Sources of Theology

Nature'and'Crea+on'as'God’s'General'Revela+on'

Immanuel(Kant((172401804)(!•  “It'is,'indeed,'the'common'

fate'of'human'reason'to'complete'its'specula+ve'structures'as'speedily'as'may'be,'and'only'a>erwards'to'enquire'whether'the'founda+ons'are'reliable.”'

The$Cri(que$of$Pure$Reason$(1781/7),'trans.'Norman'Kemp'Smith'(New'York:'St.'Mar+n’s'Press,'1965),'46T47.'

Epistemology 1

Epistemology 2

•  “How$do$we$know$what$we$know?”$•  From)what)sources)do)we)gather)our)

knowledge,)and)what)do)we)do)with)them)

once)we)have)them?$

Epistemology 3

Why)is)this)important?)Because…$

1.  We'are'a'prosely+zing'faith'and'a'whole'range'of'thinking'people'will'evaluate'our'message.'“When$they$heard$of$the$resurrec(on$of$the$dead,$some$scoffed;$but$others$said,$‘We$will$hear$you$again$about$this.”$(Acts$17:32).'So…'

2.  We'must'be'confident'that'our'founda+onal'materials'are'solid'enough'to'build'doctrine'and'prac+cal'instruc+on'to'those'who'believe.'Why$look$like$a$fool$for$all$the$wrong$reasons?)$

Our Purpose

'To'iden+fy'and'cri+que'some'of'our'founda+onal'sources'of'theological'knowledge'so'as'to'test'their'integrity'and'value'for'the'purposes'of'evangelism'and'discipleship.''

Can we know anything?

“There are some things we just Kant!”

Can we know anything?

Thomas(Reid((171001796)"!“Reid)my)lips:)yes)we)can!”'

o  “Common'Sense'Realism'asserted,'as'indeed'most'people'seem'to'believe,'that'the'human'mind'is'so'constructed'that'the$real$world$can$be$the$direct$object$of$our$thought.'In'some'important'sense,'we'perceive'what'is'actually'there.”'

Marsden,'Understanding$Fundamentalism$and$Evangelicalism,'192.'

General Revelation

•  Knowledge'of'God'that'is'both'widely'available'and'accessible'to'basic'human'sensa+on.'

•  Millard'Erickson'defines'three'types'of'general'revela+on'

1.  nature,''2.  history,'and'3.  the'cons+tu+on'of'the'

human'being'

Key Texts 2 Acts'14:15T17:'“Friends,'why'are'you'doing'this?'We'are'mortals'just'like'you,'and'we'bring'you'good'news,'that'you'should'turn'from'these'worthless'things'to'the'living'God,'who'made'the'heaven'and'the'earth'and'the'sea'and'all'that'is'in'them.'In'past'genera+ons'he'allowed'all'the'na+ons'to'follow'their'own'ways;'yet'he'has'not'le>'himself'without'a'witness'in'doing'good'–'giving'you'rains'from'heaven'and'fruidul'seasons,'and'filling'you'with'food'and'your'hearts'with'joy.”'

Rom.'1:19f.'“For'what'can'be'known'about'God'is'plain'to'them,'because'God'has'shown'it'to'them.'Ever'since'the'crea+on'of'the'world'his'eternal'power'and'divine'nature,'invisible'though'they'are,'have'been'made'understood'and'seen'through'the'things'he'has'made.'So'they'are'without'excuse…”'

Key Texts 3

The Beauty of Creation 1

o 'St.'Augus+ne'(354T430):'“Ques+on'the'beauty'of'the'earth,'ques+on'the'beauty'of'the'sea,'ques+on'the'beauty'of'the'air'distending'and'diffusing'itself,'ques+on'the'beauty'of'the'sky'…'ques+on'all'these'reali+es.'All'respond:'‘See,'we'are'beau+ful.’'Their'beauty'is'a'profession.'These'beau+es'are'subject'to'change.'Who'made'them'if'not'the'Beau+ful'One'who'is'not'subject'to'change.”'

