Nations Without States’ Globalisation, States, And Identity Conflicts in Postcolonies

7/17/2019 Nations Without States’ Globalisation, States, And Identity Conflicts in Postcolonies

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‘Nations without States:’ Globalisation, States, and Identity Conflicts in Postcolonies

Mohammad J. una

!e"a#tment of Sociolo$y

%smanu !anfodiyo %ni&e#sity

So'oto(Ni$e#ia

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’Nations without States:’ Globalization, States, and Identity Conflicts in Postcolonies

Abstract

Although there is a significant body of literature on the relationshi between globalisation

and identity conflicts, discourse has often been loc!ed in the binary and theoretically steriledebates of the "erits or de"erits of the global rocess# So"e of this discourse no doubt

illu"inates the "a$or transfor"ations in states and olitical co""unities in recent ti"es% "ost

howe&er o&erloo! rocesses of the interenetration of the global and the local, and the way

this dialectic radically reconfigures states'olitical co""unities# (eeening and e)anding

the &ertical integration of ostcolonies into an e&er*growing world "ar!et, globalisation e)erts

ressure on the ostcolonial state as a so&ereign, territorially bounded olitical entity not only

fro" abo&e +sura*national organizations, but also fro" below +sub'infra*national

"o&e"ents# -ow this dialectic unfolds'"anifests itself in &arious historically secific

conte)ts will be a "a$or deter"inant of the nature and for" of the future state in ostcolonies#

States are howe&er, also fighting bac!, as de"onstrated in their e)anding role in broad social

and econo"ic "anage"ent re.uiring the i"osition of se&ere anti*eole neo*liberal refor"s#/nderlying the whole intensely contradictory rocess are atte"ts at the reconfiguration and

rein&ention of ostcolonial states and olitical co""unities# 0he broad features of this

reconfiguration aear underinned by a struggle between inherited state ro$ects'discourses

reinforced by neo*liberal ideologies of globalis" on the one hand, and an increasing +disarray

of forces challenging these ro$ects and discourses on the other# 0his aer argues that

identity conflicts in ostcolonies are conse.uences of the dialectic of global flows’ and local

closures, of atte"ts to reconfigure state ower, and of the rein&ention of olitical

co""unities in the face of deeening radical uncertainties arising fro" une&en

internationalisation#

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‘Nations without States:’ Globalisation, States, and Identity Conflicts in Postcolonies

0hroughout the country###ethnic "inorities are in fer"ent# 0hey are stri&ing tosha!e off age*long usurations, to cast off the yo!e of distant suzerains and to ta!e

their own destinies in their own hands# 0his fer"ent3is what has been subsu"edunder the national .uestion30o retend that it does not e)ist is to be deluded# 0he

nationalists faced not an altogether different tas!, though they had to resond totwo "a$or ressures in their atte"ts to create a co""unity# 0hey had not only toin&ent a co""unity that would see" to be, and in certain significant resects wasideologically oosed to colonial rule, the nationalists also had to "a!e sure thatsuch an oosition to colonial rule while stri!ing a chord with their own eoles,does not thereby .uestion the colonial order or its basis# 0hus nationalists had to

ut across to two antagonistic audiences * the colonizer and the colonized * thenotion of olitical co""unity in which, on the one hand either a historical ast isrecreated, or in&ented anew, and on the other one which would &ery "uch beaccetable to the colonizer# In this dual concetion of the co""unity nationalistssought not $ust to relace colonial rule, but also to legiti"ate their rule if not to the

aro&al of both antagonistic forces, then at least to the aro&al of the colonizer#After all, the general adage is see! ye the olitical !ingdo" first#’ 44444444440he Guardian 5ditorial, 6agos, 7ebruary 8, 1889

Introduction

0hroughout Africa and in the ostcolonial world, the fer"ents’ to which the oening

.uotation refers +contestable assertions therein notwithstanding, are fast beco"ing central in

challenging the state and in reconfiguring ostcolonial olitical co""unities# 7ro" low

intensity conflicts to syste"atic e)ter"inations of the Other , co""unal, religious, and ethic

&iolence o&er "e"bershi are increasingly assu"ing do"inance in the fra"ing'deter"ination

of olitical de"ands'clai"s# ne only needs reflect on the intensity and scale of destruction of

hu"an li&es in ;osnia, 6iberia, Sierra 6eone, So"alia, <wanda, ;urundi as well as Nigeria in

conte"orary history# 0he ro"inence of these conflicts is reflected in renewed scholarly

concerns with .uestions of membership: citizenshi +Anderson: 18=9% 0illy: 188>% &an

Steenbergen: 188?% and @erbner: 22, nation*'state*hood +Si"on: 188B% S"ith: 1881%

0ho"son: 21% 0olz: 188=% ;iswas: 22, ethnicity +;ruba!er and 6aitin: 188=% ;igo:

188=% 7ried"an: 188=% <iggs: 188=% 6a!e and <othchild: 188=% lza! and 0sutsui: 188=%

5ller: 1888 and aferer: 21% , identity +@endt: 188?% S"ith: 1881% Geschiere and ;irgit:

188=% Den!ins: 2 and Eerrett: 21, and religion +Schiller and ;a"bang: 22% 0estas:

