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NEBOSH Fire CertificateManaging Fire Safety
Element 1
Element 1 Learning Outcomes
Outline the moral, legal and financial consequences of
inadequate management of fire safety.
Outline the legal framework for the regulation of fire safety in
new, altered and existing buildings (including government
guidance).
Describe the role and powers of enforcement agencies and
other external agencies in relation to fire safety.
Outline the key features of fire safety policy.
Outline the main sources of external fire safety information
Explain the purpose of, and the procedures for, investigating
fires in the workplace.
Explain the legal and organisational requirements for
recording and reporting fire related incidents.
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Consequences of Inadequate Management of Fire Safety
Element 1.1
2
Is Managing Fire Safety an Option?
Human (moral)
Economic (financial)
Legal
Moral, Legal & Financial Arguments
Human (moral):
– Fires result in a great deal of suffering from those affected
– Must do all we can to avoid this
Economic (financial):
– Interruption to business and loss of trade
Most companies that have a major fire never resume trading
– Environmental damage
– Legal costs, fines, increased insurance premiums etc.
Legal:
– Breach of fire legislation is a criminal offence
– Legislation requires fire prevention measures to be put into place
and employees and other relevant persons to be protected from the
effects of fire and mitigate its effects in the vicinity of a premises.
Delegate ExerciseThe Cost of Accidents
To the victim or victims
To the firm
Person responsible
Working group
The tax payer
Economic Legal
Human
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4
Definitions
Primary fire:
– All fires in buildings, vehicles and outdoor structures or any
fire involving casualties, rescues or fires attended by 5 or
more appliances
Secondary fires:
– The majority of outdoor fires including grassland, refuse fires
and single derelict buildings (excluding those above)
Chimney fires:
– Any fire in an occupied building where the fire was confined
within the chimney structure (excluding those above)
False alarm:
– An event in which the fire and rescue service believes they
were called to a reportable fire and then find there is no such
incident
Costs of Fires
Fire damage claims in the first half of 2009 cost £639
million - £3.6 million each day.
2008 fire losses were £1.3 billion, a 16% rise on 2007
and the most expensive year ever.
Between 2002 and 2008 the cost of the average fire
claim for both commercial and domestic fires
doubled, to £21,000 and £8,000 respectively.
More open plan buildings, which allow more rapid
spread of fire, and the increase in out of town
developments, where fires can go for longer
unnoticed, are among factors contributing to the
doubling of fire costs since 2002.
5
Costs of Arson
Arson, which tends to increase during a
recession, accounts for half of all commercial
fires.
Socially deprived areas and schools are
especially vulnerable: arson rates are 30 times
higher in poorer areas.
Many schools a suffer arson attacks, disrupting
the education of thousands of schoolchildren,
and causing significant financial damage
costs.
1992 - Windsor Castle, estimated
cost of repair over £40 million
Fire SafetyWhat Events do You Remember?
1987 - Kings Cross Fire 31 people died, if fire starts in a crowded area the consequences can be appalling
1985 - Bradford football stadium fire, 56 people died 100’s injured
Primark Warehouse Fire – 1 Nov 05
Some 15 fire
engines and dozens
of firefighters tackled
the massive blaze at
the 440,000 sq ft
TNT Primark
warehouse near
Lutterworth.
No-one was hurt, but the building was totally destroyed
– The value of the building was £8million
– The value of the stock was £50million
6
Buncefield Oil Terminal Fire11 December 2005
Largest explosions ever to occur in
the country
43 people injured – 2 seriously
Severe damage to over 80 buildings
Fire raged for several days
Estimated cost of incident put
between £500million and £1bn
32,000 litres/min of foam pumped
for 4 hours to try to quell the fire
Ground water well close to site
polluted by the foam
Grenfell Fire 14th June 2017
Public housing flats in North Kensington, Royal Borough of
Kensington and Chelsea, West London.
It caused at least 80 deaths and over 70 injuries.
A definitive death toll is not expected until at least 2018.
The fire started in a fridge-freezer on the fourth floor.
The growth of the fire is believed to have been
accelerated by the exterior cladding.
Emergency services received the first report of
the fire at 00:54 and the fire burned for 60 hours.
More than 250 firefighters and 70 fire engines
from stations all over London were involved in
efforts to control the fire.
Tort of Negligence
Common law establishes a duty to take reasonable care of
those that might be affected by how people do things
Insufficient care may be considered as being negligent
Negligence is a civil wrong, a tort, recognised by civil courts
which means someone who could sued for negligence can
insure for their loss
Donoghue v Stevenson 1932:
– “You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you
can reasonably foresee would likely to injure your neighbour”
Test of proof:
– Person owed a common law duty of care
– There was a failure to fulfill the duty to take reasonable care
– Damage, loss or injury resulted from the breach
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Common Law Duty of Care
Employers:
– A safe place of work
– Safe appliances and equipment
– A safe system of work
– Competent and safety conscious personnel
Occupier of a building:
– Take reasonable care for those that might foreseeably be affect by
their actions or omissions
– Includes employees and lawful visitors
Multi-occupancy buildings:
– Various occupiers to meet their common law duty
– Cooperate and coordinate their activities with other occupiers
– Duty extends to owner of multi-occupancy buildings
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Legal Framework for Regulation of Fire Safety
Element 1.2
Relationships & Relative Status
Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order
(RRFSO) 2005 or the Fire (Scotland) Act 2005
(as amended)
Fire Safety Regulations
Approved Codes of Practice (ACoP’s)
– None of these currently exist for fire legislation.
Official Guidance
8
Meanings of the Terms in Legislation
Absolute Duty
Practicable
Reasonably PracticableMore often seen as:
“so far as reasonably practicable” or ‘sfarp’
DefinitionsAbsolute & Practicable
Absolute:
– Must/Shall/Will be done
• Practicable:
• If technically possible;
capable of being achieved
even though expensive,
difficult or inconvenient
• i.e. knowledge & invention
DefinitionsReasonably Practicable
• Reasonably practicable:
Implies that a calculation of cost
versus risk may be made
If the risk of an accident or injury is
very small, but the cost of prevention
in terms of money, time and/or
trouble is very high then it may not
be reasonably practicable to take
that precaution
9
Relevant Statutory Provisions?
The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005
The Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004
The Fire (Scotland) Act 2005
The Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006
The Environmental Protection Act 1990
The Health & Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
The Management of Health and Safety at Work
Regulations 1999
The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
Occurrences Regulations 2013.
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The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005
Effective From
1st October 2006
Repealed NumerousFormer Pieces of Legislation
The Fire Precautions Act 1971
The Fire Certificate (Special Premises) Regulations
1971
The Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997
Fire Safety and Safety of Places of Sport Act 1987
– Part 1; s33(1)(b); Schedule 1
Health & Safety at Work Act 1974 s78 and Schedule 8
… and a host of other pieces of legislation
10
Background
Large act with various schedules attached
Tidies up the many pieces of legislation
Removes the requirement to apply for a fire
certificate
Accompanied by a series of guidance
documents (www.communities.gov.uk/fire)
• The new legislation comes with a series of guidance notes:
- offices and shops;
- sleeping accommodation;
- educational premises;
- small and medium places of assembly;
- large places of assembly;
- factories and warehouses;
- theatres, cinemas and similar places;
- residential care premises;
- healthcare premises;
- transport premises and facilities
- animal premises and stables;
- means of escape for disabled people;
- fire risk assessment 5 step checklist; and
- do you have paying guests?
Guidance Notes for New Regulation
Where the New RegulationDoes Not Apply
The Order does not apply to:
– Domestic premises
– Offshore installations
– Ships
– Fields, woods and other land forming part of
agricultural or forestry undertakings
– Aircraft, locomotives or rolling stock used as a
means of transport
– Mines
– Borehole sites
11
Responsible Person
In relation to a workplace
– the employer, if the workplace is to any extent under his
control
If the premises are not a workplace
– the person who has control of the premises in connection
with carrying on a trade or business
The owner
– where the person in control of the premises does not
have control in connection with the carrying on of a trade
or business
Responsible Person Duties
The responsible person must ensure that:
– Where the premises are a workplace
Any duty imposed is complied with (Art.8 – Art.22)
– Where the premises are not a workplace
Ensure that any duties imposed are complied with, so
far as the requirements relate to matters under his
control
– Any duty imposed on the responsible person shall
be imposed on every person who has to any
extent control of those premises so far as the
requirements relate to matters under his control
Responsible Person Duties
The responsible person must make and give
effect to such arrangements, having regard to the
size of the undertaking and the nature of activities
for effective:
– Planning
– Organisation
– Control (planning and implementation)
– Monitoring
– Review
12
Responsible Person Duties
The responsible person must ensure that:
– The premises are, to the extent as is appropriate,
equipped with appropriate
Fire fighting equipment
Fire detectors
Alarms
– Any non-automatic fire fighting equipment is
Easily accessible
Simple to use
Identified with appropriate signage
Delegate Exercise
In your allocated syndicates make a list of what the
Responsible Person under RRFSO will need to ensure is carried out in order to ensure that safety risks are managed
with regards to Fire
RRFSO Articles 8-22
8. Duty to take general fire precautions
9. Risk Assessment
10. Principles of prevention to be provided
11. Fire safety arrangements
12. Elimination/reduction of dangerous substances risks
13. Fire fighting and fire detection
14. Emergency routes and exits
15. Procedures for serious and imminent danger and for danger areas
16. Additional emergency procedures in respect of dangerous substances
17. Maintenance
18. Safety assistance
19. Provision of information to employees
20. Provision of information to employers and self-employed from outside
undertakings
21. Training
22. Co-operation and co-ordination
13
Safety Assistance
The responsible person must:
– Nominate competent persons to implement those
measures
– Ensure that the number of person are adequate
– Their training and equipment are adequate
A person is to be regarded as competent where
he has sufficient training and experience or
knowledge and other qualities to enable him to
implement the above measures
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Roles and Powers of Enforcement Agencies and External Agencies
Element 1.3
Enforcement Authorities
The fire and rescue authority for the area of the premises
The Health and Safety Executive (Nuclear Installations,
ships and construction sites)
The fire service maintained by the Secretary of State for
Defence for armed forces and MOD establishments
The relevant local authority in relation to:
– a sports ground designated as requiring a safety certificate
under section 1 of the Safety of Sports Grounds Act
– a regulated stand within the meaning of section 26(5) of the
Fire Safety and Safety of Places of Sport Act 1987
A fire inspector, or any person authorised by the Secretary
of State for Crown occupied property or United Kingdom
Atomic Energy Authority property
14
Powers of Inspectors – Slide 1
Produce evidence of his authority.
To enter any premises, without the use of
force, which he has reason to believe it is
necessary for him to enter and to inspect
the whole or part of the premises.
To make inquiries to:
– ascertain whether the provisions of the
RRFSO or any regulations made under it
apply or have been complied with
– to identify the responsible person in
relation to the premises
Powers of Inspectors – Slide 2
To require the production of any records (including plans):
– which are required to be kept by virtue of any provision
of the Order or regulations; or
– which it is necessary to see for the purposes of an
examination or inspection under this article;
To inspect and take copies of, or of any entry in, the
records;
To require any person having responsibilities in relation to
any premises to give such facilities and assistance with
any matters or things to which the responsibilities of that
person extend for the purpose of enabling the inspector to
exercise any of the powers conferred;
Powers of Inspectors – Slide 3
To take samples of any articles or substances
found in any premises which he has power to
enter for the purpose of ascertaining their fire
resistance or flammability;
In the case of any article or substance found
being an article or substance which appears to
him to have caused or to be likely to cause
danger to the safety of relevant persons:
– to cause it to be dismantled or
– subjected to any process or test
(but not so as to damage or destroy it unless
this is, in the circumstances, necessary).
15
Alteration Notice – Slide 1
The enforcing authority may serve on the
responsible person "an alterations notice" if the
authority is of the opinion that the premises:
– constitute a serious risk to relevant persons
(whether due to the features of the premises,
their use, any hazard present, or any other
circumstances); or
– may constitute such a risk if a change is made to
them or the use to which they are put.
Appeals to be made to a Magistrates Court within
21 days.
Alteration Notice – Slide 2
An alterations notice must:
– state that the enforcing authority is of the opinion that either
of the conditions given in slide 1 exist; and
– specify the matters which in their opinion, constitute a risk to
relevant persons or may constitute such a risk if a change is
made to the premises or the use to which they are put
An alterations notice may be withdrawn at any time and the
notice is deemed to be in force until such time as it is
withdrawn or cancelled by the court.
Nothing in this notice stops an enforcing authority from
serving an enforcement notice or a prohibition notice in
respect of the premises
Enforcement Notice – Slide 1
Similar to an ‘Improvement Notice’ under HSWA 1974
If in the opinion of the inspector the responsible person has
failed to comply with any fire legislation, the authority may
serve that person "an enforcement notice“.
An enforcement notice must:
– specify the provisions which have not been complied
with; and
– Require that person to take steps to remedy the failure
within such period from the date of service of the notice
as specified in the notice.
Appeals to be made to a Magistrates Court within 21 days.
16
Enforcement Notice – Slide 2
An enforcement notice may include directions to the
measures the enforcing authority consider necessary to
remedy the failure:
– any such measures may be framed so as to give a
choice between different ways of remedying the
contravention.
Where it is the opinion that a person's failure to comply also
extends to a workplace, or employees who work in a
workplace, for which they are not the enforcing authority, the
notice may include requirements concerning the
workplace/employees,
– however, in this case the enforcing authority must consult
the enforcing authority for that workplace.
Prohibition Notice – Slide 1
Issue if in the opinion of the inspector the use of
premises involves or will involve a risk to persons so
serious that use of the premises ought to be prohibited
or restricted
A prohibition notice must:
– specify the matters which in their opinion give or, as
the case may be, will give rise to that risk; and
– direct that the use to which the prohibition notice
relates is prohibited or restricted to such extent as
may be specified in the notice until the specified
matters have been remedied.
Appeals to be made to a Magistrates Court within 21
days.
Prohibition Notice – Slide 2
The notice may give directions on how to remedy the
matters and such measures may be framed to afford a
choice between different ways of remedying the
matters.
A prohibition or restriction given in the notice takes
immediate effect if serious personal injury is or will be
imminent,
Where practicable, before such a notice is served on a
house in multiple occupation the local housing authority
is to be notified and informed of the use which they
intend to prohibit/restrict.
17
Penalties in the Criminal Courts
It is for the accused to prove that all reasonable
precautions and all due diligence was taken to
avoid the offence.
Penalties on summary conviction (Magistrates
Court) an unlimited fine.
If the matter is taken on indictment (a formal
charge of having committed a most serious
criminal offence) it could lead to an unlimited fine,
2 years imprisonment or both.
Who are the various AgenciesInvolved with Fire Safety?
Fire Authority
Fire and Rescue Services
Health and Safety Executive
Local Authorities
Environmental Agencies (EA & SEPA)
Insurance Companies
Fire and Rescue Act 2004 – Slide 1
Section 44
– Allows authorised employees to deal
with fires, road traffic accidents and
other emergencies
– It gives power to “do anything he
reasonably believes to be necessary”
in relation to extinguishing or
preventing fires including entering a
premises by force without consent.
So what powers will they have?
18
Fire and Rescue Act 2004 – Slide 2
Section 45
– Enter premises at any reasonable time to obtain
information needed for fire fighting, dealing with road traffic
accidents and specified emergencies
Cannot be forcible and 24 hours notice must be given for a
private dwelling, unless authorised by a Justice of the Peace
– Can take with him any other person or equipment that he
considered necessary
– Be provided with any facilities, information, documents or
records or other assistance, that he may reasonably
request
Fire and Rescue Act 2004 – Slide 3
Section 45 (continued):
When investigating fires, in exercising his powers, an authorised officer can additionally:
– Carry out inspections, measurements and tests in relation to the premises, or to an article or substance
– Take samples of articles and substances
– Dismantle an article found on the premises
– Take possession of an article or substances:
Examine it and do anything he has the power to do
Ensure that it is not tampered with before his examination
Ensure that it is available for use as evidence in proceedings
Fire Authority
Responsible for enforcing RRFSO 2005
Also responsible for:
– Promoting community fire safety
– Planning and implementing procedures to fight fires etc
– Rescuing people from road traffic accidents
– Responding to emergencies such as flood, terrorist incidents
etc.
– Equip and respond to events beyond core functions such as
rope rescue
Can agree to the use of its equipment or personnel for
purposes it believes appropriate and whenever its so
chooses
19
Non-Executive Directors of HSE
Acts on behalf of the government
Identifies the need for legal requirements, arrange
drafts and consultation
Influence law from the point of view that they decide
what laws are appropriate and when they are to be
introduced
Control the quantity of law and the scope/extent of a
given law
They can be lobbied by organisations with aim to
gain modifications or delay
Health and Safety Executive
Appointed as an enforcing authority under RRFSO
2005 for:
– Nuclear installations
– A ship, including Navy, which is in the course of
construction, reconstruction or conversion or
repair by persons who include persons other
than the master and crew of the ship
– Construction sites
Local Authorities
A local authority is appointed as an enforcing authority
under the RRFSO for:
– A sports ground designated as requiring a safety
certificate under Section 1 of the Safety of Sports
Grounds Act 1975
– A regulated stand within the meaning of section 26(5)
of the Fire Safety and Safety of Places of Sport Act
1987
The LA has a duty under article 45 of the RRFSO, to
consult with the fire authority before passing plans to
erect a building, deposited with them in accordance with
building regulations.
