SUMMER INTERNSHIP REPORT

ON

“SOLAR POWER PLANT & SOLAR ENERGY”

Submitted by:

Naveen Bhati

4th Year (B.Tech 7th Semester)

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

13EGBEE018

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE BANSWARA (RAJASTHAN)RTU Kota

Under the guidance of

Mr. Bhawani singh

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE BANSWARA,

BEHIND MAYUR MILL ,DUNGERPUR ROAD

Banswara, Rajasthan – 327001Page 1 of 50

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The work on this project was conducted as a part of my summer training during 23th May 2016 to 23rdJuly 2016.I would very thankful to all of us to support me in the internship duration in PVAS.“Utilization of Concentrated Solar Technology for Industrial and Commercial ApplicationsAppreciation is expressed to the members who served as the Technical Advisors for their input and assistance. The support provided by Executive Director Mr. BHAVANI SIR is also acknowledged. Appreciation is also acknowledged to PRIME VISION AUTOMATION PVT. LTD. for allocating their resources and technical support.

(Naveen Bhati)

Place: Date:

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CERTIFICATEFrom the concerned training agency (CIDC)

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AbstractThe fast-growing demand for energy and the recognition of man-made global climate change underscore the urgency of developing clean and renewable energy resources to replace fossil fuels. Harvesting energy directly from sunlight by using photovoltaic (PV), photo catalysis, artificial photosynthesis, and other enabling technologies is a promising way to meet such requirements. As an alternative to conventional PV cells based on crystalline silicon wafer, vacuum-deposited CIGS and CZTS thin-film PV cells as well as solution-processed inorganic and organic thin-film PV cells offer processing advantages that will likely enable low-cost, high-throughput, and large-area PV production. Furthermore, the development of efficient and smart energy storage systems is imperative to effectively ensure reliable energy supply and increase the penetration of solar energy utilization. To sustainably utilize solar energy, intelligent power distribution grids need to be locally developed for solar energy generation, storage, and utilization at affordable cost and with enhanced security of supply through flexible transition between grid interconnected and islanded operating modes.

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INDEXSI.N

OTOPIC PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION

COMPNY PROFILE

TRAINING

INDUSTRIAL PROJECT

PRODUCTS

SOLAR SYSTEM

7 - 12

2. RENEWABLE ENERGY

SOLAR ENERGY

WORKING OF SOLAR ENERGY

FUTURE OF SOLAR ENERGY

SOLAR WATER PUMP

13 - 20

3. SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT

BASIC PRINCIPLE

TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY

DESIGN PARAMETER

21 - 39

4. HEAT & ITS MEASUREMENT

HEAT CAPACITY

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPECITY

LATENT HEAT

LATENT HEAT FOR VAPORIZATION

SUPER HEAT STEAM

39 - 41

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APERTURE AREA

5. SOLAR PV SYSTEM AS OVERVIEW

SOLAR PV SYSTEM AS BUILDING

APPOINTING A SOLAR SYSTEM

SOLAR PV SYSTEM INSTALLATION AND REQUIREMENT

INVERTER AND CHARGE CONTROLLER

41 - 44

6. BASIC SCADA AND PRINCIPLE

WHAT ITS

FEATURES OF SCADA

EXPERIMENT BASED WORKS ON SCADA

SCADA APPLICATION

WHAT IS PLC

BASIC PLC

44 - 47

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INTRODUCTION ABOUT THE COMPANY

COMPANY PROFILE:

Prime Vision Automation Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Prime Vision Automation Solutions Pvt. Ltd. is an ISO Certified 9001: 2008 company, provides complete services & solutions on Industrial Automation, Embedded & robotics system and solar PV system that customers have relied upon for years easy to use and that gives the flexibility to choose your level of investment.

TRAINING:

Now-a-days, are of Hi-tech technology of software, hardware & core is taking the country in the 21st century. We provide practical knowledge on PLC, SCADA, HMI, drives, electric motors, DCS, industrial networking, process instrumentation, and panel designing, embedded system, robotics and solar PV system to EE,ECE,EIC,EEE,and CSE& ME degree- diploma engineers,fresher and working professionals at our fully equipped labs and also in college premises. Candidates who are looking for the placement in core manufacturing and high growth infrastructure sector, projects companies and high end electrical and mechanical design companies, The Company provides a comprehensive educational environment to individuals and enterprises, offering training i.e., customized to the various needs of the audiences with diverse backgrounds. To develop skilled workforce with diversified Automation knowledge to meet the ever-increasing demand of the Industries.