22#

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7or "any, the statist colonial legacies and discourses that sought to unify luralistic

ostcolonial states through the obliteration of difference +6aas!o and lu!oshi: 18=8% una:

1888 are being increasingly interrogated by the contradictions arsing fro" the conte"orary

interface of the global and the local# It is these contradictions that are un*"i)ing’

heterogeneous and forcibly "i)ed’ societies by colonial encounters +;ruba!er: 188>, leading

to the fer"ents alluded to in the oening .uotation# It is against this bac!ground that this

aer argues that identity conflicts in ostcolonies are conse.uences of the dialectic of Fglobal

flowsF and Flocal closuresF and of atte"ts to reconfigure inherited statist ro$ects and olitical

co""unities in the face of deeening radical uncertainties arising fro" une&en

internationalisation#

Sur&eying the literature on the i"act of globalisation on states and olitical

co""unities re&eals two broad &iews# n the one hand are argu"ents that hold that financial,

cultural, technological, and infor"ation networ!s ha&e led to a "ore closely integrated global

society’ that has rendered' is rendering the &ery idea of the nation*state and associated

discourses, do"inant since the 0reaty of @esthalia in 1?=, assH# (ri&en by neo*liberal

econo"ic and olitical rogra""es states, the argu"ent goes, are "o&ing towards greater

integration in a de-territorialized global conte)t wherein age*old barriers of geograhy,

identity and culture are' will be suerseded# n the other, oosing argu"ents hold that on the

contrary, one of the "ost significant things about globalisation is its reinforcement 'creation of

&arious for"s of particularisms# <ather than loosening age old boundaries of territory, culture

and identity, globalisation in fact rigidifies the"# ;y creating anew or reinforcing ethno*

religious, cultural and olitical boundaries, globalisation loosens, as it were, the ties that

bound’ nation*states, contesting the &ery bases of "e"bershi, and thus generating intense and

deadly conflicts +6a!e and <othchild: 188=, an idea catured "ost clearly by the notion of

nations without states +Guibernau: 188=#’

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0his aer e)a"ines the i"act of these rocesses on states and olitical co""unities in

ost colonial societies in se&en "ain sections# Section two lays out the argu"ent of the aer#

Section three discusses the concet of globalisation and its historical tra$ectories# Section four

e)a"ines the i"act of globalisation on conte"orary states, noting that while there has been

ob&ious erosion in the autono"y and so&ereignty of the ostcolonial state that "ay ha&e

radically altered its stateness,’ e&idence suggests that rather than decline, this erhas

constitutes a co"le) rocess of reconfiguration# Section fi&e ta!es u "ore closely one of

the issues "ost indicati&e of state +i" otence: the rise of sub'infra*state for"s of

"obilization within national boundaries and how these affect state caabilities# Section si)

e)a"ines, in the conte)t of the foregoing, the strengths and li"its of the Nigerian state, and

focuses on the i"act of globalisation on the state within the conte)t of the unfolding rocess

of the ethnocisation of conflicts# Section se&en concludes by suggesting trends and otions

oen to the state in the current global era#

The Argument

An identity is a distinguishing label that ob$ecti&ely e)ists, is sub$ecti&ely felt, and

enables its bearers e)erience indi&idually and collecti&ely a sense of solidarity# As a label, it

can be assu"ed by, or i"osed on bearers# It is also a ris" by which ob$ects, eole, and

collecti&ities are sorted, organized, "aed and ordered into "eaningful understandable units#

Identities are socially constructed, dyna"ic, and "ultifaceted +Den!ins: 188B, 2#

Sub$ecti&ely, identification with a category is si"ultaneously a definition of self, so that

grous co"e to identify the"sel&es in ethnic, religious, occuational, national or other ter"s#

b$ecti&ely, indi&iduals do not identify in general, but do so in relation to others’ definitions of

the"sel&es, and to the boundaries i"lied in such definitions# 0he .uestion then is what is the

historical origin of these categorizations and under which conditions do they assu"e

do"inance in fra"ing of olitical clai"s#

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As defining categories, identities often for" the basis of social action# 0hey are

"obilizing fra"es that could be used, deending on the secific historical circu"stance, as

&ehicles for fra"ing'deter"ining clai"s# ne of the "ost i"ortant aroaches to identity

conflicts draws attention to the notion of radical uncertainty +Aadurai: 188=# 7ocusing

essentially on notions of doubt, uncertainty and indeter"inacy as integral characteristics of

ost"odernity, it argues that gi&en the growing "ultilicity, contingency, and aarent

fungibility of identities a&ailable to ersons in the conte"orary world, there is a growing

sense of radical social uncertainty about eole, situations, e&ents, nor"s, and e&en

cos"ologies’ +;au"an: 188B% 8# 0hese uncertainties arise fro", and are reinforced by

forces generated by globalization and the resistance to it across the ostcolonial world#

+;reiceo*6eJn and Kubillaga: 22# Eoreo&er, wea!ened states, the decline of left*wing

and ascendance of neoliberal econo"ic'olitical ideologies as "obilizing fra"es +;ruba!er

and 6aitin: 18=8, growing econo"ic refugees and internally dislaced ersons, increasing

syste"ic for"s of auerization and cri"inalization ha&e brought to bear intense ressure on

erstwhile ho"ogenising discourses and ro$ects across the ostcolonial world# State*building

efforts were the"sel&es art of the general fra"ewor! for the creation of categories, only now

beco"ing "ore olitically acti&e "obilizers in the current historical con$uncture#