20
Environmental Agency (EA) /Scottish Environmental Protection Agency
(SEPA)
Both agencies are concerned with protecting and
improving the land, air and water environment
RRFSO imposes a duty on the responsible person to
mitigate the effects of a fire on anyone on the premises
or in the vicinity of the premises
If a fire causes pollution it will be of interest to the
EA/SEPA
Fire authorities and EA/SEPA usually work in
conjunction with each other with the EA/SEPA making
available to the fire authorities environmental damage
limitation equipment.
Insurance Companies
Have become increasingly aware
they may have under-estimated
the risks of fire in companies they
insure
This has meant they have
reviewed factors that have led to
claims
Their findings have been used to
influence organisations to improve
their fire safety to reduce the level
of risks
SuccessfulPractical
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Key Features of a Fire Safety Policy
Element 1.4
21
Fire Safety Management Framework
The RRFSO imposes a legal duty on the
responsible person to put into place safety
arrangements
The arrangements must take into account the size
and nature of activities.
These arrangements must include:
– Planning
– Organisation
– Control
– Monitoring
– Review
Management Models
There are three (effective for NEBOSH April
2015) management model systems
commonly used:
– OSHAS (ISO) 18001
– BS 8800
– HSG 65
All ostensibly the same.
Initial Review
Continual
Improvement
Policy
Planning
Implementation
and Operation
Checking and
Corrective
ActionsManagement
Review
OSHAS 18001 Model
22
Audit
Initial and
periodic status
review
Policy
Organising
Planning and
ImplementationMeasuring
Performance
BS 8800 Model
HSG65 - The Management of Health and Safety
Policy
Planning
Risk
ProfilingOrganising
Implementing
Measuring
Performance
Investigating
Accidents,
Incidents
Etc.
Reviewing
performance
Learning
lessons
PLAN DO
CHECKACT
Policy for Fire Safety Management
Setting Policy
– The policy for fire safety management is usually
scoped within the organisations overall health
and safety policy
– It is good practice to give a senior manager the
overall responsibility for fire safety management.
– However, it should be remembered that the
‘responsible person’ cannot absolve their
responsibility as defined in the RRFSO
23
Organising for Fire Safety Management
Arrangements:
– Must be in place for the effective planning, organisation,
control, monitoring and review of preventive and
protective measures and encompass consultation with
employees; must be recorded if:
There are 5 or more employees
A licence under an enactment is in force
An alterations notice is in force
– They must be flexible enough to allow for change and
may cover such areas as:
Responsibility for fire safety at board level
Responsibility for each premises
Arrangements for appointing people to carry out specific roles in
the event of a fire
Monitoring and Reviewing
In order to ensure that the implemented plan for fire safety
is effective it needs to be monitored
Monitoring should not rely solely on reactive monitoring of
actual/potential fire incidents, but should include proactive
monitoring
A mixture of proactive monitoring methods can be utilised,
including inspections, maintenance checks and meetings
Proposed and actual changes in premises, people,
materials and processes should be monitored to see if
amendments to the arrangements are required
Planned reviews should also be undertaken to follow fire
incidents, proposed changes and after a period of time if
not done for another reason
Auditing
Auditing is imperative and should be carried out by
an independent party, be systematic and cover all
aspects of the fire safety policy
It should examine the standards and compliance
with them within the management system for fire
safety
More than a physical inspection, it checks on the
policy, the organisation for implementing the policy,
individuals responsibilities, procedures including
those for monitoring and reviewing, records etc.
The frequency of auditing will depend on the level of
risk relating to the premises
24
Fire Log Book Contents?
Record all outcomes from fire prevention arrangements, including:
– Contact details for maintenance and servicing engineers
– Records of visits from Fire Officers
– Records of maintenance/servicing of fire equipment (alarms, appliances etc.)
– Record of staff training
– Record of fire drills
– Record of actual fire alarm activation (including false alarms)
– Record of fire alarm tests
– Record of emergency lighting checks
– Record of fire fighting appliance checks
– Record of briefings on fire precautions and safety
– Copy of the fire risk assessment
– Copies of fire safety plans
– Copies of audit reports.
SuccessfulPractical
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Sources of External Fire Safety Information
Element 1.5
Sources of Information ~ 1
Legislation from:
– www.opsi.gov.uk
Approved Codes of Practice from:
– www.hse.gov.uk
British Standards
Building Regulations (Part B)
Local Government Websites
Fire Authority Websites
25
Sources of Information ~ 2
Fire safety guides on:
– www.communities.gov.uk/fire
From fire safety organisations on such
websites as:
– www.arsonpreventionbureau.org.uk
– www.bre.co.uk
– www.ife.org.uk
– www.means-of-escape.com
– www.thefpa.co.uk
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The Purposes and Procedures for Investigating Fires in the Workplace
Element 1.6
Fire Investigation
Purpose of investigating?
– The responsible person may want:
To determine the cause and preventative
measures to be put into place to prevent
recurrence
To gather evidence because of the prospect
of civil and/or criminal litigation
– The Fire and Rescue Services may investigate
to gather evidence in order to lay a criminal
charge against the responsible person
– An insurance company may investigate to
determine if they have a liability for any claim
arising from the fire
26
Non-Fatal Fire Investigation
Covers events such as accidental and arson fires as well as
false alarm
Important to investigate because:
– Can learn from events that have not caused harm
– Can make improvements before an injury or fatality happens
– It provides a valid test of preventative and protective
arrangements
– Gives an opportunity to review planning and implementation
procedures
– Repetitive false alarms can undermine the credibility of the
system (need to ensure people have confidence in the system)
Fire and Rescue Service would also investigate and results
would be incorporated into national statistics
Procedural Differences & Definitions 1
Accidental fire investigations:
– If arson not suspected a fire would be considered to be
accidental (someone could still be held responsible for it)
– The enforcing authority (EA) would determine the causes of
the fire and determine if there were breaches sufficient for
enforcement action
– Police do not need to be involved as EA have the power to
prosecute
Fire investigation is divided into various stages:
– Interviewing eye witnesses
– Locating the seat of the fire
– Excavating the seat
– Evaluation of evidence
– Review of findings
– Report
Procedural Differences & Definitions 2
Arson set fires (non-accidental):
– May be categorised as ‘malicious’, ‘deliberate’ or ‘doubtful’
– Deliberate ignition only has to be suspected not proven to
categorise a fire up from ‘doubtful’,
Arson or malicious fire investigation:
– Investigated by fire and rescue authority
– Conducted as a formal fire investigation to determine the cause
– Specialist officer involved working in partnership with police and
may involve a police forensic scientist
– Police have to prove persons behaved ‘recklessly’ or ‘intended
to damage property’ to record an offence of arson
– ‘Malicious’ firing only considered arson if life is put in danger
27
Investigation Preparation
Investigation may start before the fire
is extinguished
Important not to disturb the scene of
the fire any more than necessary
May have an impact of fire fighting
methods used
If the fire results in death or arson
suspected the fire fighting may be
stopped or amended to allow initial
investigation to take place before the
evidence is ruined
Investigation and Other Agencies 1
Police:
– Responsible for the criminal investigation of arson or
suspicious fires
– They will liaise with the Fire and Rescue Services (FRS)
– May have contact with them regarding the fire risk
assessment and security issues
Fire & Rescue Service (FRS):
– Has the power to investigate fires (powers already covered)
– You have a duty to assist fire officers in their investigation
– May need to speak to fire officers when carrying out the fire
risk assessment regarding various issues e.g. COSHH
– FRS may assess the risk to their employees in larger high
risk premises and visit as part of this process
Investigation and Other Agencies 2
HSE:
– May contact re fire risk assessments e.g. construction sites
Public Utilities:
– May need to discuss issues re drainage, water pollution, fire
water run offs etc especially if dangerous substances might
be involved
– Utilities that might be involved include:
Water Supply Company
Sewerage Company
Electrical Supply Company
Gas Supply Company
Telecommunications Company
Insurance Companies – to determine liability etc
28
Identifying Reasons / Remedial Action
Detection of crime
Verification of insurance claims
Prevention of future fires
Identification of defective components
Identification of dangerous substances
To gather evidence of a coroners office
To determine reasons for false alarms
To identify additional preventive/protective measures
To find weaknesses in fire management system
To ensure everything ‘so far as is reasonably
practicable’ has been done to prevent recurrence
Site and Damaged Area Clean Up
Important to ensure health and safety of those involved
Structure may be unstable
Services may be exposed and substances released
Site may be similar to a building left unoccupied a long time
Pre-demolition survey may be needed
Specialist companies may be needed to assist in the clean up
SuccessfulPractical
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Legal and Organisational Requirements for Recording and Reporting Fire Related Incidents
Element 1.7
29
Post Fire Management
If an organisation suffers a fire incident, there will
be certain actions taken dependent on the scale of
the fire and if any injury occurred.
The responsible person will need to ensure that
fires are reported because of:
– Statutory requirements; and
– Non-statutory reasons
Non-Statutory Reasons
The reporting of the incident would enable resources to
be allocated for an investigation
The investigation in turn, should help to identify flaws
with existing controls and therefore assist in the
implementation of improved controls
Analysis of reports may identify trends or patterns
Gathering statistical data will help the ‘responsible
person’ and, if the Fire and Rescue Services request
the data may assist in development of national
statistics to identify trends and comparisons.
To review fire safety risk assessments
Recording of Incidents, Injuries and Dangerous Occurrences
Accident book:
– If an injury has occurred due to a fire (e.g. smoke
inhalation) it should be reported and recorded in the
accident book
General incident or occurrence book:
– May be kept to record various events relating to fires
– Important if false fire alarm operations, near misses
or fires occur on a frequent basis
– May reveal trends/patterns and help identify
improvements
30
Statutory Requirements
If a person was injured the ‘responsible person’ may
have to determine if it is reportable under RIDDOR
2013
It is an implied requirement under RRFSO 2005
Article 11 to have arrangements to monitor
preventive and protective measures
To provide evidence in any legal action that may be
taken
The ‘responsible person’ must comply with the
requests of the fire service investigating officer and
supply such assistance and information as required.
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
NEBOSH Fire CertificatePrinciples of Fire and Explosion
Element 2
Element 2 Learning Outcomes
Explain the principles of the combustion process in
relation to fire safety
Explain the principles and conditions for the ignition
of solids, liquids and gases
Identify the classifications of fires
Describe the principles of fire growth and fire spread
Outline the principles of explosion and explosive
combustion.
31
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
The Principles of the Combustion Process in Relation to Fire Safety
Element 2.1
The Fire Triangle
A fire requires:
Ignition
– Any heat build up or a spark can
start a fire
Fuel
– All fires require some kind of fuel,
from petrol, material, fats or
chemicals
Oxygen
– Without oxygen a fire cannot be
sustained
Methods of Extinguishing a Fire
Cooling
– Cooling the fire to remove the heat, e.g. water
Starving
– Starving the fire of fuel, e.g. isolation of gas supply
Smothering
– Smothering the fire by limiting its oxygen supply, e.g.
foam extinguisher
Chemical Interference
– Interference of the flame reactions, e.g. method by which
some extinguishing media works.
32
The Combustion Process
Once combustion has been initiated it will be self-
supporting if the heat released by the combustion
process enables the reaction to continue.
It will continue with a supply of:
– Fuel;
– Oxygen; and
– Heat
Combustion, therefore, is a complex dynamic
process, and fires may burn either with or without
flames
Combustion of Methane Gas
Combustion can be expressed as a chemical equation.
An example involving a molecule of methane gas (CH4),
which happens every day on domestic gas cookers would
look like this:
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O – 890 kJ
The equation is balanced and represents the complete
combustion of methane.
This means that 1 molecule of methane and 2 molecules of
oxygen react to become 1 molecule of carbon dioxide and 2
molecules of water with 890 kilojoules of energy given off in
the form of heat and light
– (released heat energy is always expressed as a negative)
Combustion of Methane
Methane + oxygen + heat energy supplied=
carbon dioxide + water – heat energy released
33
Exothermic Reactions
Reactions that release heat are called
exothermic reactions
Combustion, therefore, is an exothermic
(gives off heat) reaction of a substance with
an oxidiser (normally oxygen).
The reaction requires an input of energy to
initiate it.
This energy comes from a source of ignition
heat e.g. a spark
Complete Combustion
Complete combustion, where all oxygen is
consumed in the combustion reaction, is the most
efficient combustion of fuel.
This occurs at the stoichiometric concentration
– i.e. when the fuel / oxygen ratio is ideal
The blue flame burning on a gas cooker with no
smoke or yellow flames are an example of the
complete combustion process.
Incomplete Combustion
Complete combustion in uncontrolled fires is rare as
very often flames are relatively starved of oxygen,
leading to incomplete combustion.
Incomplete combustion of organic materials leads to
the production of tarry and sooty decomposition
products, i.e. smoke is formed
Smoke is a heated mixture of air, gases and
particles.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is also formed during
incomplete combustion
34
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and
tasteless gas usually found wherever incomplete
combustion occurs, e.g. domestic boilers,
vehicle exhausts, furnaces and steelworks.
It is a toxic, flammable and explosive gas.
Inhalation of the gas results in headaches,
drowsiness, a flushed ‘pink’ appearance and
ultimately in asphyxiation.
Asphyxiation by Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is more readily
absorbed by the haemoglobin, the
oxygen carrying part of the red
blood cell, forming
carboxyhaemoglobin.
The supply of oxygen to all body
organs, including the brain is
therefore impaired.
Stages of Combustion
There are three stages to combustion:
– Induction
– Growth
– Decay
35
Stages of Combustion - Induction
Induction
– Incipient Stage - At this stage, decomposition is
occurring at the surface of the fuel due to the influence
of some form of heat. Products of combustion given
off at this stage are invisible to the eye.
– Smouldering Stage - At this stage, up to 10% of the
decomposing products released at the surface of the
fuel are visible.
The time required for a fire to develop through these
stages is usually quite long when compared to the
growth stage
Stages of Combustion - Growth
Growth
– Flaming Stage (ignition) - Vapours from the
decomposing fuel have ignited and are at the stage
where flames are self propagating.
– Heat Stage - At this stage the burning has progressed to
the point where the fire is still small but generating
sufficient heat to warm the air immediately around the
fire, sending warm products of combustion upwards by
convection.
Depending on conditions, the time involved going through
the induction and growth stages may be anything from
seconds to days.
What factors will affect the growth rate of a fire?
The rate of fire growth is influenced by:
Supply of oxygen
Percentage of oxygen present
Quantity of fuel available
Physical state of the material (e.g. solids require
more heat input)
Volatility (vaporisation) of solid and liquid fuels
Calorific value of the fuel, i.e. the heat liberated
Rate of heat transfer to other fuel sources
Containment of heat; and
Fuel / oxygen concentration, which is ideal at the
stoichiometric value
36
Stages of Combustion
Steady State and Decay
Steady state:
– Reached when the fuels that are present within the fire
area are burning at their full potential due to being fed
with sufficient oxygen to sustain their maximum burn
rate.
A fire will decay when:
– The source of fuel (combustible materials) diminishes
– When the levels of oxygen diminishes
– When the intensity of the heat diminishes to a level
where the fire can no longer be sustained (cooling)
Basic Chemical Reactivity
Endothermic:
– In thermodynamics, this describes a process or
reaction that absorbs energy in the form of heat.
– The concept is frequently applied in physical
sciences to e.g. chemical reactions, where
chemical bond energy is converted to thermal
energy (heat).
Some examples of endothermic processes are:
– Cooking food
– Melting of ice
– Depressurising a pressurised can
Endothermic Materials
Endothermic materials in passive fire protection:
– Endothermic substances, both natural, e.g. gypsum, and
synthetic (resin-based), swell as a result of heat exposure
They are popular for use in:
– Heat shielding
– Fire-resistive coatings for LPG vessels
– Compartmentalisation of fire in buildings, which is the
cornerstone of passive fire protection.
Typically, the technological basis is the conversion of
hydrates (chemically bound water) into vapour, or steam
37
Basic Chemical Reactivity
Exothermic:
– The opposite of an endothermic process is an exothermic
process, one that releases energy in the form of heat.
In an exothermic reaction:
– the total energy absorbed in bond breaking is less than
the total energy released in bond making.
– In other words, the energy needed for the reaction to
occur is less than the total energy provided.
– As a result of this, the extra energy is released, usually in
the form of heat.