INDUSTRIAL PROJECTS:

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We are leading professionally managed company engaged in marketing of Industrial maintenance products & automation service. We ensure operational excellence, increased productivity and regulatory compliance, optimal asset utilization, reduction in downtime and safety related incidents. Products we deliver are Switchgears, Drives, VFD, Servo Drives, PLC, HMI, SCADA, Sensors and transmitters, Automation Panels, Control system accessories, Solar system. Services we are providing to our customers PLC, HMI, DRIVES based services , Sensors and instrumentation based services, Solar PV Product servicing,Various electric panels.

PRODUCTS:

Automation PANELS:

Control Panel View

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Pdf of Automautoation Panels

PLC Automation Panel

Automatic Power Factor Control Panel (APFC)

Automatic Mains Failure Panel (AMF)

DG Synchronizing Panel

Control Panel for Wind Turbine

Motor Control Centre

Power Control Centre

Thyristor Control Panel

Inverter Control Panel

Automatic Stator ‐ Rotor Panel

Motor Starters & Changeovers

CONTROL SYATEM ACCESSORIES:

All types of control system accessories such as led, push buttons, connectors, wires & cables, din rail etc.

SOLAR SYSTEM:

SOLAR PV SYSTEM TYPES:

Basically Solar PV Systems can be classified into two types. The first and the oldest is “Stand Alone” and the second which is rather new is “Grid Interactive”. Common examples of Stand Alone Systems are Solar lantern, Street Lighting System, Home Lighting System etc. Systems that interact

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with.the utility power grid and have no battery backup and systems that interact and include battery backup as well are known as Grid Interactive Systems.

GRID INTERACTIVE SOLAR POWER PLANT WITHOUT BATTERY BACKUP

This type of system only operates when the grid power is available. Since grid power outages are rare, this system will normally provide the greatest amount of bill savings to the customer against investment. However, in the event of an outage, the system is designed to shut down until utility power is restored. The inverter switches to “sleep mode” and awaits restoration of grid power. Once grid power restores the inverter synchronizes itself to grid and starts feeding power into the grid.

GRID INTERACTIVE SOLAR POWER PLANT WITH BATTERY BACKUP

This type of system operates in grid connected mode when the power grid is available. However, in the event of an outage, the system is designed to operate in standalone mode and starts powering dedicated loads, until utility power is restored. The inverter switches to “standalone mode” and awaits restoration of grid power. Once grid power restores the inverter synchronizes itself to grid and starts feeding power into the grid.

TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

PV Array

A PV Array is made up of PV panel which in turn has several PV modules. These PV modules have environmentally-sealed collections of PV Cells which converts sunlight to electricity. The technical details of the solar modules proposed are attached in the form of catalogues.

Balance of System Equipment (BOS)BOS includes module mounting structures and electrical harness systems used to integrate the solar modules into the structural and electrical systems. The Page 11 of 50

electrical wiring systems include Junction Boxes for paralleling, fuses/switches, surge suppressors for the dc side.The major components of the BOS are the Inverter and the Controllers. These form the brain of the system which does multi operation.

View Of PV Panel

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Module mounting system:

The module mounting structure is designed for holding suitable number of modules in series. The frames and leg assembles of the array structures is made of Mild Steel hot dip galvanized of suitable sections of Angle, Channel, Tubes or any other sections conforming to IS:2062 for steel structure to meet the design criteria. All nuts & bolts considered for fastening modules with this structure are of very good quality of Stainless Steel. The array structure is designed in such a way that it will occupy minimum space without sacrificing the output from SPV panels at the same time.

Schematic Figure of PV

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Pdf of Solar system

A solar electric array generates electricity from the sun's light with no moving or wearing parts. Our solar products are designed to utilize the direct current from the array efficiently, even as the energy production varies throughout the day.

Solar Lantern

Solar Street Lights

Home Lighting System

Solar Water Heaters

Solar Water Pump

RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources—such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat—which are renewable (naturally replenished). Renewable energy technologies range from solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity/micro hydro, biomass and biofuels for transportation.

Renewable energy is energy that is generated from natural processes that are continuously replenished. This includes sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water, and various forms of biomass. This energy cannot be exhausted and is constantly renewed.Alternative energy is a term used for an energy source that is an alternative to using fossil fuels. Generally, it indicates energies that are non-traditional and have low environmental impact. The term alternative is used to contrast with fossil fuels according to some sources. By most definitions alternative energy doesn't harm the environment, a distinction which separates it from

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renewable energy which may or may not have significant environmental impact.

SOLAR ENERGY

Traditionally, the sun has provided energy for practically all living creatures on earth, through the process of photosynthesis, in which plants absorb solar radiation and convert it into stored energy for growth and development. Scientists and engineers today seek to utilize solar radiation directly by converting it into useful heat or electricity.