<adical uncertainty is largely anchored in these state olicies which, through

docu"entation, classification, and bounding +censuses, artitions, constitutions, and the

de"arcation of boundaries create dormant mobilizing categories# Co""enting secifically

on India, Cohn +18=B shows how LcountingM beca"e a crucial "echanis" of control not only

in econo"ic, but also in olitical, cultural and religious sheres of life# 0hus as in other

;ritish colonies, ad"inistrati&e techni.ues of docu"entation and classification, LcountingM

constructed the bases for the othering of Si!hs, Eusli"s and -indus that beca"e owerful

fra"es for olitical "obilization +Cha!ra&arty: 188>b% Sundar 2# Si"ilarly, Eargo and



7ienberg +2 reort that until the Ci&il <ights Eo&e"ent of the 18s, ro&isions of the /S

1B=8 constitution institutionalised race as an official classification for the uroses of

congregational allocations of funds# 7inally, the colonial state in Nigeria created, through

boundaries hysical and social rocesses of othering between and within geograhical

areas that constitute+d the "a$or fra"es for olitical action +una: 2># ;ut radical

uncertainty is underinned by the nature and structure of the state in the new global era#

0he state has "ore than e&er before beco"e an arena of intense contestations that focus

on its &ery origins wherein co"eting grous within and outside its boundaries atte"t to

redefine its ower# 0hese atte"ts create co"eting and criss*crossing oc!ets of influence

often within, but also across national territories that tend to wea!en it in certain i"ortant

resects e&en as they reinforce it in others# It is in the wea!ening of the states’ legiti"acy,

"obilisational caacities, collasing social infrastructure, heightening le&els of econo"ic and

social e)clusion, and in the absence of broad national’ latfor"s for fra"ing co"eting

clai"s'de"ands, that sub'infra*national identities as owerful "echanis"s'ideological

referents for olitical action could be located# 0his aarent de-centring of ower see"s to

ha&e generated gestalts’ or fields’ in which, though the state is still a do"inant layer +cf di,

Ka!i ;ia", or indeed the i"osition of econo"ic refor"s, it ne&ertheless see"s to ha&e lost a

considerable ortion of its ower to contenders that co""and a greater degree of legitimacy

than it could# In e)tre"e cases, sub'infra national contenders act li!e states within a state, and

though for"ally still constituent units of the larger body, they ha&e "anaged to aroriate,

and in so"e cases e&en sulanted the state in the ro&ision of critical ser&ices, articularly

security +cf 0he O’odua Peoples’ Congress in the South*@est and to a lesser e)tent, the Bakasi

Boys in the South*5ast# @here infra*national organizations ta!eo&er roles such as the security

of state officials +cf the ta!eo&er of the Presidents ersonal security by the OPC on a state &isit

to gun State or traffic control, we can begin to fatho" the deth of the state’s crisis in

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ostcolonies# It is within this broad theoretical conte)t that I wish to e)a"ine the rising sate

of identity conflicts in ostcolonial societies with secific reference to Nigeria#

Globalisation: Conceptions, Trajectories, Debates

Globalisation, li!e "any other social science concets, is FFcontested#FF 0here is &irtually

no agree"ent as to its "eaning "uch less a consensus about its theoretical &alue# 7ro" both

the left and right ideological sectru"s, it has drawn a great deal of criticis" for its

"ethodological inconsistencies, e"irical &agueness, theoretical i"recision and ahistoricity

+Geschiere and Eeyer: 188=% elly: 188=% 6owy: 188=% ennedy: 188=% -eld and EcGrew:

2% 0herborn: 2# According to Aadurai +188=:8B*8=, globalization

both as a socio*econo"ic for"ation and as a ter" of fol! ideology in $ournalis" and in the

cororate world "ar!s a set of transitions in the global olitical econo"y since the 18Bs,

in which "ultinational for"s of caitalist organization began to be relaced by

transnational, fle)ible, and irregular for"s of organization, as labour, finance, technology,

and technological caital began to be asse"bled in ways that treated national boundaries as

"ere constraints or fictions 3O0hese transnational cororations ha&e increasingly begun to

roduce reco"binant arrange"ents of labour, caital, and technical e)ertise which roduce

new for"s of law, "anage"ent, and distribution3O0hat has led to a decline in the

so&ereignty of national states in resect of the wor!ings of global caital# 0hese changes *with acco"anying changes in law, accounting, atenting, and other ad"inistrati&e

technologies * ha&e created Qnew "ar!ets for loyaltyQ and called "odels of territorial

so&ereignty into .uestion#

Seen thus, it i"lies a range of rocesses, institutions, actors, and discourses that include

the "obility and fle)ibility of caital, labour, and sy"bolic reresentations% increasing

challenges to the nation*state and the disaggregation of so&ereignty arising fro" subnational,

transnational and suranational forces +;iswas: 22% satialization of the social +referring to

the flattening of social rocesses Owhere the co"le)ity of .ualities, issues of deth and

shallowness, and the dialectics of contradictions tend to get lost’ 0herborn: 2% 1>?%

e"ergence of e&er*widening, "ulti*ronged, and inter"eshed global roduction and

consu"tion networ!s% rise of new sur&eillance structures re.uired to handle growing

co"le)ities legally and e)tra*legally+Gessner: 2% and the deterritorialization of culture

