Need, Greed and Speed: What History Tells Us about Fisheries (and Aquaculture)

Meryl J Williams Ocean Past IV

7-9 November 2012

[email protected]

Claims and Disclaims: The following PPT was used when I presented a keynote address to the Oceans Past IV conference (7-9 November, Notre Dame University, Fremantle, Western

Australia). It is my preliminary exploration of ideas, based on personal experience, on reading the research literature, hearing many different cases around the world and visiting many

different regions. Following this PPT are 2 additional slides containing additional information discovered, all by lucky coincidence, in the days following after Oceans Past IV -

http://hmapcoml.org/oceanspast/.

http://hmapcoml.org/oceanspast/

A look back through the lens of “fisheries management” using a network analysis approach

How to organize the information?

Searching for solutions to manage the fisheries commons • the evolving concept of “fisheries management”

A network model for case studies Three cases

• Northern Australian trepang • Southern bluefin tuna • Southeast Asian small pelagic fish

Conclusions • Turning “ugly truths” into levers of positive change

Fisheries management Fisheries governance

Fisheries networks (of networks)

Historically to 1950 • capture and/or allocate the benefits, minimize conflict • find new fisheries to replace old • stay within environment carrying capacity (more rarely)

1950-mid 1970s • Develop new fisheries, modernize

Mid 1970s-mid 1990s • capture benefits of UNCLOS • sustainability of target resources • minimize environment damage, e.g., to bycatch and habitat

Mid 1990s-present • grow exports, value chain under globalization • ecosystem approach to fisheries • fair fisheries? rights for small-scale fishers, crew, women?

“WESTERN”

• Science, fish stock based

• Biased towards industrial fishing

• Top-down, seeks tight, centralist, uniform State control may suit some fish stocks,

fishers but not others

• Aquaculture development cautious, science based, env

concerns

“WESTERN”

• Fish population dynamicists • Fisheries managers • Fisheries economists • Industry representatives • MCS professionals • Environmentalists • Aquaculture

scientist/advocates

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT


scientist/advocates

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT FAO GLOSSARY


scientist/advocates

Fisheries management The integrated process of information gathering, analysis, planning, consultation, decision-making, allocation of resources and formulation and implementation, with enforcement as necessary, of regulations or rules which govern fisheries activities in order to ensure the continued productivity of the resources and the accomplishment of other fisheries objectives.

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT “NON-WESTERN”

• Science, fish stock based

• Biased towards industrial fishing

• Top-down, seeks tight, centralist, uniform State control may suit some fish stocks,


• Aquaculture development cautious, science based, env

concerns

• Socially, not science based

• Small-scale and industrial fishing

• Bottom-up, dispersed, heterogeneous social rather than State control may suit some fish stocks,


Implicit belief in tradition

• Aquaculture development laissez-faire, practice based

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT “NON-WESTERN”

• Fish population dynamicists and biologists

• Fisheries managers • Fisheries economists • Industry representatives • MCS professionals • Environmentalists • Aquaculture

scientist/advocates

• Applied social scientists • often re-badged biologists,

economists • Development assistance

experts (recent) • Small-scale fishers

organizations • Aquaculture

scientist/advocates

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT FISHERIES GOVERNANCE

• Fish population dynamicists and biologists

• Fisheries managers • Fisheries economists • Industry representatives • MCS professionals • Environmentalists • Aquaculture

scientist/advocates





scientist/advocates

FAO (1997) FISHERIES GOVERNANCE

The term “governance” covers both: (i) the activity or process of governing; (ii) those people charged with the duty of governing: and (iii) the manner, method and system by which a particular society is governed. In fisheries it is usually understood as the sum of the legal, social, economic and political arrangements used to manage fisheries. It has international, national and local dimensions. It includes legally binding rules, such as national legislation or international treaties as well as customary social arrangements.





scientist/advocates

Fisheries Management • New modern solutions, based on economic concepts would

deliver profits and sustainability in a virtuous cycle e.g., limited entry, strong MCS, TACs/seasonal closures, ITQs

Fisheries Governance • Traditional fisheries ‘management’ is the solution E.g., sasi laut, pangalima laut, van chai,… BUT Foale et al 2011 tenure and taboos in the Pacific, Davies

and Ruddle 2012 • Marine protected areas are a panacea (conservationists)

Both • Co-management will create a more inclusive, egalitarian

and sustainable management process

• Most current fisheries are mixed “western” and “non-western” characters mixed types and scales, even in the “west” advanced technologies, globalized markets and loose State

management measures the mix does not suit many fish stocks or fishers

• Fisheries and aquaculture are embedded in other social/economic/ecological systems and their histories

• Elinor Ostrom’s coupled socio-ecological systems Homo cooperaticus vs Homo economicus An approach to finding key variables associated with self-

organization in commons resources

when history confronts us with negative lessons?