'Augus+ne,'Sermon'241.2,'quoted'in'Catechism$of$the$Catholic$Church'(New'York:'Doubleday,'1994),'§32.'

The Beauty of Creation 2 Jonathan(Edwards((170301758)(on(the(Beauty(of(CreaGon”((CTR(2.31) !

!  Nature'is'the'voice'or'expression'of'God'concerning'Himself;'it'is'a'type'of'his'greatest'characteris+cs.''

!  To$see$the$vastness$of$the$visible$world$and$the$incomprehensible$height$of$the$heavens$is$to$have$an$illustra(on$of$the$moral,$crea(ve,$and$wise$aTributes$of$God.

The Beauty of Creation 3 “Sir(Thomas(Browne((160501682)(on(the(Two(Books(of(RevelaGon”((CTR(2.27)

“I'hold'there'is'a'general'beauty'in'the'works'of'God,'and'therefore'no'deformity'in'any'kind'or'species'of'creature'whatsoever.'I'cannot'tell'by'what'Logick'we'call'a'Toad,'a'Bear,'or'an'Elephant'ugly;'they'being'created'in'those'outward'shapes'and'figures'which'best'express'the'ac+ons'of'their'inward'forms,'and'having'past'that'general'Visita+on'of'God,'Who'saw'that'all'He'had'made'was'good,'that'is,'conformable'to'His'Will,'which'abhors'conformity,'and'is'the'rule'of'order'and'beauty.”'

Contemporary Critique 1

Contemporary Critique 2

“You)can’t)just)say)there)

is)a)God)because)well,)

the)world)is)beautiful.)

You)have)to)account)for)

bone)cancer)in)

children.”)$

•  The'cri+que'is'not'necessarily'of'God'as'Creator'but'of'the'way'in'which'we'have'handled'the'evidence/argument.'

•  We'set'ourselves'up'for'cri+cism'if'we'do'not'follow'our'thinking'to'the'founda+onal'level.'

Contemporary Critique 3

Ludwig(Feuerbach((180401872)"!“The'religious'sen+ment'works'only'within'itself;'it'has'not'the'force,'not'the'courage,'to'press'forward'to'the'examina+on'of'things'in'their'reality;'it'looks'at'all'things'through'the'medium'of'religion,'it'sees'all'in'God,'i.e.,'in'the'entrancing,'soulTpossessing'splendour'of'the'imagina+on,'it'sees'all'in'images'and'as'an'image.”'

Ludwig'Feuerbach,'The$Essence$of$Chris(anity$(1841),'trans.'George'Eliot'(New'York:'Harper'Torchbooks,'1957),'95.'

The Value of Reason

J.(Gresham(Machen((188101937)(! The"Catholic"Catechism!

Early Christian Theologians 1

–  Jus+n'Martyr'(100'–'c.'165)'•  In'certain'places'and'+mes'the'Logos'made'the'argument'against'demons/gods,'this'was'Christ'preTincarnate;'Christ'was'in'Socrates'as'he'spoke'against'the'gods.$(1$Apology'5;'cf.'2$Apology'10,'Hortatory$Address$to$the$Greeks'36)'

–  Clement'of'Alexandria'(150T215)''•  The'Greeks'received'an'early'indica+on'of'the'Logos.$ (Exhorta(on$to$the$Heathen'7)'

•  )The'task'of'philosophical'reasoning'as'an'aid'to'understanding'and'defending'faith'in'the'Word.''''''(Stromata'1.20))$

– Augus+ne)(354T430)''•  (City$of$God'6.5T7,'8.1,'5T6)'

Early Christian Theologians 2 WolWart(Pannenberg((1928(–(2014)"!

•  When'Chris+ans'used'the'philosophical'methods'they'did'not'merely'to'speak'clearly'to'the'intellectual'context'but'to'demonstrate'along'established'lines'that'their'God'was'“not'just'the'na+onal'God'of'the'Jews'but'the'God'of'all'peoples.”'

Pannenberg,'Systema(c$Theology,'1:79.'