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+referring to the growing inability of states to control sociality within national boundaries,

0herborn: 2#

0hese rocesses, institution, agents and acti&ities to which globalization refers are

e"bedded within broader discourses# 0herborn +2: 1>1*2, identifies at least fi&e such

discourses: co"etition econo"ics,’ whose "a$or focus is the analysis of the rocesses and

atterns of global co"etition and its effects on caital, labour, and states +EcNally: 188=%

;airoch: 2% Castells: 2a% (ic!ens: 2% Garrett: 2% une&en internationalisation,’

whose "ain focus is the analyses of the rocesses of the &ertical integration of bac!ward social

for"ations through trade, international finance, technology, and culture +-oog&elt: 2%

Castells: 2b% 7ieldhouse: 2% state +i"otence,’ that as!s whether, and in what ways

globalisation strengthens or wea!ens state ower within and outside national boundaries

+Guibernau: 1888% Gio&anni and ;e&erly: 1888% ;ull: 2% Eann: 1889, 2% Strange:

2% cultural analyses, whose focus is on global cultural flows, co""unications and

sy"bolic reresentations’ +5ller: 1888% Guibernau: 1888% Pens!y: 2% Sassen: 2%

aferer: 21% Eerrett: 21% and finally, lanetary ecology’ that focuses on the analyses of

hu"an!ind and global society as art of a single lanetary ecosyste" +0herborn: 2#

6oo!ing at these broad discourses, there is so"e $ustification in the criticis"s against the

&alidity and recision of the concet# 0o begin with, all these rocesses and concerns ha&e

historically been integral to the de&elo"ent of caitalis"# 0here is thus an historical

di"ension to globalisation +elly: 188=% ;airoch: 2% @ood: 188=% EHszRros: 188=% -irst

and 0ho"son: 2a, and that with reference secifically to international trade and the

global accu"ulation rocess, the concet "ight be "isleading in so far as it see!s to cature

rocesses that ha&e been haening for > years’ +@allerstein: 2% 2?8 as if they were

new# So"e ha&e e&en ushed its historical tra$ectory further bac! to the series of wa&es that

began with the diffusion of world religions and the establish"ent of transcontinental

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ci&ilizations since the fourth ?th century C#5# +0herborn: 2# As such, the obser&ations

about the i"act of the current e)ansion of global caitalis": co"ression of ti"e and sace%

"obility of caital, labour, and the seed of sy"bolic reresentations across national

boundaries% contradictory rocess of the ho"ogenization and frag"entation of societies%

si"ultaneous strengthening and wea!ening of nation*states and so on are different largely in

scale and intensity alone# <ather than altogether new heno"ena therefore, these ha&e been

integral to the continuous if une&en, de&elo"ent of inter-nationalisation’ +-irst and

0ho"son .uoted in ennedy: 188=# It is the ahistoricisation in "ost of the concetions of

globalization that re- resents an otherwise old and ongoing rocess, with a renewed &igour to

be sure, as new#

So"e scholars go further to suggest that e&en this re*resentation is only artially

correct# Panitch +188= argues that a significant nu"ber of the catalogue of effects attributed

to globalisation is con$ectural#’ 0he "ost significant of these con$ectures’ include the notion

of the ascendancy of caitalis", the triu"h’ of neo*liberalis", the broadening of

international class for"ation, and "ore secifically, transnational integration a"ong caitalist

classes# 0he notion of the ascendancy of caitalis" has been challenged on the grounds that

the e&idence si"ly does not suort that &iew for a"ong other things, the rapidly increasing

le&els of o&erty and social e)clusion Oare sreading to all arts of the globe,’ and the decline

in the arasitic acti&ities of global finance "ar!ets all indicate atterns of collase than of

ascendancy +ennedy: 188=% 9*?# Ne&ertheless, it is this ascendancy thesis and its correlate,

the triu"h of liberalis" that for"s the basis of the notions of a global culture’ and global

&illage#’ 0his is the thesis behind the Ec(onaldization and Coca*Colazation of the world, a

thesis atly catured in EcEichael’s +188: ? obser&ation that coca cola is no longer the cry

of i"erialist do"ination, but the nectar of uni&ersal roserity#’