Dilbert 5 November 2012

Increasing use of network models in fisheries management analysis • From sociology, material semiotics, research and

innovation system studies • More process and less structurally oriented than SES

Actor-Network Theory (ANT) is popular Links people and natural systems Translation as the process of forming a network Network development and translational stages have historical

overtones Increasing use in fisheries studies, E.g., scallop culture (Callon 1986), studies on MSC (Bear and Eden

2008), NZ quota systems (Rees 2005), Indian cage culture (Ramachandran 2009), “cyborgization of the fisheries” (Johnsen et al 2009)

Drawing from actor-network theory Adding a glossary of terms

The Actor-Networks of “management” • “Actants” – human and non-human factors The resource and its characteristics Technology People (including women), collectives, markets Management systems and relations

Translations • At critical changes • Stages with drivers and motivations

Outcomes

Translations – stages of the change • 1. Problematisation defines the problem and actors who, by defining the problem

and how to deal with it, make themselves indispensible • 2. Interessement during which the primary actor(s) recruit other actors for roles

which recognize the centrality of the primary actor's own role • 3. Enrolment during which roles are defined and actors formally accept

and take on these roles, and • 4. Mobilisation during which primary actors become spokespeople for

passive network actors (agents) and mobilize them to action.

Need = demand for basic needs including food, employment, income, tax, conflict resolution, social and moral status

Greed = wants, market demand, profits, market control

Speed = competition, technology innovation, economic efficiency, productivity




Northern Australian trepang fishery Southern Bluefin Tuna

Southeast Asian small pelagic fish

Chief source of information Charles Campbell McKnight 1976

The Voyage to Marege’: Macassan trepangers in northern Australia.

Picture: FAO 2008

THE ACTOR-NETWORKS OVERVIEW

The resource characteristics

Technology

People, collectives

Management systems

• Sessile, accessible, multi-species • Lucrative, distant markets

• Dive fishery • Simple processing

• Distant fishing owners, male crew Women stayed at home

• Importers (China) • Local communities Including aboriginal men and women

• Capital owners • Australian, Dutch colonial, Northern

Territory authorities

TRANSLATION - STAGES OVERVIEW

Pre-Makassan fishing • To mid 1700s

Makassan and colonial

phase • Mid 1700s to 1907

Post-Makassan

• Early 1900s to present

Little or no exploitation by first

Australians • Few local uses, no external markets

Major translations

• Makassans led early stages • Later, Australian authorities

dominated

Low level of Australian fishing to 1945, then little until late 1980s

Northern Territory fails to gain • Now only 3 licences, attempting

aquaculture • Markets resurged with Asian wealth

TRANSLATION MAKASSAN PHASE (LATE)

Makassan’s had established markets, technology on arrival

• Developed worker, community relations with aboriginal people

From 1870s, (South) Australian authorities established regulations to tax catch and imported goods

• By 1907, declining stocks and heavy taxes ended fishery

1. Problematisation • S. Aust sub-collector of customs

in Northern Territory launched bid for power and assets on basis of controlling trepang fishery

2. Interessement • Enlisted colonial support for law,

ship, officers to tax industry 3. Enrolment

• protection of aborigines, cattle station interests co-opted by Australians; Makassans co-opted Dutch consul to negotiate

4. Mobilisation • Both Australian and Makassan

sides engage in policing, tax collecting/amerliorating behaviour

OUTCOMES MAKASSAN PHASE

Networks of the Makassan northern Australia trepang fishery fell apart • Markets, labour, technology,

etc were not replicable by white or original Australians

• Resource was depleted • Chinese market languished

for decades under wars and poor economies

Other fisheries took over to supply what markets remained

Smoking a ‘Macassan” pipe, NT. Source: McKnight, 1976

From Northern Territory Fishery Status Report 2004, p. 98

By 1907, the South Australian government had ceased issuing licences to Macassans, possibly due to the emergence of a local industry.

GOALS OF ACTORS MAKASSAN PHASE

Need Greed Speed Sustainability

Makassans: • markets to meet but had depleted

closer resources • technology, skills, know-how • profitable thru efficient labour,

technology Australian colonial authorities

• saw resource as theirs and wanted recompense until they could harvest it themselves

• means to impose rules First Australians

• subsistence, tools, cultural artifacts Markets (China)

• wanted goods but sources fungible

MANGNGELLAI DAENG MARO, 1969

PRAUS, RAFFLES BAY 1839, L. LE BRETON

MADAMAN, 2 PRAUS AND TREPANG BOILERS

MUSLIM CEREMONY, MAKASSAR 1914

POBASSOO, WM WESTALL, 1803

ALFRED SEARCY, LATE 1800S

Pole and line fishing of SBT juveniles in the hey-day of the Australian fishery.