Early Christian Theologians 3 •  Clement'wished'to'demonstrate'the'moral$repugnance'of'

the'heathen'gods'in'an'effort'in'order'to'(1)'differen+ate'his'God'and'(2)'shock$the$moral$sensibili(es$(moral'argument?)'of'his'GrecoTRoman'readers.''

•  “I'wish'to'show'thoroughly'what'like'these'gods'yours'are,'that'now'at'length'you'may'abandon'your'delusion,'and'speed'your'flight'back'to'heaven.”'Even'voices'from'your'own'tradi+on'(Empedocles'of'Argigentum'and'the'Sibyl)'speak'of'the'moral'darkness'in'heathen'mythology'(178).'“With'reason,'therefore,'such'as'have'become'slaves'of'their'passions'are'your'gods”'(181)!'Are'the'stories'of'debauchery'overwhelming?'They'come'from'your'own'history;'this'is'what'you'have'been'given'“the'whole'compass'of'your'life'–'a'life'in'reality'devoid'of'life”'(182)!'(Exhorta(on$to$the$Heathen$2,'from'ANF).'

$

Classical Arguments for God

Ontological Argument 1 Anselm(of(Canterbury((((((((((((((((((c.(103301109)(!•  An'‘ontological’'argument'comes'

from'being'per$se'and'not'the'observance'of'a'physical'or'intellectual'reality'like'the'others;'it'relies'on'thought'not'sensa+on.)$

•  Anselm’s'argument'is'that'the'idea'‘God’'means'“that'beyond'which'no'greater'thought'is'possible.”''

•  BeingTinTreality'(ontological'existence)'is'greater'than'beingTinTthought'(noe+c'existence)'and'so'God'must'exist'in'reality'–'if'the'idea'is'valid,'then'the'reality'follows.'

•  Necessity'is'greater'than'con+ngency.$

“Ontological(Argument”(in(Proslogion(3((CTR(1.7)"!

Ontological Argument 2

•  Barth'argued'that'the'end'of'Anselm’s'logical'proof'is'not'a'triumph'of'reason'but'a'case'for'the'recep+on'of'God’s'name'in$faith$through$prayer.)$

•  Barth'highlighted'that'in'Pros.$2'Anselm'begins'with'these'words'of'recep+ve'faith:'“That'God'truly'exits.'Therefore,'Lord,'who$givest$knowledge$to$faith,'grant'in'whatever'measure'thou'willest,'that'I'may'know'that'thou'doest'exist'as'we'believe'and'thou'art'what'we'believe.'But$we$believe:'Thou'art'‘something'beyond'which'nothing'greater'can'be'conceived.’”'.''

Anselm,'“Proslogion'2,”'quoted'in'Karl'Barth,'Anselm:$Fides$Quaerens$Intellectum'(1931),$trans.'Ian'W.'Robertson'(London:'SCM'Press,'1960),'100T102.'

Karl(Barth((188601968)(!

Five Ways

Thomas(Aquinas((1225(–(1274)(!Proofs(for(the(Existence(of(God”((CTR(1.9)(!

1T3:'Cosmological.'“A'cosmological'argument'is'an'argument'to'the'existence'of'God'from'the'existence'of'some'finite'object'or,'more'specifically,'a'complex'physical'universe.”'4:'Cosmological/Moral$'5:'Teleological'

Richard'Swinburne,'“The'Cosmological'Argument,”'234.'

Five Ways 1

Argument'from'Mo+on/Change''(The'Unmoved'Mover)'

o Whatever'is'changed'(from'poten+al'to'actual)'must'be'changed'by'something'else.'

o A'chain'of'events'forms'where'each'has'the'effect'of'changing'or'moving'the'next'thing.'

o It'must'start'somewhere'because'it'cannot'go'back'into'‘infinite'regression.’'

o “We'are'therefore'bound'to'arrive'at'a'first'cause'of'change'which'is'not'changed'by'anything,'and'everyone'understands'that'this'is'God.”'