1



-owe&er, it is difficult to accede to the thesis of coca cola being the nectar of uni&ersal

roserity’ esecially with the increasing &ertical integration of ostcolonial societies into the

world syste"# Is there such a thing as a global culture,’ and ha&e these rocesses created a

ho"ogeneous global landscae As Geschiere and Eeyer +188= correctly obser&ed, the

notion of a ho"ogeneous global culture’ is only a artial icture of the current transfor"ation

rocess# 0here certainly is a sense in which goods and cultural reresentations are uniformly

ercei&ed% it is recisely this unifor"ity howe&er, that often generates strong identifications

with local cultures in a way that reinforces and rigidifies, rather than dissol&es the"# 0here is

thus no unidirectional "o&e"ent% what obtains is a dialectic of flu)’ and fi)’ wherein global

cultural flows’ are confronted with local cultural closures’ and where the ho"ogenizing’

influences of global flows are contradicted in the re*affir"ation of cultural identities and

authenticities# 0hus,

it has beco"e increasingly clear that this unifor"ization generates an e"hasis on cultural

difference# ften it is the rocess of globalisation itself that aears to lead to a hardening

of cultural contrasts or e&en to engender new oositions Oand as the global and local aretwo faces of the sa"e "o&e"ent’, arado)ically, the culturally ho"ogenizing tendencies of

globalisation i"ly continued or e&en reinforced cultural heterogeneity30here is "uch

e"irical e&idence that eole’s awareness of being in&ol&ed in oen*ended global flows

see"s to trigger a search for fi)ed orientation oints and action fra"es, as well as

deter"ined efforts to affir" old and construct new boundaries +Geschiere and Eeyer: 188=%

2#

0here is neither irony nor arado) in this rocess, for caitalist de&elo"ent has

historically been characterised by this contradiction# Globalisation is not $ust a rocess of the

le&elling of cultural, social, econo"ic and other differences# It is an inherently frag"enting

rocess clearly de"onstrated in the concentration of wealth on the one hand and the deeening

of un*e&en de&elo"ent on the other% in the growth of in&est"ent and caital flows &ersus its

di&est"ent and caital flight% in the heightening of deadly intra*state conflicts% and in atte"ts

to, through these, reconfigure olitical co""unities +5ller: 22# And it is these last two

issues, the .uestion of the i"act of globalisation on states and of the conflicts arising

11



therefro" that are of interest to this aer# It is "y oinion that we can hardly begin to

roerly roble"atize identity conflicts in ostcolonies without first co"ing to ter"s with how

the state "anages the dialectic of the global’ and the local#’ 0he analysis of how well or

oorly states ha&e done this and their i"lications is the tas! of the ne)t two sections#

Globalization and the State

ne of the "ost hotly debated issues in the globalisation literature is gauging its i"act

on the nation*state# Argu"ents &ary widely, but two broad ositions can be identified: those

that argue that state ower has been eroded by global rocesses, and those that hold that its

ower has been reinforced# Proonents of the erosion thesis contend that globalisation has

unleashed certain forces e)ternal and internal that ha&e radically affected the ability of the

nation*state to e)ercise its traditional roles# ;oth ha&e challenged the notion of the nation*

state as a body +a ha&ing a "onooly o&er the use and deloy"ent of force% +b in which

absolute so&ereignty is &ested% +c ha&ing a resence’ o&er set boundaries and +d controlling

sociality within these boundaries# 0hese e)ternal forces are co"li"ented by internal

challenges, the "ost ro"inent of which are &arious for"s of sub*nationalis"s that often, but

not always ta!e ethnic, religious, and other infra*state fra"es# ;oth forces challenge the

state’s legiti"acy and authority thereby under"ining its ability to i"ose its resence within,

and so"eti"es e&en outside its internationally recognized borders#

onents of the erosion thesis argue that globalisation has in fact reinforced state*ower

and that its disengage"ent fro" sites’ traditionally associated with it should neither be

confused with wea!ness, nor conflated with its atte"t to redefine a "ore conte"orary role#

0his disengage"ent is in itself a central re.uire"ent of the new global era, for it gi&es the state

a greater suer&isory role and ower to dictate new rules of accu"ulation, to "ore radically

and unilaterally inter&ene in hedging off caitalist crises, and to reorganize or reosition class

12



forces in the atte"t to reorder the rules of accu"ulation# 6et us e)a"ine the argu"ents "ore

closely#

State Im"otence

0he idea of wea! or i"otent’ states organizations that ha&e the $uridical roerties of

states but lac! their e"irical attributes is not a new one +Dac!son and <oseberg: 18=2#

@hat is rather new is that the nature and caabilities of such states now ha&e to be analysed

within the conte)t of globalisation# Eany co""entators ha&e drawn attention to how the

"obility of caital and labour, the role of transnational cororations, the rise of a global

culture% the e)ansion of new infor"ation technologies, the e"ergence of new organizational

and sur&eillance structures and on the whole, the e)traordinary enetration of econo"ic

"ar!et relations into al"ost all asects of hu"an life criss*cross territorial boundaries, "a!ing

it i"ossible for the state to control certain i"ortant rocesses ta!ing lace within its borders’

+Ca"illeri and 7al!: 1882% ?# Eoreo&er, the roliferation of and growth in the ower of

sura*national organizations +/nited Nations, International Eonetary 7und, @orld ;an!,

@orld 0rade rganization etc, the frag"entation of the So&iet /nion and for"er Co""unist

nations in 5astern 5uroe, the i"act of instantaneous e&ents and sy"bolic reresentations on

local and national ublics, and the renewed &igour of transnational cororations are osed as

e&idence of the erosion of the ower of the nation state +Guibernau: 1888% Ca"illeri and 7al!:

1882#

0he nation*state is said to be in dee crisis that has at lest two crucial i"lications# 0he

first is a crisis of rationality reflected in the state’s inability to fulfil its traditional functions,’

and second, a crisis of legiti"acy reflected in its inability to achie&e "assi&e loyalty’ +-eld:

188>:19# ;oth underscore the growing asserti&eness of infra*'sub*state for"s of

"obilization and their role in challenging the state by in&o!ing the &ery rinciles uon which

it is based# As -eld +188>: 19 obser&ed,

19



the nu"ber of grous which clai" the rincile of de"ocratic legiti"acy when de"anding

the right to control their olitical destiny is increasing# At the sa"e ti"e, the rele&ance and

content of this rincile is being altered by the intensification of globalisation rocesses#

New atterns of local and regional go&ern"ent and de&elo"ent ha&e e"erged, and that

while national so&ereignty, e&en in regions with o&erlaing and di&ided authority

structures, has not been wholly sub&erted, olitical do"ains clearly e)ist with criss*crossingloyalties, conflicting interretations of rights and duties, and interconnected structures which

dislace notions of so&ereignty as an illi"itable, indi&isible and e)clusi&e for" of ublic

ower#

So"e of these challenges arise fro" and are anchored in the i"act of neo*classical

econo"ic'olitical rogra""es that insist on down*sizing and li"iting this state’s role to one

of the chief suerintendent’ of caitalist de&elo"ent +Panitch: 188=# -istorically, such

doctrines ronounced the state a fetter to the de&elo"ent of caitalis", a osition that has

been rogressi&ely cha"ioned by the ;reton @oods Institutions# Indeed, the &arious neo*

liberal econo"ic refor"s i"osed on ostcolonies by these institutions are re*affir"ations of

this ercei&ed new role# At least in ostcolonial societies, rolling bac! the state "eans the

i"osition of structural ad$ust"ent rogra""es# Such rogra""es as we will see in the case

of Nigeria deeen rocesses of "arginalization, challenging so"e of the "a$or discourses and

ro$ects that hitherto legiti"ated the state#

0he deeening "arginalization of ostcolonies reflected in rising o&erty le&els, and a

loosening’ of so"e of the inherited structures and discourses on which olitical co""unities

were built generates forces whose olitical clai"s, discourses and actions no longer find

anchor in broad national ideologies, but in "icro*'infra*state for"s of "obilization# 0hese

forces "a!e ossible new i"agined co""unities’ see!ing to secede fro" the ostcolony,

obtain regional autono"y, or restructure e)isting ower arrange"ents ercei&ed to be

defecti&e# 0hese newly i"agined co""unities, constitute, or are ercei&ed to constitute an

e)tre"e case of FnationsF within broader Fstates#F Guibernau +1888: 2* holds that nations

without states’ are cultural co""unities that either once en$oyed or are now i"agining a

searate olitical and'or cultural identity that is now being created, in&o!ed, re&italized and

1?



adated#’ +Guibernau 1888:2* 0he in&ocation of historical "e"ories or construction of new

ones to assert sub*state identities is of course not a new heno"enon in the history of state

for"ation +Anderson: 18=9# @hat "a!es this different fro" earlier historical atterns is the

twin*ressures con&erging on state ower, na"ely those fro" below +sub*'infra*state and

those fro" abo&e +sura*state# 0he loosening of the ower of the state o&er constituent units

and the increasing assertion of the autono"y of these units reflects a rocess of the Ferosion of

ci&ic culture,F i#e# the erosion fro" the state of hitherto broader national ties that held it

together#

In conse.uence, a good deal of the state’ legiti"acy is lost, further wea!ening its ability

to re-order old or establish "ore inclusi&e ara"eters for olitical action# 0he state is thus

unable, in the current historical con$uncture, to create "ore inclusi&e national political

frameworks whose "e"bershi could transcend the e)clusi&eness of sub-national

particularisms# 0he twin rocesses of the erosion and reinforce"ent of inclusi&e and

e)clusi&e fra"ewor!s of olitical action now oen a &ast filed in which the caabilities of the

state co"e under challenge# In a "ulti*ethnic society, the erosion of the legiti"acy of

inclusi&e fra"ewor!s of olitical action ser&e to reinforce e)clusi&e fra"es, and where the

state is ursuing neo*liberal olicies that further entrench social and econo"ic e)clusion, infra

state "o&e"ents then use "ore e)clusionary for"s of olitical action#

State Potence

0here is howe&er the other argu"ent which holds that the ower of the state has been

reinforced by globalisation# 6indberg and Ca"bell +188: 9>* in their study of

organizational transfor"ation in so"e "a$or industrial concerns in the /S +steel, auto"obile,

nuclear energy and teleco""unications, de"onstrate that the caacity to establish roerty

rights gi&es the state enor"ous owers to shae the institutional basis of the econo"y, order

social relations and, therefore, deter"ine olitical struggles a"ong classes# Proerty rights

1>



define, deter"ine and enforce the rules and conditions of the ownershi and control of the

"eans of roduction, establishing relations between eole, since one erson’s ownershi and

control usually corresonds to another’s absence of ownershi and control’ and in that way,

they define the institutional basis of ower relations not only in the i""ediate rocess of

roduction, but also throughout society# State actions

Create ressures for change that lead actors to loo! for new for"s of econo"ic organization#

0he state also assists, leads, or constrains the rocess of selecting new for"s of econo"ic

organization that e"erge in resonse to these ressures, and it "ay or "ay not ratify these

new for"s3Proerty rights not only create ressures for change that cause actors to loo!