Two main types of solar energy systems are in use today: photovoltaics, and thermal systems. There is a great deal of opportunity for using these systems in the state of Pennsylvania, and ongoing work at Penn State is seeking to improve the available technology and increase the utilization of solar energy systems in the keystone state.

Solar photovoltaics

Photovoltaic systems convert solar radiation to electricity via a variety of methods. The most common approach is to use silicon panels, which generate an electrical current when light shines upon it. Penn State University is involved in several projects to demonstrate and encourage the use of solar energy at appropriate locations within Pennsylvania. Solar photovoltaics are especially valuable for remote rural applications where it would be prohibitively expensive to supply electricity from a utility line.

WORKING OF SOLAR PANEL

Solar Panels:

Convert sunlight into electrical power via the photovoltaic effect. The electrical power produced is direct current (DC) like a battery, which cannot be used with normal electrical equipment in a household straight away.

Mounting Frames:

Support the solar panels to the sub structure of the roof to ensure a secure fixture to the roof and space underneath the panel.Page 15 of 50

Marshaling Enclosure:

Connect all strings to the DC cable running the electrical power from the roof to the inverter. In case of a bigger PV system (> 5 kWp) the Marshaling box may contain special string fuses.

AC & DC Isolation Enclosure:

Holds a 2-pole DC Isolator Switch which protects the input side of the inverter.There is alternating current (AC) switch on the output side to allow safe disconnection of the inverter.

INVERTER

Converts the DC power from the PV panels into AC in order to match the parameters of the utility grid (according to AS 4777). The inverter deactivates at night and automatically starts operating in the morning when sunlight is sufficient. The inverter is the operations center of your system and as such, useful information can be obtained from the inverter’s display.

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Inverter Figure

Main Switch Box: An additional AC Isolator Switch connects the PV system to the existing

infrastructure. It also protects equipment from being harmed by eventual over currents from the inverter if it is in a fault condition.

Energy Meter:

In most cases older electricity meters will be changed to aBi-directional Digital Meter when the Solar Photovoltaic Power System is installed at a house. This is done through your electricity retailer.

FUTURE OF SOLAR ENERGYIn the solar energy sphere, scientists and economists alike will note that coming up with cheaper, most efficient solar cells is key to the industry’s growth. And now, many experts are arguing that an emerging type of technology, known as the “perovskite” solar cell, is the face of the future.

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Solar cells, the devices that convert solar energy into electricity, only come in so many forms at the moment. Most of the ones in commercial use are made of silicon. But while these silicon cells dominate the market, they’re far from perfect — on average, they’re only able to achieve 16 to 20 percent efficiency when it comes to converting solar energy, said MichaelMcGee, a professor of materials science and engineering at Stanford University. And they can be expensive both to produce and to install.As a result, researchers around the world have dedicated themselves to coming up with cheaper and more efficient solar cells. A great deal of this research is conducted by private companies and is involved with improving the existing silicon cell technology. But some researchers are focused on developing other up-and-coming types of solar cells using different materials and production techniques.

One of these emerging products is the perovskite solar cell, a cheaper product with the potential to be just as efficient — if not more-so — than traditional silicon cells, according to recent research. The word “perovskite” refers to the type of material the cell is made out of. A perovskite material has a special type of crystal structure — calcium titanium oxide is one example, but other materials can have similar structures and be referred to as perovskites.

Solar Pumping

In rural and/or undeveloped areas where there is no power grid and more

wateris needed than what hand or foot pumps can deliver, the choices for

powering pumps are usually solar or a fuel driven engine, usually diesel.There

are very distinct differences between the two power sources in terms ofcost

and reliability. Diesel pumps are typically characterized by a lower first cost but

a very high operation and maintenance cost. Solar is the opposite, with a

Higher first cost but very low ongoing operation and maintenance costs. In

terms of reliability, it is much easier (and cheaper) to keep a solar-powered

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system going than it is a diesel engine. This is evident in field where diesel

engines lie rusting and unused by the thousands and solar pumps sometimes

run for years without anyone touching them.

The solar water pumping system is a stand-alone system operating on power

generated using solar PV (photovoltaic) system. The power generated by solar

cells is used for operating DC surface centrifugal mono-block pump set for

lifting water from bore open well or water reservoir for irrigation and drinking

water purpose.

INTRODUCTION

Unlike conventional diesel or electrical pumps, solar pumps are powered by an

array of solar panels. Solar pumps are designed to operate on DC power

produced by solar panels. These pumps are gaining popularity all over the

world wherever electricity is either unavailable or unreliable. Solar pumps are

becoming a preferred choice in remote locations to replace diesel pumps. In

such places, solar pumps are even viable economically in comparison to

extension of grid or running the pump on diesel.