Five Ways 2

Efficient'Cause'(The'Uncaused'Cause)'o An'efficient'cause'describes'‘what'did'it.’'o If'one'thing'occurs,'it'has'an'efficient'cause'that'brought'it'about.''

o One'cannot'work'backwards'and'iden+fy'causes'to'infinity.''

o Neither'can'one'say'that'anything'that'occurs'now'is'without'an'efficient'cause.'

o “We'are'therefore'bound'to'suppose'that'there'is'a'first'efficient'cause.”''

Five Ways 3

Possibility'and'Necessity'o  Things'can'either'exist'or'not'exist'(we'no+ce'that'things'come'into'

being'when'they'previously'did'not'exist).'They'exist'at'some'+mes'and'do'not'exist'at'other'+mes:'we'call'these'‘possible'things.’'

o  It'is'conceivable'that'possible'things,'if'they'were'the'only'things'to'exist,'could'all'be'in'a'state'of'nonTexistence'at'the'same'+me'given'the'long'extension'of'+me.''

o  If'they'all'had'no'existence'at'the'same'+me,'there'would'be'nothing'and'there'would'be'no'chance'of'there'being'anything'ever'again.'(Think'animals'that'have'gone'ex+nct).'

o  Some'thing'must'have'the'characteris+c'of'never'being'without'existence'so'as'to'guarantee'that'there'is'something'rather'than'nothing'because'something'cannot'come'from'nothing.'

o  “We'are'therefore'bound'to'suppose'something'necessary'in'itself,'which'does'not'owe'its'necessity'to'anything'else,'but'which'is'the'cause'of'the'necessity'of'other'things.”'

Five Ways 4

Grada+on''o We'can'iden+fy'differences'of'degree'in'mavers'of'virtue:'truth,'courage,'nobility,'etc.'

o A'standard'exists'by'which'we'make'this'reference.'We'can'say'that'something'differs'in'suchTandTsuch'a'degree'by'this'much'to'the'standard.'

o That'standard'possesses'the'full'amount'of'a'par+cular'virtue.'

o This'standard'is'both'the'cause'of'all'things'“as'well'as'of'their'goodness'and'their'every'perfec+on.”'

o **'Uses'moral'terminology.'**'Sounds'like'Plato’s'‘form'of'the'good.’'

Five Ways 5

Governance'o We'can'iden+fy'that'things'work'towards'an'end,'or'have'a'purpose'that'they'fulfill.'

o This'is'an'indica+on'of'design'because'agency'is'required'to'direct'things'to'their'end.'

o “There'is'therefore'an'intelligent'being'by'whom'are'natural'things'are'directed'to'their'end.”'

Cosmological/Kalam “There)is)quite)a)chance)that)if)

there)is)a)God)he)will)make)

something)of)the)finitude)and)

complexity)of)a)universe.)It)is)very)

unlikely)that)the)universe)would)

exist)uncaused,)but)rather)more)

likely)that)God)would)exist)

uncaused.)The)existence)of)the)

universe)is)strange)and)puzzling.)It)

can)be)made)comprehensible)if)we)

suppose)that)it)is)brought)about)by)

God.”)–Richard)Swinburne'$

!  Time'must'be'finite'and'have'a'star+ng'point'otherwise'our'understanding'of'numbers'is'logically'inconsistent.''

!  Islamic'philosopher'AlTGhazali'(1056–1111)'said:'“the'planet'Jupiter'revolves'in'its'orbit'once'every'twelve'years,'Saturn'once'every'thirty'years;'so'Jupiter'must'have'completed'more'than'twice'as'many'revolu+ons'as'Saturn;'yet'if'past'+me'were'infinite'they'would'each'have'completed'the'same'(infinite)'number;'which'is'a'contradic+on.”'

'J.'L.'Mackie,'“Cosmological'Arguments,”'in'Taliaferro'and'Griffiths,'248.''

Watchmaker Argument “William)Paley)on)the)Wisdom)of)

the)Creation”)(CTR)2.32)$

'!  The'intricate'forma+on'of'the'

device'demonstrates'that'it'possesses'an'end'or'purpose.'It'must'be'just'so,'no'different,'in'order'to'accomplish'that'purpose.'