for new organizational for"s, but they also constrain and influence how actors select

different for"s# 0he state creates ressure for change and constrains this selection rocessnot only as an actor but also as an institutional structure * a set of ad"inistrati&e, legislati&e,

and $udicial organizations with resonsibility for olicy*"a!ing and i"le"entation#

In addition to these, states still retain enor"ous owers in ordering eoles’ day*to*day

li&es through ta)ation, censuses, tra&el'identification docu"ents, and a whole range of other

ad"inistrati&e structures# Eore secifically, a state is indisensable for caitalist

de&elo"ent, for it is the only ense"ble caable of standing abo&e society’ as it were, and of

suer&ising 'i"osing institutional and $uridical structures necessary for accu"ulation# In this

sense, the i"osition of &arious for"s of liberal econo"ic refor"s in ostcolonial societies

would ha&e been i"ossible without a strong state# 7urther"ore, state ower has been

reinforced if only because states are the "a$or architects of globalisation in so far as it is the

changes they "ade in the rules go&erning caital "o&e"ents, in&est"ent, currency e)change,

and trade that er"itted a new stage of global accu"ulation to co"e about#’ States Fset the

rules of the ga"e in artnershi with "ar!ets Othey ta), rohibit, unish, and to re.uire

articiation3the stateFs ower to ta) enables it to finance the ro&ision of ublic goods% its

ower to rohibit and unish enables it to rotect ersonal safety and roerty rights% and its

ower to re.uire articiation enables it to "ini"ize free riding’ +Panitch: 188=:2># In this

sense, the state’s suer&isory role o&er caital and labour ha&e in fact been reinforced, for as it

1



charts new rules of accu"ulation it at the sa"e ti"e "anages the frag"entation of labour#

@hile ensuring "ini"u" conditions of accu"ulation, states do not withdraw fro" the

econo"y but restructure their relationshi to it, reordering their aaratuses and the role each

lays in reresenting and regulating social actors and "ar!ets#’ 0hus, the de*centring of ower

itself and the "eans of force fro" state to non*state sectors, rather than an indication of

wea!ness, is actually art of the this reconfiguration of the state in the current disensation# It

indicates a "o&e"ent towards the ri&atisation of e&erything including &iolence, e)cet in

instances where the cororate e)istence of the state itself is directly in .uestion +Panitch:

188=:1?#

In general therefore, it is "ore analytically fruitful to sea! of the reconfiguration of state

ower in the global era than of a sterile debate o&er its otency# 0his reconfiguration "ay

ha&e forced the state to cede or de&ol&e control of certain functions to other contenders# 0hus

the decline in the functional caabilities of the state in e&eryday life has led to a flourishing of

sub*'infra state organizations that ha&e sought to occuy so"e of the saces it &acated#

-owe&er, globalisation has also e)anded old and created newer sources of ower that while

"a!ing the state less &isible, at the sa"e ti"e "a!es it "ore intrusi&e in the +re organisation

of econo"ic and social life# 0he state in turn resonds to these rocesses, acting on and

reacting to the &arious forces subnational, transnational, and suranational that i"inge

and see! to influence or e&en usur so"e of its functions# 0he central issue then beco"es not

of state collase but the way in which the state as currently constituted resonds to and refracts

old and e"ergent tensions#

Globalisation and Infra-State obilization in !ostcolonies

ne of the "ost ro"inent challenges states and olitical co""unities face in the

ostcolony is the tension between the global and the local# 0he decline in interstate and the

heightening of intrastate conflicts in&ol&ing eoles and co""unities that ca"e to be fra"ed

1B



in cultural, religious, or ethnic ter"s is one conse.uence of the i"act of the contradictions of

the interface of global flows’ confront local closures’ +5ller: 1888# Although the dyna"ics

of this interface are e"irical .uestions that "ust be e)a"ined in secific historical conte)ts,

scholars ha&e drawn attention to a nu"ber of general trends# 7irst, the e"ergence of a new

world order’ "ade "ore do"inant by the collase of so&iet socialis" and aartheid in South

Africa has generated two "a$or ressures on states and olitical co""unities: ressure for

neo*liberal econo"ic refor"s and for the e)ansion of olitical saces through

de"ocratisation# Indeed for "any ostcolonies, the i"osition of neo*liberal econo"ic

refor"s began "uch earlier in the 18Bs# 0hus, neo*liberal econo"ic refor"s structural

ad$ust"ent and the New 5cono"ic 5"ower"ent and (e&elo"ent Strategy +N55(S in

Nigeria are art of the neo*liberal rogra""e for econo"ic and olitical refor"s#

Second, the new world order also generated its own disorder,’ for the ost*cold war era

has had a dra"atic i"act on the state# Eore secifically, the collase of left*right

ideological fra"ewor!s’ that constituted $ustificatory rinciles for wars and conflicts +inter*

and intra state since the 1=th century radically affected the dyna"ics of &iolence and the state’

caabilities in dealing with the"# Eoreo&er, diasoric co""unities are significant in heling

ethnic grous within national boundaries with &arious !inds of resources, and ha&e no doubt in

a nu"ber of cases strengthened or heled oularise the de"ands of !in co""unities within

national boundaries +;ruba!er and 6aitin% 188=: ?2?# 7inally, the intensification and

inter"eshing of global roduction centres% e)ansion of international financial networ!s

electronic trading% increasing seed of co""unication technology and the world wide

trans"ission of sy"bolic reresentations ha&e also had tre"endous i"act on states and

olitical co""unities#

;oth states and olitical co""unities had to ad$ust to these new forces in a way that has

radically altered olitical landscaes# 7or one thing, state ower had to be reconfigured to