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Solar Pumping Model for the Project

This model offers solar powered pumping solution that is sustainable and

pollution free, and has less than five years of payback period against diesel

power.

The model has engineered an optimal solution that is offered to farmers.

System integration expertise between solar modules and centrifugal pumps

that is enabled via a power electronics middleware has been developed.A

proprietary intelligent controller and variable frequency drive solution have

been developed that facilitates optimized system configuration, which is more

reliable and low in cost. The solutions are customized according to the need of

a particular farmer. Both AC and DC solar pumping solutions are provided that

covers all types of irrigation need in various parts of rural India.

In addition, an Online Remote Monitoring and Control Systemhasbeen

developed that allows online monitoring of the performance of the solar

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pump. It allows user to monitor as well as control the system remotely,

including system ON and OFF, power control, and water discharge control.

Solar Powered Water Pump-Key Features

A solar pump assemble

Solar panels:

Solar panel is a device which is used to convert energy contained withinthe

sun’s rays into electricity.A photovoltaic module is an interconnected

collection of cells combined into one item. Solar modules allow for a wide

range of varying sizes of solar panel products to be Manufactured.

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When a number of solar or photovoltaic modules are installed together, this is

commonly referred to as a solar array, or photovoltaic array.Arrays are a great

way to increase the potential of a solar electricity system, to provide a greater

output of electricity.

The use of solar power panel lows us to generate electricity in remote corners

of the earth, or outer-space. This can be extremely useful when there is no

other source of electricity in the specific area.

Solar power plant

Technical details:

Segments

The 3 MW Plant is divided into three single Inverter, and each array consists of 24 Independent segments of one MW each. Modules connected in series. The power Each segment is equipped with four generated from 3 MW PV Plant at 0.415 diagram of the Plant is shown in Figure 3. kV p Inverters of 250 kW each and grouped is stepped up to 11 kV with the help of three Together to form one LT panel. Depending on step-up transformers and connected to the mix of 225 & 240 PW modules, 45 to 46 existing 11 kV lines.

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Solar Plant Pv Figure:Tables 4 and 5 give the general technical details and the module specifications of the Plant.

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Power Conditioning Units (PCUs) Transformers

All the twelve PCUs are identical and are The full load rating of the Transformers is supplied by the single manufacturer 1.25 MVA. All the three oil – cooledBONFIGLIOLI (VECTRON, RPS 450 type). Transformers are supplied by theThe MPPT device is in-built in the control manufacturer Pan Electro Technicsystem which allows operating at constant Enterprises Pvt. Ltd. The efficiency isvoltage. The efficiency of the PCUs is 98.91% at rated voltage and 99.3% ataround 96% at nominal load. The rated maximum flux density.capacity of the PCU is 250 kW.

Timelines

Foundation was laid on 9th January 2009 30th September 2009, 2 MW on 12thand the site handed over to TITAN on 28th November and 3 MW on 27th December May 2009.

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Plant Maintenance & Operation

In addition to 3 MW , one more 10 kW PV regularly to meet the water requirements of plant has been installed on the rooftop of the Plant. The other two pump sets remain office building to take care of domestic idle most of the time.lighting and cooling loads of the Plant, Cleaning of PV Modules:including the load of exhaust fans. At Generally, the modules are cleaned by present, the plant is maintained by 13 spraying water with the help of extendable workers which includes 2 technical persons hosepipes. Occasionally, wipers are used to who look after data collection and remove the accumulated dirt and bird monitoring. droppings, say once in a month. On anThree bore - wells have been installed at average, each module is cleaned once in a the site with pump-set capacities of 2 HP, week on rotational basis.

Performance analysis

The total Energy produced by 3 MW Plant generation during 2010. Since Segment-3 during the year 2010 was 3,347,480 units. was not performing satisfactorily for a few Out of this, 3,303,200 units were sold to the months, which is evident from the figure, we grid. Figure 4 shows the contribution of all will restrict our analysis to the first two the three Segments in the total power Segments only.

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Grid-off times: Figure 9 shows the was observed that the grid-offs occurredcumulative monthly grid-off times during the mainly during the peak hours (11.30 am – year 2010. Out of the 357 days of the Plant's 2 pm), that is, when the availability of solar operation, there were 75 days on which the insolation is maximal. grid was off for less than an hour and 57 days The Plant was shut down for 8 days during with grid-offs more than one hour. Totally the November for repairing the faulty cables and grid was off for about 201.4 hours. Also, it Inverters.