!  It'“must'have'a'maker:'…'there'must'have'existed,'at'some'+me,'and'at'some'place'or'other,'an'ar+ficer'or'ar+ficers'who'formed'it'for'the'purpose'which'we'find'it'actually'to'answer…”'

!  No'“principle'of'order”'can'exist'apart'from'the'watchmaker.'“A'law'presupposes'an'agent…”'

Moral Argument 1

Charles(Hodge((179701878)"! Systematic*Theology*1:2374239!“1.)That)we)have,)by$the$constitution$of$our$nature,$a$sense$of$right$and$wrong;)we)perceive)or)

judge)some)things)to)be)right,)and)

others)to)be)wrong.)…$

2.)It)can)be)understood)only)by)

those)who)have)felt)it.)And)it$can$be$confounded$with$nothing$else.)…$

3.)These)moral)judgements)are)

independent.)They)are)not)under)

the)control)of)the)understanding)

or)of)the)will.)…)No$man$can$will$to$believe$that$to$be$right$which$his$conscience$tells$him$to$be$wrong…$

Moral Argument 2

4.'The'conscience'has'an'authority'from'which'we'cannot'emancipate'ourselves.'5.'Our'moral'judgments'involve…'a'rule'or'standard'to'which'we'are'bound'to'be'conformed.'6.'This'law'has'an'authority'which'it'does'not'derive'from'us.'7.'Our'moral'nature'involves,'therefore,'a'sense'of'responsibility.'We$must$answer$for$what$we$are,'and'for'what'we'do…'to'A'being'who'knows…''No)man)ever)has,)or)ever)can)believe)that)malignity)

is)a)virtue.)…)What)is)universal)cannot)be)

accounted)for)by)peculiarities)of)culture.”$

Moral Argument 3

Altruism!Despite'an'ins+nct'to'preserve'one’s'own'life,'there'is'an'impulse'that'drives'one'to'risk'or'even'give'his/her'life'for'someone'unknown'and/or'with'no'benefit'to'his/her'existence.'

Clive'S.'Lewis,'Mere$Chris(anity'(San'Francisco:'HarperCollins,'2009),'9T10.''

C.S.(Lewis((189801963)(

Modern Apologists 1

Philosophical/Evidential!1.  God'is'the'best'explana+on'why'anything'

at'all'exists.'2.  God'is'the'best'explana+on'of'the'origin'

of'the'universe.'3.  God'is'the'best'explana+on'of'the'

applicability'of'mathema+cs'to'the'physical'world.'

4.  God'is'the'best'explana+on'of'the'fineTtuning'of'the'universe'for'intelligent'life.'

5.  God'is'the'best'explana+on'of'inten+onal'states'of'consciousness.'

6.  God'is'the'best'explana+on'of'objec+ve'moral'values'and'du+es.'

7.  The'very'possibility'of'God’s'existence'implies'that'God'exists'(Anselm).'

8.  God'can'be'personally'known'and'experienced'(claim'apart'from'argumenta+on).$

William(Lane(Craig((b.(1949)

Modern Apologists 2

Argument"from"History!

Modern Apologists 3

Richard"Dawkins! Christopher"Hitchens!

Response and Critique 1

1.  The'difficulty'with'natural'theology,'and'the'deriva+on'of'God'from'nature'in'par+cular,'is'that'it$does$not$give$a$comprehensive$assessment$to$the$data$available.''

2.  As'with'those'in'Athens'(Acts'17:32T34)'not$everyone$is$convinced.'Assent'has'to'do'with'prior'faith.'

“Unbelievers'are'in'ignorance'of'things'that'are'of'faith,'for'neither'do'they'see'or'know'them'in'themselves,'nor'do'they'know'them'to'be'credible.'The'faithful,'on'the'other'hand,'know'them,'not'as'by'demonstra+on,'but'by'the'light'of'faith'which'makes'them'see'that'they'ought'to'believe'them.”$'

Thomas'Aquinas'Summa$Theologica$IITII,'q.'1,'a.'5,'ad.'1.'“For'when'a'man's'will'is'ready'to'believe,'he'loves'the'truth'he'believes,'he'thinks'out'and'takes'to'heart'whatever'reasons'he'can'find'in'support'thereof”'ST$IITII,'q.'2,'a.'10.'res.'

