perception. Magnified emotions in conjunction

with theta states cause the subject to perceive and remember this experience as

profound. This may be related to the formation of religious belief. MRI readings

indicate that brain activities taking place during hallucination occur in the limbic

system and visual cortex (Vaitl et al 2005, 113).

The breakdown in gamma activity causes the subject to be unable to process

perceived stimuli in an ordinary manner, and therefore the brain provides alternative

explanations or understandings of these stimuli (a tree branch is matched to a memory

template of a serpent and is therefore perceived as such) (Vaitl et al 2005, 212).

Extrasomatic Experience

A common occurrence of ASC is the out-of-body experience. This experience is seen

again and again in shamanic and other rituals, manifesting as flying, ascension and

traveling to alternate spatial dimensions. The part of the brain that is responsible for

extrasomatic action – movement through the environment based on ocular and

somatomotor function – is disrupted (Vaitl et al 2005,113). Previc (2006, 510)

postulates that hallucinations, like dreams, represent "the triumph of the extrapersonal

systems over the body-oriented or peripersonal systems." The hippocampus is thought

to be the source of specific hallucinations such as the visualizations of astral

projection or seeing oneself floating above the body (Joseph 1998, 2000). Some

patients report not only floating, but of being embraced by a light and taken to a vast

realm of fantastic proportions where they are given access to knowledge of the nature

of life and death” (Rhawn 1996, 3; Previc 2006, 515).

Hyperquiescent and Hyperarousal States

The autonomic nervous system maintains equilibrium in the body through the

alternating interactions of the quiescent (parasympathetic) and arousal (sympathetic)

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subsystems. In altered states of consciousness, both systems are pushed beyond

mundane activity. When neural input is depressed (quiescent), as with sensory

deprivation, the limbic system, in an attempt to maintain equilibrium, enhances neural

flow (arousal), causing hyperawareness of stimuli. When neural input is intensified

due to increased stimulation, the limbic system inhibits neural flow.

When either the quiescent or the arousal system is maximally stimulated, a "spillover

effect" occurs, causing stimulation of the other, normally antagonistic, system

(Newberg et al 2001, 41). For example, in meditation and slow chant, quiescent

activity can result in feelings of peace and unity, but when quiescent activity reaches

optimum levels, a rush of energy may occur. "Someone who experiences this state

while concentrating upon some object – a candle for example, or a cross – may feel as

if he were being absorbed into that object" (Newberg et al 2001, 41). Similarly, peak

arousal states may cause a surge in quiescent systems. For example, someone engaged

in energetic dancing or singing may experience an ecstatic rush of energy, attention

and intention that ultimately becomes a state of trancelike bliss (Newberg et al 2001,

42).

Newberg et al (2001, 42) hypothesize that ritual could lead to the maximal discharge

of both systems, causing hallucinations, mystical visions, or a state of Absolute

Unitary Being (AUB). This is the ‘unitary experience’ in which there is no perceived

separation between spirits/gods/ancestors/spiritual realms, the universe, conspecifics

and the self. This is the primary goal of religious ritual (Newberg et. al. 2001, 87).

The origin of the multi-tiered cosmos

The tiered cosmos as a function of the neurologically-generated tunnel together with

the 3 stages of ASC and extrasomatic experience is thought to be at the root of

shamanism and later spiritual practices (Siegel 1977, 134; Newberg et. al. 2001, 87;

Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 85-86).

The 3-stage model

Drawing on the work of Siegel (1977; cf Siegel and Jarvik 1975), Lewis-Williams and

Dowson (1988) postulate that the experience of altered states of consciousness occurs

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in 3 stages (although not all subjects experience all three). The stages should be

thought of as cumulative, each stage building on the last.

Stage 1: Upon entering ASC, the subject experiences geometric visual precepts

generated within the eye and optic system (Siegal 1977, 132). Images may include

lattices, parallel lines, circles, and dots. These may be experienced as "animated,

luminous percepts that fragment, replicate, reduplicate and rotate in the field of

vision" (Blundell 1998, 10). These images are not culturally biased as they arise from

the structure of the nervous system (Siegel 1977, 132-4).

Stage 2: As the subject moves deeper into ASC, geometric images are interpreted,

becoming elaborated into iconic forms (Horowitz 1975: 177, 178, 181). Geometric

motifs are cognitively matched against a store of experience or mental template. If a

‘fit’ is affected, the image is recognized as an iconic image (e.g. a meandering line is

recognized as a serpent) (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 203).

Stage 3: In this stage the subject is drawn into the hallucination, perceiving it as real.

Visual imagery is iconic, based almost entirely on cultural bias. These may involve

more than the visual sense. The subject often interacts with the hallucinated images.

Entoptic motifs may persist, often providing a backdrop against which iconic imagery

is projected (Siegel 1977, 134).

Lewis-Williams and Dowson (1988, 204) report a tunnel or vortex experience

occurring between stages. Horowitz (1975, 178) describes this as the transition

between the perception of entoptics and the manipulation of these into iconics.

Laboratory subjects reported that the vortex or rotating tunnel seems to surround them

(Horowitz 1975, 178). The sides or walls of the vortex may be marked by entoptic

motifs, particularly a lattice of squares similar to television screens (Lewis-Williams

and Dowson 1988, 204). The first iconic hallucinations appear as images on these

‘screens,’ eventually superseding the vortex as entoptics transform to iconic images

and the subject becomes immersed in Stage 3 hallucination (Siegel and Jarvik 1975,

127, 143; Siegel 1977, 136; Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 204).

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The tunnel/vortex experience may be attributable to the V5 area of the visual cortex in

which moving visual stimuli are analyzed in order that the subject may navigate

through her environment (Dronfield 1996a, 40). Motion processing in V5 is carried

out via response to four basic motion types: expansion/contraction; rotation; spiraling;

and translation (linear motion). ASC may precipitate the spontaneous firing of V5

neurons. These neurons process the entoptic motifs occurring in the first stage of

ASC, resulting in a moving, rotating, spiraling tunnel. This area may also be

responsible for spiral motif (Dronfield 1996a, 40).

The idea that the vortex is an access route to another realm is supported by the

perception that the subject leaves the body during ASC. During ASC, theta:gamma

states affect the limbic and bodily orientation systems, and is experienced as

extrasomatic, hyperquiescent and/or hyperarousal states (Vaitl et al 2005, 212). This

occurs in conjunction with the spontaneous firing of the V5 area during ASC,

resulting in the combined experience of a tunnel and a sense of traveling outside of

the body. This may be responsible for the subject’s perception that she is traveling

through the tunnel to another realm. Additionally, in this state, the subject is more

liable to accept as reality the perceptions that s/he is able to traverse alternate realms

where s/he is able to interact with otherworldly beings (Siegel 1977, 134; Newberg et.

al. 2001, 87).

The tunnel/vortex experience is crucial to the understanding of shamanism and the

tiered cosmos, which may have implications as to the origins of religion in general.

The tiered cosmos is characterized by the perception that reality can be divided into

realms: e.g., the realm of the living, and the realm of the dead. As subjects move

through the intensifying spectrum of ASC, they pass from an ordinary reality, through

the vortex/tunnel, and arrive at an alternate reality featuring iconic imagery which the

subject perceives as real. Often a bright light is associated with the end of the tunnel,

enhancing the perception that it is the entrance to a sacred realm (Lewis-Williams and

Dowson 1988, 204). Often the subject interacts with spirits or deceased loved ones

while in deep ASC, emphasizing the perception that the altered reality is the realm of

the dead (Rhawn 1996, 3; Previc 2006, 515). Lewis-Williams (2002, 145) suspects

that the tunnel experience is the origin of the common belief that an underground

passage leads to a subterranean realm of the dead.

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The notion of tunnels as interfaces between dimensions of reality is present in myths

and beliefs associated with shamanic practice (Dronfield 1996a, 39). Dronfield

(1996a, 39-45) cites several ethnographic examples of tunnels as access routes to the

dead. These include San, Bwiti, Tukano, Huichol, and others. Furst (1972, 150)

relates a Huichol myth in which the shaman accompanies the Huichol children on a

journey to the land of the Great Mother and ancestral gods. The peyote deer deity

allows them access by holding back the clouds while “the bird-children fly quickly

through the passage” (Furst 1972, 150).

This tiered cosmos is the realm of the shaman or spiritual practitioner, one who acts as

a go-between for the living community and the ancestors or spirits. A shaman,

according to Michael Harner (1973, xi) is "a man or a woman who is in direct contact

with the spirit world through a trance state." This is accomplished by the over-riding

feature of Shamanism, which is its association with ASC. The shaman induces a

trance state, or ASC, using hallucinogenic drugs or other methods. This facilitates

access to the tiered cosmos via the tunnel/vortex and 3 stages of ASC, providing the

opportunity for interactions with the supernatural (Harner 1973, xii).

14

Passage Grave as Multi-Tiered Cosmos

Lewis Williams and Pearce (2005, 279) argue that Neolithic passage graves were an

iconographic replica of the tiered cosmos. The world of the living is represented most

often by a forecourt at the entrance to the tomb, where ceremonies could be viewed by

the larger community. Most of the public would never venture past the entrance stone

demarcating the boundary between outside/inside. The authors contend that passages

were perceived as routes between the realms of the cosmos, through which the

decedent, accompanied by celebrants, would travel to the land of the dead. The

chambers, with deposits of human remains, may have been perceived as the land of

the dead (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 268).

In order to prove that passage graves are iconographic replicas of the neurologically-

generated tiered cosmos, it must be shown that a sufficient number of characteristics

are shared. These include: an association with ASC (the presence of entoptic motifs

and other inductive or reflective elements), an association with the dead, and

comparable internal locations.

Association with ASC

Entoptics

A similarity between entoptic motifs and British, Irish, and Breton Neolithic

megalithic art has been noted by several archaeologists (e.g., Bradley 1989; Patton

1990; Dronfield 1995, 1996a, 1996b; Hodgson 2001; Lewis-Williams and Pearce

2005). If these megalithic motifs could be confidently shown to be entoptic, then an

association between Neolithic spiritual practices and ASC could be inferred.

Siegal (1977, 132) noticed in anthropological reports that the hallucinogen-inspired

art of many peoples often contains constants in form, colour and movement (Siegal

1977, 138). These are generated by the optic and nervous systems and comprise a set

of motifs known as entoptic (Siegal and Jarvik 1975, 81-104)

In 1988, Lewis-Williams and Thomas Dowson published the seminal paper on the

neuropsychological model of art interpretation based on entoptics. Theirs was a two-

pronged approach, applying neuropsychology to ethnographic accounts and

15

interpretations of the art. Neuropsychological research explains form of motifs, while

ethnography may help explain the meaning (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 201).

The authors proposed a model comprising 6 entoptic form types, 7 principles

governing their perception, and 3 stages of the progression of ASC. They applied this

model to 3 artistic traditions known ethnographically to be shamanic (Tukano, Coso

Range and San). This was then applied to Upper Palaeolithic, western European art

(Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 202).

The six entoptic categories are present to differing proportions in Coso, Tukano and

San art (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 205). The second and third components

of the model, the principles of perception (in which images are integrated,

superimposed, juxtaposed, fragmented and reduplicated with one another) and the

three-stages of ASC (see above), were found to apply to Coso, Tukano and San

artwork. This is evidence to the authors that the art has shamanic origins. They

conclude that artwork bearing these characteristics can, in the absence of ethnographic

material, be considered to have shamanic origins.

Lewis-Williams and Dowson's primary critic is Bednarik (1990, 78). Of particular

contention is the link between shamanism and phosphenes/entoptics. Bednarik points

out that although all humans use phosphenes daily, "that does not make us shamans!"

(Bednarik 1990, 79). Bahn has the same criticism (Bahn 1988:217).

Hodgson (2000) counters this critique by suggesting a neurological association

between mark-making and ASC. Human visual perception is facilitated by two

primary systems. The more primitive magno system organizes the visual world by

detecting and interpreting lines distinguishing individual objects from one another.

This enables an animal to navigate through its environment, catch prey, and avoid

predators (Hodgson 2000, 868). The perception of lines, outlines, and form would

have been critical for survival and, over time, specifically selected for. The production

and repetition of geometric shapes may be a fundamental propensity in humans that is

rewarded with pleasurable feelings of “of mastery, security, and relief from anxiety"

promoting the development of important survival skills. Importantly, Hodgson (2000,

868) goes on to say that this reward system may facilitate ASC. “Engagement in a

visually creative act is said to produce a hyperreality experience akin to that produced

16

by trance or drug inducement in that the artist is in a state of focused awareness

detached from the outside world.” The same effect is produced by focusing intently

on an entoptic motif. This strengthens the argument for a neurological affiliation with

the production of geometric motifs.

Neolithic Entoptics

Bradley (1989) and Patton (1990) suggest an application of Lewis-Williams and

Dowson’s model to the Irish, British, and Breton passage graves. Patton points out

that culturally significant iconic motifs appear against a background of entoptics. This

relates to stage 2 and 3 of Lewis-Williams and Dowson’s model (Patton, 1990, 556).

Bradley cautions that although none of these arts can prove Lewis-Williams and

Dowson’s case completely, there can be some light shed on some of the problems of

interpretation, making their study a particularly persuasive one (Bradley 1989, 73).

In 1993, Lewis-Williams and Dowson proposed an application of their model to

megalithic art and its relationship to the tiered cosmos. Lewis-Williams and Dowson

note that the placement of a body in a chambered tomb directly reflects the tiered

cosmos generated during ASC. They argue that the placement of entoptic motifs at

specific locations within the tombs emphasizes the association with specific

components of ASC (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1993, 60-61).

The six entoptic types identified by Lewis-Williams and Dowson (1988) were

selected from the range of motifs established by neurologists and psychologists (e.g.

Kluver 1942; Knoll and Kluger 1959; Horowitz 1965). They are:

1. basic grid, development in lattice and expanding hexagonal pattern

2. sets of parallel lines

3. dots and short flecks

4. zigzag lines crossing field of vision

5. nested catenary curves

6. filigrees or thin, meandering lines

17

Dronfield (1996b) argues that Lewis-Williams and Dowson’s six entoptic forms are

not reliable markers of ASC. He contends that their analysis failed to include and test

against non-subjectively derived art (Dronfield 1996b, 386). He conducted his own

investigation, comparing motifs from three groups: one which engages in ASC, one

which occasionally engages in ASC, and one which does not. He confirmed that of

Lewis-Williams and Dowson’s six entoptic types, five (lattice, parallel line, dot,

zigzag, arc) are undiagnostic of ASC (Dronfield 1996b, 386). He was able to

determine motifs which can be confidently labeled as diagnostic endogenous. 7 motifs

were found whose presence confirms ASC and endogenous images. Figure 1 shows

Diagnostic endogenous and undiagnostic endogenous motifs.

Figure 1: Diagnostic endogenous and undiagnostic motifs (Dronfield 1995) When he applied this model to Neolithic passage graves in the U.K. and Ireland

(1995), he found that endogenous diagnostic types made up a large percentage of the

motifs found therein. He concludes with approximately 80% confidence – "that Irish

passage-tomb art is fundamentally similar to (as opposed to merely resembling) arts

derived from endogenous subjective vision, and fundamentally dissimilar to arts not

18

so derived. Therefore, we can confidently conclude that Irish passage-tomb art was

itself derived from endogenous visual phenomena" (Dronfield 1995, 545).

The motifs in the passage graves of Britain and Ireland are shown to be entoptic, and

therefore associated with ASC, although it is not here suggested that ASC or

shamanism per se was being practiced at the tombs.

Audial Phenomena

Drumming and Ritual

Audial phenomena are associated with ASC. If the presence of audial phenomena can

be shown at the tombs, this suggests a further association with ASC.

Ethnographically, sound has been found to be closely associated with ritual (e.g.

Jackson 1968). Repetitive drumbeats, as well as some sounds with certain qualities

such as very low frequencies, may be inductive to transcendental states in which

communication with spirits and travel to other realms becomes possible (Watson

2001, 187). Extended drumming is a common inductive element to trance states and

ASC.

Winkelman (1986) conducted a cross-cultural survey of 47 societies and reported that

at least one shamanic practitioner in each community took part in ASC induced by

auditory driving. 3-6 Hz are the most frequently reported rhythmic frequencies

associated with shamanic rituals. These produce a theta-state in shamans and listeners

resulting in ASC. Practitioners as far removed as Azande witch-doctors (Evans-

Pritchard 1976, 76) and snake-handling Christians of the U.S. Appalachian mountains

(Kane, 1974, 295) use drumming, chant, and rhythmic dance to enter trance and speak

with the spirits.