Efficiency

The 2-MW plant efficiency is the combined insolation of 2561 Wh/sqm and an average efficiencies of segments 1 and 2 after the module temperature of 28.630C. The daily dc-ac conversion by inverters to 415 Volts efficiency of the 2MW plant ranged from 5% and just before stepping up to 11 kV ac. So, to 13.41% depending on the performance of this should not to be confused with the arrays, inverters, average module overall plant efficiency. temperature and the solar insolation. The Figure 11 shows the efficiency of the 2 MW yearly average daily efficiency of the plant plant, that is combined efficiency of was about 10.14%, considering the days segments 1 & 2, over the study period. The which have grid-offs for less than half an highest efficiency achieved was 13.41% on hour or no grid-offs. The abnormal drop in 24th July 2010. The total energy generated the efficiency during the last few months was on that day was 4975.8 kWh with solar mainly due to inverter related problems.

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Scope of Solar Thermal Energy

Water Heating

Drying

Cooking

Space Heating

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning,

Distillation

Solar Water Heating

Solar water heating is the simplest way of harnessing solar energy. It is the most competitive to alternate method of water heating such as electric geysers and fuel-fed boilers. It makes an attractive and sustainable option, with its global distribution, pollution free nature, virtually inexhaustible supply and near-zero operational cost. Solar water heaters run on a free fuel (i.e. sunshine), thus saving on energy costs that help recover its initial cost in just 2-4 years.

A solar water heater consists of a collector to collect solar energy and an insulated storage tank to store hot water. A black absorbing surface (absorber) inside the collectors absorbs solar radiation and transfers the heat energy to water flowing through it. Heated water is collected in a tank which is insulated to prevent heat loss. After this hot water from storage tank is distributed through pipe for various applications. The total system with solar collector, storage tank and pipelines is called solar hot water system.

Broadly, solar water heating systems are of two categories: closed loop system

and open loop system. In the first one, heat exchangers are installed to protect

the system from hard water obtained from bore wells or from freezing

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temperatures in cold regions. In the other type, either thermos siphon or

forced circulation system, the water in the system is open to the atmosphere

at one point or another. The thermos siphon systems are simple and relatively

inexpensive. They are suitable for domestic and small institutional systems,

provided the water is treated and is potable in quality. The forced circulation

systems employ electrical pumps to circulate the water through collectors and

storage tanks. The choice of system depends on the heat requirement,

weather condition, heat transfer fluid quality, space availability, annual solar

radiation etc.

Water heating is one of the most cost-effective uses of solar energy, providing hot water for showers, dishwashers and clothes washers. Every year, several thousands of new solar water heaters are installed worldwide. Solar water heaters can be used for homes, community centers, hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, restaurants, dairy plants, swimming Pools, canteens, ashrams, hostels, industry etc. Use of solar water heater can help to reduce electricity or fuel bills considerably.

Examples of Solar Water Heat Applications

The system has been installed on top of the terrace of a 20 storied high rise building of Reserve Bank of India in Lower Parel, Mumbai with a capacity of 10000 liters/day of hot water supply.

Magarpatta is one of the biggest housing complexes in India covering over 550 acres. And each house is equipped with solar water heating system.

Solar water heating systems is being used efficiently for swimming pool heating in the Golf-Club of Chandigarh which has a capacity of 6 lakhs liter.

Solar water heating is now a mature technology. Widespread utilization of solar water heaters can reduce a significant portion of the conventional energy being used for heating water in homes, factories and other commercial and institutional establishments. Internationally, the market for solar water heaters has expanded significantly during the last decade

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Solar Drying

Solar drying is a method in which the solar energy is used to dry substances and to preserve agriculture based food and non-food products. Drying under sunlight is the oldest way to harness sun energy. This form of energy is free, renewable and abundant in any part of the world especially in tropical countries. However, to ma0ximize its usage and to optimize efficiency of drying using solar radiation, appropriate technology need to be applied in order to keep this technique a sustainable one. Such technology is known as solar drying and is becoming a popular option to replace mechanical thermal dryers owing to the high cost of fossil fuels which is growing in demand but declining in supply. For sustainability and climate change concerns it is important to use renewable energy as much as possible.

Solar Cooking

Solar cooking is the simplest, safest, most convenient way to cook food without consuming fuels or heating up the kitchen. But it is a blessing for hundreds of millions of people around the world who cook over fires fuelled by wood or dung, and who walk for miles to collect wood or spend much of their meagre incomes on fuel. Solar cooking is more than a choice for them. It also saves the rural households from indoor air pollution from solid fuel.