Response and Critique 2

!  (Paul)'I'believed,'and'so'I'spoke.'1'Cor.'4:13'(cf.'Ps.'116:10)'

!  (Augus+ne)'I'believe'in'order'to'understand'–'Credo$ut$intelligam'

!  (Anselm)'Faith'seeking'understanding'–'Fides$quaerens$intellectum'

Response and Critique 3

3.'Not'everyone'is'capable'of'or'inclined'towards'the'exercise'of'reason'as'the'backbone'of'faith.''What'about'those'for'whom'the'things'of'cogni+on'are'impossible?'

•  “We'know'the'truth,'not'only'through'our'reason,'but'also'through'our'heart.'…'Even'if'someone'were'to'be'convinced'that'the'rela+ons'between'numbers'are'immaterial'and'eternal'truths,'which'depended'upon'a'first'truth,'called'God,'in'which'they'subsist,'I'would'not'think'that'he'or'she'had'made'much'progress'towards'being'saved.”'

“Blaise'Pascal'(1623T1662)'on'Proofs'for'the'Existence'of'God”'(CTR'1.17).)$

Response and Critique 4 4.'Natural'theology'is'severely'limited'in'the'amount'of'specific'informa+on'it'can'provide,'especially'as'it'pertains'to'Chris+an'salva+on.''Do'we'find'the'Chris+an'God'at'the'end'of'an'argument?'

“Here'it'is'that'natural'theology'uverly'fails.'It'cannot'answer'the'ques+on,'How'can'man'be'just'with'God?'or,'How'can'God'be'just'and'yet'jus+fy'the'ungodly?'Mankind'have'anxiously'pondered'this'ques+on'for'ages,'and'have'gained'no'sa+sfac+on.'The'ear'has'been'placed'on'the'bosom'of'humanity,'to'catch'the's+ll,'small'voice'of'conscience,'and'got'no'answer.'…'Reason,'conscience,'tradi+on,'history,'unite'in'saying'that'sin'is'death;'and,'therefore,'that'so'far'as'human'wisdom'and'resources'are'concerned,'the'salva+on'of'sinners'is'as'impossible'as'raising'the'dead.”)'

Charles'Hodge,'Systema(c$Theology'1:28.''

Response and Critique 5

Emil(Brunner((188901966)*!If'faith'is'+ed'to'an'historical'doctrine'and'not'an'encounter,'then'the'Church'will'either'have'to'redefine'God'or'lose'people,'both'of'this'it'has'done.'

'Emil'Brunner,'Man$in$Revolt:$A$Chris(an$Anthropology,'trans.'Olive'Wyon'(Philadelphia:'The'Westminster'Press,'1947),''88T89,'120.''However…'“If'Christ'was'not'raised,'your'faith'is'useless.”'

$

5.'Faith,'if'built'on'arguments'from'a'specific'worldview'or'set'of'evidence,'is'at'risk'when'new'discoveries'are'made.'

Response and Critique 6

6.'Human'sin'diminishes'or'destroys'the'ability'of'the'human'being'to'perceive'and'cooperate'with'what'is'revealed'by'God'generally.'

$

$

$

Karl)Barth)said:)“Without)

revelation)man)does)not)

know)that)there)is)a)Lord,)

that)he,)man,)has)a)Lord,)

and)that)God)is)the)Lord.”$

Church$Dogma(cs'I/1,'306.'''