Exothermic Reactions
Example exothermic reactions:
– Combustion reactions
Neutralisation reactions for instance direct reaction of
acid and base
Adding water to concentrated acid
Adding water to anhydrous copper sulphate
– Thermite reaction
Reactions taking place in a self-heating can based on
lime and aluminium
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
The Principles and Conditions for the Ignition of Solids, Liquids & Gases
Element 2.2
38
Identification of Sources of Ignition
Majority of fires need a source of ignition to start.
It is imperative, therefore that an assessment should be
made to identify possible sources of ignition in a
workplace.
Once these have been identified then the area can be
checked for combustible materials.
Once problem areas have been identified, a study can
be made to assess viability of separating the two.
If this is not possible some form of control measure
should be taken to minimise the risk of a fire.
Principles of Fire and Explosion
The physical state of a substance and its ability
to mix with oxygen affect its flammability
Flammable Materials
Most organic (carbon containing) solids (and
dusts), liquids and gases are flammable e.g.:
– Chemicals;
– Electrical equipment;
– Paper, card and wood;
– Plastics, rubber and foam;
– Furniture and textiles;
– Fixtures, fittings; and
– Waste material
39
Non-Flammable Materials
Most inorganic (non-carbon containing) substances are non-
flammable, however, there are a few exceptions:
– Aluminium
– Magnesium
– Titanium
Above 3 used widely in aircraft/warship manufacture
– Hydrogen
Emitted during battery charging
– Phosphorous
– Sulphur
Above 2 used in chemical processes
Ignition of Solid Materials ~ Slide 1
The ease with which a solid will ignite depends upon the
type of material and its physical state.
The smaller the particles of material, the easier it is to ignite
e.g.
– A pack of A4 paper will not ignite readily as it is packed
sheets with no air in the middle;
– Separate the sheets and each sheet will be easier to
ignite;
– Shred the pack of A4 paper and it will have lots of air in
the middle and again it will be easier to ignite.
When looking at sources and ignition we need to consider
the physical state of any potential fuel.
Ignition of Solid Materials ~ Slide 2
Solid material does not actually burn
When involved in a fire the solid will first
chemically decompose and produce carbon
products in the form of a vapour
It is these vapours that ignite when mixed with
oxygen from the air:
– Hold a lit match to a piece of paper:
It will be seen that the paper does not burst
into flames, but chars and goes black
Vapours are given off and it is these that burn
40
Ignition of Liquids & Gases
A flammable liquid gives off vapours and it is these
that ignite
The temperature and rate at which vapours are given
off will vary from one flammable liquid to another
Flammable liquids that more readily release vapours
are said to be more volatile than others
Some liquids, such as petroleum, readily give off
vapours at room temperature
Others, such as diesel oil, need to be heated before
they give off sufficient vapours to be a significant
risk.
Conditions for Ignition to Occur
Ignition occurs when a heat source e.g. a
spark, contains sufficient heat energy to
cause combustion of one or more
molecules of a flammable vapour or
substance.
To avoid ignition the simple principle of
separating the heat and fuel sources can
be used.
Heat Energy Definitions
Ignition heat energy has 3 measurements:
– Flash point
– Fire point
– Auto-ignition temperature
Other definitions we need to know are:
– Vapour pressure
– Vapour density; and
– Flammability limits
41
Flash Point
This is the minimum temperature where flammable
vapours are capable of being ignited momentarily by
an outside source of heat, e.g. a spark etc.
At this temperature, the ignited vapours will flash but
will not continue to burn. Combustion cannot
continue as there is insufficient heat generated to
replace the vapour that has ignited.
The flash point of a vapour or gas is one measure of
its fire potential.
The lower the flash point the greater the hazard.
Fire Point
The fire point of a fuel is the temperature at which
it will continue to burn after ignition for at least 5
seconds.
At the flash point, a lower temperature, a substance
will ignite, but vapour might not be produced at a
rate to sustain the fire.
Fire point is the lowest temperature at which a fuel
will produce sufficient vapours to form a mixture in
air that continuously supports combustion after
ignition.
Auto-ignition Temperature
The temperature at which combustible materials
ignite spontaneously in air without a spark or flame
being present.
Common fuels auto-ignition temperatures:
– Petroleum 400 oC
– Wood 300 oC
– Kerosene 215 oC
– Propane 480 oC
– Methane 580 oC
42
Vapour Pressure
Vapour pressure is a measure of the tendency of a material
to form a vapour.
The higher the vapour pressure, the higher the potential
vapour concentration and the more likely it is to be a fire
hazard (they are more volatile) than a similar material with a
lower vapour pressure.
The higher the vapour pressure of a material at a given
temperature, the lower the boiling point.
The boiling point is the temperature where the vapour
pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure.
All solids and liquids have a tendency to evaporate to a
gaseous form, and all gases have a tendency to condense
back to their liquid form.
Other Definitions
Vapour density:
– The density of a gas relative to the density of hydrogen or air at
the same temperature and pressure.
– Worked out by using molecular weights of the atoms concerned.
– The figure of vapour density is of little value as it is a theoretical
comparison to hydrogen.
Relative density:
– Is the ratio of the specific density of a substance to the specific
density of a standard substance under specified conditions.
– For vapours and gases, the standard is often air at the same
temperature and pressure.
– If the relative density is less than 1, it makes it lighter than air
and if greater than 1, heavier than air and likely to sink to a lower
level.
Other Definitions
Flammable limits:
– Gives the fractions of combustible gases in a mixture,
between which limits this mixture is flammable.
– Gas mixtures consisting of combustible, oxidising, and inert
gases are only flammable under certain conditions.
– The lower flammability limit (LFL) describes the leanest
mixture that is still flammable, i.e. the mixture with the
smallest fraction of combustible gas.
– The upper flammability limit (UFL) gives the richest
flammable mixture.
– Increasing the fraction of inert gases in a mixture raises the
LFL and decreases UFL.
43
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
Classifications of Fires
Element 2.3
Classifications of Fires
Fires are classified into five categories
The category of a fire determines the methods by
which the fire may be tackled to extinguish it
What type of fire extinguishers that can be used to
put out a fire is also dependent on the category
Fire extinguisher signage also denotes the
category of fire on which the extinguisher is safe
to use
Class A
Free burning carbonaceous
materials such as paper,
wood, card, cloth, rubber, etc.
The extinguishing mode is by
cooling the heat / ignition
source
44
Class B
Class B is for burning liquids.
It breaks down into two
separate classes:
– B1 - liquids soluble in water
(miscible) such as methanol.
These can be extinguished by
smothering or cooling
– B2 - liquids insoluble in water
(immiscible) such as petrol and
oils. These can be extinguished
by smothering
Class C
Fires that involve
flammable gases or
liquefied gases resulting
from leaks or spillage
These are extinguished
by smothering or starving
by removing the fuel if
safe to do so
Class D
These are specialist fires that involve metals such
as Aluminium or Magnesium.
These are extinguished by smothering with graphite
or talc.
45
Class F
Covers high temperature
cooking oils and fats in
large catering
establishments or
restaurants.
These are extinguished by
isolating the source of heat
and smothering the fire.
Electrical Fires
Not a class of fire
Could be involved in
any class of fire
It may be present as
a cause, ignition
source or separate
hazard
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
Principles of Fire Growthand Fire Spread
Element 2.4
46
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Direct burning
Principles of Heat Transmission
and Fire Spread
Conduction - spread of heat energy through solids;
Convection - heat transfer through a fluid or gas,
involving expansion and movement;
Radiation - emission of heat energy through
electromagnetic radiation in the infra-red part of the
spectrum, which is then absorbed by matter to
varying degrees
Direct Burning – combustible materials catching fire
through direct contact with flames.
Spread of Fire
When considering the type of building material to be
used and its application the following criteria should be
assessed:
– For safety of people:
Ignitability
Flammability
Surface spread of flame
Smoke (or gas) release.
– For safety of the building:
Heat release
Fire resistance
Flame penetration
Smoke (or gas) penetration.
Common Building Materials
47
The class of a material indicates the speed of surface
spread of flame across that material.
The classes (class 0 the best) are:
– Class 0 (plasterboard, woodwool slabs, mineral fibre board)
– Class 1 (wood treated with a fire retardant coating)
– Class 2 (wood pressure treated with fire retardant)
– Class 3 (chipboard, plywood, hardwood timber)
– Class 4 (soft-board, softwood timber)
Class 0 is not a true classification, but to be in Class 0 a
material must be Class 1 and must not contribute greatly
to the propagation of the fire.
Classification of Building Materials
Strong in compression, but weak in tension - will be
reinforced with steel in areas where it will be subject to stress
(e.g. lower part of a concrete beam)
The fire resistance of concrete is influenced by:
– Size and shape of element
– Disposition and properties of reinforcement
– The load supported
– Type of concrete and aggregate
– Conditions of end support
Steel reinforcement when heated up will loose strength
For mild steel 50% of its strength is lost at 550oC, for high
temperature steel this point is at 600oC (critical temperature).
Concrete
Metals may need surface protection to reduce
risk of fire spread via conduction
All metals soften and melt at high temperatures
Unprotected steel may give rise to danger of
collapse in a fire when it is heated to a
temperature where it has lost 2/3rds of its strength
Metals expand when heated
The expansion in a long beam could be enough
to push out walls leading to structure collapse
Metals
48
Advantages:
– Reduction in weight (1/3rd the weight of steel)
– Resistance to corrosion
– Ease of working and handling
– High strength to weight ration
Disadvantages:
– Very rapid loss of strength in a fire (100oC to 225oC)
– High expansion rate (twice that of steel)
– High thermal conductivity (3 times that of steel)
– Low melting points (658oC for pure aluminium)
Metals ~ Aluminium Alloys
The following methods can be used to protect
metal structural members:
– Solid protection
Sprayed or applied mineral coating
Intumescent coatings
– Hollow protection
Hollow section filled with water
Using lightweight blocks of concrete to fill hollow webs
of beams
– Design features such as fire retardant suspended
ceilings
Protection of MetalStructural Members
An intumescent is a substance which
swells as a result of heat exposure, thus
increasing in volume, and decreasing in
density.
Intumescents are typically endothermic to
varying degrees, as they can contain
chemically bound water
Intumescents are used in fire-stopping
and fire-proofing applications in buildings
Intumescent Materials
49
Normally consists of two outer skins of sheet metal (a
light alloy) with an infill of heat insulating material (e.g.
polyurethane or styrene foam)
Use giving rise to great concern:
– Buildings constructed of sandwich panels are liable to
sudden, unpredictable collapse when a fire occurs
– Panels falling out of their framework further accelerate
spread of fire
– Exposed/heated foam breaks down into volatile
flammable toxic gases
Fire brigades tend to use a non-attack strategy
Sandwich Panels
There are two basic types:
– Thermoplastics which when heated will soften
and melt
– Thermosetting; sets to a hard infusible form
Plastic materials are composed of combustible
organic material
Have limited resistance to fire and fire spread
Most when exposed to fire emit a considerable
amount of smoke and toxic fumes
Plastics
Non-combustible material
Will not contribute to the fire load (amount of combustible
material) of a building
Standard glass panels in doors/walls create a weak point in
fire compartmentation
Fire resisting glazing can give up to 11/2 hours fire resistance
Wired glass (usually 6mm thick and up to 1.6 m2 in area) can
give up to 11/2 hours fire resistance
Laminated glass (Pyran) comprising of 3 to 5 layers of glass
with interlayers of intumescent material which reacts at
120oC to form an opaque shield and prevents radiated heat
from passing through
Glazing Materials
50
Effects of Building Construction
In addition to the materials used to construct the building, the
actual construction of a building can increase the risk of fire
growth e.g.:
– Large open areas with little of no fire compartmentation
and can result in flashover
– Voids behind wall panelling
– False ceilings with open voids above
– Vertical shafts such as lifts
– Open stairwells
– Doors that are ill-fitting, damaged or wedged open
– Holes in fire resistant structures (to permit pipes and
cabling to be installed)
Effects of Contents
HSG 64 “Assessment of Fire Hazards from Solid Materials”
materials are categorised into high and normal risk.
The risk category is determined by the amount of smoke
produced by the material and maximum rate of temperature
rise.
Items that scored as high risk in both tests include:
– Acrylic fibre
– Acrylic mixture
– Acrylic over locks
– Expanded polystyrene
– Flexible polyether (Poly Urethane foam)
– Polypropylene sliver
– Rigid Poly Urethane foam (low density)
A fire burning outside of a building:
– Hot gases of combustion will rise into the atmosphere
– Will not have much effect on the materials involved in the fire
As a result, the speed of fire growth is generally slower
than it would be in a confined space
Open Burning Fire
51
Heat and gases build up will
have a greater effect on the
material involved in the fire
The speed of fire growth can
be devastating
Two specific phenomena
contributing to fire growth are:
– Flashover
– Backdraught
Physically Enclosed Burning Fire
Can occur if a fire is free burning in a room
– Must have a good supply of air e.g. large room, open
door, open window or ventilation system
The radiated heat heats up all other material in
the room until they reach their spontaneous
ignition temperature
Items in the room instantly ignite
Gives impression that the fire has ‘flashed over’
from one side of the room to another
Flashover
To occur a fire must start in a closed room environment
(doors/windows closed & little air flow)
Burning fire will use up oxygen in room
Fire will die down, but often does not go out
A smouldering fire remains that fills room with high
temperature smoke (flammable gases mixed with fuel
particles that would normally be burnt off)
If someone opens a door, oxygen is allowed to enter
and the flammable gas/fuel can instantly ignite if they
are at their spontaneous ignition temperature
If it happens, it will be with an explosive force driving
flames out of the opening at 10 m/sec and 1100oC
Backdraught
52
Cold smoke will spread laterally, possibly at low level,
with a principle hazard of low visibility
Hot smoke:
– Is a fuel above its ignition temperature and will
spontaneously combust when it reaches available oxygen.
– It will be carried with the convection current produced by
the combustion process
– It will spread laterally across the ceiling then upwards at
every opportunity
– Due to its buoyant nature, it can travel a considerable
distance from the seat of the fire
Smoke Spread in Buildings
Smoke consists of:
– Unburnt carbonaceous material
– Gases that are both flammable and toxic
The majority of gases in smoke will be:
– Carbon monoxide
– Toxins such as hydrogen chloride from combustion of
electrical conductor insulation
– Cyanide compounds from combustion of synthetic
upholstery form infill
These gases will quickly render people unconscious
and cause death, which could explain why
– The majority of people who die from fires that occur
when they are asleep tend not to attempt to escape
Smoke
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
Principles of Explosion and Explosive Combustion
Element 2.5
53
Explosions and Definitions ~ 1
Explosion:
– an abrupt oxidation, or decomposition reaction
that produces an increase in temperature, or
pressure, or in both temperature and pressure
simultaneously.
Explosive Atmosphere:
– flammable substances in the form of gases,
vapours, mists or dusts mixed with air under
atmospheric conditions, which, after ignition has
occurred, combustion spreads to the entire
unburned mixture.
Explosions and Definitions ~ 2
Deflagration
– process of subsonic combustion that usually
propagates through thermal conductivity (hot
burning material heats the next layer of cold
material and ignites it).
Detonation
– process of supersonic combustion in which a
shock wave is propagated forward due to
energy release in a reaction zone behind it. It is
the more powerful of the two general classes of
combustion, the other being deflagration
Explosions and Definitions ~ 3
BLEVE – Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion:
– an explosion due to the flashing of liquids when a vessel
with a high vapour pressure substance fails
CGE – Confined Gas Explosion:
– explosion within tanks, process equipment, sewage
systems, underground installations, closed rooms, etc.
UVCE – Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion:
– a vapour/gas explosion (deflagration or detonation) in an
unconfined, unobstructed close
54
Mechanism of Explosion
An explosion is the “rapid flame propagation
throughout an area containing flammable
gases, vapours and other dusts”.
The substance has to be mixed with air in such
proportions that the mixture is within
flammability range of the substance.
Gas/vapour/dust clouds can be ignited and
cause explosions in both confined and
unconfined states.
Gas/Vapour/Dust Cloud Ignition ~ 1
When a cloud is ignited, the flame can propagate in
two different modes through it. These modes are:
– Deflagration
– Detonation
The most common mode is deflagration.
During deflagration the flame front travels at
subsonic speeds through the unburned gas; typical
flame speeds do no reach higher than 300m/s.
The pressure developed in front of the flame
explosion may reach values of several bars.
Gas/Vapour/Dust Cloud Ignition ~ 2
The speed of travel of the flame front during detonation is
supersonic.
In a fuel/air cloud a detonation wave will move at speeds of
between 1500 and 2000m/s and the peak pressure in front of
the flame can reach 15 to 20 bar.
The pressure front when enclosed can cause substantial
damage including the collapse of structures.
Where ignition of the cloud is from a weak source e.g. a hot
surface, the ignition will initially start as a slow burning
deflagration.
When deflagration becomes sufficiently rapid, a sudden
transition to detonation may occur.