Moderate cooking temperatures in simple solar cookers help preserve nutrients. Smoke from cooking fires is a major cause of global warming and dimming. Cooking fires are dangerous, especially for children, and can readily get out of control causing damage to buildings, gardens, etc. Solar cookers are fire-free. Biomass and petroleum fueled cooking fires pollute the air and contribute to global warming. Solar cookers are pollution-free, and when used in large numbers, may help curb global warming.

There are four major types of solar cookers:

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Solar box cookers

Dish cooker

Scheffler cooker

Solar steam cooker

Solar Space Heating

Active space heating

Passive space heating

In active space heating a solar collector absorbs the sun’s thermal energy to Solar energy can be used for various applications. One of these is space heating in winter which can effectively reduce the cost of energy. It produces no emissions and is replenished naturally. It will help to reduces greenhouse gases and saves the release of other emissions that result from the burning of fossil fuels such as nitrogen oxides, Sulphur dioxide or mercury. It is ideal for space heating / warming of offices, hotels, industrial buildings, residences etc.

Basically there are two types of solar space heating:

Passive solar technologies use sunlight without active mechanical systems (as contrasted to. Such technologies convert sunlight into usable heat (water, air, and thermal mass), cause air-movement for ventilating or future use, with little use of other energy sources.

Solar cooling

Generally, the sun tends to be viewed as a source of heat. However, there exist thermal processes to produce coldness, in which water is cooled. These processes are generally suitable for using heat provided by solar thermal collectors as the principle source of energy. The solar applications as on today

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are available for cooling as well as air conditioning. By cooling, we mean reducing the temperature for e.g. the temperature of a machine in industrial processes. By air conditioning, mean conditioning of the temperature according to air humidity or on account of climatic conditions.

There are two main solar cooling processes:

Closed cycles,

where thermally driven sorption chillers produce chilled water for use in space

conditioning equipment

Open cycles,

also referred to as desiccant evaporative cooling systems (DEC), which typically use water as the refrigerant and a desiccant as the sorbent for direct treatment of air in a ventilation system.

Solar Distillation

About 70% of the planet is covered in water, yet of all of that, only around 2% is fresh water, and of that 2%, about 1.6% is locked up in polar ice caps and glaciers. So of all of the earth’s water, 98% is saltwater, 1.6% is polar ice caps and glaciers, and 0.4% is drinkable water from underground wells or rivers and streams.

Solar distillation is a process that employs the use of solar radiation to purify brackish, saline and polluted water. The Solar Distillation System combines water desalination technology and solar power to make fresh water and render it as potable water for irrigation or industrial use. Water purification plants can be constructed On-shore and off-shore.

Concentrated Solar Technology

Solar thermal energy is an extremely convenient source of heating; and a technology that does not rely on scarce, finite energy resources. Concentrated

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Solar Technology is a solar thermal concentrating technology that converts solar energy to heat energy. CST a cost- effective way to produce heat energy while reducing our dependence on foreign oil, improving domestic energy-price stability, reducing carbon emissions, cleaning our air, promoting economic growth, and creating jobs. CST at present is the need of the hour.

Solar Energy Resources

Solar radiation, often called the solar resource, is a general term for the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation reaches the Earth's upper Earth's atmosphere with the power of 1366 watts per square meter (W/m2).

Basic principle

Earth receives sunlight at every location on at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface depends upon:

Geographic location

Time of day

Season

Local landscape

Local weather.

Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles,

ranging from 0° (just above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead). When the

sun's rays are vertical, the Earth's surface gets all the energy possible. The

more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the

atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Since the Earth is round,

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the surface nearer its poles is angled away from the sun and receives much less

solar energy than the surface nearer the equator the polar regions never get a

high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun

at all during part of the year. Concentrated solar technology can use only the

direct solar radiation for converting the sunlight into some useful energy.

Concentrating solar technologies (CSTs) use mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to heat. Concentrating solar technology offers a utility-scale, firm, dispatch able renewable energy option that can help meet our nation's energy demand.

Types of Technology

There are four basic types of concentrated solar technology:-

Parabolic Trough

Out of the four CST technologies, the parabolic trough system (PTC) is the most predominant and the most commercially mature CST system a concentration ratio of around 100x. The parabolic trough uses parabolic or U-shaped concentrators to focus sunlight along the focal lines of the collectors where the receiver tube is positioned, and only fluid (heat-transfer fluid or water/steam) flows through the receiver tube. Solar radiation heats up a heat-transfer fluid which then carries the collected thermal energy to generate steam for using the heat through a heat exchanger into various applications.