Neurological Effects and Inductive Agents

Rhythms have been proven by scientists to effect brainwave frequencies of limbic

system processes. This is based on sonic entrainment in which two or more rhythmic

cycles become synchronized to each other over a period of time (Neher 1962).

19

Neher considers alpha and theta brainwaves as necessary precursors to trance states

(cf. Ward 2003). He asked if these could be induced by auditory driving, and found

that alpha and theta frequencies associated with shaman-journey experiences

including changes in time sense and body image, enhanced imagery, tunnel

experiences, dissociation from the body, hallucination, absolute unitary states, and

states of religious awe can be induced by monotonous drumming (Ward 2003;

Newburgh; et. al. 2001, 86; Vaitl et al 2005, 107). Ethnographic evidence suggests a

predominance of theta frequency in ritual drumming (Jilek 1982, 337; Maas and

Strubelt 2003).

Standing Waves and Traveling Sound

In an ethnographic study of Chukchee shamen, it was found that in a crowded,

confined room, the shaman is able to direct his voice and drum sounds to different

parts of the room. The source of the sounds is lost, the song and drum shifting around

the room seemingly on their own (Watson 2001, 186). This is accomplished through

the use of standing waves. Standing waves are acoustic phenomena caused by the

reflection of sound waves between solid walls producing zones of low or high

intensity of sound as waves either cancel or combine. This phenomenon is certain to

occur during any auditory event taking place at the passage graves, as the walls reflect

sound waves (Watson and Keating 1998, 325). Speech becomes distorted to the point

of becoming unintelligible or unrecognizable as human, and can appear to emanate

from the body of the listener (Watson 2001, 186).

Infrasonics: Helmholtz resonance

Helmholtz Resonance is an acoustic effect boosting the volume of a frequency

(blowing a particular frequency across the mouth of a glass bottle produces Helmholtz

resonance). The structure of a passage grave, with its constricted passage opening into

a central chamber potentially mirrors this effect (Watson 2001, 187).

Watson and Keating (1999, 325) performed tests at several passage graves and found

that repetitive drumming produced Helmholtz resonance. Larger tombs such as

Newgrange and Knowth were found to have lower resonant frequencies of 1-2 Hz,

requiring a slower drum-beat to evoke Helmholtz Resonance. Tombs having similar

20

internal volumes will have similar frequencies despite differences in their layout

(Watson and Keating 1999, 325). Devereux and Jahn (1996) suggest that deep male

chanting could have resulted in Helmholtz resonance at Newgrange. Low frequencies

such as would have been needed to produce the resonance at Newgrange, and

amplified thus, can even result in trembling or shaking of the structure (Watson &

Keating 2000, 261).

Although such frequencies cannot be heard by human ears, they are capable of

producing physiological effects that transcend the usual range of experience and may

be described as supernatural (Watson 2001, 187). Symptoms include dizziness,

headaches, pressure, extreme vibration and imbalance, feelings of ascent and

modifications to breathing and pulse rate (Watson and Keating 1999, 333).

Music at the Graves?

Watson claims that passage graves provide an ideal environment to create auditory

illusions (2001, 186). Inside the passage and the chambers, the structure of space and

quality of construction materials effect sounds, creating unusual audial phenomena

(Bradley, pers. comm.). The passage graves were probably not built specifically to

provide a space for these phenomena, but their effects would have enhanced the

magical qualities of these monuments (Watson 2001, 188).

There has been no archaeological evidence for drumming or the use of other musical

instruments at the passage graves under consideration. Based on internal area of the

tombs, it seems likely that any rhythms used would have been on the low, slow side.

There is not much room for whirling or other highly energetic trance dances, except

possibly at Fourknocks, which has a fairly good-sized central chamber with a high

corbelled roof. It seems to this author as if low, slow beats would have been utilized,

along with chanting or other vocalizations, possibly in conjunction with optic stimuli

such as a fire or small flame, inducing a mesmerizing, hypnotic alpha/theta state.

It’s possible that rhythmic events of a more energetic nature could have taken place at

the entrance to the tomb. At a crucial moment, upon entering trance state, the

21

practitioner could disappear into the darkness of the tomb in order to communicate

with the spirits on behalf of the community.

Sonic phenomena may have been perceived by listeners as originating in another

realm, and would have reified the multi-tiered cosmos in a very credible way. In

addition, the sounds themselves could have facilitated intercosmic travel via induction

of altered consciousness.

Optical Effects in the Passage Graves

Inside the enclosed space of the passage grave, any artificial light would be distorted

by the uneven surface of stones and cast flickering shadows over the artwork.

Flickering light at 8-12 Hz has been shown to have psychoactive properties (Putz; et

al. 2006, 167).

Flicker-frequency depends on several factors including temperature, oxygen flow, and

fuel source (wax, oil, wood, etc.). Application to the passage graves is necessarily

speculative in the absence of archaeologically proven light sources. In any case, the

unusual light would contribute to conditions of alternating neural flow resulting in

ASC, deafferented orientation of the self and AUB.

Neurology of flickering light

Photic (light) stimulation causes entrainment at certain frequencies and induces visual

imagery, dream-states, relaxation, euphoria, hyperquiescent and hyperarousal states.

These occur most frequently with theta and alpha frequencies (Richardson and

McAndrew, 1990, 381; Williams et al 1975, 520).

The natural flicker frequency is approximately 10 Hz for a burner diameter of

approximately 1 cm (Zhang and Megaridis, 1998). This is in the alpha frequency

range, facilitating a state of calm and relaxation (Corby et al 1978, 575). Air currents,

fuel source and size of burning surface and wick all effect the combustion flicker

frequency (Huang et al 1999, 733). In a closed or enclosed space, air flow will be very

low. This will cause a decrease in flicker frequency to theta (4-8 Hz), facilitating

22

visions, dreamstates, hypnosis and hypnagogia (Wallace 1970, 1753, Budzynski

1977).

Would These Frequencies Have Been Possible at the Passage Graves?

There is a paucity of evidence for any fuel use in Irish Neolithic passage graves

beyond charcoal. If it is assumed that artwork in the passage graves was meant to be

visible to the living humans inside, it seems likely that they were lit.

Among the graves studied, Barclodiad y Gawres yields the most dramatic evidence of

artificial light. A hearth measuring 3’ in diameter and 6” thick was found in the main

chamber, filled with wet, sticky grey earth, ashes, and charcoal. Apparently, a wood

fire was lit and allowed to burn until it became ash with embedded fragments of

flowing charcoal. Charcoal was also found in tiny amounts in the passage and among

the cremations in the recesses (Powell and Daniel 1956, 16).

Knowth, Newgrange, Knockmany, and all of the cairns at Loughcrew yielded

evidence of charcoal, but only in association with cremations (Eogan 1986, 42;

O’Kelly 1982, 105; Collins 1960, 5; Conwell 1864, 46; Conwell 1866, 372).

Fourknocks yielded a small amount (flecks) of charcoal in the central chamber

(Hartnett 1957, 201).

In summary, Fourknocks yielded the only charcoal separate from cremations, and

Barclodiad y Gawres yielded the only evidence of a discrete hearth area. This does

not necessarily preclude the existence of hearths or pure charcoal deposits inside the

other monuments, as most of them were disturbed. In the case of cremated bone, there

is no way to tell if the charcoal mixed with those deposits is a result of the cremation

(which would have taken place at a separate location) or of a burning event taking

place inside the tomb.

Pearce (2004, abstract) suggests the use of charcoal as a fuel in its own right; the

charcoal found in cairns may be the remnants of the fuel supply used in rites. The

smoke from a charcoal fire is mush less dense than that from a wood fire, and the

event would have been sustainable in the closed atmosphere of the monument. It’s

23

also possible that herbs were thrown on charcoal embers as a form of incense or to

induce ASC. There may be evidence for the use of Henbane smoke in the Balfarg

cairns of Scotland (Schenk 1956).

Another possibility for artificial light source is the oil lamp. There has been no

evidence of these at the passage graves under consideration, however, and very little

evidence of domestic use from this time in this area. Additionally, oil lamps create a

great deal of soot, and the tomb walls would most likely bear some residue of this

activity (Allen 1888, 82). According to Allen (1888, 83), a “rude, unglazed

earthenware lamp, shallow, and with a snout to support a wick, was found some time

ago among prehistoric remains near Portstewart.” He claims these lamps date to the

Neolithic. Miners at Grimes Graves hollowed cup-shaped impressions in the chalk

and used them as oil lamps. Soot stains remain in the galleries, attesting to this use

(Greenwell 1870, 429), though this use may have taken place later than the Neolithic.

A further possibility for artificial lighting is the rush candle. According to Allen

(1888, 82), rushes were dipped in wax and used as candles. These were efficient and

economical (Boyle 2002). Again, there is no evidence for rush-candle use in the

passage graves under consideration. There is no wax, soot, oily residue, or industrial

remains reported in any of the original excavation reports.

There is ethnographic evidence for the ritual use of light and fire. The combined use

of several inductive elements is often observed. Nganasan shamans of Siberia,

Tukano shamans in South America, Azande witch doctors in Africa, and Catholic

priests in Boston use fire, rhythm, chant and orchestrated movement (Basilov 1990,

13; Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 11; Evans-Pritchard 1976, 76, personal observation).

Conclusion

Although there is no archaeological evidence at the graves in question, the artwork

suggests that some artificial light source must have been used. These would have

contributed to ASC in the closed environments of the tombs. Alpha and theta

frequencies emitted by natural fires would have entrained observers’ brainwaves to

those frequencies, resulting in tranquility, meditative states, hypnosis, dreamstates and

24

hypnagogia, vivid imagery, mystical states, and AUB (Williams and West 1975, 520).

Flicker frequency has also been found to entrain to rhythmic sound waves (Johns

Hopkins University Department of Physics and Astronomy Website). Any rhythmic

sonic events taking place in the tomb would cause entrainment of the artificial light

source’s flicker frequency, increasing attention and other cognitive processes leading

to ASC (Neher 1962). Additionally, the oxygen depletion caused by the fire in the

enclosed space contributes to hallucination and extrasomatic experience (Vaitl et al

2005, 105). Finally, the unusual atmosphere created by fire and the presence of

entoptic imagery, human remains and enclosed space enhances the sense of other-

worldliness, emphasizing the tiered cosmos.

Locales: Are architectural elements of passage graves a

reflection of the neurologically-generated tiered cosmos?

Introduction:

Richard Bradley (pers. comm.) remarked that undecorated passage graves were

present in Britain and Ireland prior to those decorated with entoptic motifs. If the

appearance of entoptic motifs is seen as marking the induction of ASC at Neolithic

passage graves, then the association of passage graves and ASC may be called into

question. While it is not here argued that passage graves were sites of Neolithic

shamanism, it is suggested that the origin of their architectural design is firmly rooted

in ASC and the tiered cosmos. The later addition of entoptic motifs may reflect the

intensification of ASC at the tombs.

Structure of space: Stages of hallucination and their correlation to

elements of architecture

The experience of moving through elements of the tiered cosmos during altered states

is of primary importance here, and will be shown to reflect the architectural elements

of the passage graves.

First, upon changes in theta and gamma processes in the limbic system brought about

by one or many inductive elements, the subject begins to experience a distortion of

25

reality, witnessing geometric shapes, etc., gradually disengaging from ordinary

reality. Next, the subject sees and then moves through a vortex, often rotating, and

often with a bright light at its center or end, producing a belief in the subject that s/he

is moving toward an extra-ordinary place. The subject then enters deep ASC,

experiencing vivid multi-sensory hallucinations (Siegel and Jarvik 1975, 127, 143;

Siegel 1977, 136; Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 204). It is widely reported that

subjects interact with spirits or deceased loved ones while in deep ASC, emphasizing

the perception that the altered reality is the realm of the dead (Reichel-Dolmatoff

1978, 13). Finally the subject returns to ordinary reality. This is hazardous. In

shamanic contexts, it is possible for the subject to get caught in the land of the dead

(Eliade 1954, 36), or for a spirit to follow her/him back to the land of the living

(Harner 1980, Ch. 1). Naturally, this must be avoided.

Four locales, each with its own associated activity, may be distinguished within the

experience of ASC.

o The border between ordinary and non-ordinary reality across which the subject

moves as s/he goes deeper into ASC;

o The vortex leading to non-ordinary reality through which the subject moves;

o Non-ordinary reality, in which the subject meets and communicates with

beings, often ancestral or deceased loved ones; and

o The movement or passage back to ordinary reality.

These four locales with their specific activities are reflected in the passage graves:

o The border between outside and inside, through which the celebrant leaves the

world of the living and enters the realm of the dead.

o The vortex leading to the realm of the dead through which the celebrant

moves, carrying the deceased with her/him;

o The land of the dead in which the celebrant deposits the deceased; and

o The movement or passage back to the land of the living.

We will examine the architecture at the following passage graves: Newgrange,

Knowth, Knockmany, Fourknocks, and Loughcrew cairns F, H, I, L, S, T, and U in

26

Ireland, and Barclodiad y Gawres in Wales in order to determine if the four locales

representing the tiered cosmos as described above can be seen. If these are present

within the tombs, then an association with ASC and the tiered cosmos may be

established.

Forecourt: Realm of the living; Entrance: borderzone to the realm of

the dead

Many passage tombs are surrounded by kerbstones delineating the tomb from the

outside world. This is probably as far as anyone in the general public would have

come. The entrance to the monument is often dramatic, embellished with grand

stones, forecourts, and other features emphasizing the demarcation between inside and

outside. Inside the monument, the space is constricted, limiting inhabitation to few

individuals at a time. The forecourt opened out from the monument to a larger area

where many people might gather for ceremonies focusing on the entrance to the

passage grave. The community would stay at the entrance while the celebrant entered

the dark, mysterious world of the monument where interactions with the dead

occurred. They may have awaited the return of the celebrant from his/her journey

inside (Bradley 1989; Thomas, 1990; Parker-Pearson and Richards 1994; Cooney

2000).

The ordinary world from which the subject departs at the onset of ASC may be

compared to the world of the living from which the celebrant and the deceased depart

Figure 2 Loughcrew T entrance/forecourt (Shee-Twohig 1981)

27

Figure 3: Newgrange Entrance Stone (O’Kelly 1982)

upon entering the tomb. Evidence for this would include entrance stones limiting

access to the passage grave, forecourts or other features suggesting ritual practice with

space for many people, and symbolism aimed at a large audience.

Newgrange

The cairn at Newgrange is surrounded by a stone kerb, many decorated with elaborate

motifs (O’Kelly 1982, 12-22). The front of the monument is now covered with a

revetment of quartz stones and round granite boulders rising 3m from the top of the

kerb (O'Kelly 1982, 15-21). These stones were found in the rubble in front of the

mound when it was first excavated. Cooney (2006, 309) argued that the stones

represented a large quartz forecourt.

Either scenario is implicated in large-scale communication aimed at a wide audience.

Quartz was a widely used symbolic element during the Neolithic in Britain and

Ireland. Due to its continued use at entrances and borders of monuments, and its

association with tombs, it has been thought to symbolize the moon and water,

transformation, liminality and the ancestors (Darvill 2002, 73; Cooney 2006, 706).

“The quartz would have caught and reflected the sun and the moon in a variety of

visual effects emphasizing the continuing symbolic power and place of this area as an

entrance to another world" (Cooney 2006, 706). The quartz at Newgrange, whether it

fronted the monument or lay as a platform before the entrance, would have been a

highly visible, highly charged communiqué understood by the witnessing community

as a symbol of the activities taking place inside the mound.

A large decorated

stone lies across the

entrance to

Newgrange (Fig.

3). The artwork on

this stone appears

to emphasize the

architectural

entrance and

28

Figure 4: Knowth entrance stones (Eogan 1986)

passage. The spiral may refer to passages (Dronfield 1996a). The stone is divided in

two by a line emerging from an unwinding spiral motif. The line leads directly to the

passage of the tomb. In order to gain entrance, one would have had to clamber over

the stone directly over the line as if it were pointing the way into the passage (O’Kelly

1982, 149). This is a clear rendering of the act of leaving the ordinary world and

entering, guided by the symbolic passage, the passage to a world that is not so

ordinary. Thus, the symbols on the stone communicate and emphasize to the general

public the passage one takes to enter the inner sanctum of the monument, a place the

vast majority of them would never see. Significantly, the motifs on the bottom of the

stone appear to continue below ground. O’Kelly (1982, 149) suggests that this

represents the ritual union of above and below, communicating to the public the

activities taking place inside the monument. The images in fact do not continue below

ground, suggesting that the carvings are symbolic rather than functional.