Photo Kevin McLoughlin, BRS, AUSTRALIAN FISHERIES RESOURCES (1993) p. 365



Technology

People, collectives

Management systems

• Single stock, mobile, long lived • V. high value, Japan chief market • Stock at <5% of virgin biomass

• Longline, pole and line • Cage grow-out of juveniles

• Multi-national fleets, owners,

crew • Importers control price, market • Women marginal, invisible in

communities, factories, markets

• Capital owners pressure gov’ts


Pre-international management • From 1930 to about 1980

Trilateral management

• 1979 to 1994

Convention on the Conservation of SBT • 1994 to present

Japanese fishing starts south of Java Australia starts fishing inshore juvs Global catch peaks in 1960s (81k t)

Japan, Australia and NZ trilaterals

• Industry actors are major influence Other countries became active Stock assessments difficult, disputed

CCSBT tough to negotiate Stock fails to recover; CITES attempt Serious catch under-reporting Culture efforts in train Current quota 10 k t

TRANSLATION TRILATERAL & CCSBT PHASES

Trilateral parties hold greatest influence, led by Japan

• But new players have power to further undermine stock

Eventually, CCSBT rules found not to have been respected by the parties

1. Problematisation • Stock assessment scientists

prepare the management ground 2. Interessement

• Government managers looked to scientists to shore up national positions, find solutions; fishing industry fought for advantages

3. Enrolment • Government, science and industry

positions entrenched 4. Mobilisation

• Main actors survived into next stage despite new entrants (conservation, new countries)

OUTCOMES CCSBT PHASE

The battles continue, all parties hope for signs of recovery, or at least an increase in their quota …

SBT distribution. FAO

GOALS OF ACTORS CCSBT PHASE


Australians • had rights to resource in EEZ • technology, know-how, profitable

industry to protect Japanese

• saw resource as historical right • innovated to lower costs • dominates market, makes the rules

Other countries • jostle to gain catch share

CCSBT • peaceful allocations, sustainability

Markets • Want SBT and sources not fungible

Scientists, conservationists • Still trying

TUNA MAKES THE TOWN A COMPLEX INDUSTRY

2012 Tunarama Ambassador Entrants (formerly Miss Tunarama)

TUNA MAKES THE TOWN A COMPLEX INDUSTRY

2012 Tunarama Ambassador Entrants (formerly Miss Tunarama)

A Man

ACAP TSUKIJI AUCTION OF PORT LINCOLN FATTENED TUNA

ACAP TSUKIJI AUCTION OF PORT LINCOLN FATTENED TUNA

A Woman

PROCESSING AFTER THE AUCTION SUSHI BAR

Malacca Strait, C Class purse seiner, Pulau Pangkor, Perak State, Malaysia



Technology

People, collectives

Management systems

• Strong local markets • Multi-species, multi-gear fishery • Stock status poorly known

• Mainly industrial at different scales • Simple processing

• Embedded in local communities • Many foreign crew, large employer • Women in services, processing,

markets

• National regulatory systems • Sporadic enforcement, except

cross-border transgressions


Pre-industrial fishing • From early 1900s to 1970s,

depending on area

Industrial colonial • Early 1900s to post WWII

Modern

• Starting 1950 to 1970s, depending on country, to present

Myriad of methods Lift-net systems gradually

replaced with mechanised, especially purse seines

Japan and colonial powers supported mechanisation

Increasing intensification and mechanisation

TRANSLATION, OUTCOMES MODERN PHASE

Population and economic growth drive demand

Industry functions with little government interference

• Except in acute events • Despite legislation

Science has soft voice • Stock status poorly known

Major overcapacity • Political, racial risks of

reducing capacity are high • Aquaculture preferred

means to fill fish gap

GOALS OF ACTORS MODERN PHASE


Catching sector • Ready market for affordable fish • Technology continually upgrading • Fishing owners large players

Processing, marketing • From villages to supermarkets • Price pressures in supply chain?

Government • Reluctant to reduce capacity • Interest in high value fish,

aquaculture Society

• Women in processing, marketing sector, in family business roles

• New conservation, civil movements

NEW PURSE SEINER, P. PANGKOR

MIGRANTS SORTING IKAN BILIS, LANGKAWI

KEREPOK LEKOR SELLERS, TERENGGANU

THIS WEEK’S SPECIALS AT TESCO MALAYSIA

Don’t ignore the “ugly truths” but turn need, greed and speed into useful levers

The actor-network approach • Resonated with perceptions and analyses • Provides useful framework

Need, greed and speed accounted for most of the past translations • Sustainability has been a more minor human goal

To influence fisheries management • certainty, or science or education won’t save the world • Can’t ignore the “ugly truths” of need, greed and

speed – they have to also provide the positive levers for change to sustainability




“The Needy and the Greedy” by Handy Jager 1989 http://www.stors.tas.gov.au/au-7-0074-00022

Thanks to Tony Harrison and his excellent work on Australian, especially Tasmanian, fisheries history for preserving this personal account. The first sentence in this account is as follows:

Firstly let me state I consider there are two kinds of fishermen - "the needy" and "the greedy" and I can assure

you there are no shortage of either in the industry.

http://www.stors.tas.gov.au/au-7-0074-00022

A wonderful picture of Torres Strait Island women processing trepang can be seen in:

W. Saville Kent. 1893. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia: It’s Products and Potentialities.

http://archive.org/details/greatbarrierreef00kent

http://archive.org/details/greatbarrierreef00kent

Documents

Need, Greed and Speed: What History Tells Us about Fisheries (and Aquaculture)