The troughs track the sun over the course of the day along the central axis as the sun travels from East to West. A 50 MW power plant based on parabolic trough technology is under construction at Jaisalmer in the state of Rajasthan. Initial cost for trough technology is higher than those for power towers and dish/engine systems due in large part to the lower solar concentration and hence lower temperatures and efficiency.

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Trough Solar Parabolic Dish

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The solar concentrator, or dish, gathers the solar energy coming directly from the sun. The resulting beam of concentrated sunlight is reflected onto a thermal receiver that collects the solar heat. The dish is mounted on a structure that tracks the sun continuously throughout the day to reflect the highest percentage of sunlight possible onto the thermal receiver.

Solar Tower Figure

Solar Tower

Solar towers generate steam from sunlight by focusing concentrated solar radiation on atower-mounted heat exchanger (receiver). The system uses hundreds to thousands of sun- tracking mirrors called heliostats to reflect the incident sunlight onto the receiver. As with the other concentrating devices, the reflectors track the angle of the sun and positions themselves automatically (dual axis tracking required). Temperatures can reach up to 1,300°C, which is much higher than in the other configurations. Thus due to having temperature range more than 1000°C it is mostly used in power generation rather than heat applications. The PS10 Solar power plant is the world's first commercial concentrating solar power tower operating near Seville, in Andalusia, Spain.

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Solar tower

Linear Fresnel Reflector

A second linear concentrator technology is the linear Fresnel reflector system. Flat or slightly curved mirrors mounted on trackers on the ground are configured to reflect sunlight onto a receiver tube fixed in space above the mirrors. A small parabolic mirror is sometimes added atop the receiver to further focus the sunlight.

Lighting Reflector figure

Heat and Its Measurement

Basically the heat is a form of energy and can change the matter it touches. It can heat it up- which starts molecules moving or it can cause chemical reactions like burning to occur. The transfer of heat can occur three ways: conduction, convection and radiation. Heat describes the process of transfer of energy. The SI unit of heat is the joule. When gained or lost by an object, there will be corresponding energy changes within that object. A change in temperature is associated with transfer of heat. And with change in temperature of object its physical state also changes. So when heat is transferred to water continuously then after a particular temperature at

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corresponding pressure it will convert water into steam. For example at 1 bar pressure water will be converted into steam at 100°C.

Basic terms

1.Heat Capacity –

Heat capacity is the measurable physical quantity that specifies the amount of heat required to change the temperature of an object or body by a given amount. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per Kelvin, J/K.

2.Specific Heat Capacity –

The specific heat capacity refers to the amount of heat required to cause a unit of mass to change its temperature by 1°C. Different materials would warm up at different rates because each material has its own specific heat capacity.

3.Latent heat –

It can be defined as the quantity of heat absorbed or released by a substance undergoing a change of state, such as ice changing to liquid water or liquid water changing to ice, at constant temperature and pressure. It is generally measured in kJ/kg or J/g.

4.Latent heat of Vaporization –

It is the energy required to transform a given quantity of a substance from a liquid into gas. The specific latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to convert unit mass of a liquid into the vapor without a change in temperature. The latent heat of vaporization of water is 2257 KJ/Kg or 540 Kcal/Kg at 1 bar.

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Phase change

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Solar Photovoltaic (“PV”) Systems – An Overvie

Types of Solar PV System

Solar PV systems can be classified based on the end-use application of the technology. There are two main types of solar PV systems: grid-connected (or grid-tied) and off-grid(or stand alone) solar PV systems.

Grid-connected solar PV systems

The main application of solar PV in Singapore is grid-connected, as Singapore’s main island is well covered by the national power grid. Most solar PV systems are installed on buildings or mounted on the ground if land is not a constraint. For buildings, they are either mounted on the roof or integrated into the building. The latter is also known as Building Integrated Photovoltaics (“BIPV”). With BIPV, the PV module usually displaces another building component, e.g. window glass or roof/wall cladding, thereby serving a dual purpose and offsetting some costs.

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Solar Photovoltaic (“PV”) Systems –building

Vertical façades and steeply sloped roofs tend to suffer a big loss in the ability to generate electricity in exchange for higher public visibility.

With the PV modules facing the sky, it is possible to improve the yield by installing PV modules on trackers to follow the sun from east to west during the day (single-axis trackers), and from north to south during seasonal changes (dual-axis trackers).

However, trackers can only improve system performance under direct sunshine, and they give no advantage in diffused sunlight conditions, such as on cloudy or hazy days.

The down side of having flat-mounted PV modules is that they tend to get dirty from rain water and dust. See Figure 14. It is therefore better to mount the PV modules at an incline (10-15o for framed modules, or as little as 3-5o for unframed modules), to allow rain water to properly drain off.Solar PV System Installation Requirements

Application of Electrical Installation Licence

Your LEW will be able to advise you whether you need to apply to EMA for an Electrical Installation License for the use or operation of the electrical installation within the premises of your building.