An oval stone setting east of the tomb entrance is filled with quartz pebbles and

associated artifacts (O’Kelly 1982, 75-6). This setting and deposition are obviously

deliberate and indicate that certain activities, perhaps of a ritual nature, were taking

place in front of the entrance at Newgrange, with plenty of room for a large audience.

Knowth

Knowth has two entrances: one on the east and one on the west, each leading to a

passage going almost to the center of the tomb. The mound was once surrounded by

127 kerbstones, of which 124 survive, demarcating the boundary of the monument

(Eogan 1986, 46). The largest and most elaborately decorated kerbstones are those

closest to the entrances.

The entrance stone at the western

passage of Knowth is decorated with

nested rectangles and a vertical line

oriented to the passage (Fig. 4). A

stone with two opposed sets of nested

rectangles lies across the eastern

entrance (Figure 13). Entrance is

29

gained by going over the stone along the vertical line, through the concentric images

(Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 211). The motif emphasizes the entrance and the

passage, acting as a guide or map to the route through the chamber. The stone acts as

a barrier to the passage, preventing the entrance of the general public. The symbolism

on the stone communicates to the community the activities taking place inside the

monument.

On the old ground surface or over the various features around the entrance was a

lunatespread of quartz and non-local stones (Eogan 1986, 65). This may have been a

façade similar to the one now standing across Newgrange. This would have

transmitted information about the tomb to a large audience.

Seven stone settings are arranged symmetrically outside the eastern tomb entrance.

These were roughly circular, surrounded by edge-set stones (Eogan 1986, 46). Setting

1 is directly opposite the entrance, saucer-shaped and overlain with small quartz chips

(Eogan 1986, 47). The other settings are similar in size and shape.

The features on the western side are similar. There are six stone settings delimited by

smooth stones. Setting 1, opposite the entrance, is roughly oval and filled with quartz.

Settings 5 and 6 are circular and have spreads of quartz in the center. 2, 3 and 4 are u-

shaped. 2 and 4 are hollowed and filled with dark earth (Eogan 1986, 48).

These settings were deliberately placed and designed. Quartz is a recurring element.

The selection of stones and the careful design suggest ritual use. It is possible that

communal ceremonies took place in the large spaces in front of the entrances.

Barclodiad y Gawres

Barclodiad y Gawres passage grave on Anglesey in Wales faces northwest toward the

sea. An entranceway is formed by the passage stones opening outwards. Two stone

sockets were found possibly representing monumental elements at the entrance,

possibly a forecourt (Powell and Daniel 1956, 13). Tiny flecks of charcoal were found

which may indicate fire activity, possibly of a ritual nature (Powell and Daniel 1956,

13). This forecourt would have been accessible or at least visible to a fairly large

30

audience. Unfortunately, beyond the tiny specks of charcoal, there is no evidence

surviving of activity taking place in the forecourt, and evidence of monumental

architecture is ambiguous.

Knockmany

Knockmany is a simple passage tomb with several decorated stones, set in a 25m

diameter cairn on top of a hill (Herity 1974, 82). There was a vestigial passage at the

entrance (Herity 1974, 82). The mound is surrounded by a stone kerb. This may have

been added as an afterthought to prevent erosion (Collins 1960, 6). The kerb would

have demarcated the boundary between the outside and the inside.

There is no evidence of any ritual activity at the entrance, but the cairn is much

disturbed. The mound’s placement on a peak would have made it a visually arresting,

dramatic feature of the landscape. This in itself would have communicated to a large

audience.

Fourknocks

The mound at Fourknocks is surrounded by a drystone kerb curving inward toward

the entrance, emphasizing the feature (Hartnett 1957, 201).

Loughcrew

F: F faces eastward toward T and is surrounded by a kerb (Herity 1974, 50).

H: The entrance at Cairn H is demarcated by a large, imposing lintel (Conwell 1866,

362). The entrance faces east, toward Cairn T, as do all the other cairns in the

Carnbane West group. This could be a reference to the River Boyne and the sunrise as

well as an association with the main tomb (T). H is surrounded by a kerb.

I: Cairn I faces eastward toward the river, the sunrise and Cairn T (Herity 1974, 55).

It is surrounded by a kerb.

L. Cairn L faces southeast toward Cairn T, the sunrise and the river. Passage

orthostats open out at entrance. A large lintel demarks the entrance (Conwell 1866,

31

369). L is surrounded by oblong kerbstones. Stone L1 bears highly complex motifs

and is visible from the entrance (Herity 1974, 50).

T: Cairn T is the focal point of all the tombs at Loughcrew. This passage grave is

fronted by a forecourt is created by orthostats opening outwards. The passage

entrance is blocked by large stones. Outside of the entrance, a loose layer of quartz

lumps was found, possibly representing a circular feature or a forecourt (Herity 1974,

42). The entrance was approached by a V-shaped incurve in the kerb, façade made

imposing by graduated larger stones toward the entry, two uprights flanking the

opening and a large lintel. Stones L1 and L2 are highly decorated and are visible from

the entrance. The entry faces slightly south of east to the Boyne and the sunrise

(Herity 1974, 42).

U: The entrance to Cairn U is aligned eastwards like T (Herity 1974, 44). A long slab

laid on its edge fronts the entrance, and along the passage a high sill almost blocks the

entrance (Herity 1974, 44). It is kerbed of small boulders (Herity 1974, 50).

Summary and Discussion

Table 1: Elements of the entrance/forecourt

Kerb Entrance

stone Forecourt

External features

Symbolism (motifs, orientation, quartz)

Newgrange X X X X X Knowth X X X X X Barclodiad y Gawres

X X

Knockmany X X X X Fourknocks X X X LC-F X X LC-H X X LC-I X X LC-L X X LC-T X X X X LC-U X X X

All of the passage graves under consideration were surrounded by kerbs demarcating

the border between inside and outside the monument (See Table 1). This emphasizes

the fact that the interior of the mound is a special, perhaps even dangerous place

32

Figure 5: Loughcrew T passage (Shee-Twohig 1981)

which only the dead and the experienced religious leaders could enter. Three of the

passage graves had entrance stones further limiting access to the tomb. At least five of

the tombs had forecourts providing a gathering place spacious enough to

accommodate large groups. Four of the tombs have external features providing

evidence of ritual performance focusing on the entrance.

All of the tombs feature at least one symbolic element. In some it’s an orientation on

the sunrise, the river and an important monument. Some have artistic motifs on their

entrance stones or on passage stones visible at the entrance. Some have quartz

elements. All of these would have held meaning for the community viewing them,

and all emphasized the physical entrance to the passage grave. While the community

may not have been privy to the knowledge of the inner world of the tomb, they were

given some idea of the activities taking place inside by the symbols presented to them.

They probably witnessed the dead being taken inside, most likely as the climax of a

public ceremony as evidenced by the forecourts and external features, and witnessed

the celebrant emerging alone from the passage grave. The deceased was no longer a

member of their community, but an ancestor living in the land of the ancestors which

was associated with the tomb in a very real, physical way. The entrance to the tomb

became the door to the ancestral world.

Passage as vortex

Upon stepping through

the tomb’s entrance,

the subject enters a

passage. In shape and

design, the tomb

passage is a reflection

of the neurologically-

generated

tunnel/vortex. During

ASC, the vortex is

perceived as an access

route between the

33

every-day realm and the non-ordinary realm of deeper hallucination where the subject

may interact with spirit beings and ancestors. Passages may serve the same purpose

by functioning as an access route between the every-day world outside and the extra-

ordinary world inside where the dead are deposited.

Evidence that these tomb passages were perceived as access routes to the realm of the

dead requires a comparison to the vortices of ASC. The vortices experienced during

ASC often are seen to have imagery on them. They are often seen to rotate. Evidence

for a comparison may include motifs on passage walls, especially symbols of rotation

such as the spiral (Dronfield 1996a and 1996b). The construction of passages in such

a way as to make them difficult or stressful to traverse may reflect that they were

considered to lead to a dangerous place such as the realm of the dead. Architectural

and artistic elements emphasizing the difference between the passage and other parts

of the tomb may be present. There may also be symbolic orientation of the passage,

reflecting the movement from the land of the living (entrance facing sunrise) to the

land of the dead (moving westward along the passage toward the sunset and the

chamber).

Newgrange

The Newgrange passage runs 19 meters along a thin, sinuous passage (O’Kelly 1982,

21). The passage is oriented southeast/northwest. The subject moves northwest

through the passage toward the chamber, or roughly in the direction of the sunset, and

back toward the direction of the sunrise upon her/his return to the outside. This

orientation is emphasized for several days per year when the winter solstice sunrise

enters the passage through the roofbox directly over the entrance and shines into the

back chamber (O’Kelly 1982, 22).

The roofbox had a quartz slab that could be moved back and forth across the opening

to allow or prevent light into the monument, and a profusely decorated lintel (O'Kelly

982, 96). This artwork emphasizes the roofbox and the traversal of the sun along the

passage.

34

Figure 6: Newgrange L19 (O’Kelly 1982)

Each side of the passage is lined with orthostats. The orthostats

nearest the chamber are tallest, over 2 m high. The passage,

roofed by massive slabs, rises in height to 3.6 m as it

approaches the chamber (O'Kelly 1982, 21). The opening out of

the passage into the chamber is similar to the experience of

leaving the vortex and entering the 3rd stage of ASC.

A marble and a pendant were found deposited in the passage

close to the chamber entrance (O’Kelly 1982, 105),

emphasizing movement into a different space. There are two

concentrations of burnt and unburnt bone in the passage. One

(Lot 3) occurs at the chamber entrance. The other (Lot 7) occurs

a short distance from the chamber entrance. The journey is a

highly orchestrated one with particular emphasis on doorways and openings,

heightening the traveler's awareness that she or he is traveling through radically

different spaces (Thomas 1990).

There are many motifs in the passage at Newgrange, and many of them are

concentrics. Dronfield (1996a, 43) found that most of the concentric motifs at

Newgrange were associated with the architectural passage. Given the association of

the ASC vortex and concentric motifs, the association of the tomb passage and

concentrics at Newgrange is suggestive of a link. The most imposing of all the artistic

compositions in the passage is on L19 (Fig. 6), close to the chamber entrance, again

emphasizing the demarcation or liminal zone between architectural areas of the tomb.

At some point the passage was blocked by a massive stone, cutting off access

(O’Kelly 1982, 100). Perhaps it was felt that without the proper guide, the passage

was too dangerous to traverse, and the world inside the chamber inappropriate for

general members of the public.

35

Knowth

The western tomb

The passage runs approximately 32 meters from the entrance stone to the chamber

(Eogan 1986, 43). The passage is straight for three fourths of its length, then bends to

the right. After the bend there is a sillstone and, further along, the passage narrows.

Finally it expands into a chamber. At the time of publication, this tomb had not been

excavated.

Near the chamber entrance, several passage orthostats (33, 34, 38, 48, 49, 50, 51) bear

complex motifs including several concentrics. These emphasize the transitional or

liminal space between the passage and the chamber (Eogan 1986, 44).

The eastern tomb

The passage on the eastern side is 40 meters long and ends in a cruciform chamber

(Eogan 1986, 64). Eogan (1986, 64) argues that stones decorated in a particular style

were deliberately placed in specific areas of the tomb, especially in the passage as one

nears the chamber. An elaborate chevron-decorated capstone (43) can be found 27 m

from the entrance. Capstone no. 45 also stands out as it was set at a lower level and

was decorated with picked motifs along its outside edge. Along this 5 m stretch, the

orthostats on both sides of the passage were decorated. Several undecorated stones

then occur between this and the entrance to the chamber, setting the areas apart. At

the entrance to the chamber itself, orthostats on both sides of the sill as well as

capstones are decorated (Eogan 1986, 64).

The sill is another architectural element highlighting the entrance to the chamber from

the passage, setting it apart.

Barclodiad y Gawres

Barclodiad y Gawres has a 20 ft long passage (Powell and Daniel 1956, 12). The

passage is generally straight with a slight variation at the entrance to the chamber

where the left wall dips to the left. The entrance to the chamber is demarcated by

decorated stones. The passage goes from north to south, with the entrance to the

north. The siting is related to Porth Trecastell, the best landing place on the island.

36

Figure 7: Knockmany C6 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Barclodiad y Gawres was the only coastal tomb known to the excavators (Powell and

Daniel 1956, 1). Perhaps the orientation toward the ocean was a symbol of

regeneration.

Orthostats C1, C16 and L8 bear concentric motifs and are located at the chamber

entrance. An interesting aspect of Barclodiad y Gawres is the hearth in the central

chamber. The fire, when viewed from the entrance or inside the

passage, would appear as the bright light in the center of the

vortex during ASC.

Knockmany

Knockmany has only a vestigial passage (Herity 1974, 82).

Cremated bone was found behind stone 12, but this may have

been displaced from disturbance of the burial chamber (Collins

1960, 4). The passage is very short, and oriented south/north

with the entrance at the south. A striking visual experience

when walking through the passage toward the chamber (a quick

trip), is the artwork on stones C5 and C6 (Fig. 7).

Because of the view of the motifs from the passage it appears that one is entering a

different sort of space. However, the passage is so short that it doesn’t feel as if one is

“traversing the realms” so to speak. The architecture appears to refer to a passage or

to be reminiscent of a passage. There is a very faint motif on passage stone 12. The

passage opens into the central chamber.

Fourknocks

The originally unroofed passage at Fourknocks is oriented northeast to southwest, and

is unique in that it yielded elaborate burials (Hartnett 1957, 201).

The passage was paved with flat stones (Hartnett 1957, 205). The remains were found

in layers beneath the paving stones, and included both burnt and unburnt bone

(Hartnett 1957, 206). The heaviest concentration of inhumations was by the entrance,

the lowest by the chamber (Hartnett 1957, 206).

37

The passage widens slightly as it approaches the chamber entrance. The sensation of

entering the chamber, however, must have been very different during the tomb’s

currency than it is today in the passage’s present roofed state. If the passage was

indeed unroofed, as Hartnett claimed, then the entrance to the chamber must have felt

more constricting than opening out, but the chamber would have seemed even more

like a radically different space. These differences may be due to the fact that the tomb

was used in a single event and then sealed (Hartnett 1957).

Loughcrew

F: The passage at Cairn F is approximately 2.5 m long, and is oriented east to west.

The passage widens from approximately 0.5 m at its entrance, to almost 1.0 m at the

chamber entrance (Conwell 1866, 361). There are motifs on five of the eight passage

orthostats, but all are so weathered as to be rendered almost invisible. It is impossible

to say how visually arresting the motifs may have been during the tomb’s currency.

H: The passage at Cairn H, oriented east-west, measures approximately 5m long and

expands from 1 m at entrance to approximately 1.5 m at entrance to chamber. The

passage was packed with burnt bone mixed with small quartz fragments (Conwell

1866, 362). Motifs occur on two of six passage stones. The motifs on L2 are invisible,

while those on R2 are fairly visible, especially a large spiral that occurs on the stone

low to the ground. As one approaches the chamber entrance, the sill stone of the right

recess becomes highly visible, with three large spiral depictions. Stone C5,

comprising the back wall of the left chamber, also has spiral motifs which are highly

visible from the passage as one nears the chamber entrance. All of these vividly

emphasize the difference in space between the passage and the chamber.

I: The passage at Cairn I, oriented east-west, is approximately 2 m long. It opens from

approximately .7 m at the entrance, to 1 m at the chamber entrance (Conwell 1866,

364). There is only one stone with motifs in the passage, R2, located at and

demarcating the chamber entrance. The motifs are fairly visible from the passage.

Motifs on stone C5, the right wall of one of the left chambers, are also visible from

passage.

38

L. The passage at Cairn L is approximately 3 m long oriented east to west (Herity

1974, 54). Of eight passage stones, six bear artwork. R1, R2, L3 and L4 bear spirals

which are fairly visible in the passage. Three spirals on C3 are plainly visible from the

chamber entrance. The chamber appears to open out from the passage due to the roof

opening upwards.

T: The passage at Cairn T is approximately 5 m long and covered by a corbelled roof

rising as one nears the central chamber (Herity 1974, 42). The passage remains fairly

constant in width at approximately 1 m wide at the entrance and the chamber

entrance, with the exception of the midpoint of the passage. At this point, passage

stones L3, L4, R3 and R4 are set at a different angle than the rest of the passage

stones, constricting the passage to about half its width. The passage then opens up

again and continues on toward the chamber. Eight of 12 remaining stones are

decorated elaborately. Five of these are highly visible as one traverses the passage.