55
Explosions
Unconfined explosions can cause devastation over
a large area (e.g. Buncefield explosion)
Explosions can occur with such gases as
hydrogen, propane and acetylene.
Dusts that can also be sources of explosions
include aluminium, coal, flour and polythene.
In a dust explosion, there is an initial smaller
“Primary Explosion” which is then followed by a
devastating “Secondary Explosion”.
Lower & Upper Explosion Limits
The explosive limit of gases/vapours, is the limiting
concentration (in air) that is needed for the gas to ignite and
explode.
There are two explosive limits for any gas or vapour:
– lower explosive limit (LEL) & upper explosive limit (UEL).
At concentrations in air below the LEL there is not enough
fuel to continue an explosion;
At concentrations above the UEL the fuel has displaced so
much air that there is not enough oxygen to begin a reaction.
Concentrations of explosive gases are often given in terms
of percent of lower explosive limit (%LEL).
Conditions for Gas Explosions
The atmosphere into which the gas is dispersed
must contain sufficient oxidant to support
combustion
The gas must have a concentration within the
explosive range (LEL and UEL)
The gas cloud must be in contact with an ignition
source of sufficient energy to cause ignition
56
Conditions for Dust Explosions ~ Slide 1
The dust must be explosible
The dust must have a particle size distribution that will
allow propagation of flame
The atmosphere into which the dust is dispersed as a
cloud or suspension must contain sufficient oxidant to
support combustion
The dust cloud must have a concentration within the
explosive range
The dust cloud must be in contact with an ignition
source of sufficient energy to cause ignition
Conditions for Dust Explosions ~ Slide 2
Dust particles larger than 400µm are not
combustible.
Particles are combustible when they measure from
20µm and up to 400µm
Dust is combustible within certain concentration
parameters:
– lower combustibility limit: approx. 20 to 60 g/m3 air
– upper combustibility limit: approx. 2 to 6 kg/m3 air
Dust Explosions – Types of Material
The types of material that often cause dust
explosions include:
– Coal and peat
– Metals such as iron, zinc, aluminium
– Natural organic materials such as grain, lime,
sugar etc.
– Process materials such as plastics, organic
pigments (paint), pesticides etc.
57
Classification of Explosions
An explosion that occurs within vessels, pipes, tunnels
or channels will be classified as a confined gas
explosion (CGE)
An explosion which occurs in process plants or
unconfined areas will be classified as an unconfined
vapour cloud explosion (UVCE)
Where the cloud is formed by a liquid rapidly expanding
from a ruptured vessel which is substantially above is
boiling point (e.g. liquid methane in a tanker which is on
fire), that is then ignited causing it to detonate, is
classified as a Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour
Explosion (BLEVE)
Principles of Explosion Management
These principles are given in of The Dangerous Substance
and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations (DSEAR):
– Reduce quantity of dangerous substances held
– Avoid or minimise the release of the substance
– Control of the release at source
– Prevent of the formation of an explosive atmosphere
(includes ventilation)
– Ensure any release is suitably collected, safely contained
and removed to a safe place or rendered safe
– Avoid ignition sources in area and adverse conditions
which could give rise to harmful physical effects
– The segregation of incompatible substances.
Principle of Gas/VapourExplosion Suppression
Controlling gas and vapour concentrations outside the
explosive limits is a major consideration in occupational
safety and health.
Methods used include use of:
– Dilution ventilation;
– Sweep gas, an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon to
dilute the explosive gas before coming in contact with air;
– Scrubbers or adsorption resins to remove explosive
gases before release are also common.
Gases can also be maintained safely at concentrations
above the UEL, although a breach in the storage container
can lead to explosive conditions or intense fires
58
Principle of DustExplosion Suppression
Controlling sources of ignition (covered later)
Inerting:
– The addition of inert substances to either the dust or
the atmosphere to prevent the formation of explosible
dust clouds
Typical equipment in which explosions are prevented by
inerting are:
– Enclosed reactors, mixers, mills, dryers, oven filters
and dust collectors
– Hoppers and silos
– Conveyors and bucket elevators
Dust Inerting Types
Diluent dust addition:
– Render explosible dust non-explosible by acting as
a heat sink or interfering with flame propagation
(e.g. calcium sulphate, limestone, sodium
bicarbonates, various silicates etc.)
Use of an inert gas:
– Involves the partial or complete substitution, by inert
gas, of the air with which the dust is mixed. The
choice of inert gas depends on a number of factors.
Choices include carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon,
helium, steam, flue gases etc.
Mitigating Effects of an Explosion
Bursting Discs:
– Plant and machinery have a bursting disc built into them.
This is a weak spot that is designed to rupture at a pre-
determined pressure. This will vent the pressure
immediately and prevent a more damaging explosion
occurring.
59
Sources of Referenceand Statutory Instruments
INDG 227 – Safe working with flammable substances
HSG 140 – Safe use and handling of flammable liquids
HSG 103 – Safe handling of combustible dusts ~ precautions
against explosions
FIS2 – Dust suppressions in the food industry
The Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) of
Substances Regulations 2015 (a European Regulation)
The Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres
Regulations 2002
Building Regulations 2010 Approved Document B ~ Fire
Safety
The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Schedule 4
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
NEBOSH Fire CertificateThe Causes and Prevention of
Fires
Element 3
Element 3 Learning Outcomes
On completion of this element candidates should be
able to:
– Explain the causes of fires and explosions in
typical work activities;
– Outline appropriate control measures to minimise
fire risk
60
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
Causes of Fires and Explosion in Typical Work Activities
Element 3.1
Accidental Fires
Account for 57% of all fires in the UK
They can be grouped into the following:
– Careless actions (26%)
– Misuse of equipment and appliances
(24%)
– Defective equipment (50%)
78% being due to faulty appliances
and leads
Common Sources of Ignition
Electrical faults
Overloaded circuits
Overheating equipment
Static Electricity
Use of non-intrinsically safe
electrical / electronic
equipment
Radiated heat from
legitimate sources such as
light bulbs
Hot surfaces such as
soldering irons etc
Smokers’ material
Sparks from:
Welding equipment
Electrical equipment
Grinding equipment
Oxy-acetylene welding
Fixed or portable heaters
Cooking equipment
Bitumen boilers
Steam pipes
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Storage of Flammable Materials
Common causes fires involving storage of flammable
materials:
– Lack of awareness of their properties
– Operator error, due to lack of training
– Inadequate or poor storage facilities
– Hot work to close to containers
– Exposure to heat from nearby fires
– Inadequate control of ignition sources
– Dismantling or disposing of containers
– Inadequate design, installation or maintenance of equipment
– Decanting flammable materials in unsuitable storage areas
Transportation in Workplace
Incidents common occur in handling operations, including:
– Movement from storage or within the premises
– Decanting or dispensing
– Unsecured storage within a vehicle
– Emptying vehicle fuel tanks
– Dealing with spillages
Common causes:
– Lack of awareness of their properties
– Operator error due to lack of training
– Inadequate or poor transport facilities
– Absence of spillage strategies
– Electrostatic discharge
– Poor design, installation or maintenance of pipe installations
Smokers Material and Lightning
Smokers material:
– Causes 7% of accidental fires in non-
residential premises
– Prohibiting smoking except in designated
areas is an effective control
Lightning:
– Strikes on buildings (especially tall
ones) can cause power surges and
faults in equipment an cables
– Can be hazard in farms where chemical
substances are stored
– Protection often effected by earthing
rods
62
Construction and Maintenance Work
Many serious fires occur in existing buildings during
maintenance and construction work
Increased fire risks are present during these
activities
Additional fire precautions needed
May be necessary to carry out new fire risk
assessment to include new hazards e.g.
– Additional sources of ignition
– Additional sources of combustible materials
Materials can obstruct escape routes if not
adequately controlled
Construction & Maintenance Work Issues
Accumulation of flammable waste and building materials
Obstruction or loss of exits and exit routes
Flammable products being introduced (adhesives/gases)
Materials stored in unusual locations (roof/basement)
Boxes being stored in corridors
Off cuts of wood and sawdust left in work areas
Packing from materials
Pallets and plastic covering left where materials were used
Flammable liquids not controlled
Bulk storage not kept outside away from buildings/sources of heat
Part empty pots or tubes of adhesive
Waste disposal procedures
Other Possible Construction Hazards
Demolition:
– Flammable materials from previous use
– Residues in old storage tanks
– Flammable liquids/gases in confined spaces
– Use of bonfires to dispose of some waste materials
Use of oxy-fuel equipment:
– Welding
– Hot work
Temporary electrical installations:
– Incorrect standards/specifications for the work
– Trailing cables and leads
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Arson Statistics – England
Arson – Statistics for England
Each week there are on average 1,416 fires recorded as
occurring in England (2015-2016 statistics) of which 372
are arson attacks.
Weekly arson attacks include:
– 274 secondary fires (excluding outdoor fires) e.g. fires
involving refuse and single derelict buildings.
– 11 outdoor fires (brush, trees, crops, grassland etc.)
– 48 involving road vehicles (usually to cover a crime)
– 15 in dwellings
– 22 in other buildings (e.g. businesses, schools etc)
Arson – Motives and Signs
Possible motives:
– Vandalism / boredom
– Concealment of crime
– Insurance fraud
– Jealous competitor
– Pyromaniac
– Attention seeking
Signs of arson:
– Multiple seats of fire
– Use of an accelerant
– Forced entry
– Fire in an unnatural position
– Movement of goods /
combustibles prior to fire
– Disablement of fire detection /
extinguishment systems
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Arson – Influencing Factors
Location of premises (many arson attacks related
to general societal problems)
Premises built in run down inner city area are at
greater risk than those in rural areas
Position of building to public roadway
Frequency of people passing by
Potential of building to trespass (may set fire to
rubbish bins, skips, vehicles etc)
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
Appropriate Control Measures to Minimise Fire Risks
Element 3.2
Arson and Security
Good levels of security an effective deterrent
External:
– Control of people having
access to the building or
site
– Use of patrol guards
– Lighting at night
– Safety of keys
– Structural protection
– Site of rubbish bins at least
8m from buildings
Internal:
– Good housekeeping
– Inspections
– Clear access routes
– Visitor supervision
– Control of sub-
contractors
– Audits
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Preventing Arson
Management trained to be prepared for arson
Perimeter security issues addressed
Secured access into premises (roller shutters)
Active measures (CCTV, intruder alarms etc.)
Storage facilities kept away from external walls
Waste bins etc kept minimum of 8m from walls
Secured wheeled waste receptacles
Regular disposal of waste from site
Removal of dry vegetation close to premises
Awareness children gaining access especially during school
holidays
Prevention of FireIn Use Flammable Materials
In use quantities kept to a minimum, excess
quantities correctly stored
If large quantities used, consider piped systems
Container lids always replaced after use
Rags impregnated with product disposed of safely
Common electrical earth bonding in areas where
dispensing / charging containers with flammable
materials is carried out
Only trained and competent operatives to use
flammable materials.
Prevention of FireStorage of Flammable Materials
Keep quantities to a minimum
Up to 50 litres of highly flammable liquids in a fire resisting container
Use external storage – should provide 30 minutes fire resistance
Keep storage areas well ventilated
Store flammable liquids in a bunded area, or use a drip tray
Keep empty containers separate to full ones
Prevent possible external damage to storage containers
Isolate damaged or leaking containers
Create separation between storage containers / limit height of stacks
Use of flame proof lighting in storage areas
Permit only authorised access
Signage and training of persons involve in storage operations
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Prevention of FireTransport within the Workplace
If large quantities used, consider piped systems
Purpose designed metal flameproof containers used to
transport small quantities with lids and anti-spill features
Checks on container lids before moving
Palletised containers to be made secure before moving
Hazard warning signs displayed on containers
Common electrical earth bonding in areas where dispensing
/ charging containers with flammable materials is carried out
Only trained and competent operatives to transport
flammable materials
Safe Storage
V I C E S Ventilation – provide plenty of fresh air to rapidly
disperse and vapours
Ignition – control ignition sources
Containment – use suitable containers and
provide spillage control
Exchange – consider whether a safer alternative
can be used to do the task
Separation – store away from process areas
(physical barrier, wall or partition where possible)
Housekeeping
Good housekeeping will reduce the likelihood of fire
Poor housekeeping not only affects the ease with
which a fire can occur, develop and spread, but can
lead to:
– Blocked fire exits
– Obstructed escape routes
– Difficulty in accessing fire alarm call points, extinguishers
and hose reels
– Obstruction of vital signs and notices
– A reduction in the effectiveness of automatic fire detectors
and sprinklers.
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Fire Safety Checks and Inspections
Fire safety checks and inspections should:
– Help prevent fires in the workplace
– Ensure escape routes are clear of obstructions
– Monitor fire safety standards
– Keep staff aware of fire safety issues
– Reinforce the role of employees, supervisors,
managers and fire marshals
Fire Safety Audit
A systematic review of fire prevention arrangements
should be carried out by means of an audit at
agreed intervals
It will be carried out by a Fire Safety Manager
It will verify the quality/appropriateness of the
inspection system, maintenance arrangements and
understanding of the roles of those with specific
responsibility
The assurance of fire safety arrangements should
increase as a result of having audits
Safe Waste Disposal
Considerations:
Does waste give off flammable vapours, if so is there
the potential for them to be ignited?
Is the waste in a dust format and if disturbed can it
create a flammable dust cloud?
How easy will it be for an arsonist to gain access to
the waste and ignite them?
If waste is ignited, what will be the effects?
Does the waste need to be removed by a specialist
company?
Are hazards created by current disposal methods?
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Safe Systems of Work
A system to manage residual risks after the
controls identified by the risk assessment have
been implemented
An agreement between management and staff
defining how to perform tasks safely
Normally a written procedure, but can be oral
depending on the level of risk involved
Needs to ensure that fire hazards are not created
or risks of fires occurring increased
Minimising Fire Risk
Safe operating procedures
– Used to ensure unnecessary fire hazards or risks are not
introduced
Planned and preventive maintenance
– Used to ensure mechanical or electrical defects are not
the cause of fires
Management of contractors
– Contractors on site increase the risk of fires, choosing
competent contractors who have a good safety record can
reduce this risk.
Permits to work
– Most commonly used is a ‘hot work permit’
Safe Systems of Work -Considerations
People:
– Behavioural traits, knowledge, skill, awareness,
training and level of supervision
Equipment:
– Safe use, suitable environment and maintenance
Materials:
– Type, form and exposure to possible ignition
sources
Environment:
– Heating, lighting and ventilation
69
Existing BuildingsPotential Construction Work Problems
Accumulation of flammable waste and building materials
The obstruction or loss of an exit or exit routes
Fire doors propped open or missing
Openings being created in fire resisting structures
Introduction of additional electrical equipment or other sources of ignition
Introduction of flammable materials e.g. adhesives
Possibility of false alarms due to dust setting off detectors
Covers being left off detectors close to work
Disconnection of fire protective systems e.g. sprinklers
Introduction of contractors into site who may not be aware of the hazards present (e.g. bypassed induction procedure)
Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) Regulations 2015
The regulation requires companies to appropriately
classify, label and package their substances and
mixtures before placing them on the market.
It aims to protect workers, consumers and the
environment by labelling that reflects a particular
chemical's possible hazards.
It also addresses the notification of classifications,
the establishment of a list of harmonised
classifications and the creation of a classification
and labelling inventory, as required by REACH.
Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) Regulations 2015
Physio-Chemical Properties:
– Explosive
– Oxidizing
– Extremely flammable - FP <23oC
– Highly flammable – FP <32oC
– Flammable – FP => 32oC
– Pressurised Non-hazard
Environmental:
– Acute and Chronic Toxicity to
the aquatic environment
– Hazardous to the ozone layer
*FP = Flash Point
Health Effects:
– Acute toxicity
– Chronic toxicity
– Harmful
– Corrosive
– Irritant
– Sensitising (inhalation/skin)
– Carcinogenic (Cat 1/3)
– Mutagenic (Cat 1/3)
– Toxic for reproduction (Cat
1/3)
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Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002 (DSEAR)
Employers must:
– find out what dangerous substances are in their workplace and
what the risks are;
– put control measures in place to either remove those risks or,
where this is not possible, control them;
– put controls in place to reduce the effects of any incidents
involving dangerous substances;
– prepare plans and procedures to deal with accidents, incidents
and emergencies involving dangerous substances;
– make sure employees are properly informed about and trained
to control or deal with the risks from the dangerous substances;
– identify and classify areas of the workplace where explosive
atmospheres may occur and avoid ignition sources (from
unprotected equipment, for example) in those areas.
DSEAR Hazardous Zone Classifications
Zone 0Explosive atmosphere in air with gas, vapour or mist present
continuously, or for long periods of time.
Zone 1Explosive atmosphere in air with gas, vapour or mist likely to
occur in normal operations occasionally.
Zone 2
Explosive atmosphere in air with gas, vapour or mist not likely
to occur in normal operations, but if it does it will be for a short
period only.