The electrical license fee payable to EMA is $100 per year (exclusive of goods and services tax).

Charge controller:

A MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter that optimizes the match between the solar array (PV panels), and the battery bank or utility grid. To put it simply, they convert a higher voltage DC output from solar panels (and a few wind generators) down to the lower voltage needed to charge batteries.

(These are sometimes called "power point trackers" for short - not to be confused with PANEL trackers, which are a solar panel mount that follows, or tracks, the sun).

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Charge controller

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SCADA

SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION

Supervisory

Operator/s, engineer/s, supervisor/s etc.

Control

Limited

Remote/locate

Telemetry

Data acquisition

Access and acquire information or data from the equipment

send it to different sites

analog / digital

Why SCADA:

Previously without SCADA software, an industrial process was entirely controlled by PLC, CNC, PID & micro controllers having programmed in certain languages or codes.

These codes were either written in assembly language or relay logic without any true animation that would explain the process running.

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It is always easy to understand the status of the process if it is shown with some animations rather than written codes.

Some SCADA Software:

Wonder ware : InTouch

Allen Bradley : RS View

Siemens : WinCC

FEATURES OF SCADA SOFTWARE:

Dynamic process graphics

Real time and historical trends

Alarms

Recipe management

Security

Device connectivity

Script for logic development

Database connectivity

Dynamic Process Graphics:

Using this feature, one can develop graphics which can resemble the plant.Page 47 of 50

The graphics can include Reactors, valves, pumps, agitators, conveyors as well as otherequipment and machinery used in the plant.

The status of Real-time & Historical Trends:

This facility is used for representing the data in graphical form.

Typically the trends plot the value with reference to the time.

Real-time data will plot the real-time value for fixed period of time while historical data will have historical data stored value which can be viewed on demand.

Depending upon the storing capacity of the hard-disk one can specify the no of days the data.

Scada Schematic Figure

CONCLUSION

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When experts compare solar cells, one thing they look at is how costly a cell is. If it costs too much, nobody will buy it. One problem with the first solar cells was that they usually cost more than other power sources. That is why the first important use of solar cells was in space satellites. There were no cheaper ways to make electricity in space in the 1950s. Another thing experts look at is a cell’s “efficiency.” This tells how good a cell is at using sunlight. A high-efficiency cell turns more of the sunlight’s energy into electric energy than a low-efficiency cell.

Scientists continue to hunt for ways to make better cells. They are trying new materials, such as plastics. They are also looking for ways solar cells and panels can be more useful. For instance, they have come up with a “photo capacitor.” This is a solar device that both makes electricity and stores it for later use. Experimental models were not good for practical use. But if the device can be improved, it might someday eliminate the need to have batteries to store solar electricity, at least in some cases.

Many people think devices called hydrogen fuel cells might someday be very good sources of power for many purposes. They use hydrogen to make electricity. Hydrogen is very common. It is in water, for instance. Getting the hydrogen out of water, however, takes energy. If solar panels get cheap enough and efficient enough, they might become a practical way of providing this energy. Ways of getting lots of sunlight to solar cells are being studied. One proposed concentrator could be used on windows. It involves putting special dyes into glass or plastic. Solar cells are put at the edges of the sheet of glass or plastic. The dyes let some light through the window. They also capture some light energy, which flows to the cells.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Solar Design Associates. Photovoltaics in the Built Environment. Springfield, VA: DOE/GO-10097-436, National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1997.

Richard J. Komp, Ph.D. Practical Photovoltaics; Electricity from Solar Cells, 3rd Edition. Ann Arbor, MI: aatec publications, 1995.

Interstate Renewable Energy Council. Procurement Guide for Renewable Energy Systems. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993.

U.S. Department of Energy. A Place in the Sun; Solar Buildings. Merrifield, VA: Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse.William Marion and Stephen Wilcox. Solar Radiation Data Manual for Flat-Plate and Concentrating Collectors. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995.

National Technical Information Service. Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems; A Handbook of Recommended Design Practices. Springfield, VA: Sandia National Laboratories, National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1995.

BIBLIOGRAPHY(Should be in IEEE format Example)

[1] G.K.Patnaik and M. M. Gore, “Design of Compiler for Mobile Environment

and it’s formalization using Evolving Algebra ”, proceedings of 3rd IEEE

International Conference on Mobile Data Management, Singapore, January

2002, PP 159-160.

[2] “Author Guidelines”, http://.computer.org/cspress/instruct.htm

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