1=



"eet the new de"ands of conte"orary global caitalist e)ansion# State ower was

reinforced by globalization in certain resects, articularly in its role as the suerintendent of

the accu"ulation rocess# 0he i"osition of neo*liberal ad$ust"ent rogra""es re.uired a

strong state, although this role has to so"e e)tent eroded the state’s legiti"acy# 0he erosion of

the state’s legiti"acy considerably wea!ened its caabilities, and as it began to withdraw fro"

the ro&ision of basic and critical social ser&ices +including security, other contenders began

to sulant it# 0hese forces led to the wea!ening of national’ organizational and institutional

fra"ewor!s while at the sa"e ti"e reinforcing sub*'infra*state for"s of social "obilization#

0hus central to the heno"enon of identity conflicts is the weakening of national and the

strengthening of sub-/infra- state fra"ewor!s of "obilisation for olitical action# Si"ilarly,

the heated debates o&er fears of do"ination are directly lin!ed to the insecurities e"anating

fro" the deconstruction of a national’ and the +re construction of a sub*national identity as

deter"ined by the way both the state and olitical co""unities reacted to globalization# New

co""unities are being i"agined within olitical and social saces that contrast in the "ain,

with earlier national’ fra"es that are no longer i"aginable,’ or at the &ery best, whose

discourses and ractices ha&e waned#

"adical #ncertaint$ and Identit$ Conflicts in %igeria

7or "any obser&ers, the state in Africa generally +with the ossible e)cetion of South

Africa, and its &ersion in Nigeria secifically, there is a ercetible decline in the

functionality of the state in ter"s of caacity to deli&er goods and ser&ices# 0he decline in the

state’s functional caability is no doubt a "a$or de*legiti"ating factor# 0his functional

disability has created a &acuu" that was ostensibly to be filled by the organized ri&ate sector%

in "ost ostcolonies howe&er, the saces &acated by the state were occuied by sub*state

forces, so"ething that has intensified e)clusionary for"s of olitical action# 0he

intensification and reinforce"ent of ethnic and ri"ordial for"s of identity could easily be

18



established across Nigeria# 0hroughout our cities, and in certain &illages, a range of social

ser&ices hitherto ro&ided by the state are now the reser&e of ethnic or religious

organizations: hositals, schools, transortation syste"s, and so on# Eore and "ore eole

identify with their own co""unal organizations than with the state# 0he state’ functional

disability generates insecurities that has encouraged the ethnocisation of social relations#

0hese insecurities are "anifest in the increasing and continuing econo"ic auerization

and "arginalization of indi&iduals and grous# n the indi&idual le&el, it "anifests itself in

indi&iduals’ inability to secure basic necessities# 0he increasing auerization of the

oulation sharly contrasts with the increased wealth of a few indi&iduals# ;oth classes are

unable to deend on the state for security, as "anifest in increased residential fortifications, as

well as in the ac.uisition of ersonal ar"s by indi&iduals# Tery few would today doubt that

"ost houses in our cities closely rese"ble risons# 0he le&el of insecurity and fear is

widesread, for it is li"ited not $ust to cities, but in the countryside# In certain arts of the

country the Northeast, Ana"bra and 5do cri"inal gangs and ar"ed bandits, so"e of who"

ha&e connections to the state terrorize citizens at will# 0he failure of the state to secure life and

roerty reinforces grou ties and identities as grous and indi&iduals "a!e alternate

ro&isions for their own security# Peole increasingly rely on narrower ethnic and ri"ordial

identities in the absence of a larger, national fra"e# Pri"ordial grous ca"e to be co"asses

for, and anchors of indi&idual actions, and this heightens grou categorization and social

difference# Tiolent intra and inter grou conflicts then beco"e nor"al "echanis"s for the

resolution of social and olitical conflicts#

Conclusion

In general therefore, it does aear that the recurrence of identity conflict in

ostcolonial societies has to be e)a"ined in the light of the co"le) interface between the

global and the local# Although identities are labels or categorizations that often ser&e as

2



owerful referents for olitical action, whether or not and by which rocess a secific label

beco"es a "obilizing fra"ewor! deends on historically secific conditions# In the

ostcolonies, a co"le) set of factors articularly since the late 18=s has generated

conditions of radical uncertainty and insecurity that not only challenged the basis of statist

ostcolonial ro$ects, but the ha&e also ro&ided a&enues for fra"ing conflicts through

sub*'infra*national ris"s# 0hus these forces constitute a&enues through which newer for"s

of olitical co""unities are being i"agined, and in so"e cases created# 0he state in general,

rather than being wea!ened, is being reconfigured, and this reconfiguration "ay show the

direction the future nation state is tending towards#

21



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Documents

Nations Without States’ Globalisation, States, And Identity Conflicts in Postcolonies