A sill separates the chamber from the passage. C8, the back wall of the back recess, is

very complex and highly visible from the passage at the chamber entrance. The side

of C15, at the chamber entrance, is also highly visible from the passage, demarcating

the spaces.

The passage entrance was eventually blocked by large stones, curtailing access.

U: Cairn U’s passage runs approximately 5 m from east to west, widening slightly at

the chamber entrance. Of five remaining passage stones, three bear motifs, none of

which are plainly visible when moving from entrance to chamber (Herity 1974, 50).

Motifs on chamber stones C2, C6 and C8 are visible only when crouched at the

chamber entrance as they are low to the ground.

Summary and Discussion

Of primary importance in the comparison to the ASC-generated vortex is the

perception and experience of the tomb passage as an access route between locations

that are very different from one another.

39

Table 2: Elements of the passage

Symbolic orientation

Opening out into chamber

Non-linear traversal

Emphasis on

chamber entrance

Spirals/ Concentrics

/radials Intervisible

with passage

Other Motifs in passage

Newgrange Y Y Y Y Y Y Knowth E Y Y Y Y Y Y Knowth W Y Y Y Y Barclodiad y Gawres

Y? Y Y Y

Knockmany Y Y Y Y Fourknocks Y Y Y LC-F Y Y ? Y LC-H Y Y Y Y Y LC-I Y Y Y Y Y LC-L Y Y Y Y LC-T Y Y Y Y Y Y LC-U Y Y Y Y

Nine of the 12 tombs under consideration have orientations that may reference a

movement from sunrise to sunset. This may be symbolic of moving from the land of

the living to the land of the dead. Fewer than half have long, sinuous tunnels, but 11

of 12 open out from the passage into the chamber, with architectural and artistic

emphasis on the junction. The sensation of emerging from a physically constricted

passage into a wide, open space emphasizes the perception that the inner chamber is a

radically different place from both the passage and from the outside world. All of the

passages bear motifs as do many ASC-generated vortices. At least nine of the

passages comprise stones bearing highly visible spirals, concentrics and/or radials.

The character of these motifs enhances a perception that they are rotating, a

commonly-reported characteristic of ASC-generated vortices. Additionally, all of the

graves have conspicuous spirals, concentrics and/or radials visible in or from the

passage. These motifs appear to reference rotation and movement, and may serve as

visual cues for movement through the space (Dronfield 1996a).

Chamber as realm of the spirits or realm of the dead

The chamber constitutes the inner sanctum of the passage graves. In the graves under

consideration, this area is the most common for yielding human remains and

accompanying objects (with the exception of Fourknocks and Newgrange). Most of

40

the chambers were constructed with high, corbelled roofs, giving a sense of open

space. This may replicate the vortex leading from stage 2 into stage 3 hallucinations.

The chamber may be compared to the realm experienced during ASC stage 3. It has

been shown that stage 3 may represent another existential realm, often interpreted as

an underworld occupied by the dead, ancestors or other spirits (Lewis-Williams and

Pearce 2005, 218). If the chamber can be shown to be associated with a realm of the

dead, ancestors or spirits, then a close association of the chamber with ASC stage 3

may be seen.

We will examine the 12 passage graves for evidence that the chambers were

perceived to be a different existential realm having to do with the

dead/ancestors/spirits. Evidence may include: architectural and artistic elements

suggesting that the chamber was a different sort of space than the rest of the tomb and

than the outside world; human remains indicating an association of the space with the

dead; and grave goods indicating a sacred nature of the deposit.

Newgrange

The cruciform chamber at Newgrange has three recesses or side chambers, the west,

the east, and the back recesses. The chamber has a high corbelled roof ending in a

single capstone 6 m above floor level (O'Kelly 1982, 21).

Figure 8: Loughcrew T Chamber (Shee-Twohig 1981)

41

Figure 9: Newgrange chamber finds (O’Kelly 1982)

In the chamber, a layer of burnt and unburnt bones and faunal remains was observed

(O'Kelly 1982, 105) (Fig. 9). The excavations revealed that the tomb was disturbed by

later activities, and it is thought that many of the original artefacts were probably

removed (O’Kelly 1982, 26).

In the main chamber, a layer of burnt and

unburnt human bone was located on the floor

adjacent to the back, east and west recesses. A

bone disc bead was discovered just beyond the

chamber entrance. A central pit was present in

the main chamber associated with a large

hammer pendant. Near the west recess a

serpentine marble and some utilized flint flakes

were found (O'Kelly 1982, 105).

In the end recess only a utilized flint flake was

found together with a single, broken basin (O'Kelly 1982, 105).

In the west recess, a pendant and several fragments of bone points and pins, three of

them burnt, were found mingled with several discrete concentrations of burnt and

unburnt human remains around and beneath a single basin (O'Kelly 1982, 105). The

burnt material contained a tooth and some skull fragments indicating at least one

individual (O'Kelly 1982, 105-6).

The east recess is the largest and most profusely ornamented of the recesses at

Newgrange. Two basin stones, one inside the other, were present in this recess. One

of these basin stones was carved with lattice motifs, argued by Dronfield (1996a, 52)

to have a perceptual association with mortuary remains. In the 1967 excavations, the

lower basin couldn’t be moved, so the ground beneath it was never fully examined.

Elsewhere in the recess, finds included a bone chisel, marbles, a bead and a pendant.

This recess was the richest in human remains. Unburnt material included 2 incomplete

adult skeletons, both broken into very small pieces. The distribution of material shows

that it was widely scattered and intermingled with other materials in the area (O'Kelly

1982, 106-7). The burnt material comprises at least 3 individuals, but it is almost

42

Figure 10: Newgrange stones X, Y and Z (O’Kelly 1982)

certain that there were more at one time prior to the tomb’s disturbance (O'Kelly

1982, 107).

At the junction of the passage

and the chamber two stones, X

and Y found to be profusely

decorated (O'Kelly 1982, 96)

(Fig. 10). These designs are

artistically unique within

Newgrange and here

emphasize the liminal zone

between the chamber and

passage.

Newgrange Summary

The presence of multiple concentrations of human remains in the chamber suggests

that the chamber is associated with the dead. There are two concentrations occurring

outside the chamber. These may refer to the liminal zone; as one approaches the

chamber, one approaches the land of the dead. This is further emphasized by the

nature of the deposit. The remains are not separated according to individual, but are

mixed together. This may be symbolic of a group of ancestors (Barrett 1994, 51,

Thomas 2000, 655).

The subject entering this space would necessarily come into contact and interact with

the ancestors as their bones would be present. Grave goods found in proximity to the

remains suggest a sacred aspect and possible ritual activity. The high corbelled roof

and side recesses give the impression of space opening up from the passage.

The roof slabs in the eastern and western recesses bear highly complex compositions

featuring spirals and concentric motifs. Additionally, there are several decorated

stones whose motifs are hidden from view, such as the western recess roof slab, which

is presently partially hidden. These compositions may serve to direct the movements

of the deceased. In the case of the roof slabs, the deceased is placed directly beneath

them. Since spirals and concentrics have been seen to represent vortices (Dronfield

43

Figure 12: Knowth Eastern Tomb, Eastern Recess Burials (Eogan 1986)

Figure 11: Newgrange eastern recess roofslab (O’Kelly 1982)

1996a, 52), perhaps these motifs serve to direct the deceased upward into the realm of

the ancestors. Similarly, the motifs hidden in the corbels and lintels may be intended

for the deceased.

Based on architectural and artistic

elements, the chamber is delineated as

a separate space from the rest of the

tomb and from the outside world. The

presence of mixed human remains in

the chamber suggest an affiliation with

a group of ancestors.

Knowth

The eastern tomb:

The eastern tomb is cruciform with three

recesses. The chamber is roofed with a high,

corbelled roof topped by a capstone 8 m

above the ground surface. In the central

chamber, human remains were found in a

small area near the entrance to the right

recess (Eogan 1986, 39). These were almost

all cremation except for a few pieces of

disarticulated bone (Figs. 12 and 14).

Cremations were found between the sillstone

and backstone of the left recess (Eogan 1986, 39). A general blanket deposit of

cremations was present, ranging from 3-15 cm deep all around the sides of the recess,

abutting onto orthostats and the sillstone. In one of the hollows, some unburnt or

44

Figure 13: Eastern Tomb Stones 48 and 54 (Eogan 1986)

Fig. 14: Knowth Eastern Recess Chamber Finds (Eogan 1986)

partly burnt bones were mixed in with the cremations. Grave goods consisted of 2

pestle pendants, parts of two mushroom-headed pins, and parts of 5 other pins. In the

outer part of the recess (in the central chamber), on the original surface next to the sill

a small amount of cremated bone was found which may have been part of a more

extensive primary deposit (Eogan 1986, 42).

In the end recess, the burials were much disturbed. The inner part of the concentration

was almost completely covered with a large flagstone lying on the old ground surface.

A cremation deposit overlay the flag (Eogan 1986, 42).

A very complex composition of

art motifs including was found on

stone 48 on the right wall of the

end recess (Figure 13). The only

other composition that comes

close to this one in complexity is

the back wall (54) of the right

chamber. Both include lattices

and lozenges, and stone 54 bears

concentrics argued by Dronfield

(1996a, 52) to be associated with

the dead and the vortex.

There were six burial deposits in the

right recess. Between consecutive

deposits, a thin layer of earth or

small, flat stones was placed. Grave

goods include stone beads, pendants,

and antler pins (Eogan 1986, 43).

A very large stone basin was placed

in a central position in this recess. It

45

is so large as to suggest that it was placed during construction (Eogan 1986, 42). A

distinctive macehead with a spiral motif was found between two jambstones on the

old floor surface at the entrance to the right recess. It was located lying in front of the

stone basin, under a layer of shale. During the initial exploration of the tomb, Eogan

came across the macehead while making his way down the passage for the first time.

He describes it thus: "This ghostly guardian suggested that we were approaching the

inner sanctum" (Eogan 1986, 32).

The passage into the western tomb opens into an undifferentiated chamber (Eogan

1986, 43). The roof is not corbelled, but cross-flags project inward slightly, producing

a corbelled effect (Eogan 1986, 44). The passage expands and rises in height into a

chamber defined by two large sidestones, a backstone, and a sillstone. There is

another sill in the middle of the chamber. Although the tomb has not been excavated,

flakes of cremated bone were noticeable in the fill of soft earth over the floor. Part of

an undecorated stone pestle or macehead and part of the stem of a large antler pin

were recovered. A sandstone basin was found in the passage, but doesn't seem to have

been in its original position. There is a hollow on the outside of the outer sillstone of

the chamber that may have been the basin-stone's original position (Eogan 1986, 44).

The rear wall of the chamber (Stone 41) bears a motif almost identical to that of the

entrance stone, comprising concentric circles.

The presence of human remains that have been mixed together suggests that the

chambers of Knowth were associated with the ancestors. The high roofs and opening

out of the passages into the chambers, as well as motifs marking the entrances to the

chambers emphasize the perception that the chambers are unusual spaces. Grave

goods suggest ritual associations.

Barclodiad y Gawres

Barclodiad y Gawres contains a cruciform chamber comprising a central/main

chamber and three recesses. At the southern end of the passage, a polygonal central or

main chamber is located which had a partially corbelled roof (Powell and Daniel

1956, 14). A hearth was present in the center. The remains were 6" thick at the centre

46

Figure 15 1. Left recess back wall 2. Right recess back wall

and contained wet, sticky grey earth, ashes, and charcoal. Limpet and oyster shells

were pressed into the mulch and all was overlain by flat stones, mostly quartzite

(Powell and Daniel 1956, 16). A pig bone and two hundred tiny bone pieces were

mixed with this mulchy earth and pebbles. They were determined to be fish,

amphibian, reptile, small mammal, and possibly bird bones (Powell and Daniel 1956,

16). A likely scenario is posited as follows:

1. A wood fire was lit and allowed to burn until it consisted of ash with

embedded fragments of flowing charcoal.

2. A libation of special stew was poured over the ashes.

3. The fire was forthwith quenched by covering it with pebbles, earth and

shells (Powell and Daniel 1956, 16).

The end recess is located at the southern end of the passage on the far side of the

central chamber. The entrance is demarcated by a sillstone. A pit found at its centre is

probably the result of grave robbing. Overlying all existant surfaces at the edges and

corner was dark, sticky earth with fragments of cremated bone and charcoal (Powell

and Daniel 1956, 18). Small fragments of cremated bone were also found in lower

levels of the rubble infill (Powell and Daniel 1956, 18).

The eastern (left) recess has no sillstone, but the area has been disturbed. Some small

fragments of cremated bone and charcoal still remained in the corners and edges of

the recess (Powell and Daniel 1956, 19). The back

wall bears a highly visible composition concentric

motifs (Shee-Twohig 1981).

The western recess was least disturbed due to being

carefully blocked with large stones (Powell and

Daniel 1956, 19). A thin scatter of cremated bone

mixed with sticky brown soil and flecks of charcoal

was spread over the floor. Fragments of deliberately-

broken antler pins were scattered throughout (Powell

and Daniel 1956, 21). The bone represents two

47

Figure 16: Knockmany C9 and C11 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

young adult males, with a few sheepbone fragments (Powell and Daniel 1956, 22). A

concentric motif is present on the back wall (Fig. 15).

The chamber at Barclodiad y Gawres is set apart from the rest of the tomb by artistic

elements present at the chamber entrance, the opening up of the passage, a possible

corbelled roof, silled recesses, and the presence of a hearth. Human remains found

mixed together in the several recesses indicate an association of the space with a

group of ancestors. Grave goods and the enigmatic stew suggest ritual and the sacred

nature of the deposit. Concentric motifs on the back walls of the side recesses may be

vortices for the deceased (Dronfield 1996a, 52) (Fig.15).

The hearth at this site is unique in that no other monument under consideration here

yielded evidence of fire (beyond charcoal mixed with cremated bone). The use of fire

inside the tomb would have been an inductive element of ASC, and would have

replicated the bright light at the end of the vortex commonly reported in experiments

and ethnographic studies focusing on ASC.

Knockmany

The chamber at

Knockmany is a rough

pentagon entered into

through a short passage

(Herity 1974, 82).

Excavators found the tomb

in a very disturbed state,

with human remains

dislocated from their

original deposition areas,

which were impossible to

ascertain. Fragments of cremated bone were found behind stone 12 along with

modern potsherds in an area of disturbance, probably the result of looting (Collins

1960, 4).

48

Stones C9 and C11 bear the most complex and visible of the artistic compositions,

and include many concentric motifs and lozenges (Fig. 16). C9 is located on the right

side of the chamber. Based on its similarities to the roofstones at Newgrange and

Loughcrew T and L, this stone could mark the original deposition site at Knockmany.

Fourknocks

The chamber at Fourknocks comprises a pear-shaped central chamber and three

recesses. A posthole was found in the central chamber, possibly representing a roof

support for the beehive (corbelled) construction surmounted by a cairn (Hartnett 1957,

201).

The recesses are silled. The west and south recesses are roofed with slabs arrestingly

decorated on the front faces, which function as lintels (Hartnett 1957, 214). The east

cell may have been roofed with Stone A. Cremated and unburnt materials in a

homogenous mass 10-20 cm thick with very little charcoal and admixture were found

in the recesses. These were probably burnt elsewhere and deposited as a complete

mass (Hartnett 1957, 214).

The south recess was the principal burial chamber (Hartnett 1957, 216). Twenty

centimeters of cremation materials were spread under a paving stone. Decorated antler

bone was found deliberately broken into fragments. Pins made from sheep

metatarsals, stone beads, a hammer-pendant, bone points/blades, pendants, and

needles were also present (Hartnett 1957, 216).

The west recess yielded 14 cm of cremation materials (Hartnett 1957, 215) along with

an unburnt skull with some longbone and rib fragments. The few associated grave

goods included a stone hammer-pendant, a shale bead, and a small shell pendant. A

small amount of cremated bone and a burnt ox tooth were found under paving stone

(Hartnett 1957, 215).