Zone 20Explosive atmosphere in air with a cloud of combustible dust
present continuously, or for long periods of time.
Zone 21Explosive atmosphere in air with a cloud of dust likely to occur
in normal operations occasionally.
Zone 22Explosive atmosphere in air with dust not likely to occur in
normal operations, but if it does it will be for a short period only.
Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 2015 (COMAH)
Applicable to any establishment storing or otherwise handling large
quantities of industrial chemicals of a hazardous nature.
Types of establishments include chemical warehousing, chemical
production facilities and some distributors.
The regulations operate on two levels depending on the
establishment's status which is divided into two categories, 'Lower
Tier' and 'Upper Tier', determined by inventory.
Lower tier establishments are required to document a Major
Accident Prevention Policy (MAPP).
A top tier COMAH establishment is required to produce a full safety
report which demonstrates that all necessary measures have been
taken to minimise risks posed by the site with regard to the
environment and local populations (i.e. on site and off site
emergency plans).
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SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
NEBOSH Fire CertificateFire Protection in Buildings
Element 4
Overall Aims
For the candidates to be able to:
Outline the means of fire protection and prevention of fire
spread within buildings in relation to building construction
and design;
Explain the requirements of a means of escape;
Outline the methods and systems available to give early
warning in cases of fire, both for life safety and property
protection;
Outline the selection procedures for basic fire extinguishing
methods for both life risk and process risk;
Explain the requirements for ensuring access for the fire
service is provided and maintained.
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
The Means of Fire Protection and Prevention of Fire Spread within Buildings in Relation to
Building Construction and Design
Element 4.1
72
Building Regulations 2010
Powers to make building regulations contained in Building
Act 1984
The Act provides that they may be made for the purpose of:
– Securing the health, safety, welfare and convenience of
persons in or about the buildings
– For furthering the conservation of fuel and power
– For preventing waste, misuse or contamination of water
Current building regulations contain a broad range functional
requirements to which building work must comply, covering:
– structure, fire safety, sound insulation, ventilation,
conservation of fuel and power, facilities and access for
disabled people etc.
They are grouped under 16 parts (A, B, C thro’ to R)
Building Regs 2010 Fire SafetyApproved Document B 2010 Edition
Covers:
B1 - Means of warning and escape
B2 - Internal fire spread (linings)
B3 - Internal fire spread (structure)
B4 - External fire spread
B5 - Access and facilities for the fire service
Internal Fire Spread - B2 (Linings)
Covers:
– Partitions / Walls / Ceilings or Internal structures
Requirement:
– To inhibit the spread of fire in a building, the
internal linings shall:
Adequately resist the spread of flames over
their surfaces; and
Have, if ignited, a rate of heat release or a rate
of fire growth, which is reasonable in the
circumstances
73
Internal Fire Spread - B3 (Structure)
Requirement:
– Buildings to be designed/constructed so that, in a
fire, it keeps it’s stability for a reasonable period
– A wall common to two or more buildings shall be
designed and constructed so that it adequately
resists the spread of fire.
– To inhibit spread, buildings shall be sub-divided
with fire resisting construction.
– Buildings shall be designed so that the unseen
spread of fire and smoke within concealed
spaces is inhibited
Elements of a Building Structure
With a few exceptions given in the BR ‘Approved
Document B’, the following are defined as structure
elements:
– A member forming part of the structural frame of
a building or any other beam or column;
– A load bearing wall or load bearing part of a wall
– A floor
– A gallery
– An external wall
– A compartment wall
Requirement for Fire Resistancefor Structure Elements
Required to maintain the integrity of fire compartments
If a service penetrates vertical or horizontal compartments it
should not decrease fire resistance
Fire resistant structures found in many forms:
– Typical brick, block work and plaster finish structures can
give in excess of 1 hours fire resistance
– Hollow partition stud wall with plasterboard finish both
sides will give 30 minutes fire resistance
Common failing is unauthorised openings being made in the
fire resistant structure
Any holes made should be made good with fire resistant
materials of equal or better standard than the original
74
Factors to Consider AboutFire Resistance of Structure Elements
Potential fire severity
Building height
Building occupancy
Resistance to collapse
– Load bearing capacity of an element also know as
stability; its ability to withstand the load on it under fire
conditions
Fire penetration
– Integrity; the ability of a structure element to prevent
failure
Transfer of excessive heat
– Insulation of structure elements to prevent spread of fire
Compartmentation
Designed to prevent spread of fire from one part of a building
to another
Regulations limit size of compartments in certain buildings
Single storey factory units can have one large compartment
Achieved by use of compartment walls and floors which should
withstand a fire for a minimum of 30 minutes (dependent on
the purpose and use of building)
Fire should be contained in the compartment by the nature of
the fire resistant materials used
Stairwells and ducts should also form separate compartments
to prevent vertical spread
Large compartments may be fitting with sprinkler systems in an
attempt to limit the size and spread of fire
Protection of Openings in Compartmentation
Openings in fire compartmentation gives rise to the
potential for fire to spread
Doors are typically set into fire compartments and
will need to have a degree of fire resistance
Need to be in good state of repair, fit correctly and be
closed in the event of a fire
Steel fire shutters are another way of preventing fire
spread and are often used in theatres
Fire dampers in ducting to close off air ventilation
and circulation systems in the event of a fire
Fire dampers (shutters) should be fitted in line with
the remainder of the buildings fire compartmentation.
75
Fire Stopping
The build up of heat and smoke in the area of a fire will be
driven through even the smallest of openings
It is essential that openings and gaps that breach fire
resistant lines are fire stopped to limit fire spread
Traditionally done using bricks / mortar, installing fire
dampers / shutters in ducting etc.
Now also achieved by using intumescent materials to fill
gapes or intumescent grills in ducting
An intumescent:
– A substance which swells as a result of heat exposure, thus
increasing in volume, and decreasing in density
– Are typically used in passive fire protection especially around
doors
Protection of Concealed Spaces (Cavities)
Large voids can be routes for fire, smoke and gases to spread
Fire can spread quickly & go unnoticed until it is too late
Compartmentation of concealed spaces and cavities is therefore
essential
Often achieved by using retardant blankets suspended from the
upper face of a void and spanning the entire space
– Rock wool mineral fibre is often used for these blankets
They produce a fire barrier and thus limits fire spread
Rock and Slag Wool
Properties:
– Excellent thermal
insulation
– Excellent fire
resistance
– Excellent sound
absorption
– Mould, fungi and
bacteria resistant
76
The class of a material indicates the speed of surface
spread of flame across that material.
The classes (Class ‘0’ best) are:
– Class 0 (plasterboard, woodwool slabs, mineral fibre board)
– Class 1 (wood treated with a fire retardant coating)
– Class 2 (pressure treated timber)
– Class 3 (chipboard, plywood, hardwood timber)
– Class 4 (soft-board, softwood timber)
Class 0 is not a true classification, but to be in Class 0 a
material must be Class 1 and must not contribute
greatly to the propagation of the fire.
Classification of Building Materials
Normally consists of two outer skins of sheet metal (a
light alloy) with an infill of heat insulating material (in the
past this use to be polyurethane or styrene foam)
Use giving rise to great concern:
– Buildings constructed of sandwich panels are liable to
sudden, unpredictable collapse when a fire occurs
– Panels falling out of their framework further accelerate
spread of fire
– Exposed/heated foam breaks down into volatile
flammable toxic gases
Fire brigades tend to use a non-attack strategy
In recent times they have been used as cladding.
Sandwich Panels
Internal Fire Growth & Lining Materials
Building boards and slabs classification examples:
Plasterboard
Woodwool slabs
Mineral fibre board
Chipboard
Plywood
Softboard
Escape routes and circulation spaces within buildings
should have both ceilings and walls comprising materials
of Class ‘0’ standard
Class 0
Class 0
Class 0
Class 3
Class 3
Class 4
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Internal Fire Growth & Lining Materials
Wall linings should not be easily ignitable
Consideration to be given to potential growth of fire
and possibility of flashover
Wall LiningFlashover
Time
Dense non-combustible material e.g. brick 23 mins 30 secs
Fibre insulation board with skim of plaster 12 minutes
Hardboard with 2 coats of flat oil paint 8 mins 15 secs
Non-combustible insulating material 8 minutes
External Fire Spread – B4
Requirement, having regard to the height,
use and positioning of the building:
– The external walls of the building shall
adequately resist the spread of fire over
the walls and from one building to
another
– The roof of the building shall adequately
resist the spread of fire over the roof and
from one building to another.
External Fire Spread – Slide 1
Construction of external walls and the separation between
buildings can prevent external spread of fire
The likelihood of spread depends on:
– Size and intensity of the fire in the building concerned
– Distance between the buildings
– Fire protection given by the facing sides of the buildings
Controlling external fire spread
– External walls constructed of a material that prevents or
reduces the risk of ignition from an external source and
the spread of fire over its surface
– Unprotected openings limited to reduce risk of thermal
radiation affecting an adjacent building
– Roof constructed so that risk of spread of flame and/or
fire penetration from an external source is limited
78
External Fire Spread – Slide 2
Construction of external walls and roofs:
– Structure must be able to withstand effects
of fire
– Minimum fire resistance for structure
elements is 30 minutes and often 60
minutes
– Fire resistance requirements can be
affected by proximity of adjacent buildings
and site boundary.
External Fire Spread – Slide 3
Distance between buildings:
– Critical distance is 1 metre – less and building
regulations will impose various requirements
– Amount of unprotected openings in a wall
facing another building is another factor
An unprotected opening is an opening with a
lower fire resistance than the minimum
requirement for the wall itself (e.g. a window
in a brick wall)
Again requirements are greater if distance is
less than 1 metre
SuccessfulPractical
Relevant
Means of Escape
Element 4.2
79
Means of Escape – B1
Requirement:
– The building shall be designed and
constructed so that there are appropriate
provisions for the early warning of fire, and
appropriate means of escape in case of fire
from the building to a place of safety outside
the building capable of being safely and
effectively used at all material times.
Means of Escape Definitions/Guidance
Means of escape:
– Route(s) provided to ensure safe egress from the
premises or other location to a place of total safety
Place of total safety:
– A place away from the premises in which people are
at no immediate danger from the effects of fire
Guidance:
– BS5588 Pt II Fire Precautions in the Design,
Construction and Use of Buildings (best practice, but
has no legal status)
General Principles of Escape
There should be alternative means of escape from
most situations
Where direct escape is not possible, should be able
to reach a place of “reasonable safety”
Escape routes will often consist of two parts:
– The first being the unprotected workplace or
accommodation and circulation areas
– The second, protected stairways (and some
protected corridors)
80
Alternative Routes
There is a possibility that a single escape route to a
place of safety may become impassable
Alternative routes should be provided so people can
move away from smoke and flames
Sometimes alternative routes not possible and a single
route can be accepted as providing reasonable safety
dependant on?
– Use of building and associated fire risk
– Size and height of building
– Extent of number of dead ends
– Numbers of persons accommodated within the
building
Maximum Travel Distances
Not possible to set maximum distances that
would universally apply to travel to the final
exit point
Codes of practice sets out guidance on
reasonable distances for a given situation
(next slide)
Guidance should only be exceeded if a
suitable and sufficient fire risk assessment
has determined that a less than average risk
can be established.
Escape Distances Table
81
Measuring Escape Distances
Measuring Escape Distances
Escape Times
Everyone in the building should be able to get to the
nearest place of safety (‘total’ or ‘reasonable safety’) in
between 2 and 3 minutes
If there is only one means of escape, or where the risk
of fire is high, the escape time should only be 1 minute
Regardless of the nature of the building the means of
escape should be as short as possible
The reaction time of people before they begin a fire
evacuation should also be taken into account
All these points should be considered when carrying out
the Fire Risk Assessment
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Number & Size of Escape Routes
Where possible existing means of entrance to
and exit from the building should be used
These doors should be considered for suitability
of location, number and width
– If sufficient, additional routes not necessary
– If insufficient, further exits should be
considered
Minimum width of an exit should be 750 mm
More than one exit should be provided if more
than 60 people are in a room or building
Occupancy Calculations
Can be simply carried out by checking the numbers
using a work area
However, possible changes to work area, may vary
the occupancy levels
Depending on the type of situation there are
requirements for empty calculation space per person:
Dining room, committee room 1.0 m2
Offices 6.0 m2
Standing areas in bars 0.3 m2
Art gallery, dormitory, factory production area,
museum or workplace5.0 m2
Requirement for Escape Stairs
Number:
– In general there will be more than one escape stairway
– Various considerations will affect the actual number
needed
Width of escape stairs:
– Not less than width of any exits giving access to the stairs
– Have a minimum width of 1 metre
– Not be too wide so that people spread out during
evacuation
– Be fitted with a handrail where necessary (dependant on
width)
– Not reduce in width at any point on the way to the final exit
Be suitably protected against fire penetration
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Doors
Prevent the spread of fire and smoke
Ensure means of escape for people using the building
Should be easily and immediately operable - must not be
locked or fastened that they cannot be easily opened by any
person who may require to use the exit
Should lead to the assembly point
Be wide enough to accommodate the number of people
expected to use them
Emergency doors must open in the direction of the escape
Sliding or revolving doors must not be used for exits
specifically intended as emergency exits
Usually fitted with 3 hinges and positive self-closing
mechanism
Emergency Lighting
Emergency lighting is provided to:
– Indicate clearly the escape route
– Provide illumination along such routes to allow
safe movement towards the means of escape
– Ensure fire alarm call points and fire fighting
equipment located along the route can be readily
located
Emergency routes and exits requiring illumination
must be provided with emergency lighting of
adequate intensity
Emergency lighting should be maintained and tested
Signage
Health & Safety (Signs & Signals) Regs (SSSR) 96
White pictogram on green background (often has
supplementary text)
Also mandatory signs – white text/pictogram on blue
background (can be reversed):
Method of sound alarm
Method of calling the FRS
Method of evacuation
Location of assembly point
Specific instructions (Do Not Re-Enter)
84
Progressive Horizontal Evacuation
Horizontal escape into the adjoining
compartments
Object to provide a place of ‘reasonable safety’
Further evacuation made if necessary under
less pressure of time
Integrity of building and fire resistance of
compartments needs to be assured for this
method
Used in hospitals, care homes and other similar
premises
Maintenance of Means of Escape
Management need to ensure means of escape are
maintained in an efficient state, good working order
and good repair (Article 17)
Responsible person must ensure routes and exits
are kept clear at all times (Article 14)
To achieve this implement:
- A of good system of safety checks and
inspections
- A thorough system of planned maintenance and
testing of all aspects of fire safety system
85
Means of Escape for the Disabled
Due to Equality Act and requirement to give
disabled access to buildings, disabled people may
be found in all areas
Fire management system should ensure all
persons can escape in the event of a fire
Responsible person should ensure everyone can
escape without the assistance of the FRS
Not straightforward - many forms of disability:
- Hearing impairment
- Vision impairment
- Mobility impairment
Systems of Escape for the Disabled
Horizontal evacuation – covered earlier
Evacuation by lift (often used in conjunction with refuges):
- Specially designed for evacuation of disabled
- Set within a fire resisting enclosure & separate power
source
Evacuation by stairs:
- Most common system is use of ‘Evac+chair’
- Used by trained people
- Designed to be used to evacuate down stairs can be
adapted for evacuating up stairs
Use of refuges:
- Relatively safe for short periods of time
- Procedures should still provide further evacuation
If you cannot get someone out you may need a Refuge
86
Other Way Finding & Exit Sign Systems
May be necessary to install additional measures to assist in
the evacuation of people with disabilities
Such way-finding and exit systems might include:
- Graphic
- Aural
- Tactile
Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan (PEEP):
- Used where needs of an individual at work are identified
and written arrangements put into place to ensure their
safe evacuation
- Where it is probable that people (e.g. visitors) who will
need assistance may be present a similar generic
systems can be devised and implemented (GEEP)
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Methods and Systems Available to Give Early Warning in Case of Fire, both for
Life Safety and Property Protection
Element 4.3
Fire Detection and Alarm Systems
Opportunity to detect fires at the four stages of a fire?
- Invisible products of combustion (e.g. CO detectors)
- Visible smoke
- Flame
- Heat (fixed temperature and rate of rise)
Fire detection normally carried out by one of five ways)?