Senseless and Futile

•  Rom.'1:21f:'“…for'though'they'knew'God,'they'did'not'honour'him'as'God'or'give'thanks'to'him,'but$they$became$fu(le$in$their$thinking$and$their$senseless$minds$were$darkened.'Claiming'to'be'wise,'they'became'fools;'and'they'exchanged'the'glory'of'the'immortal'God'for'images'resembling'a'mortal'human'being'or'birds'or'fourTfooted'animals'or'rep+les.'…'they$exchanged$the$truth$about$God$for$a$lie'and'worshipped'and'served'the'creature'rather'than'the'Creator…”)$

“MarGn(Luther(((1483(–(1546)(

on(RevelaGon(in(Christ”((

(CTR(2.16)(

•  there'is'a'twofold'knowledge'of'God,'general'and'par+cular'

•  people'do'not'know'what'God'proposes'concerning'us))$

•  because$people$had$this$natural$knowledge$about$God,$they$conceived$empty$and$evil$thoughts$about$God$apart$from$and$contrary$to$his$Word)$

Sin Nature Sin)causes)people)to)reject)the)evidence)and)the)argument$

and)choose)that)alternative)because)they)want)it.)$

“We'immediately'fly'off'to'carnal'dreams'and'depraved'fic+ons,'and'so'by'our'vanity'corrupt'the'heavenly'truth.'This'far,'indeed,'we'differ'from'each'other,'in'that'every'one'appropriates'to'himself'some'peculiar'error…'devising'some'peculiar'form'of'divinity,'to'meet'his'own'views.”'''

John'Calvin'(1509T1564)''Ins(tutes$of$the$Chris(an$Religion'1.5.12.'

Luther’s Alternative

The)solution)is)to)know)God)in)a)particular)or)special)

manner)through)the)revelation)of)Christ:)“According)to)

John)1:18)(“No)one)has)ever)seen)God.)It)is)God)the)only)

Son,)who)is)close)to)the)Father’s)heart,)who)has)made)him)

known.”))God)does)not)want)to)be)known)except)through)

Christ;)nor)can)be)known)in)any)other)way.)…Christ)alone)

is)the)means,)the)life,)and)the)mirror)through)which)we)see)

God)and)know)his)will.)…This)is)a)certain)and)true)

knowledge)of)God)and)divine)persuasion,)which)does)not)

fail,)but)depicts)God)himself)in)a)specific)form,)apart)from)

which)there)is)no)God…”))(Gal.)1:11_12;)Acts)9:3_9)$

Calvin’s Alternative “In)vain)for)us,)therefore,)does)Creation)exhibit)so)many)bright)lamps)

lighted)up)to)show)forth)the)glory)of)its)Author.)Though)they)beam)upon)us)

from)every)quarter,)they)are)altogether)insufficient)themselves)to)lead)us)

into)the)right)path.)…)Wherefore,)the)apostle,)in)the)very)place)where)he)

says)that)the)worlds)are)images)of)invisible)things,)adds)that)it)is)by$faith)we)

understand)that)they)were)framed)by)the)word)of)God)(Heb.)11:3);)thereby)

intimating)that)the)invisible)Godhead)is)indeed)represented)by)such)

displays,)but)that)we)have)no)eyes)to)perceive)it)until)they)are)enlightened)

through)faith)by)internal)revelation)from)God)….)[who])has)given)the)

assistance)of)his)Word.)…)[His])works)being)estimated,)not)by)our)depraved)

judgment,)but)by)the)standard)of)eternal)truth.”)$ $$

$ $ $ $ $ $ $Calvin)Institutes$of$the$Christian$Religion)1.5.14,)6.3$

The'tes+mony'of'nature'is'incomplete'and'distorted'without'the'tes+mony'of'the'Spirit'(experience)'and'Apostle'(Scripture).''

Postmodern Apologetic The*End*of*Apologe3cs*Chris3an*Witness*in*a*Postmodern*Context*(Grand(Rapids,(MI:(Baker(Academic,(2013"!

1.  It'will'be'occasional,'not'systema+c'or'“universal,”'addressing'specific'and'concrete'concerns'drawn'from'life.'

2.  It'will'be'confessional'and'engage'others'as'a'witness'to'a'personal'word'in'the'context'of'experience.'

3.  It'will'be'eschatological'as'it'awaits'the'fulfillment'of'the'story'as'accomplished'by'God.'

4.  It'will'be'holis(c'and'addresses'the'whole'person'over'and'against'the'tendency'to'be'ra+onal.'

Myron"B."Penner!