49

Figure 17: Fourknocks Stone A (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Figure 18: Fourknocks C1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

The east recess yielded mixed burials beneath

paving stone. Few grave goods were found,

including a stone bead, a whitish marble,

bone beads, pins, and a pendant. According

to Cooney (2000, fig. 4.5) stone A (Fig. 17)

was the lintel stone for the tomb entrance. He

provides no evidence for this assignation and

no evidence for its location appeared during

excavation. The motifs on the bottom of the

stone are similar to those appearing on roof

slabs of other tombs (Newgrange, Loughcrew

I, T) and the motifs on the front face appear similar to the lintelstones found on other

recesses within Fourknocks. I argue that this stone once rested over the eastern recess.

The deposition of human remains at Fourknocks is dramatic and warrants a close

study of its own. The unburnt bones were mostly children while burnt bones comprise

mostly adult skeletons (Hartnett 1957, 249). Some were mixed with animal bone. At

least 65 individuals in total are represented throughout the tomb (chamber and

passage), and probably a lot more (Hartnett 1957, 250). The adjacent mound

(Fourknocks II) may cover a crematorium trench where these remains were processed.

The excavator believes that all of the depositions at Fourknocks represent a single

event in which cremations that had been taking place over a period of time were then

brought into Fourknocks I and deposited

(Hartnett 1957, 250). In all 3 recesses a slab

floor repository for cremations was built in

(Hartnett 1957, 251). The deposit was then

paved over with flat stones and each chamber

sealed.

The only Neolithic artwork of a human figure is

thought to be present at Fourknocks. Stone C1

(Fig. 18), in the chamber close to the passage

junction is thought to represent a human face. It

50

Figure 19: Loughcrew H Sill (Shee-Twohig 1981)

stands sentinel at the egress from the chamber into the passage, perhaps guiding the

celebrant back to the daylit world, or perhaps guarding the daylit world from the

deceased.

Loughcrew

F: Cairn F covers a cruciform passage grave. A sepulchral stone basin was located in

the northern recess. Underneath the basin a bone pin fragment and flint flake were

found. In the southwestern corner of the southern chamber, a brown, ironstone ball

and bone fragments were scattered throughout (Conwell 1866, 361).

Stone C1 is covered with a series of small arcs and forms the left wall of the southern

recess. This is the most highly visual of all the stones in the monument. Arcs may be

representative of the passage/vortex (Blundell 1998, 9).

H: H is also cruciform in plan with an octagonal central chamber. A sepulchral basin

was found in the western recess.

Chambers yielded bone, stone and

earth fill with over 5,000 finds

including bone blades, combs,

pendants and pins, ferrule, pins, an

antler tine, burnt potsherds, flints, sea

shells, coloured stones, and stone balls

(Conwell 1866, 363-4).

The sillstone to the eastern recess (Fig. 19) is covered with three high visible spirals

leading into the cell.

I: I is a stalled-construction chambered tomb. The floors of cells a, b, d and e were

constructed of square flags. Charred bone was spread on top of the flags. A thin dry-

stone layer with charred bone fragments on top was located beneath the flags. Cell a

yielded two stone ornaments (a bead and a pendant). No bone was located atop the

flag in Cell f but some was found beneath it (Conwell 1866, 364).

51

Figure 20: Loughcrew L C16 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Figure 21: Loughcrew T Rear Recess Roofstone (Shee-Twohig 1981)

A loose stone was found in cell c. The stone is covered with a complex composition

of motifs covering three sides. This may have been a roofslab with motifs on its

underside, its top (facing the roof) and the edge facing the central chamber. This stone

is comparable to the roofslabs at Newgrange.

L. Cairn L remains intact with a

corbelled roof rising 12 feet

above floor and seven chambers

(Conwell 1866, 366). One

thousand ten bone pieces, a spear

point, javelin, and potsherds were

found. The passage flag had

burned ashes atop it and

excavators thought it to be the

cremation site (Conwell 1866,

367). The second chamber is demarcated by a sill. Underneath a basin, human teeth

and charred bone were found. In the opposite chamber a very large oval basin had

charred bone and teeth beneath it (Conwell 1866, 367). The ends of 2 bone pins,

several stone balls and an oval jet ornament were found in association (Conwell 1866,

369).

The most complex composition is found on C16

(Fig. 20), the rear wall of the largest right-hand

chambers. The motifs comprise mostly concentric

circles, focusing on a central concentric circle with a

second concentric circle connected to it.

T: The chamber at Cairn T has a corbelled roof

rising to 10' high. The floor of the central chamber is

paved with 3 large flags. Underneath at least 2 of the

flags, fragments of charred bone, stone, and charcoal

were found. Three cists or recesses open off the

central chamber. Each recess is roofed by corbelling

52

Figure 22: Loughcrew U C9 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

with a flat capstone. Each has a high sillstone. Above each sillstone is a large

limestone lintel. The floor earth of each cell is mixed with charred bone. A circle of

earth 12" in diameter “inclosed with a hatful of burnt bone” was covered with a flag at

the centre of cell b (Conwell 1866, 372). Larger bones and stones were found atop the

flag, possibly representing a later deposit (Conwell 1866, 372). Chamber b and c have

corbelled "beehive" roofs (Conwell 1866, 373).

The stones with the most complex designs can be found in the recesses. C11 is the left

wall and C14 on the right wall of the right recess. C8 is the rear wall of the rear

recess. C3 is the rear wall of the left recess. All bear concentrics. C11 also bears

lozenges. A roofstone decorated with concentrics and other motifs was also found

belonging to the rear recess (Fig. 21). Several decorated corbels and lintels are

present.

U: The chamber at Cairn U is cruciform, with three recesses opening off a central

chamber. The recesses are further divided by a slab through their middles. Burnt bone

was found beneath paving stones in each recess (Conwell 1866, 374).

The most highly visible and complex

art compositions are those on the back

walls of the recesses, C3 in the left

recess, C6 in the back recess and C9

(Fig. 22) in the right recess. All three

bear many concentrics, and C9 bears

lozenges and lattices.

Summary and Discussion

Each of the tombs under consideration has architectural as well as artistic elements

delineating the chamber as a different sort of space than the rest of the tomb and than

the outside world. These include high, corbelled roofs, sills, lintels, an opening into

the space from the passage, and artistic motifs emphasizing these architectural

elements. The presence of ritually-interred human remains in all of the tombs suggests

53

that the chamber was a realm intended for the dead. Aside from Fourknocks and

Newgrange, human remains were confined almost exclusively to the chamber. The

visual separation of the spaces and the presence of the dead suggest that travel

through the monument was not to be taken lightly. This is further emphasized by the

presence of spirals and lattices/lozenges, possibly orchestrating movement through the

tomb (Dronfield 1996a). Finally, all of the tombs, by their design, can be considered

to be inductive to ASC via possible sonic and optic hallucination (with the presence of

fire, such as at Barclodiad y Gawres, or through rhythmic sounds), by gazing at

entoptic imagery, and/or by sensory homogenization, deprivation or apoxia.

Table 3: Elements of the chambers

Elements marking

the chamber as a separate

space

Human remains

Grave goods

Elements orchestrating movements

Possible inductive elements

Newgrange X X X X X Knowth E X X X X X Knowth W X X X X X Barclodiad y Gawres

X X X X X

Knockmany X X X Fourknocks X X X X X LC-F X X X X X LC-H X X X X X LC-I X X X X X LC-L X X X X X LC-T X X X X LC-U X X X X

Leaving the Tomb

Upon completion of whatever activities take place within the chamber, the celebrant

departs through the passage. As stated above, it is a matter of interest to the celebrant

and to the community not to have the deceased follow the celebrant back out of the

tomb into the outside world. Since the passage is open access going both ways, there

must be another element added to prevent egress for the deceased through the

passage. This, I will argue in the following section, is in the form of artistic motifs

that act as shields or traps. Concurrently, some motifs also serve to guide the celebrant

back out through the passage. The motifs serve to accentuate various architectural

elements in order to orchestrate these movements. These motifs are simple and direct,

54

Figure 23: Knowth, eastern tomb, stones 56 and r. jamb (Eogan 1986)

located at liminal zones such as the chamber/passage junction and highly visible to

anyone (living) attempting to find the passage and leave the tomb.

Newgrange

Certain motifs may have been strategically placed to emphasize and guide the

celebrant through the architecture. Perhaps the best known of all Neolithic motifs is

the triple spiral (a misnomer as the motifs are actually concentric circles) on the right

wall, stone C10 of the back recess. This motif is lined up with the passage as if

illuminating the egress route. As one is leaving the chamber, several simple motifs are

highly visible and appear to guide the subject out of the passage. C2 on the south wall

of the west recess is highly visible, composed of a large concentric spiral/circle with

lattice motif above it. The spiral is associable with the passage (Dronfield 1996a, 54).

In the passage, L19 is heavily decorated with zigzags and spirals, some below ground.

This would have been visible as it faces the chamber as one is exiting through the

passage. L22 is also visible as one leaves the chamber, comprising zigzags on the

bottom left side of the stone, facing the chamber (O’Kelly 1982).

Knowth

The journey out of the western passage is marked with

several architectural and artistic elements. Orthostats

38, 40 and 48 are located near the sill delineating the

chamber from the passage, and all are decorated,

emphasizing their importance as marking a change in

the type of space through which the subject is moving.

The bend in the passage appears to be especially

important as it is emphasized with several highly

decorated orthostats (49, 50, 51, 34 and 33). Simpler

motifs occur on orthostats further toward the exit from

the chamber (e.g., Or 16). The chamber is delineated by a sill (Shee-Twohig, 1981).

When exiting the eastern chamber, certain orthostats are visible at the junction to the

passage. These are Or 36, 37, 56 and 57 and the jamb (Fig. 23) at the right recess

55

Figure 24: Loughcrew F L1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

entrance (Shee-Twohig, 1981). These all bear simple motifs, and emphasize the

passage/chamber junction. This tomb has a sill demarcating the left recess.

Barclodiad y Gawres

C1, C18 and L8 bear artistic motifs visible while moving from the chamber to the

passage (Shee-Twohig, 1981). They are all located at the chamber/passage junction,

emphasizing the transition from chamber to passage.

Knockmany

When exiting the chamber toward the passage at Knockmany, C3 and C10 stand out

visually. C3 is located on the left chamber wall, facing inward toward the chamber.

C10 is located on the right chamber wall facing inward toward the back of the

chamber. C11 is located on the right chamber wall, adjacent to the passage and facing

inward toward the rear wall of the chamber.

These appear to emphasize the difference between the passage and the chamber.

Fourknocks:

C1 is a well-known stone of this era because it is supposed to be an anthropomorphic

figure (a human face). This would be the only example of such a motif yet found in

Neolithic Britain or Ireland. This stone is adjacent to the passage/chamber junction

and is highly visible when exiting the chamber, seeming to guard the passage. Stones

B, D and C are highly visible, emphasizing the exit from the chamber. A lintel

demarcates the main chamber from the passage.

Loughcrew

F

R2 in the passage is highly visible on the way out.

L4 faces inward and has a strip of short vertical

parallel lines going across the center of the stone.

L1 (Fig. 24) has horizontal parallel lines and is

adjacent to the tomb entrance. These motifs are

56

Figure 25: Loughcrew I C17 and C1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Figure 26: Loughcrew L R1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

visible and simple, oriented toward the exit. Sills were possibly originally in place at

the southern and western recesses.

H

Two orthostats stand out visually when exiting Cairn H. These are L2, facing in

toward the chamber and bearing two large arcs with smaller dots inside, and R2, with

a more complex composition of a large circles. These stones are located close to the

tomb entrance. A sill separates the right recess from the central chamber.

I

When leaving Monument I, C1 is

visible on the left wall of the left

chamber, adjacent to the

chamber/passage junction. C17 is

located on the right wall of the

right chamber, adjacent to the

chamber/passage junction (Fig.

25). Both appear to orient the

subject toward the passage/exit.

L

While exiting the chamber, C1 is

highly visible, comprised of three

large concentric motifs oriented

toward the passage. In the passage

itself, several orthostats are visually

obvious on the way out of the tomb,

especially L4, with two large circular

motifs; L3 near the chamber/entrance

junction with a complex though

scattered composition of several concentrics and a flower-shaped radial; and R1

(Figure 26) adjacent to the tomb entrance with a large concentric circle motif. All are

57

Figure 27: Loughcrew T Passage edge-set stones (Shee-Twohig 1981)

oriented toward the exit. A sill demarcates the second recess from the central

chamber.

T

Starting from the back chamber and moving outward, C9 is visible on the right wall of

the back chamber. This stone faces in toward the rear wall, and bears several large

concentric designs with radials. These motifs are concentrated on the upper portion of

the stone. As one moves

toward the passage C15

becomes obvious. C15 is

adjacent to the

chamber/passage junction.

The edge is highly visible

and has small, incised

concentrics. All of these

stones are found at liminal

zones. Each recess and the

central chamber are

demarcated by sills.

In the passage, L5, and R5, adjacent to the chamber/passage junction, are both highly

visible. Both bear designs covering most of the stone face including lots of small

incised concentrics mixed in and joining with pecked concentrics. R4, L4 and L3 (R3

is missing) are edge set, forming a delineation of space about two thirds of the way

between the tomb entrance and the chamber/passage junction (Fig. 27). All of these

stones bear varied, faint motifs scattered along the edge-face. R2 is highly visible

while moving out through the passage, and bears several concentric motics

concentrated on the center of the stone-face, moving toward the top.

58

Figure 29: Loughcrew U R3 (Shee-twohig 1981)

Figure 28: Loughcrew U egress motifs (Shee-Twohig 1981)

U

The most visible elements upon

leaving Cairn U are C10 and C11,

adjacent to the passage/chamber

junction (Fig. 28). C10 and C11

comprise small, simple motifs and

are oriented toward the passage.

In the passage, R3 (Fig. 29) and R2 are highly visible

when looking out toward the tomb entrance. These both

bear small, isolated concentric circles and arcs.

Summary and Discussion

Table 4: Elements of the passage/egress

Simple, highly visible motifs at

liminal areas

Architectural elements at

liminal areas and passage

Passage Blocked

Newgrange X X Knowth E X X Knowth W X X Barclodiad y Gawres

Knockmany X Fourknocks X LC-F X X LC-H X LC-I X LC-L X X LC-T X X LC-U X

All of the tombs under consideration bear motifs emphasizing movement toward the

passage and exit. Exiting the tomb is of considerable importance. Simple, highly

visible motifs appear to be associated with the passage and movement to the outside

59

world. These are associated with liminal zones such as the passage/chamber junction,

the passage, and in some cases, are visible when exiting recesses and moving toward

the chamber (C10’s triple spiral at Newgrange).

Architectural elements such as end-set stones in the passage at Loughcrew T, sill

stones, lintels, and passage blocking further emphasize the difference between spaces.

Discussion:

Each of the four locales experienced during ASC have been shown to correspond to

the locales within a chambered tomb. These are the entrance or forecourt (world of

the living), the passage (vortex), the inner chambers (world of the dead). Leaving the

tomb will be addressed in the following chapter due to the proof’s reliance on art

motifs.

Artwork and composition

Motifs emphasize architectural elements

Lewis-Williams and Pearce (2005, 271) and Dronfield (1996a, 52) argue that the

neurologically generated vortex as an access route between the realms, the

architectural passage, and the spiral motif are closely related. “The very nature of

...entoptic spirals and vortex experiences suggests ‘passage.’ It seems highly likely

that Neolithic spirals similarly had movement between realms as part of their

meaning” (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 271). Dronfield suggests that spirals

(and concentric images) and passages were intended to be representations and

reconstructions of neurologically-generated vortex experiences (Dronfield 1996, 52).

The spiral may be perceived as the actual passageway (vortex) between the tiers.

Dronfield suggests that since the tunnel and spiral are both functions of the V5 motion

analysis, they are neurologically closely related (Dronfield 1996, 52). The spiral motif

in art and myth also attests to this association. Clinically and cross-culturally, the

spiral and similar concentric designs are graphic representations of the tunnel

experience. For example, the motifs are seen in Tukano artwork, specifically a

basketry pot-stand which the Tukano claim represents the spiraling whirlpool leading

60

to another dimension (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 33). Dronfield (1996a) attempts to

prove the association of the spiral (and other concentric motifs) with the tunnel in

Neolithic passage graves. To this end, he examined the spatial distributions of motif

types in three major tomb groups (Newgrange, Knowth and Loughcrew) His findings

indicated "significant relationships between the placing of spiral and other dense

concentric motifs and the location of the passage" (Dronfield 1996a, 41). Dronfield

(1996a, 51) also found an association between lattices and chambers, or realms of the

dead, at Knowth and Newgrange. His findings prove that certain motifs are associated

with specific architectural elements of the tombs, emphasizing a relationship to the

tiered cosmos generated by ASC.