- Spot detectors (static detector covering a certain area)
- Line detector (linear heat detector cable)
- Beam detector (beam of light covering a large floor area)
- Sampling detector (pipework connected back to a
detector head)
- Scanning detector (moving detector sweeping a large
area)
87
Categories of Alarms & Detection Systems
To summon FRS in early stages of a fire:
- Type P1 – Automatic detection installed throughout the building
- Type P2 – Automatic detection installed in designated areas
Objective to protect people from loss of life or injury:
- Type M: Manual System (call points)
- Type L5: Life Safety where specific fire engineering solutions or
P1 insurance required
- Type L4: Life Safety system, as manual + escape route smoke
detection
- Type L3: Life Safety system, as manual + escape route smoke
detection and heat/smoke detection in adjacent rooms
- Type L2: Life Safety system; as L3 but detection in fire
hazard/risk areas
- Type L1: Life Safety, similar to P1 but the audibility is more
critical
Fire Alarm Zoning
Convenient way of dividing up a building to assist locating the fire
Zone boundaries are not physical features of building
Rules apply to setting up zones:
- Floor area of single zone not to exceed 2,000 m2
- Two faults not to leave area of > 10,000 m2 unprotected
(addressable systems – give unique identification of activation
device)
- If total building area =< 300 m2 it may be regarded as a single zone
- Total building area > 300 m2 - all zones restricted to a single floor
level
- Exception to above: stairwells, lift shafts or other vertical shafts
(non-risers) within a single fire compartment should be considered
as one or more separate zones
- The maximum distance travelled in a zone to locate the fire should
not exceed 60 metres
Alarm Signalling
Used to warn occupants of a fire situation
Normally achieved by audible warning devices
Must be audible over background noise of area
If necessary visual warnings may be used –
operation and location of these will be critical
Individual vibrating devices may also be used
for the impaired
Voice sounders followed by a pre-recorded or
voice message may also be utilised
88
Single & Two Stage Alarms
Single stage alarm:
Alarm sounds throughout the whole building
Calls for total evacuation
Two-stage alarm:
Used in certain large/high rise buildings
Used to evacuate the high risk areas first – those closet to
or immediately above the fire
If this is the case, alarm signal to evacuate is given in the
high risk area first, with an alert signal to other areas
Once the high risk area has been evacuation, if necessary,
the alarm signal would sound in the previously alerted areas
given them the signal to evacuate
Use of Alarm Receiving Centres
Permanently manned centres usually
provided by a commercial organisation.
The centre operators, upon receipt of a
fire signal, notify the appropriate FRS
The FRS, to help manage false alarms,
may require company to register to
ensure they comply with certain
standards
This system currently in use at all MOD
sites
Manual and Automatic Systems
Manual:
Simplest system e.g. a hand bell, whistle, air horn
Limitations:
- Size of building in which it can be heard
- Are portable and prone to loss or theft
Stand alone call points that operate a local alarm now
available
Automatic: Covered in earlier slides
Call points:
Can be used to activate both manual and automatic systems
Workers need to be trained how to use them
Sited so that they are visible with appropriate signage
Max distance to reach call point 30m direct, 45m actual
89
Selection of Detection and Alarm Systems
Decision between life risk protection or property risk
protection
Life risk protection
- Type L system
- Outcome from fire risk assessment should decide the standard
and type of alarm required
- Type L1 to L3 are those that are often applied
Property risk protection
- Type P system
- If risk specific to one or two areas Type P2 would suffice
- Care to be taken if installing this type to ensure that property
risk does not also present a life safety risk
Behavioural issues:
People not responding to evacuation alarm signals
Evacuation delay or not evacuating in an orderly manners
Frequent false alarms diminishing creditability of system
Practicing and using fire marshals may be used to tackle issues
Social behaviour (e.g. night clubs, shops, theatres etc):
Linked to behavioural issues
Peer pressure and sheep syndrome
False alarms:
Can cause substantial disruption and burden FRS
Regular false alarms result in people disregarding alerts
Could be because of: equipment faults, malicious actions and
alarms with good intent
Other Considerations
Requirements for Disabled Persons
Standard mounting of call points is 1.4m from floor
- May need to be lowered to accommodate
wheelchair users
Max distance to reach call point same as before,
30m direct, 45m actual
- May need to be reduced this if first person to
raise the alarm may have a disability that would
prevent them getting to the call points easily
Other issues already covered in means of escape
and alarm systems
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Selection Procedures for Basic Fire Extinguishing Methods for Both Life
Risk and Process Risk
Element 4.4
Types of Fire Extinguisher
Water
Carbon Dioxide
Foam
Dry Powder
Wet Chemical
Types of Fire Extinguisher andHow are they identified?
There are 5 basic types of fire
extinguisher
The present scheme being used in the
UK are:
– Water - red
– Carbon Dioxide - red with black
– Dry Powder - red with blue
– Foam - red with cream
– Wet chemical - red with yellow
91
Water Extinguishers
Red body
Suitable for use on Class A Fires,
wood and paper etc.
Not suitable for combustible liquids,
cooking fats etc.
Not safe to use on fires involving
electricity
Extinguishes by cooling
Red Body with Cream label.
Suitable for Class A and B Fires.
Not suitable for use on fires
involving electricity.
Extinguishes by cooling and
sealing the surface of a burning
liquid.
Foam Extinguishers
Red body with blue label.
Best on Class B fires but
safe to use on any type of
fire.
Works by chemically
interfering with the
combustion reaction.
Dry Powder Extinguishers
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Red body with black label.
Best on Class B and C fires but
safe to use on any type of fire.
Safe to use on fires involving
electricity.
Extinguishes by reducing oxygen
levels and cooling.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers
Red body with yellow label.
Best on Class F and A fires.
Contains a solution of water and potassium
salts which attacks the flame in two ways:
The mist cools the fire and lowers the
temperature to stop the fire spreading, also
prevents splashing of the hot oils/fat.
The potassium salts react with the hot oil
causing saponification; coating the surface
of the cooking oil or fat in soapy foam that
is non combustible and acts as a barrier
between the fat/oil and the air (oxygen).
Wet Chemical Extinguishers
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How do they work?
Hose reels
Automatic sprinklers
Water spray systems
Gas flooding systems
Drenchers
Fire blankets
Other Fire Fighting Equipment
Siting of Fire Fighting Appliances
Portable fire fighting appliances should always be sited:
- On the line of the escape route
- Near, but not too near, danger points
- Near to room exits inside or outside according to
occupancy/risk
- In multi-storey buildings, at same position on each floor
- Where possible in groups forming fire points
- Where possible in shallow recesses, if not, sited on a wall
- So that no person need travel more than 30 metres to reach a
fire extinguisher
- With the carrying handle about one meter from the floor to
facilitate ease of handling and removal from wall bracket, or on
purpose built floor stands
- Away from excesses of heat or cold
94
Fire Rating of Extinguishers
Fire rating is a way of showing the limits of a fire extinguisher
This is only done for Class A and Class B fires
Minimum number of Class A (BS 5306 Pt 8) requirements:
- Minimum 2 per floor
- Total of ratings should be no less than 0.065 x floor area of
storey m2, but with minimum rating of 26A
- Single storey with upper floor area not exceeding 100m2 a
minimum rating of 13A should be sufficient
Class B more complicated. Workplace needs to be assessed:
- Each room or enclosure to be considered separately
- Fire risks more than 20m apart considered separately
- Fire risks less than 20m apart can be considered undivided
or a divided group
Example Fire Ratings ofStored Pressure Fire Extinguishers
Model Fire Rating
1 kg ABC Powder 8A : 55B
2 kg ABC Powder 13A : 89B
4 kg ABC Powder 27A : 144B
6 kg ABC Powder 34A : 183B
9 kg ABC Powder 43A : 233B
2 Litre Foam 5A : 34B
6 Litre Foam 13A : 144B
9 Litre Foam 21A : 183B
9 Litre Water 13A
2 Kg CO2 34B
5 Kg CO2 55B
Maintenance of Fire Fighting Appliances
Given in BS 5306 Pt 3:
Monthly inspections:
- Located in proper place
- If discharged
- Correct pressure
- Any obvious damage
Annual inspection and maintenance:
- Thorough inspection of extinguisher
- Carried out by a competent person
- Spare gas cartridges and replacement charges
- May include internal inspection of extinguisher
95
Test by Discharge – How Often?
Extinguisher typeInterval of
discharge
Water (stored pressure) Every 5 yrs
Water (gas cartridge) Every 5 yrs
Foam (all types) Every 5 yrs
Powder (gas cartridge) Every 5 yrs
Powder (stored pressure valve operated) Every 5 yrs
Carbon Dioxide (all types) Every 10 yrs
Training in Use of Fire Fighting Appliances
RRFSO 2005 does not specify training for fire extinguishers
It does require suitable and sufficient instruction and training
on the appropriate precautions and actions to be taken
Also requires training to be carried out periodically where
appropriate
If an employee is expected to make use of an extinguisher,
this Article confirms that initial training must take place
Any person called upon to make use of a fire extinguisher
should also be trained in the selection and practical use of the
equipment.
PUWER (fire extinguishers are an item of work equipment)
also requires that users of work equipment are trained in the
use of that equipment
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Requirements for Ensuring Access for the Fire Service is Provided and
Maintained
Element 4.5
96
Access and Facilities for the Fire Service – B5
Requirement:
– The building shall be designed and
constructed so as to provide reasonable
facilities to assist firefighters in the protection
of life.
– Reasonable provision shall be made within
the site of the building to enable fire fighters
to gain access to the building
Access & Facilities for the Fire Service
RRFSO Art 38 - in order to safeguard the safety of fire-
fighters in the event of a fire, the premises and any facilities
have to be are maintained in efficient state, working order
and good repair
Good sense to provide these regardless of regulations
The factors that need to be considered to assist the FRS in
their task include:
- Vehicle access for fire appliance
- Access for fire-fighting personnel
- Provision of fire mains (water) in tall buildings
- Venting of heat and smoke for basement fires
- Fire behaviour where insulating core panels used
Vehicle/Fire Fighting Access – Slide 1
Vehicle Access:
FRS need to get vehicles as close as
possible to buildings to prevent the waste of
time running out unnecessary hoses
Building regulations lay down minimum
access requirements for pumping and high
reach appliances
97
Vehicle/Fire Fighting Access – Slide 2
Fire Fighting Access:
Low rise buildings, often no additional
requirements needed
In other buildings additional facilities may be
required (fire fighting lifts, stairs and lobbies
– normally called fire-fighting shafts)
Buildings with floor levels over 18m, or
basements more than 10m below, provision
to be made for FRS vehicle access and for
fire-fighting shafts within the building
Vehicle/Fire Fighting Access – Slide 3
Fire Mains (water):
Vertical pipe installed with an access point at
ground level for FRS
Access points also on all floor levels to save a
large amount of time/effort running out hoses
Buildings having a fire-fighting shaft will also
have a fire mains fitted into that shaft
Buildings over 60m high will need a wet riser
Must be maintained/tested to ensure safe
operation when required for use
Smoke and Heat Venting of Basements
Basements:
Notoriously difficult to tackle fires in basements
Should have smoke outlets vented to open air so
heat and smoke can be released
This would then make access for fire-fighters
easier
May not be necessary for buildings with small
basements
Fire-fighting shafts also have to be vented
Often similar to those used to vent basements
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Environmental Impact of Fire
Environmental Impact of Fire
Not only will the fire damage the
premises, but could also affect:
– The neighboring properties
– The local community
– The environment
Containment of Water Run Off ~ 1
Sacrificial Areas
– Water run off pumped to
remote sacrificial area
Bunded vehicle
parking/other hard standing
– Impermeable areas
bunded to make
temporary lagoons
99
Containment of Water Run Off ~ 2
Pits and Trenches
– Subject to potential groundwater
contamination, could be used to
temporarily hold water run off.
Portable Tanks, Overdrums and
Tankers
– Portable storage facilities, able to
be moved and set up rapidly to
store water run off or other
spillages
Sources of Pollution in a Fire ~ 1
Pollutants may escape from site into the water
ecosystem by a number of pathways:
– Surface water drainage system
– Direct run off into nearby watercourses or onto
ground with potential risk to ground waters
– Via foul drainage system where they could
pass unaltered through the sewage system
– Through atmospheric deposition, e.g. vapour
plumes
Sources of Pollution in a Fire ~ 2
Fires can give off large quantities of toxic smoke
and fumes which contain pollutants such as
asbestos
Prevailing winds will carry these over long
distances and fall to the ground in rain water
100
Toxic and Corrosive Smoke
Smoke consists of small particles or partially
burnt carbonaceous materials
The size and quantity of particles will
determine the thickness of the smoke which
can be further thickened by water vapour
Smoke and its by products are normally very
corrosive and can cause long term damage to
buildings and other materials if not cleaned
correctly
Liaison with External Agencies
In order for emergency plans operate smoothly and
efficiently, it is important that responsibilities are set
down and understood both internally and externally.
External agencies that could include those that may
be involved in the development of plans as well as
its implementation.
The FRS and EA will work
together in the event of a
fire to minimise the
environmental impact.
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Relevant Statutory Provisions and Guidance
101
Relevant Statutory Provisions
The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005
The Building Regulations 2000 Fire Safety - Approved
Document B 2000 Edition
The Building Regulations 2000 Access to and Use of
Buildings - Approved Document M 2004 Edition
– Does not cover means of escape in event of a fire
Building (Scotland) Regulations 2006
Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals)
Regulations 1996
BS 5839, Part 1 and Part 6
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NEBOSH Fire CertificateSafety of People in the Event of Fire
Element 5
Overall Aims
For the candidates to be able to:
Explain the purpose and typical content of a fire
emergency plan;
Describe the development and maintenance of a
fire evacuation procedure;
Outline the perception and behaviour of people in
the event of a fire;
Outline appropriate training requirements.
102
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Fire Emergency Plans
Element 5.1
Fire and Emergency Plans
Purpose:
– To ensure people on the premises know what to do in the
event of fire; and
– Ensure appropriate action is taken in the event of fire to
enable the premises to be evacuated safely.
What Should an Emergency Plan Cover
How people will be warned;
Action people should take on discovering a fire;
Action people should take in the event of a fire;
Arrangements for calling the Fire and Rescue Service (FRS);
Isolations;
Fire alarm activities;
Evacuation procedure;
Assembly points;
Fire fighting arrangements;
Procedures for meeting the FRS on arrival (including access
arrangements and provision of information on incident etc.
103
Multi-Occupied Premises
What additional arrangements would need to be covered in
the Emergency Plan where a building has multiple
occupancy?
– Individual occupants will be responsible for the
arrangements within their own areas;
– The controller of the premises will be responsible for the
arrangements in those common parts of the building;
– The controller of the premises will therefore need to:
Compile a list of all occupants;
Consult with all occupants and ensure that they have
made their own fire plan arrangements and that they fit
in with the overall building arrangements;
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The Development and Maintenance of a Fire Evacuation Procedure
Element 5.2
Evacuation Procedures - Introduction
Evacuation should not just cover employees, but all
foreseeable visitors as well
The Equality Act requires employers to make reasonable
adjustments to allow access for people with disability,
therefore, evacuation procedures must also consider this
group
Audible/visual alarms must be assessed for appropriateness
for those with disabilities
Use of refuges although an option is not satisfactory.
Primary responsibility for evacuation is with the person in
charge not the Fire and Rescue Services
Procedures must cover all dangers that threaten persons in
the event of a fire
104
Evacuation Procedure – Slide 1
Need pre-arranged plan
All workers and visitors to be familiar with plan
Visitors, employees and contractors must be given
instructions on the plan
Routes to be taken and alternatives to be covered
Premises open to public impractical to train
Procedures must ensure public are evacuated
Fire Marshal floor sweep often used
Evacuation procedures may several options:
– Single stage (total)
– Horizontal
– Staff Alarm (controlled)
– Two stage
– Phased
Evacuation Procedures – Slide 2
Allocation of responsibility:
– Designated persons for department/floor etc.
– Numbers need to take into account shifts, holidays etc
– Ensure safety of occupants
Fire Instruction Notices:
– Conspicuous positions
– Action to be taken in the event of discovery of a fire
Fire Action:
– Sound the alarm (to warn others)
– Call the Fire and Rescue Services
– Tackle the fire (only if trained and safe to do so)
– Checks of areas by responsible person
– Get out of the building and stay out
– Roll call
Ensuring Everyone is Evacuated
There are two basic methods of achieving
this?