Navigating the tomb: Signposts for the Dead, Signposts for the Living

Perhaps Dronfield’s argument (1996a) may be taken further. The artistic motifs may

have their origins in ASC, but rather than being merely symbolic, they function as

maps or guides through a living tiered cosmos which is replicated by the architecture

of the passage grave. Their association with entoptic imagery may imbue them with

sacred power, legible only to those privy to such sacred information.

This argument may be supported by Hodgson’s (2000) position that geometric mark-

making arises from the neurophysiological mechanism responsible for navigation of

the environment. These motifs may represent or function as navigational aids through

the tomb.

It is widely reported that while in deep ASC, subjects interact with spirits or

ancestors, emphasizing the perception that alternate reality is the realm of the dead

(Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 13). Many believe that the subject actually dies upon

entering trance or non-ordinary states. S/he enters the world of the beyond “only to be

reborn there and to return to his ordinary existence on this earth when the trance is

over” (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 13). The Tukano actually refer to the vessel

containing the hallucinogen (yaje) as the “place of death” (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978,

13).

61

This may be perceived as hazardous. In shamanic contexts, it is possible for the

subject to get caught in the land of the dead (Eliade 1954, 36), or for a spirit to follow

her/him back to the land of the living (Harner 1980, Ch. 1). Naturally, this must be

avoided.

In the Neolithic passage grave context, upon completion of whatever activities take

place within the chamber, the celebrant departs through the passage. Since the passage

is open access going both ways, there must be another element added to prevent

egress for the deceased through the passage. This may be in the form of artistic motifs

acting as shields or traps. Concurrently, some motifs also serve to guide the celebrant

back out through the passage. The motifs serve to accentuate various architectural

elements in order to orchestrate these movements. These motifs are simple and direct,

while those directing the movements of the deceased are complex.

The four locales experienced during ASC have been shown to correspond to the

locales within a chambered tomb. These are the entrance or forecourt, the passage

(vortex), the inner chambers relating to the world of the ancestors, and the passage

back to the outside world. Different composition types may serve different purposes

within the architecture, mainly to orchestrate the movements of the celebrants as well

as the deceased who, it is hoped, will remain confined to the tomb, or least unable to

exit the same way they were brought in.

Evidence that the movement of humans is being orchestrated may include simple,

visible compositions associated with the passage and egress. Evidence that the

movements of the deceased were being orchestrated includes hidden compositions in

areas inaccessible to humans, and complex compositions in areas in which the

deceased were meant to remain. The location of the complex compositions or “traps”

suggests that the deceased were meant to remain in the tomb or land of the dead,

rather than travel outside of it, perhaps even to another realm. The complex

compositions may act as traps, attracting the deceased and compelling them toward

the composition, preventing passage.

62

Complex motifs as traps

According to Gell (1998, 81), complex patterns are engaging to the human brain.

When presented with a complex pattern, the observer feels compelled to analyze its

composition until it can be grasped mathematically or geometrically. We attempt to

understand the process of its construction. Although Gell’s argument suffers

somewhat from lack of neurological evidence, perhaps Hodgson’s (2000) argument

can be applied. He indicates that this compulsion may be a process of the magno

system in the visual cortex in which lines are analyzed in order to distinguish objects

in the environment (Hodgson 2000, 869). Due to the release of dopamines, humans

experience the compulsion “as a pleasurable frustration; we are drawn into the pattern

and held inside it, impaled, as it were, on its brisling hooks and spines. This pattern is

a mind-trap” (Gell 1998, 80). The cognitive obsession is accompanied by an

attribution of supernatural origin. Even if the subject watches the pattern being

created, because s/he cannot retrace the process by which the design was constructed,

the artist’s seemingly effortless movements are presumed to be guided by a spiritual

entity (Gell 1998, 86). These objects (e.g. mandalas) are thus imbued with the sacred.

In many cases, the designs are used to ensnare or ward off demons, keeping them in

their own world and preventing access to ours. These are apotropaic patterns, used as

protective devices, defensive screens or obstacles impeding passage, and depend on

the pattern’s adhesiveness to demons or other spirits. The spirits become so fascinated

that they lose interest “in whatever malevolent plan it had entertained previously”

(Gell 1998, 84). The demon, like a human, becomes entranced by the pattern,

attempting to interpret the process by which it was created. The demon would then

remain caught in the pattern, unable to exit its world into the world of the living (Gell

1998, 86). Examples include Celtic knotwork, South Indian kolam, Egyptian talisman,

the Minoan labyrinth, and many others too numerous to list (Layard 1937, 116; Gell

1998, 86).

If in the passage graves, the deceased are meant to stay within the tomb, particularly

the chamber, apotropaic patterns may be in use. One would expect to find the most

complicated motifs in locations directing the deceased away from the passage and

exit. For example, very complex motifs often appear on the underside of roofslabs in

63

the recesses of the main chamber. Dronfield suggested that these slabs guided the

movement of the dead up through the motifs, the spirals acting as vortices to the

afterworld (Dronfield 1996a, 54). I suggest that these may have served as an

apotropaic pattern meant to entrance the decedent, persuading her/him to remain in

the recess. Additionally, complicated patterns might be expected to be found on

passages-stones facing back into the chamber, serving to ensnare the deceased before

they have a chance to pass through the passage to the outside world. They might also

be found on stone-faces that are not visible to the living (e.g., the upperside of

roofslabs facing into the roof structure, or the backs of kerbstones facing the cairn and

the inside of the tomb). These would only have been visible to spirits wandering

inside the monument.

Simple motifs as guides

Simple motifs would appear where the living are meant to go (leading in and out of

passage). These would be simple, obvious, and highly visible motifs. Upon

completion of whatever activities took place within the chamber, the celebrant would

have departed through the passage. It is a matter of interest to the celebrant and to the

community not to have the deceased follow the celebrant back out of the tomb into

the outside world. If certain motifs were intended to guide the celebrant through the

tomb, then these motifs would have to have been inherently different than those meant

to direct the movement of the deceased. These motifs would have to have been of

little interest to the deceased so instructions meant for living would not be scrutinized

by the eyes of the dead.

Evidence that the movements of humans were orchestrated may include visible motifs

associated with the passage and egress. Stone C17 of Loughcrew I is a great example

of this (Fig. 25). The stone bears a large, highly visible and fairly simple,

straightforward motif. The motif occurs directly to the left of the passage, almost

seeming to point the way out. Another example is Stone C5 at Loughcrew H (Fig. 30).

This stone bears eight scattered concentric circle motifs, very visible and

straightforward. The composition occurs on the far wall of the left recess and appears

to beckon one from the passage into the recess, directing the movements of the

celebrant into the chamber.

64

Figure 30: Loughcrew H C5 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

We will show that in the observed passage graves,

motifs leading into the tomb, down the passage, into

the chamber and, most importantly, back out through

the passage were simple motifs that would have been

obvious to the celebrant, and would not have had an

entrancing effect on the deceased.

Data and findings

We will look at eight passage graves observed during May, 2007, at which sufficient

access and time afforded a thorough examination. These are: Barclodiad y Gawres,

Fourknocks, Knockmany, and Loughcrew H, I, L, T and U. Several factors will be

under consideration: visibility of the composition, its complexity, its location, and

where it faces in the tomb (what architectural element is being emphasized). The first

discussion will focus on the association between complexity and location, and the

second discussion will focus on complexity, visibility and location.

The complexity of the composition adorning each stone was calculated by adding the

total number of motifs to the number of different motifs. This was multiplied by a

number representing the percentage of stone face covered:

1-24% coverage = 1

25-50% = 2

50-75% = 3

Greater than 75%= 4

65

Figure 31: Areas A and B Figure 32: Area C Figure 33: Area D

This total will be known as the complexity index (CI). The tomb has been divided into

visibility areas. Motifs will be classified according to what parts of the tomb they are

visible from:

A: visible at entrance (including kerbstones) (Fig. 31, lavender)

B: visible from passage, going into chamber (Fig. 31, green)

C: visible in chamber, recesses, backs of kerbs, corbels, lintels, etc. (Fig. 32, red)

D. visible from chamber and passage while exiting (Fig. 33, yellow)

It is expected that simpler motifs will be classified as B, while the more complex

motifs will be classified as C, and D area stones will bear both simple, highly visible

designs guiding the celebrant out of the tomb, and complex compositions on passage-

stones facing back into the chamber in order to keep the deceased inside the tomb

structure. D will therefore have an average CI as it will comprise both highly complex

and very simple compositions. Differences between these two types of compositions

will be addressed by comparing their visibility.

The CIs were not compared between tombs, but within them. Stones with the highest

CIs in a certain tomb may be lower than those in another tomb, but would still be

characterized as highly complex by comparison with its compatriots. The

compositions in the highest third of all CI averages within a tomb were said to be

66

highly complex, while those in the lower third were said to be simple. This assists in

illustrating locations of more and less complex stones within tombs. All numbers

were entered without alteration when calculating averages between the tombs.

A note must be added regarding the determination of numbers and variety of motifs

on each stone. This is an extremely subjective endeavor. No two observers will arrive

at the same numbers. Shee-Twohig’s (1981) illustrations as well as personal

observations at the tombs were the source of the numbers appearing in this paper.

These differ from those arrived at by Dronfield (1995, 1996a, 1996b). Attempts were

made to identify and rectify the discrepancies, with no satisfying result. Numbers

arrived at by this author are offered here with the understanding that they are not, nor

could they ever be, truly representative of the original designs, but that they come as

close as possible.

Table 5: Complexity indices by area for each tomb

A B C D Loughcrew H 24.00 11.33 7.00 47.00Loughcrew I 0.00 44.00 46.14 46.50Loughcrew L 33.00 17.88 38.54 35.25Loughcrew U 0.00 2.00 42.36 30.75Loughcrew T 109.50 41.75 42.25 53.00Fourknocks 0.00 42.22 48.88 50.00Barclodiad y Gawres 0.00 24.00 39.00 39.33Knockmany 0.00 31.50 46.70 92.50Total 55.50 26.84 38.86 30.33

Complexity Indices by Area

55.50

26.84

38.86

30.33

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

a b c combined d

Visibility Areas

Co

mp

lexi

ty In

dic

es

Figure 34: Compexity Indices by Area

67

Barclodiad y Gawres (Shee-Twohig 1981) Four Knocks (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Knockmany (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Loughcrew I (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Loughcrew L (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Loughcrew T (Shee-Twohig 1981) Loughcrew U (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Loughcrew H (Shee-Twohig 1981)

High CI

Medium

Low CI Figure 35: CI Proportions by tomb

68

Figure 36: Stones with low ci

A. Barclodiad y Gawres, B Fourknocks, C. Knockmany, D. Loughcrew H, E. Loughcrwe I, F. Loughcrew L, G. Loughcrew T, H., Loughcrew U.

AB

C

D

EF

GH

69

Figure 37: Plans with mid ci

B

C

D

EF

GH

A

A. Barclodiad y Gawres, B Fourknocks, C. Knockmany, D. Loughcrew H, E. Loughcrwe I, F. Loughcrew L, G. Loughcrew T, H., Loughcrew U.

70

Figure 38: Stones with high ci

B

C

D

EF

GH

A

A. Barclodiad y Gawres, B Fourknocks, C. Knockmany, D. Loughcrew H, E. Loughcrwe I, F. Loughcrew L, G. Loughcrew T, H., Loughcrew U.

71

Figure 39: Loughcrew T L1 and L2 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Area A: Visible at entrance

This area bears a high average CI of

55.5. There are very few stones that

are visible at the entrance: two

passage stones at Loughcrew T (Fig.

40), one at Loughcrew L, and a

kerbstone at Loughcrew I. The high

CI may indicate that these stones were

not meant to be passed by the

uninitiated. A highly complicated

pattern may function as an apotropaic motif designed to ensnare the average observer,

preventing passage.

Recall the carved kerbstones at Knowth and Newgrange, especially the formidable

entrance stones decorated with large, complex designs. These are effective barriers to

the tomb, traversable only by the celebrant and by the deceased. It is relatively safe

for the celebrant to enter the tomb, as s/he would have been instructed in its

navigation as well as in proper methods for interacting with the dead and spirits, while

it may have been somewhat more risky for an uneducated citizen. The entrance serves

as a barrier. The stones at Loughcrew may serve the same purpose though not in so

physical a manner (they do not have to be clambered over).

Area B: Visible from passage, going into chamber

The CI for this area is 26.04. This indicates a relatively low complexity in art

compositions in the passage and on chamber stones visible from the passage. C6 at

Loughcrew T, for example, is a highly visible composition that is nevertheless simple,

having a low CI. This composition may have served to guide the celebrant from the

passage into the chamber to interact with the deceased. C2 in Loughcrew U is another

example. This is a simple motif with a CI of 2, and is highly visible from the passage.

With three exceptions (Barclodiad y Gawres C13, Loughcrew T C4, and Loughcrew

L C18 (no longer there)), all 38 stones with the lowest CIs are intervisible with or in

the passage (Fig. 36). 34 stones are visible while entering through the passage. Of

these, only seven are highly complex, with a CI of 80 or higher. A complicating factor

72

to these calculations, I believe, is Fourknocks which has three highly visible and

complex lintels over the recesses off the main chamber, raising the CI average. These

are obvious from the passage and, in fact, are the first thing one notices when entering

the chamber. These are clearly placed on liminal zones, delineating the border

between the central chamber and the recesses, a symbolic place of the dead. In its

layout Fourknocks is not so very different from the other passage tombs under

consideration. The liminal zones are emphasized by architectural and artistic motifs.

The difference lies in both the complexity of these designs as well as in the tomb’s

usage. Hartnett (1957, 251) believes that all of the depositions at Fourknocks

represent a single event. The deposit was then paved over with flat stones and each

chamber was sealed. There is no suggestion that any of the other tombs contain

possible single-event depositions, though this has not been discussed.

There would have been no need to place simple, highly visible motifs at strategic

points in the tomb, as there would have been no need for guidance. If Hartnett was

correct, no-one would have been navigating the tomb besides the deceased.

With the majority of compositions visible from the passage while moving toward the

chamber having low CIs, these may be interpreted as guideposts. The relative lack of

high CI compositions (excluding those at Fourknocks) indicates a lack of necessity to

prohibit or prevent passage into the chamber once the subject has traversed the

entrance stone and entered the tomb.

Area C: Visible in chamber, recesses, backs of kerbs, inside corbels, lintels, etc.

The average CI for this area is 38.86. One can observe from the plans of the tombs

under consideration that with few exceptions, the most highly complex compositions

occur within the chamber and recesses and in areas invisible to the living people in

the tomb (structural stones such as corbels are not shown on these plans). The only

exceptions are five stones located in the passages (the complex stones discussed

above that are visible at the entrance, and L5 at Loughcrew T, R2 at Loughcrew I and

R2 at Loughcrew H which will be discussed below). Structural stones in the tombs

under consideration have an average CI of 32.75, close to the overall CI of area C.

These range, however, from 3 to 188. Consequently, it is difficult to say with certainty

whether these display a trend of higher CIs. Their placement alone, in areas not

73

visible to living subjects, might be argued to be evidence of communication with the

dead. It is easier to argue that highly complex compositions within the ground

architecture display a tendency to cluster within the chambers, especially the recesses

of the tomb (Fig. 38).

L5 at Loughcrew T, R2 at Loughcrew I and R2 at Loughcrew H exist in the passages.

R2 at Loughcrew I and L5 at Loughcrew T face back toward the chamber and may be

a preventative measure against the deceased exiting through the passage. Several

stones with medium CIs exist in the passage in stones that face the back of the

chamber. These include R4, R3 and L3 at Loughcrew L, L2 at Loughcrew H, L8 at

Barclodiad y Gawres, L4 and R5 at Loughcrew T. These may serve a similar purpose

as those with higher CIs, as apotropaic patterns. R2 at Loughcrew H doesn’t seem to

fit this pattern, as it doesn’t face inwards toward the back of the chamber.

These may have been placed there to keep the dead in what was thought to be their

proper place. In addition to the magnificent examples at Loughcrew, the roofslabs at

Newgrange illustrate this function. Dronfield (1996a, 54) suggests that the spirals on

the roofslabs at Newgrange functioned as passages through which selected individuals

could travel to the next dimension. It seems as if the otherworld could be accessed

only through the tomb, then, as the location of complex motifs such as those found on

the roofslabs are placed strategically around the tomb to prevent the deceased from

exiting through the door. Whether the tomb was thought to BE the land of the dead or

function as a passage is not certain. What appears to be certain is that the deceased

were expected to remain within the monument for a specified amount of time.

Table 6: CI of hidden compositions Tomb Stone CI LCT Roofstone Cell 2 188 LCI Loose stone, probably roofstone (upper surface) 36 LCT Co1/C2 33 LCT Lintel cell 2 30 LCI Loose stone, probably roofstone (lower surface) 28 LCT Co2/C2 26 LCI Loose stone, probably roofstones (edge) 20 LCT Lintel cell 1 11 LCT Co2/C4 8 LCT Roofstone Cell 3 6 LCT lintel cell 3 4 LCL Co4/c2-4 3 Average CI 32.75

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Area D: Visible from chamber and passage while exiting

The average CI for compositions visible from the chamber and passage while exiting

(in other words, those motifs facing back toward the chamber) is 30.33, indicating a

lower overall complexity in compositions than in some other areas of the tomb. This

average is not sufficient to illustrate the function of stones in this visibility area,

however, as it includes both highly complex and very simple compositions. Highly

complex compositions may function as a last-ditch attempt to prevent egress of the

deceased through the passage, while highly simple motifs may function as guides for

the celebrant exiting the tomb. Both are expected to be found in this area.

If simple motifs were to function as guides for the living, it would have to be visible

as the subject moves through the tomb. Motifs intended for the dead would not

necessarily be visible to the living. Simple motifs located at liminal zones would

therefore be more highly visible than any other motifs if they are intended as guides

throughout the monument. Motifs occurring at these locations will be compared to

visibility ratings of other motifs taken at the tombs. Visibility ratings are given to each

composition based on observation at the tombs. These were assigned based on

visibility from certain vantage points, in this case, as one is exiting the tomb. These

are:

1= faintly visible

2=medium visible

3=highly conspicuous

These ratings were given to every composition in every tomb. Figure 37 below

illustrates the comparison between the visibility of simple motifs encountered while

exiting the tomb, to the visibility of all other motifs within the tomb. In all but two

cases, the simple motifs exhibit higher visibility. Fourknocks and Knockmany are the

exceptions. Fourknocks again, may exhibit different tendencies than the other tombs

because of the possibility that it was only used once and then closed, making the

erection of guidestones unnecessary. Knockmany is a uniquely shaped tomb among

the tombs under consideration. Use is ambiguous due to the highly disturbed nature

and looting of the artifacts. Reasons for the differences, therefore, in the use of

complex and simple compositions within the tomb are elusive. It would appear,

75

Motif Visibility

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

LCH LCI LCL LCT LCU FK BYG KM

Simple/Liminal v. Other Motif Visibility

Vis

ibil

ity

Rat

ing

Figure 40: Motif Visibility of Compositions

however, that simple motifs in liminal zones visible while exiting the chamber exhibit

a higher visibility than do other compositions within the tomb. This may indicate that

the compositions were meant to be viewed and interpreted by the living individuals

navigating the tomb.

Conclusion

It was found that stones visible at the entrance had the highest CI, while those leading

into the chamber through the passage had the lowest. C has the highest CI of the tomb

interior and, as expected, area D exhibits an average CI, combining simple and

complex compositions present in that visibility area.

This may be interpreted as follows. The compositions at the entrance and kerb serve

to keep the uninitiated from entering the tomb. If Gell (1998) is to be believed, these

motifs function as neurological “traps,” causing an observer to become entranced due

to cognitive functions resulting from selective adaptive traits as outlined by Hodgson

(2000). Compositions visible while moving through the passage to the chamber have

the lowest CI, indicating that they do not function as apotropaic patterns, and may

instead serve to guide the subject into the chamber. The prevalence of complex motifs

in the chamber and especially the recesses may indicate an attempt to contain the

deceased within the central part of the tomb. Finally, low CIs combined with high

visibility of motifs encountered while exiting the chamber may function as

navigational tools for the celebrant, while high CIs combined with a lower visibility

may serve as final attempts to trap the deceased, preventing her/his egress through the

front door.

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Discussion

The four locales of a chambered tomb have been shown to correspond to the four

locales experienced during ASC. These include the entrance, the passage, the inner

chambers or world of the dead, and the passage back to the outside world.

Architectural elements emphasize the differences in these areas further suggesting that

the tomb is a reflection of ASC.

Dronfield (1996a) argued that certain endogenous diagnostic motifs were associated

with certain areas of the tomb, further emphasizing their association with ASC. I have

attempted to show above that motifs also function to orchestrate both the movements

of the celebrants and the movements of the deceased, containing them within the tomb

or the land of the dead or at least preventing them from leaving the way they came in.

The placement of these motifs reiterates the notion that the tomb incorporates or

reifies the tiered cosmos arising from ASC. The entrance, the vortex, the land of the

dead and the exit are emphasized and delineated by the deliberate placement of

simpler and more complex compositions of motifs in association with specific,

corresponding architectural areas of the tomb. These may have been perceived as real

zones by those who constructed the tomb and placed the artwork. The artwork itself

has been shown to be associated with ASC (Dronfield 1995, 1996a, 1996b). This

would imbue the motifs with a sacredness. It may have been believed that they

originated in another world and were infused with spiritual powers.

If the architecture has been seen up to now as a representation of the tiered cosmos,

then the artwork transforms it into a living, working manifestation of that cosmos.

These tombs were not mere receptacles for bones to be placed inside and forgotten.

Motifs were deliberately placed inside the tombs, perhaps intended to engage in

communication long after the chambers were sealed and the entrance blocked. Placed

on the permanent material of stone, the artwork maintains transitional spaces and

guards borders, simultaneously opening up vortices and access routes. The artwork

facilitates movement, gives breath and voice to the stones. These stones are not

ancient text. They are eternal dialogue between past and present, living and dead.

77

Conclusion and Discussion

Brain processes during altered states of consciousness result in heightened emotions,

blurred boundaries between self and other, misattribution of sensorial stimuli, and the

experience of a journey through different “realms” often accessed by a vortex. These

same neurological processes are responsible for heightened memory formation and

belief in the reality of perceived stimuli. Together these brain processes may have

manifested in the cross-cultural belief in a tiered cosmos, thought to be the origin of

shamanism and many other religions. Elements within the tiered cosmos bear a

striking resemblance to the elements within Neolithic passage graves in Ireland and

Wales.

Through the investigation of Newgrange, Knowth, Knockmany, Loughcrew F, H, I,

L, T, U, and Fourknocks in Ireland, and Barclodiad y Gawres in Wales, an association

with the tiered cosmos has been shown. A number of characteristics are shared

between the two. First, an association with ASC was shown to exist via the presence

of entoptic motifs in the tombs, and the possible presence of audial and optic

inductive elements. Evidence that the tomb is itself functioning as a tiered cosmos has

been shown by a favourable comparison between the locales experienced during ASC

and those experienced in the tombs.

Applying Gell’s (1998) apotropaic model to Knockmany, Fourknocks, Loughcrew H,

I, L, S, T, and U in Ireland has been demonstrated that many of the artistic

compositions functioned to orchestrate both the movements of the celebrants and the

movements of the deceased, containing them within the tomb or the land of the dead

or at least preventing them from leaving the way they came in.

Ramifications on Social Behaviour

The same neurological processes that are responsible for ASC and the tiered cosmos

also facilitate the very social behaviours that have enabled our species’ survival in the

face of economic and environmental change: social cohesion.

In Homo sapiens and other mammals ritual behaviour is one way of overcoming

social distance between individuals, to coordinate group action, socialize young, and

78

communicate status and social structure (Marshall 2002, 360). Our neural pathways

have evolved in such a way as to facilitate this behaviour efficiently. For example, the

human compulsion to gather together during times of stress has obvious survival

benefits (e.g. a large group is better able to ward off large predators). During such

gatherings, the human brain activates neural processes rewarding this behaviour (e.g.

dopamine and other analgesic hormones are released providing a respite from

anxiety), causing a continued desire to engage in this activity. Freedom from fear is a

powerful motivation. The pleasure and necessity of co-presence is enhanced by

activities causing varying degrees of AUB and religious awe such as rhythmic

drumming, etc. This behaviour predisposes humans toward ritual practice.

It is not by neurology alone that Homo sapiens engage in spirituality and communal

behaviours. A ritual must involve culturally significant experience in order to generate

the emotional atmosphere necessary for transcendence, unity with one's conspecifics

and the formation of spiritually potent memory. Newberg et al (2001, 89) have found

that rhythmic ritual behaviours relying on culturally meaningful events activate the

autonomic system to a higher degree than chemical stimulation (Newberg et. al. 2001,

89). It is during ritual that local myth and legend are maintained. Mithen (1996)

argues that the resolution of paradoxes (that humans can fly, trees can talk, etc.) is

essential to symbolic thought. It is during "spillover" (deafferentation) experiences

that paradoxes presented through myth become resolved by the simultaneous

functioning of both hemispheres of the brain. In ritual stimulation of the arousal

system, for example, the presentation of what is an unresolvable logical problem in

the left brain (the shaman brings messages from the community's ancestors) is

experienced as unified in the holistic operation of the right brain. The myths become

experienced fact.

In this state, cultural symbols such as the designs on the entrance stone at Newgrange

are totems imbued with sacred significance. The effervescence (heightened emotions)

experienced by the community is “misattributed” to the totem (in this case the stones)

as a causal factor (Marshall 2002, 366). This is remembered in ritual context by a

community whose neurological processes are functioning in an altered state, and are

predisposed to the increased formation of memories imbued with religious and

emotional significance (Newberg et. al. 2001, 96). Social integration and a sense of

79

unity are amoung the most noted outcomes and functions of ritual, according to

Durkheim (1912, in Marshall 2002, 363).

Ritual requires attentional focus, according to Marshall (2002, 365). The use of

rhythm (optic, audial, dance, etc.) and spectacle are common tools. These produce

unified movement via behavioural entrainment, creating rapport and a sense of

belonging. Those who control this attention are in a position of great power, able to

influence the beliefs and behaviours of their community through a generalized

neurological manipulation. This is heightened at the tombs "because death is, as

Berger puts it, 'the marginal situation par excellence,' it makes sense that it is closely

associated with the most radical techniques of attentional control’” (Berger 1969, 23

in Marshall 2002, 365). The community may experience fear at the death of one of its

members. This causes a desire for congregation. The funeral rite then provides a

release from fear and provides effervescent states attributed to the sacred power of the

totem and the celebrant’s ability to harness that power.

The experience of ASC upon individuals in a group may facilitate the affectation of

desired social conditions upon that group. In other words, the consciousness of an

individual may be altered in such a way that the conditions suggested during the ritual

experience become integral to the individual's perception of self within society. These

conditions become so associated with the community and (perhaps) the spiritual, that

they seem unquestionable by/to the individual. To question such conditions may

appear to be anti-social. In this way, certain social conditions may be carried out

without public challenge, although the individual may privately maintain adversity.

It's not necessary for everyone to believe it, just to have it as a necessary condition of

action (Shennan 1982, 156). An analysis of theta:gamma activity during emotionally

charged experience suggests a neurological process behind the social one for keeping

such subversiveness hidden.

This is not to suggest that individuals did not have their own thoughts, knowledge,

and understanding of any situation they experience. Nor is it argued that ideology is a

“purely gratuitous invention of consciousness intentionally manipulating reality, nor

is the result of a conspiracy on the part of those whose interests it serves” (Shanks and

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Tilley, 1987, 181). This argument merely suggests the possible neurological

underpinnings of how social behaviours become translated into ritual behaviours.

Neolithic practices reflect Upper Palaeolithic ceremonial practice in many ways.

During the Upper Palaeolithic, people used caves with labyrinthine passages, small

chambers and large open rooms for ceremonial purposes. According to Lewis

Williams and Pearce these caves and subterranean passageways represented the

neurologically-generated cosmos. They believe it is no coincidence that passage

graves resemble caves. “The ‘cave’ in the tomb is replicated by the cave in the mind”

(Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 218). The authors contend that by constructing

their own “cave,” Neolithic people “gained greater control over the cosmos and were

able to 'adjust' beliefs about it to suit social and personal needs" (Lewis-Williams and

Pearce 2005, 85).

Neolithic people did not – could not – challenge the tiered nature of their universe: it was wired into their brains. Nor could they ignore notions of passing through a vortex and flight: those experiences, too, were 'hard-wired.' So the new, 'above-ground' arrangements for representing and for accessing the tiers of the cosmos, arrangements that sometimes necessitated major construction, became an acceptable way of accommodating a burgeoning new social and religious dispensation without jettisoning the fundamental structure of the cosmos. (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 85-86)

Though this may have been controlled by a few knowledgeable persons, ceremony

and symbol would have changed along with the needs of the community. The careful

construction of the tombs, placement of artistic motifs and architectural elements and

use of inductive elements may have been perceived as maintaining the land of the

dead as a separate but contemporary realm within the Neolithic landscape. This may

have had crucial importance, providing comfort, a basis for social cohesion and

perhaps a political structure to Irish and British Neolithic communities during a period

of economic change.

81

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Appendix

Motif Counts

Barclodiad y Gawres

BYG C16 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right chamber at entrance to passage Meander 2 sets of 2 vertical Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 1 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Set of 4 nested Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square 2 concentric lozenges

BYG C13 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of western chamber Meander Set of 3 nested Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 1 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Set of 3 nested Square

BYG C3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of eastern chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral 1 (?) Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 2 2nd and 4th from left Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 3 Circle

BYG3 continued Shape Number Location Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle 1, 1 nested (form dependent) Square

BYG C1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous East wall of chamber, adjacent to

passage entrance Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 3 Spiral (multiple) 1 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 1 concentric connected to multiple

spiral, 2 concentric with angled tops, 1 connected to arc loop, with angled top, 1 form dependent

Lattice Lozenge 1 concentric Parallel line 1 set of 2 horizontal Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

BYG L8 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage Meander Fortification 1 Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square 3

Fourknocks FK R2 (incised shapes) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Passage right

Almost invisible motifs Invisible from chamber or passage

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 vertical set of 6-7 Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square 1, missing 1 edge, cross inside,

possible lattice

FK R5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Passage right adjacent to chamber

Faintly visible on way out Faintly visible in passage

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice 1 (or lozenges) Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag 1 Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle 1 incised concentric south face of stone, facing chamber Square

FK A Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Central chamber

Visible from central chamber and on the way out toward passage. May not be in original position. Highly visible motifs. The edge is covered with markings that are very similar to other lintel stones and may have been a lintel stone at one time.

Meander 1 inside circle Fortification Zigzag and lozenge motif possibly a

fortification

Arc-spiral Filigree

FKA continued Shape Number Location Arc (loop) 2 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 1 Arc Lattice Lozenge Vertical line of 8 lozenges Parallel line 1 set of 3 horizontal inside circle Zigzag 2 sets of 2,vertical and facing each other Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

FK F Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Lintel stone of western chamber

Highly visible from chamber and passage (on the way in)

Meander Fortification Zigzags possible fortification (?) Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Set of 10 horizontal Parallel line Zigzag 2 sets of 3 horizontal facing each other Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Vertical line of 9 above and 7 below,

form dependent

Square

FK E Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Lintel stone of back chamber

Highly visible from passage and central chamber

Meander Fortification Zigzags possibly fortification (?) Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge 4 sets nested Parallel line Zigzag 2 sets nested (4 above, 2 below)

horizontal

Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle 2 above, 3 below, form dependent

FK C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous From the diagram it looks like this stone

was decorated on the back. I find no record of decorations.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

FK D Possibly weathered/eroded Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Lintel stone, east wall central chamber

Almost invisible Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2-3 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2-3 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 2 on edge edge Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

FK C1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Chamber west, adjacent to passage.

Highly visible from central chamber and passage, especially on the way out.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 8, 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge 1 concentric, 1

FK C1 continued Shape Number Location Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

FK B Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous East passage

Chamber entrance Lintel (?) stone above orthostat at entrance to central chamber. May not be in original position. Different type of motif from all other lintel stones. Very highly visible from chamber and passage especially on the way out to passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 1 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 simple, 6 concentric Arc 1 simple, 2 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle 1 Square FK L4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage close to chamber entrance

Very faintly visible from passage Meander Fortification Zigzags possible fortification (?) Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Set of 5 horizontal Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Set of 3 incised vertical Square

Knockmany KM Stone 12 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage at chamber entrance

Almost invisible Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 2 horizontal lines , 3 sets of 6 vertical

lines, 2 lines at right angle

Zigzag Small circular 2 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

KM C11 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous right side of chamber, entrance

highly visible as one exits chamber into passage. One of the most striking stones in the tomb.