– The Roll Call System
– The Fire Marshal System
Each of these methods has advantages
and disadvantages
105
The Roll Call System
Advantages:– Specific confirmation that staff are out and safe
– The emphasis lies in getting people out quickly and then
checking everyone is present
Disadvantages:– It is dependent on an up to date list of occupants
– It is reactive to evacuation, does not help get people out
– A lot of time checking lists before area can be declared
as clear
– Assumes people know where to go in the event of an
evacuation
– Nominated people and their substitutes must be
available to conduct the role call at the time they are
needed
The Fire Marshal System
Advantages:
– Proven to be quickest, most efficient way to evacuate a
building
– Allows FRS to quickly rescue people and reduce damage
– Buildings split into pre-defined areas for control (no ‘grey’
areas)
– Pro-active, action taken on activation not after evacuation
– Uses people to evacuate people – allows for adverse
human behaviour
– It allows for a controlled search of the building
Disadvantages:
– May only be in operation during the core working hours
– The role of fire marshal is normally voluntary, it relies on
the goodwill of staff and their participation
The Fire Marshal System
All areas of the building must be covered
Must ensure sufficient numbers
Actual system used will depend on:
– Building layout
– The work practices
– Number of staff available to conduct evacuation
In practice there are three basic options:
– Fixed system
– Assembly system
– Points system
It has to be remembered, fire marshals will be last people
out, should have visible identification
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Fire Marshal – Fixed System
Used where people are generally in fixed locations
at work and do not move around the building
A person in the area can be given fire marshal
responsibilities to search the area when fire alarm
sounds
Providing there are sufficient fire marshals at work,
all areas can be covered and this is the simplest
type of ‘floor sweep’ method
Fire Marshal – Assembly System
Used where it cannot be guaranteed that a fire
marshal will be in a fixed location at work
On activation, fire marshals go to a predetermined
point, or points, in the building
From this point they are dispatched to all areas to
be checked
Slower than fixed system
Advantage is that it will work even if the number of
available fire marshals varies
Fire Marshal – Points System
In this system the number of marshals can vary and they can be
anywhere in the building
Specific sites in the workplace are allocated as ‘Fire Marshal
Points’ which will have a number of route cards at them
On activation, fire marshals go to nearest ‘Fire Marshal Point’ and
take an available route card and then checks the denoted area
Speed of operation dependant on the number of available fire
marshals
Some areas may have more fire marshals available than others
given that they are moving around
May need to redirect fire marshals to other areas to assist with
checks, but only if safe to do so
Nominated person needs to control evacuation from safe point and
would need some form of communications systems
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Fire Drills
To ensure all employees are familiar with and understand
procedures in the event of fire, repeated practice is desirable
After initial practices to establish a working procedure, they
should be repeated at regular intervals – at least once a year
Where there is a danger of rapid spread of fire, more
frequent drills would be necessary
Instructions to employees can be used to supplement for
practice drills when interruption to normal work not routinely
practicable
If instruction used, employees should use alternative routes
to at the end of the day (may have security implications)
People with Sensory Impairments
Who may need to be considered and what are the possible
control measures?
– Hearing impaired:
Visual flashing lights
Personal trembler alarms
Buddy system
– Vision impaired:
Use of tactile way-finding and exit signs
Buddy system
– Hearing and vision impairments:
A combination of both approaches will be necessary
Procedures to Evacuate Disabled People
Mobility impairment:
– Person in a wheelchair or someone just slower than others
– Assistance after initial rush
– Vertical movement of wheelchairs will need to be considered:
Use of Evac Chairs
Use of Safe Refuges with an appointed person with them
to maintain communication with coordinator of fire panel
Safe refuges:
– An area where those who need assistance to go
– Would be well protected against fire by stairwell or lift
– Should only be treated as temporary refuge whilst decision
made if evacuation necessary
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Procedures to Evacuate the Public
Greater problems than for employees
Variety of issues influence this:
– Disbelief
– Lack of awareness of dangers
– Unwilling to stop what they are doing
– Unwilling to break their pattern (or ‘script’)
– Lack of knowledge of evacuation routes and procedures
Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans (PEEP) not feasible for public (only suitable for employees or specific visitors)
Set of generic emergency evacuation plans (GEEP) for public to cover possible issues
Use of fire competent fire marshals essential
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Perception and Behaviour of People in the Event of Fire
Element 5.3
Perception verses Reality
Perception varies with individuals
People can interpret sensory data in a number of ways
Problems associated with individual perception include:
– There is a tendency to perceive things as complete, filling
in the gaps in order to get an overall impression
– There is a tendency to perceive objects as constant in
size, shape, colour and other qualities
– Sometimes an object that is constant is perceived as
variable, e.g. one moment there appears to be a single
object, the next there appears to be more than one.
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Fire and Emergency Experiences
It is quite unusual for a person to have experience of a real
fire or emergency situation warranting an immediate
evacuation of a building.
The normal experience is that of a ‘false alarm’ or ‘practice’.
In general, people do not perceive a serious personal threat
when they hear a fire alarm in a building.
Most people do not perceive the possibility of a small fire
rapidly growing into one of a significant magnitude to pose a
serious threat (e.g. Bradford fire took only 6 minutes).
If the true nature of the threat is not perceived they are likely
to delay evacuation and thereby increase the risk.
Human Behaviour in FireMay be varied and complex
Fear
Neurotic fear (panic)
Self preservation
Disbelief
Anxiety
Complacency
Personal relationships &
protection of family
Effects of smoke on
behaviour (most people
will only travel 6 metres
in smoke)
Perception of risk
Peer pressure (sheep
syndrome)
Level of training
Familiarity
Time Required for Escape
Evacuation can be seen as having 4 distinct phases:
1. Alert time from the fire initiation to
detection/recognition;
2. Pre-movement time taken by behaviour that diverts an
individual from the escape route(s);
3. Travel time to physically get to an exit;
4. Flow time, i.e. how long it takes for the occupants to
move through the various stages of the escape route
(doorways are invariably the least efficient element with
the longest flow time) and restriction on the route.
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Warning Systems
What are the methods of warning members of the
public of an emergency?
– Bells & sirens
– Verbal messages
– Combination of bells/sirens and verbal
messages
– Strobe lights
– Information boards
What are the negative aspects of each of these
methods?
Negative Aspects of Warning Systems
Bells/sirens
– People need to recognise sound and react appropriately
– To work efficiently will need reinforcing by fire marshals
Verbal message
– People treat as normal announcement, not as an emergency
– Not listening and/or not heeding properly
Siren and verbal
– Combination system appears to be very successful
– Limitation; in a multicultural society - a potential language barrier
Strobe lights
– Poor or insufficient siting and insufficient intensity
– People concentrating on what they are doing may not see them
activated
Information boards
– Language or literacy problems
– More comprehensive and people can make better choices
Decision Making Process
Time limit on evacuation may produce stress on individuals
May need to consider how stress affects different people
Range of vision due to smoke and fumes may be reduced
Reliance of visual symbols will be insufficient in such conditions
Crucial information is precise and easy to comprehend
Information should tell people ‘what to do’ not what they should do
Need to ensure orders about actions to be taken and what not to do
are understood (includes signposting)
Order of instructions should be chronological
Symbols and pictographs are generally easier to understand
Combinations of picture, text and speech work best
If speech used, words used regularly are easier to understand
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Spatial Orientation
Tunnel vision effect on people’s eyesight range, people exiting
large public buildings will tend to be fixed on a chosen exit path
They will not tend to look around for other exit routes and
potentially miss closer and maybe shorter alternative exit routes
To design a building for fire safety the way people behave is an
important consideration
Entrances and exits of a department store may be oversubscribed
compared to the number and sizes of exits theoretically needed
Need to know ways of countering the behavioural trait of people
wanting to leave the building the way they entered
Need to steer people by means of signage/wayfinding systems:
– Permanently lit exit signs and routes in cinemas, imprinted in
memory because of the dark conditions
Patterns of Exit Choice
People generally do not walk round looking at emergency exits
When they need to leave they will tend to reverse their steps
passing by potential other exits
People familiar with their surrounds will use exit routes they know
Fire drills make people more familiar with alternative routes
Practice evacuations should occasionally simulate blocked exits
Visitors will need to have routes and alternatives reinforced during
their induction process
An alternative for visitors is to ensure they are hosted at all times
Cannot assume people will split evenly to all possible exits
Design of entrances and exits need to take account of flow of
people in an emergency
Parents and Elder Siblings
Parents or elder siblings, generally will not evacuate willingly if they
believe their children or younger siblings are still inside
This trait of human nature needs to be built in to the fire warning
system and management actions taken to control such situations
An example of management controls could be:
– If a building has a crèche, parents informed that in the event of a fire
alarm children will be evacuated to a nominated assembly point.
Nurses:
Their actions towards their patients may be the same as for
parents
Getting them not to enter a room on fire could put enormous
emotional and psychological effects on them
Teachers:
Issues again are similar to parents and nurses.
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Crowd Movement – Slide 1
Deaths in large scale fires are more likely to
have occurred due to delays in receiving
information about a fire than due to panic
Individuals start to move as soon as they
hear an alarm, but alarms cannot always be
relied upon to prompt them to move
Time to evacuate is not just the time to move
to and through an exit, it includes a degree of
reaction time
Often initial movement is characterised by a
desire to investigate rather than escape
Crowd Movement – Slide 2
As already mentioned, people tend to move in a
familiar direction rather than an unfamiliar closer
fire exits as long as the route is unobstructed
Unless in a dense crowd, people tend to move
independently or in their family or party group
If visibility is 2m or more people will still attempt
to use that route
Crowd Flow
If a crowd of people are moving in one
direction it will be almost impossible to
go against the flow
People will be carried along with the
flow
If someone falls, they will be trampled
If the people come up against a barrier
they may be crushed
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Crowd Flow Examples
Bradford City Football Club where
people reported being swept along the
rear passageway at the rear of the
stand
Liverpool FC and Nottingham Forrest
in an FA Cup semi-final when fans
arrived late resulted in people being
crushed against crash barriers and 96
people died
Modification of Crowd Flow
Care needed in the design of buildings to prevent injury due to
crowd movement in the event of a fire
Provision of directions, signage etc to encourage people to
use as many exits as possible is essential
Each of the possible routes needs to be considered so that the
flow of people can be aided
Staircases are a typical point of bottleneck:
– People will tend to use the sides where there are hand rails
– The centre portion will be empty and under utilised
– Dividing the staircase by putting a centre handrail would
encourage the use of the full width during evacuation
Measures Neededto Overcome Behavioural Problems
What steps will play a key role in overcoming
behavioural problems with securing the safe
evacuation in the event of a fire?
– The emergency plan;
– Detection;
– Warning signals;
– Layout of escape routes;
– Emergency instructions;
– Rehearsal;
– Competent staff.
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The Emergency Plan
If there is a well thought out and comprehensive plan that is
clearly communicated people will tend to trust it and be
willing to play their part. It should include:
– The actions that individuals are expected to take in an
emergency; and
– Arrangements for business continuity
The plan will be based on the findings of the fire risk
assessment (covered in Element 6).
In smaller premises, the plan may take the form of simple
instructions to staff on the actions they are to take.
In larger more complex premises (e.g. shared occupancy)
more detailed and comprehensive plans will be necessary.
Detection
To maximise the time people have to escape, it is
important to ensure that arrangements are in place
to detect a fire as soon as it breaks out.
All fires give off heat, light and smoke, each of
which can be detected by a variety of means
ranging from human to automatic detection.
Zoned automatic detection results in quicker
identification of the location of the fire and will aid
evacuation response.
In multi-storey buildings zoning will be undertaken
in floors allowing for sequential evacuation.
Warning Signals
Successful evacuation is reliant on the perception
of people to comprehend the situation and
possible impact.
There should be simple system in place to enable
the activation of the emergency procedure to those
potentially at risk.
Such systems could include:
– Audible alarm systems
– Visual alarm systems
– Portable alarm devices (e.g. air horns)
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Layout of Escape Routes
Escape routes should be sufficient in number and
of adequate size
The length of the escape route should be as short
as possible to take people to a place of total safety.
People should be able to easily and quickly identify
the direction of travel in order to ensure that they
do not hesitate to use the means of escape.
To achieve this there will need to be adequate
signage, lighting and clear information relating to
the operation of any security devices; or
Escape routes should be intuitive!
Emergency Instructions
Emergency instructions should be clear, consistent,
simple and understandable.
They should be given on various occasions (e.g.
when staff join an organisation, are relocated,
when visitors or contractors arrive, when members
of public enter a building etc.).
Emergency instructions should relate to such
issues as: the action to be taken when a fire is
detected, the action to be taken when hearing the
alarm etc.
Rehearsals
It is always necessary to rehearse emergency
procedures i.e. carrying out fire drills.
Fire drills should:
– Test the system to ensure they operate as
expected;
– Increase familiarisation of the procedure with the
occupants of the building;
– Allow those who hold key roles e.g. fire wardens
and fire incident controllers, to practice their roles;
– Demonstrate to staff and enforcement bodies that
reasonable arrangements have been made to
ensure effective evacuation in the event of a fire.
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Appropriate Training Requirements
Element 5.4
Who Will Need to be Trained?
Employees;
Temporary workers;
Agency staff;
Volunteers;
Visitors etc.
Competent persons (e.g. fire marshals/wardens);
Employees with management/supervisory roles.
What should training cover?
Employees, temporary workers, agency staff, volunteers,
visitors etc:
– Actions to be taken in the event of a fire, fire escape routes,
assembly points, use of fire extinguishers, not to return until given
permission to do so etc.
Competent persons (e.g. fire marshals/wardens);
– Comprehensive information on roles and responsibilities, the
maintenance and checks to be carried out on fire systems and
equipment etc.
– Only consider to be competent when they have received this
training and have the knowledge and experience and available
equipment to fulfil their function.
Employees with management/supervisory roles.
– Fire safety plan, fire alarm control panel, information on special
evacuation arrangements for persons with disabilities.
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NEBOSH Fire CertificateFire Safety Risk Assessment
Element 6
Overall Aims
For the candidates to be able to:
Explain the aims and objectives of fire safety risk
assessments;
Outline the principles and practice of fire safety risk
assessments including principles of prevention
(measures to remove and reduce risk;
Outline matters to be considered in a risk
assessment of dangerous substances and measure
to be taken to control risk;
Outline steps to minimise the environmental impact
of fire and fire fighting operations.
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Aims and Objectives of Fire Safety Risk Assessments
Element 6.1
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Definitions - 1
Primary Fire Hazard:
– Something that has the potential to cause harm, by
initiating or exacerbating a fire (ignition, fuel or oxygen).
Secondary Fire Hazard:
– Something that has the potential to cause harm by
preventing an adequate response in the event of a fire
(inadequate size of escape route, lack of signage, lack of
effective emergency plan).
Fire Risk:
– A combination of the likelihood (chance or probability) of a
fire occurring and should it do so, the severity (or
consequences) of the outcome.
Definitions - 2
Fire Risk Assessment:
– The process of identifying fire hazards and evaluating the
level of risk (including who and how may are affected)
arising from the hazards, taking into account any existing
risk control measures.
Fire Risk Controls:
– Workplace precautions, for example sprinkler systems
within a building, fire alarm and detection systems, fire
emergency plans (procedures), work permit systems and
portable fire fighting equipment.
Definitions - 3
Risk Control Systems:
– Arrangements that ensure that fire risk controls
(workplace precautions) are implement and maintained.
– Examples include:
The provision for ensuring that an adequate level of
supervision is maintained during hot work or refuelling
process;
A system for planned preventive maintenance for fire
safety systems (emergency lighting, fire doors etc.);
Establishing a programme of fire safety inspections for
buildings, sites and workplaces.
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Distinction BetweenDifferent Types of Incident
Injury incident:
– Undesired and unplanned events which may cause
personal injury.
Ill-Health:
– Illness arising from conditions at the workplace including
fire (e.g. breathing in smoke and toxic fumes)
Dangerous occurrence:
– An incident that does not result in a reportable injury or
loss, but could have done (examples given in RIDDOR
e.g. closure of a site for more than 24 hours due to a fire
incident).
Distinction BetweenDifferent Types of Incident
Near miss:
– Are accidents which do not result in injury
or loss, but under different circumstances
could have done;
Fire damage only:
– Incidents where there is no resulting injury
or ill-health to people but where property,
materials or equipment may be affected.
Objectives of Fire Risk Assessments
Identify all factors that may cause harm to people, property
and/or the environment in the event of a fire or explosion
(human and economic costs).
To consider the likelihood or chance of that harm being
realised, and the possible consequences that could come
from it.
To enable the ‘Responsible Person’ to plan, implement and
monitor the preventive and protective measures to ensure
that the risks are controlled as low as reasonably possible
at all times (policies and procedures).
To ensure legal compliance.
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Legal Aspects of Risk Assessment
HSWA 74
– Section 2 implies the need for risk assessment
– Section 3 extends duty to anyone affected by employer’s
activities
Management of H&S at Work Regulations 1999 – Reg 3
– Every employer shall make a suitable and sufficient
assessment of:
The risks to the health and safety of his employees to which they
are exposed whilst they are at work; and
The risks to the health and safety of persons not in his
employment arising out of or in connection with the conduct by
him of his undertaking.
– Duty extends to self employed persons
Suitable and Sufficient?
Identifies the risks from all work activity hazards
Be proportionate to the level of risk and the
nature of the work
Remains valid for a reasonable period of time
Identifies and priorities the control measure
required to protect the H&S of the employees and
others who may be affected
Undertaken by a competent person
Carried out in consultation with those involved in
the activity
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Principles and Practice of Fire Safety Risk Assessments
Element 6.2
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5 Steps of a Fire Risk Assessment (FRA)
Step 1 – Identify fire hazards –Fire triangle
Sources of ignition, sources of fuel, sources of oxygen
Step 2 – Decide who could be harmedHow many, enhanced level of risk due to work/location, escape routes etc.