Meander 2 Fortification Arc-spiral 2 Filigree Arc (loop) 2 Spiral (multiple) 4 Small circular (arc) 7+ Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 5 Arc 2+, 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 3 Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

KM C10 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right side of chamber

Not visible from passage. Visible when exiting chamber out into passage. Probably medium visibility, fairly faint.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Edge Arc (loop) 1 Face Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral

KM C10 continued Shape Number Location Circle 1 Face Arc 2 concentric Face Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

KM C9 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous East wall of chamber

Beautifully visible in chamber. Slightly visible from passage/entrance to central chamber.

Meander 3 Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree 2-3 Arc (loop) 3 Spiral (multiple) 2 Small circular (arc) 1 set of 3, 5 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 3 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 8-10 in square Zigzag 1 nested Small circular 11 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle 3 concentric Square 3 concentric

KM C7 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous back wall chamber. Very faint, almost

invisible. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 possible Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Circle with dot Back face Arc 1, 2 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Misc lines Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

KM C6 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Northwestern wall of chamber. Lines

highly visible from passage. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral 3 conjoined Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 4

1 on back 4 on face 1 on back

Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 2 sets of 7 horizon, 2 sets of 2 vert, 1

set of two vert (one above the other)

Zigzag Small circular 7 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

KM C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous West wall of chamber. Nicely visible

from chamber, especially radial/flower motif.

Meander 3 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 11 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1, 1 concentric on back

1 on face, 1 on back

Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 5 vertical Zigzag Small circular Many small dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

KM C4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous West wall of chamber. Almost invisible. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice

KM C4 continued Shape Number Location Lozenge Parallel line 2 sets Zigzag Small circular 1 dot radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

KM C3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Southwestern wall of chamber, adjacent

passage. Visible from passage, fairly faint.

Meander 1 possible Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 6 with dots Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot Arc 1 with dot Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 9 vertical, 1 set of 5 horiz Zigzag Small circular Several dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Loughcrew H LC H R2 Shape Number Circles,Location Diagnostic endogenous Passage right: highly visible, striking

in passage and exiting tomb from chamber to passage.

Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric, 1 with dot, 1 Arc 2 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 5 with a vertical line down the

middle

Zigzag Small circular 5 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC H C18 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Southeastern (right) wall of eastern

chamber: faint. Not visible from central chambers. Visible only when inside right side chamber, as the motif faces into the cell.

Meander 1 or more incised Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 1 dot radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC H Sill Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Eastern chamber entrance: by far the

most striking stone in the tomb. Very visible from central chamber and passage, even though low to the ground.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 3 Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC H C14 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left side (wall?) of eastern chamber:

visible in passage and central chamber. Not striking, but visible.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral

Circle LC C14 continued Shape Number Location Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC H C11 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Eastern wall of back chamber: visible

in central chamber, looking out toward passage. Only seen if crouched down. Fairly faint.

Meander Fortification Possible fortification of (2 sets) arcs

connected by horizontal line

Arc-spiral Filigree 1

Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC H C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left side chamber wall. Very visible

from passage. Nice, strong motifs. Striking, especially the two larger circles.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 6 concentric Arc 1 with dot, 1 simple Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC H L2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Passage left: almost invisible. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle At least 5 tiny, incised Arc 2 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC H K8 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Kerb: Couldn't find this stone. Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 Arc 1 with dot Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 2 sets inside circle Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Loughcrew I

LC I R2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage: visible from passage.

Medium visibility. Not particularly striking.

Meander 4 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 4 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric incised Arc Lattice Lozenge

LC I R2 continued Shape Number Location Parallel line 1 set of 3

vertical

Zigzag Small circular radial 5 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC I C17 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right side of 1st chamber: highly visible

going out toward passage. Striking. Meander Set of 6 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC I C15 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right side of 2nd chamber and left side

of 1st chamber: not very visible. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 4 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC I C13 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous left side of 2nd chamber, right side of 3rd

chamber: edge not visible. Face slightly visible from inside chamber, especially when stooping.

Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 3-10;

2 East face; south face

Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 10, 2 with dots;

One with parallel lines, 1 concentric East face; south face

Arc 1; 1, 1 concentric

East face; South face

Lattice 1 East face Lozenge Parallel line 1 set inside a loop, 1 set South face Zigzag Small circular radial 1;

3 East face; south face

Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC I C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of 6th chamber: highly visible

from passage and central chamber. Meander 6 Fortification Possible fortification of meanders or

small circular arcs

Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 3 sets Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 3 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 2 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC I C4 (after Du Noyer) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of 6th chamber: slightly

visible from central chamber and cross chamber, though overgrown with lichen and weeds.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 1 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral

LCI C4 continued Shape Number Location Circle 6 concentric Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC I C1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of 7th chamber: highly visible

looking out at passage. Probably the most striking motifs in the tomb.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 4 sets concentric, 2;

2 sets concentric Face; edge

Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

I Loose stone (probable roofslab of chamber 5) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Found in 5th passage, probably roofslab Meander 2 sets vertical; 2 Upper surface; lower surface Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1; 6 Upper surface; lower surface Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 2 concentric; 2 concentric; 3 Upper surface; edge; lower surface Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 6 sets edge Zigzag Small circular radial 3 Upper surface Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Loughcrew Cairn L LC L R1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage Meander Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L R3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 concentric Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 2 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L R4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage at chamber entrance Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag

LC L R4 continued Shape Number Location Small circular Many possible incised circles, possible

dots

radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C19 East Face Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous East Face: left wall of 1st chamber, right

wall of 2nd chamber Meander 9 Fortification 1 Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 4 concentric, 5 simple Lattice 1 Lozenge 1 Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C19 West face Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous West face! Facing 2nd chamber Meander Fortification 2 large regions lozenge/lattice shaped Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C17 east Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall 2nd chamber, right wall 3rd

chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 3

LC L C17 east continued Shape Number Location Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot, 6 possible incised circles Arc 3 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 2 Zigzag Small circular 2 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C17 west Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 3, 1 incised Arc 2 simple, 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge 1 Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C17 south Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric, 1 with parallel lines Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C16 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of 3rd chamber Meander 1 Fortification 1 (triangles) Arc-spiral Filigree 3? Arc (loop) 3 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 5-6 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 10 concentric (1 on back), 10 simple Arc 7 simple, 3 concentric Lattice Lozenge 1 set of 7 vertical, 1 incised, 1 incised on

edge/back

Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C11 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of 3rd chamber, right wall of

4th chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric, 1 incised Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C9 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of 5th chamber Meander 5 sets (possible fortification) Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 4 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 1 concentric, 1 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial

LC L C8 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left, back wall of 5th chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of 6th chamber, right wall of

7th chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 east side, 1 north Arc 2 East face Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 3, 1 set of 7 East face Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall 7th chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2-3 Arc (loop) 2 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 3 concentric, 3 simple Arc 1 concentric, 1 with lines inside Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial

LC LC3 (east) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 2 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC C3 (west) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 simple, 6 concentric Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C18 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 5 Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 4 dots radial

LC L C3 edge Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall 8th chamber, left wall 7th

chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 2 concentric Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L C1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall 8th chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2, 3 incised Arc 2 concentric incised Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L L4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage at chamber entrance Meander 1 inside circle Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 1 with motifs inside Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 4 inside circle, set of 3, set of 2 Zigzag Small circular radial

LC L L3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 possible incised Arc 3 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 flower Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC L L1 looks very weathered Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 + Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 1 concentric, 4 + simple Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Loughcrew T

LC T R2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage: highly visible inside

passage, especially exiting. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 6 Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 concentric, 1 simple Arc Lattice Lozenge

LC T R2 continued Shape Number Location Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T R4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 4 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 3 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 simple, 1 with dot Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T R5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage, entrance to chamber:

highly visible in passage. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree 3 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot Arc 3 simple, 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 6 sets Zigzag Small circular radial 2 incised (1 formed to existing parallel

line set)

Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T Sill 1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Entrance to central chamber: not

visible. Motifs indiscernible. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 possible incised Arc 3 concentric, 2 concentric incised Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 9 possible incised tiny circles radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C15 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Entrance to central chamber: top edge

very faint. Side edge highly visible from passage. Face visible when exiting from chamber into passage, especially double arc and loop art motif on the right side of the face.

Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral 2 Filigree 5-6 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2-3 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 simple, 3 concentric, 1 oval with 5

parallel lines inside, 1 oval with 4 lines inside; 3 concentric on edge (2 with incised design inside), 10 concentric incised on edge

Arc 1 concentric on edge; 2 concentric on face

Lattice Lozenge 1 set of 7 horizontal Parallel line Set of 4 Zigzag Small circular 8 dots on edge radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C14 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall north (right side) chamber:

visible from back, right and central chambers.

Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 4-5 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc)

LC T C14 continued Shape Number Location Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 concentric with dots, 1 embellished

with parallel lines and dot, 1 simple

Arc 1 concentric embellished with parallel lines

Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set bordered by arcs, 1 set of 6, 1 set

adjacent to spiral

Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C11 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of northern (right side)

chamber: fairly visible from passage and central chamber, espcially 2 concentric circles and radial motif on left side of stone face.

Meander Fortification 1 possible Arc-spiral Filigree 2-4 Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2-3 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 concentric with dots, 10 incised

circles

Arc 3-4 Lattice Lozenge 1 possibly part of a fortification Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 inside circle Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C10 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous North wall central chamber: fairly

visible from passage and central chamber.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 1 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric, 2 simple, 1 concentric

incised

Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial

Diagnostic Nonendogenous (none)

LC T Sill 3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Entrance to back chamber: lightly

visible from passage and central chamber. Radial design most pronounced, but still faint.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with radial, 1 with dot Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 2 dots radial 1 inside circle Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C9 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of back chamber: visible

from back and central chamber (when crouched and looking in)

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 Arc 1 concentric , 2 concentric with radials Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 7-10 vertical on edge Zigzag Small circular radial 2 radiating from concentric arcs Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C8 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of back chamber: highly

visible from central chamber and passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 with flowers, 4 with dots, 1

concentric, 3 with parallel lines divided by vertical line, 1 simple

LC T C8 continued Shape Number Location Arc 1 concentric, 1 concentric with parallel

lines inside

Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag 1 set of 4 Small circular radial 5 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C6 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of back chamber: (No

record)??? Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of central chamber: highly

visible from passage and central chamber.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 5 with dots Circle Arc 2 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of southern chamber:

slightly visible from central chamber. Not visible from passage. Fairly faint markings.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 1 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 with dots, 1 concentric Arc 1 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of southern chamber: highly

visible from central chamber. Not visible from passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 6 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 concentric, 5 with dots, 5 with

incised motifs inside

Arc 3 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 6-8 horizontal Zigzag Small circular 12 tiny concentric incised circles radial 2 inside circles, 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of southern chamber: visible

from central chamber. Not visible when exiting chamber into passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 2 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 3 incised concentric, 3 oval concentric

incised

LC T C2 continued Shape Number Location Arc 2 simple, 2 concentric, 2 with dots, 1

with lines radiating from 1 side

Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 3 divided by line, set of 3, set of

4 with arc

Zigzag Small circular radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of central chamber at

entrance to passage: not visible from chamber. Almost invisible from passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 3 Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T L5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage by chamber entrance:

highly visible in passage and exiting chamber to passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 2 simple, 1 concentric, 4 with incised

circles inside, 2 with dots

Arc 1 concentric, 1 with incised circle inside

Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular @50 tiny concentric incised circles radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T L4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage: faint. Only visible in

passage. Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 3 with dots, 1 simple; 2 with dots on

edge

Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 3 tiny circles, 2 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T L3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left chamber: very slightly visible in

passage, especially exiting to outside. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 3-4 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 3 Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T L2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage: highly visible in passage,

especially entering as stone faces entrance.

Meander 2 Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree 4 Arc (loop) 2 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 3 concentric, 3 with dots, 3 simple Arc 2 with dots, 4 concentric, Lattice Lozenge Parallel line

LC T L2 continued Shape Number Location Zigzag Small circular At least 10 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T L1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage at entrance to tomb:

highly visible in passage, especially entering as stone faces entrance.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 3 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 concentric, 5 with dots, 1 with a row

of circles with dots lining the inside and radial lines with dots, 1 with a radial inside

Arc 3 concentric, 1 simple Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 with dits, 1 inside circle Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T co2/C2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Very faint Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Oval with circle, oval and closed arc

shape inside

Arc 2 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T C01/C4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Faint/couldn't find Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 Arc 1 with dot Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T Co1/c2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Faint/couldn't find Meander 2 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot on edge or back Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 7 Zigzag Small circular 3 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T Fragment (after Conwell) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Not there Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot Arc 1, 1 with dot Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous (none)

LC T Lintel Cell 1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Almost invisible Meander 2 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 2 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 4 sets Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T Roofstone Cell 3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Very faint Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Set of 4 nested horizontal, 1 vertical Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T Lintel cell 2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Very faint Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 2 concentric, 2 incised (?) Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 8 vertical, 1 set of 4 vertical Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous (none)

LC T Roofstone Cell 2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Roofstone, back chamber: beautifully

visible when crouched in central or back chamber. Highly defined. Looked like the eastern chamber ceiling in Newgrange!

Meander 2 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 2 Circle 4 concentric, 2 with dots, 1 with

radial, 3 simple, 1 oval with parallel lines and radials coming out

Arc 2 with dots, 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge 1 with dot Parallel line Set of 6 vertical divided by line, set

of 5 connected by line, set of 3

Zigzag Small circular radial 3, 1 flower Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square 2 ovals with parallel lines,

LC T K29 after Du Noyer Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 concentric, 1 on back Arc 1 with parallel lines inside, 1

concentric, 3 with incised circles inside, 2 conjoinedconcentric

Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 18incised small circles radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Loughcrew U

LC U R2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage: visible when exiting

chamber into passage Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple)

LCU R2 continued Shape Number Location Small circular (arc) Set of 7 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 concentric Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U R3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Visible when looking out at passage

from chamber. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U C11 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right central chamber at entrance to

passage: south face invisible. East face visible when crouched.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Set of at least 10 on south face Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 1 concentric on east face Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U C10 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of northern side chamber:

slightly visible exiting chamber into passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 1 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 5 possible Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U C9 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of northern side chamber:

most striking stone in the tomb. Not visible from passage.

Meander 1 on edge; 5 or 6 on face Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree @ 5 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 8 concentric Arc 13 concentric Lattice 1 set of 3 concentric lozenges Lozenge 1 concentric Parallel line 1 set of 4 diagonal inside arc, All

other parallel lines appear to be part of the zigzag/lattice/lozenge design

Zigzag Set of 5 with lattice/lozenge design Small circular 3-5 dots radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U C8 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left side of northern side chamber:

almost invisible. Would be visible from passage if motifs were more heavily carved.

Meander Set of 6 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 1 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral

Circle 2 concentric, 1 simple LC U C8 continued Shape Number Location Arc 1 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U C7 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of back chamber: almost

invisible. Right wall of back chamber. Not visible from passage, but passage can be seen from it.

Meander Set of 6 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U C6 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous back wall of back chamber: visible

when crouched. Fairly faint motifs. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 5 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 2 concentric, 1 arc with radial

lines, 2 simple

Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 5 vertical Zigzag Small circular 1tiny circle radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of back chamber: barely

visible. Easier to see when crouched. Can't be seen from passage.

Meander Set of 6, 2 Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree 6 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with radial inside Arc 2 concentric Lattice 1 Lozenge Parallel line Set of 7 Zigzag Small circular radial 1 inside circle Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square 2

LC U C4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of southern chamber:

neither face is visible. Very faint. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 east face; 2 north face Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 east face; 1 north face Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U C3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall, southern chamber: visible

when crouched. Medium visible...not too faint.

Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 concentric, 1 simple, 1 with

radial lines inside, 10 concentric incised

Arc 2 concentric, 3 simple Lattice

Lozenge LC U C3 Continued Shape Number Location Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U C2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall in left chamber: faint. West

face partially visible while exiting the chamber toward passage, easier to see when crouched. Concentric arcs, 2 of the circles, and oval with parallel lines more visible. East face plainly visible from passage, especially when crouched.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 3 west face Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric west face, 3 ovals

with parallel lines west face, set of 11 simple running vertically up west face, 7 simple west face

Arc 1 concentriceast face, 1 concentric west face

Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 3 sets inside ovals Zigzag Small circular radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC U L2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage, near entrance to

chamber: almost invisible. Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Finish fish.