Step 3 – Evaluate the risks and decide whether existing precautions are adequatePreventing spread of fire, reducing ignition sources & fuels, limiting fire’s access to
oxygen, fire detection & alarm systems, means of escape, fire fighting measures,
maintenance & testing, fire procedures & training, disabled people, security etc.
Step 4 – Recording findings, plan, instruct and train
Step 5 – Review and revise
Indentifying Hazards
Identifying fire hazards e.g.:
– sources and form of harm;
– inspections of work areas,
– job/task analysis,
– legislation,
– manufacturers' information
– safety data sheets,
– incident data
Evaluating Risk
Evaluating risk and adequacy of current controls:
– likelihood of harm and probable severity;
– qualitative and quantitative risk rating;
– residual risk;
– acceptable/tolerable risk levels;
– use of guidance;
– sources and examples of legislation applying controls to
specified hazards;
– general control hierarchy;
– prioritisation based on risk;
– distinction between priorities and time scales
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Step 3 - Risk Rating
Risk rating should include:
– Likelihood of the event occurring
Frequency with which the operation is carried
out
The population exposed to the risk
– Severity of the outcome
Risk = Likelihood x Severity
Qualitative Risk Assessment (Numbers) Severity of the Outcome
1 = No harm or illness
2 = First Aid injury
3 = 7-Day reportable
4 = Major injury/ illness
5 = Fatality
Qualitative Risk Assessment (Numbers)Likelihood of the Event
1 = Very unlikely
2 = Possible
3 = 50/50 chance
4 = Very likely
5 = Almost certain
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Risk Multiplication Table
5 5 10 15 20 25
4 4 8 12 16 20
3 3 6 9 12 15
2 2 4 6 8 10
1 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Likelihood
Severi
ty
Qualative Risk Assessment (Words)Severity of the Outcome
Likelihood
Low = no or slim chance
Medium = might well occur
High = will almost certainly occur
Severity
No/Slight = none or 1st aid injury
Minor = 3 day reportable
Major = major reportable
Qualative Risk Assessment (Words)Severity of the Outcome
Major Medium
Risk
High Risk High Risk
Minor Low Risk Medium
Risk
High Risk
No/slight Low Risk Low Risk Medium
Risk
Low Medium High
S
e
v
e
r
i
t
y
Likelihood
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HSE Framework for Tolerability of Risk
Acceptable & Tolerable Risks - 1
Societal standards change and risk acceptability levels
reduces each year in Europe
The HSE suggest that the boundary between ‘unacceptable’
and ‘tolerable’ (e.g. high risk professions) regions might be at
a risk of:
– 1 in 1,000 for workers; and
– 1 in 10,000 for members of the public.
The boundary between ‘tolerable’ and ‘broadly acceptable’
regions might be a risk of 1 in 1,000,000 for both groups.
Controls where risks are ‘tolerable’ still need to be improved
and are not considered to be acceptable in the longer term.
Source: Reducing Risk Protecting People, HSE Decision Making Process.
Acceptable & Tolerable Risks - 2
Legislation places general duty to reduce the level
of risk so far as is reasonably practicable
The standard ‘practicable’ places a duty on the
responsible person to use any new improvements
in technology
Guidance issued by various bodies can assist in
the decision on the standards to achieve
Where an organisation uses alternative practices
to the standards, it may be necessary to justify the
practice
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Risk Controls
Avoid or reduce hazards that may cause a fire;
Risk to be reduced as far as reasonably
practicable;
Put in place fire safety measures to reduce risk to
persons from fire e.g.
– Means of detecting fires;
– Means of escape;
– Means of fighting fires;
– Arrangements for action to be taken in event of fire etc.
Action plans to implement measures to control risks
Recording and Reviewing
Recording significant findings:
– format;
– information to be recorded.
Reviewing the fire risk assessment:
– reasons for review (e.g. incidents);
– changes to process, equipment, substances used;
– change of staff (key positions);
– legislative changes;
– elapse of time.
Step 1 – Possible Sources of Ignition
• Faulty electrical equipment
• Sparks from abrasive work (angle grinders etc.)
• Hot processes (hot works)
• Naked flames (e.g. candles, gas fuelled equipment etc.)
• Cooking equipment
• Heaters
• Light fittings
• Hot surfaces
• Obstructions to equipment ventilation
• Central heating boilers
• Flares, fireworks, pyrotechnics
• Arson
• Smokers material
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Step 1 – Possible Sources of Fuel
• Flammable liquids
• Flammable liquid based products such as paint, varnishes etc.
• Display stands
• Costumes, drapes and hangings, scenery, banners etc.
• Package foodstuffs
• Stationery, advertising material and decorations
• Litter and waste, particularly finely divided items such as
shredded paper
• Upholstery, soft furnishings, textiles etc.
• Plastic and rubber, such as video tapes, polyurethane foam filled
furniture and polystyrene-based display materials and rubber or
foam exercise mats
• Fireworks and pyrotechnics
• Flammable fats in kitchens
Step 1 – Possible Sources of Oxygen
• Natural air flow through doors windows
and other openings
• Mechanical air handling systems
• Mechanical air conditioning systems
• Some chemicals (oxidising agents) can
provide a fire with additional oxygen to
fuel the fire
• Oxygen supplies from a cylinder
• Pyrotechnics (fireworks) that contain
oxidising materials and require great care.
Step 2 – Possible Groups of People
• Yourself
• Other Company employees
• Employees who work alone and/or in isolated areas
• Unaccompanied children
• People who are unfamiliar with the premises e.g. members
of the public
• People with disabilities
• People who may have some reason for not being able to
leave the premises quickly, e.g. people in a state of undress,
elderly customers, pregnant women or parents with children
• Sensory impaired due to alcohol, drugs or medication
• Other people in the immediate vicinity of the premises who
are not actually using it
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• Fire detection and warning
• Means of escape
• Means of fire fighting
• Maintenance and testing
• Procedures
• Training
Step 3 - Evaluate
Step 3 – Evaluate Fire Detectionand Warning
Evaluate if:
• Fire is detected quickly enough for people to
escape
• Means of warning is recognised and understood
• Staff know how to operate system
• Staff know what to do if alarm operates
• Fire notices around workplace are
suitable/sufficient
Step 3 – Evaluate Means of Escape
Evaluate:
• How long it will take for people to escape once aware of
the fire and if the time is reasonable
• If there are enough exits and are they in the right place
• If there are suitable means of escape for all people
including the disabled
• What would be the effect of a fire on escape routes
• If escape routes easily identifiable
• If escape routes are free from obstruction and blockages
• If exit routes are suitably lit at all times
• If staff have been trained in use of escape routes
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Step 3 – Evaluate Meansof Fire Fighting
Evaluate if:
• The fire fighting equipment is suitable for the risk
• Fire fighting equipment is suitably located
• Fire fighting equipment is suitably signed
• If people have been trained in the use of equipment where
necessary
Step 3Evaluate Maintenance and Testing
Evaluate if the following are being carried out:
• Regular checks of all fire doors, escape routes, lighting and
signs
• Regular checks of fire fighting equipment
• Regular checks of all fire detectors and alarms
• Regular checks of any other equipment provided to help
means of escape arrangements
• Relevant instructions are being given to staff re maintenance
and testing
• The competence of those carrying out maintenance is as
required by legislation
Step 3 - Evaluate Fire Proceduresand Training
Evaluate if:
• There is an emergency plan
• The emergency plan takes account of all reasonably
foreseeable circumstances
• All employees are familiar with the plan, trained in
its use and involved in testing
• The fire procedure notices are clearly indicated
throughout the workplace
• All people likely to be present have been considered
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General Principles of Prevention
• Eliminate
The materials/substances or work practice
• Reduce
The use or frequency or substitute for lesser hazard or
change the physical form
• Isolation
The hazard from workplace by use of fire resistant storage
• Control
At source, i.e. fume, dust extraction, total enclosure
• PPE
Anti-static clothing, conductive operator footwear
• Discipline
Follow rules, obey rules and instructions
Control Hierarchy
General Principles of Prevention (Schedule 1):
– Avoid risks
– Evaluate risks which cannot be avoided
– Combat the risks at source
– Adapt the work to the individual
– Adapting to technical progress
– Replacing the dangerous by the non-dangerous or less
dangerous
– Developing a coherent overall prevention policy (H&S Policy)
– Giving collective measures priority over individual protective
measures and;
– Giving appropriate instruction to employees
Prioritisation Based on Risk
Improvement measures required as a result of the risk
assessment would need to be allocated a priority
Measurement of the scale of risk normally rated as ‘high’,
‘medium’, ‘low’.
Using the measurement the action plan timescales can
be based on these risk levels as not all risks will be
categorised as high priority
Significant risks are of high priority, however, some
remedies may take considerable time to implement
If this is the case, immediate actions may be necessary
to reduce the risk until the final solutions are
implemented
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Step 3 - Fire Plans
Fire plans should be produced and attached to the risk
assessment.
A copy of the fire plan should be posted in the workplace.
A single line plan of the area or floor should show:
– Escape routes, numbers of exits & stairs, fire-resisting
doors, walls and partitions, places of safety etc.
– Fire safety signs and notices including pictorial fire exit
signs and fire action notices.
– The location of fire warning call points and sounders or
rotary gongs.
– The location of emergency lights.
– The location and type of fire-fighting equipment.
– Where you are!
Step 3 - Fire Instruction Notices
Instructions for raising the alarm
Instructions to report to the nearest assembly
point
Information as to the whereabouts of the
assembly point
An indication of the locations of fire escape
routes
Positions of fire extinguishers
Instructions about using fire extinguishers
Temporary Buildings
Temporary buildings should be separated from the
building under construction by at least 10m
Where it is less than this the building should be
constructed of fire resisting material - walls, roofs,
doors and windows to have 30 minute fire resistance
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Construction of Temporary Buildings
The following dimensions are acceptable for up to
100 persons
– Clear width of door 750mm
– Height of door 1.960m
– Width of corridor 1.100m
– Height of corridor 2.000m
– Width of stairs 1.100m
– Clear height vertically above stairs 2.000m
Fire Prevention
Storage cabinet for up to 50 litres of COSHH:
As soon as practicable after the assessment
is made or reviewed the person responsible
must record the information:
– Where he employs 5 or more employees
– Where a licence under another enactment
is in force
Step 4 – Making a Record
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The information required:
– The significant findings
– Measures which have or will be taken
– Any group of persons identified as being
particularly at risk
No new work activity involving a dangerous
substance may commence unless a risk
assessment has been made and the measures
required implemented
Step 4 – Inform, Instruct and Train
Step 4Provision of Information to Employees
The responsible person must provide
comprehensible and relevant information on:
– The risks to them identified by the risk
assessment
– The preventive and protective measures
– Any procedures
Before employing a young person provide the
parent with the above information
Step 4 - Training
Responsible person must ensure training
– When first employed
– On their being exposed to new or increased risks
– Introduction of new work equipment
– Introduction of new technology
– Introduction of new systems of work
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Step 4 - Training (continued)
The training must:
– Include suitable and sufficient training on
appropriate precautions and actions
– Be repeated periodically where appropriate
– Be adapted to take account of changed risks
– Take place during working hours
Step 4 - Training Subjects
General fire prevention
Action on discovering a fire
Method of raising the alarm
Action on hearing the alarm
Location & use of fire fighting equipment
Means of escape & evacuation procedure
Written instruction may be used
Records of visits from Fire Officers
Records of maintenance and servicing of fire equipment (alarms, appliances etc.)
Record of staff training
Record of fire drills
Record of fire alarm tests
Record of emergency lighting checks
Record of fire fighting appliance checks
Record of briefings on fire precautions and safety
Fire Records
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Step 5 - Reviewing Risk Assessment
Assessments must be reviewed regularly by the
responsible person and particularly if
– Reason to suspect no longer valid
– Significant change to the matters to which it
relates
Responsible person must not employ young
persons unless he has made or reviewed the
assessment in relation to the risks to young
persons
Training of StaffCarrying Out Risk Assessment
Training should include:– Legal requirements with respect to risk assessment
– The process of identifying hazards and evaluating risks
– The identification and selection of appropriate control
measures
– The awareness of individual’s and the occasions when
specialist assistance might be required
– Accessing sources of information such as ACoP’s and in-
house information including accident records
– Report writing skills
– The interpretation of regulations and standards
– The means available for disseminating the outcomes of
the assessment
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Matters to be Considered in a Risk Assessment of Dangerous Substances
and Measure to be taken to Control Risk
Element 6.3
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Risk Assessment (RRFSO Art. 9)
The responsible person MUST make a suitable and
sufficient assessment of the risks …… for the
purpose of identifying the precautions required
Where a dangerous substance is kept/used or may
be liable to be kept/used, the assessment must
include consideration of matters such as:
– The Materials Safety Data Sheets
– Whether explosive atmospheres will exist or persist
– Activities
– Quantities
– etc.
RRFSO Schedule 1 Part 4Dangerous Substances – Measures to be Applied
In order of priority:
reduce the quantity of dangerous substances to a minimum;
avoid or minimise the release of a dangerous substance;
control the release of a dangerous substance at source;
prevent the formation of an explosive atmosphere, including
the application of appropriate ventilation;
ensure that any release of a dangerous substance which may
give rise to risk is suitably collected, safely contained,
removed to a safe place, or rendered safe, as appropriate;
Avoid ignition sources including electrostatic discharges; and
such other adverse conditions as could result in harmful
physical effects from a dangerous substance; and
segregate incompatible dangerous substances.
RRFSO Schedule 1 Part 4Dangerous Substances – Other Control Measures
The responsible person must ensure that mitigation
measures applied in accordance with article 12(3)(b) include:
– reducing to a minimum the number of persons exposed;
– measures to avoid the propagation of fires or explosions;
– providing explosion pressure relief arrangements;
– providing explosion suppression equipment;
– providing plant which is constructed so as to withstand the
pressure likely to be produced by an explosion; and
– providing suitable personal protective equipment.
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Relevant Statutory Provisions
Relevant Statutory Provisions
The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order
2005
Fire (Scotland) Act 2005
Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006
The Water Resources Act 1991
The Environmental Protection Act 1990
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NEBOSH Fire CertificatePracticable Application
FC2
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During the practical application delegates are
expected to recognise both controlled and
uncontrolled fire hazards.
While only brief details are required, it is important
that the assessor can subsequently identify:
– Where the hazard was located;
– The nature of the hazard;
– The degree of risk associated with the hazard;
– Measures in place to prevent fire or reduce risk;
– The remedial actions, where appropriate, with relevant
prioritisation.
The Assessment
Educational Purposes Only
You and your employer are to be left in no
doubt of the status of the fire practical
application review and report undertaken to
fulfil the requirements of Unit FC2 for
educational purposes only.
It does not constitute an assessment or
inspection for the purposes of any legislation or
regulations.
Planning
You are allowed to select your own setting for
the practical application.
This should be an area that is accessible to
you in your day-to-day work.
If required, your course tutor will give you
guidance to help your select an appropriate
area.
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The Chosen Area
The area must be accessible and area management must be
willing to co-operate.
The area must be sufficiently simple/small to allow the
practical application to be completed within three hours.
– For large/complex sites, you should select a small area
within the site, e.g. a warehouse, a single production area
or part of a larger construction site.
– On smaller sites, you could cover the whole site.
There may be constraints affecting the practical application
e.g. confidentiality, where such problems are identified,
guidance should be sought from your tutor.
Practical Assessment Forms
The forms for your practical application have
been produced in a candidate workbook and
this can be filled in long-hand for submission
for marking.
If you wish to type your report the course
tutor will arrange for an electronic copy of this
candidate workbook to be emailed to you.
The Forms
Fire Risk Assessment Summary/Notes Sheet -
– Used to make notes of observations during the
workplace inspection and the actions to be taken
to reduce fire risks;
Form 1 – Fire Risk Assessment Sheet (fire
prevention);
Form 2 – Fire Risk Assessment Sheet (risks of fire
spread and risk of fire to persons;
Form 3 – Summary of Fire Risk Assessment Sheet
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Form 1
Completed by transferring the information gathered
on the Fire Risk Assessment notes sheets.
Information entered on this sheet must be controlled
and uncontrolled risks relating to:
– Fire hazards;
– The persons who may be at risk; and
– Current of measures in place to reduce the risk of
fire occurring.
Additional fire safety measures required to further
reduce the risk should also be recorded.
Form 2
Completed by transferring the information gathered
on the Fire Risk Assessment notes sheets.
Information entered on this sheet must be controlled
and uncontrolled risks relating to:
– Risk of fire spread, fire protection measures,
warnings and emergency evacuation issues and
persons at risk; and
– Current measures in place to reduce risk and
additional fire safety measures required to further
reduce the risk should also be recorded.
Form 3
Complete this sheet by drawing on the issues
addressed on the other risk assessment
forms and assess:
– The risk of fire occurring;
– The risk of fire spread;
– The risk to persons from fire; and
– Recommend a risk assessment review
date.
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