National Symposium on - CRIDA · S1-P11 Integrated Farming System – A Mitigation Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture in addressing the Climate Change Needs B.K. Ramachandrappa,

National Symposium on

Climate Change and Rainfed AgricultureFebruary 18 - 20, 2010

Extended Summaries

Organized by

Indian Society of Dryland Agricultureand

Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture

Volume - II(Session III, IV & V)

Citation: Extended Summaries.2010. National Symposium on Climate Change and Rainfed Agriculture, February 18-20, 2010. Indian Society of Dryland Agriculture, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India – 500 059. p.448.

EditorsISDA Members, CRIDA

© 2010, Indian Society of Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad

Published byIndian Socity of Dryland Agriculture Central Research Institute for Dryland AgricultureHyderabad, India – 500 059

The materials published in this publication are the views of the authors and these do not necessarily reflect those of the organizers.

Printed at Balaji Scan Pvt. Ltd., A.C. Guards, Hyderabad - 4. Tel : 040-23303424 / 25

CONTENTSVolume - I

Session I: Vulnerability Assessment of Rainfed Farming to Climate Change

Oral Presentations

Paper code # Title /Authors Page #

S1-01 Determination of Onset and Withdrawal Dates of Summer Monsoon across India using NCEP/NCAR Re-analysis Nityanand Singh and Ashwini A. Ranade

1

S1-02 Recent Climate Trend and its impact on Precipitation Sarmishtha Singh, Sourav Sil, Arun Chakraborty and S.N. Panda

4

S1-03 Recent Tendencies in Wet and Dry Spells and their Extremes across IndiaAshwini A. Ranade and Nityanand Singh

6

S1-04 Akaike’s Information Criterion for Order Identification of Daily Rainfall at HisarK.K. Saxena, Lokesh Ruhal and V.U.M. Rao

9

S1-05 Temperature Humidity Index Profile of IndiaRita Rani, R.C. Upadhyay and Ashutosh

13

S1-06 Climate variability and food security G.S.L.H.V. Prasad Rao, A.V.R. Kesava Rao, K.N. Krishna Kumar and C.S Gopakumar

14

S1-07 The Impact of Climate Change on Rainfed Agriculture in India: Adaptation Strategies and Mitigation measures needed to be followed M. Bhasker Rao

18

S1-08 Changing Dew Patterns in Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh: Few Proletarian ObservationsR.V. Rama Mohan

20

S1-09 Study of Climate Change and Drought at Micro Level in Bhilwara District of Rajasthan A.K. Kothari, P.M. Jain and Virendra Kumar

21

Poster Presentations

Paper code # Title / Authors Page #

S1-P1 On-farm Participatory Integrated Farming Systems Research in Rainfed AgricultureJ.J. Patel, N.I. Patel and A.M. Patel

24

S1-P2 Climatic Variability in Akola District of Western Vidarbha Region of MaharashtraA.R. Tupe, V.M. Bhale, S.S. Wanjari and B.K. Farkade

27

S1-P3 Climate Trend Analysis for the Eastern Ghat Region of Orissa D. Barman, K.P. Gore, Praveen Jakhar, H.S. Hombe Gowda and B.S. Naik

30

S1-P4 Climate change and Agriculture in Udaipur region of Rajasthan State M.L.Jat, R. Sammauria, J.K. Balyan and F.C. Bairwa

32

S1-P5 ITK based Rainfall Variability and probability analysis for Efficient Crop Planning Under Climate Change Situation in Scarcity Zone of Maharashtra D.K. Kathmale, J.D. Jadhav, S.T. Yadav and J.R. Kadam

34

I

S1-P6 Seasonal Rainfall variability and Probability Analysis for Efficient Crop Planning under Climate Change Situation in Scarcity Zone of Maharashtra J.D. Jadhav, D.K.Kathmale, V.R. Bavadekar and J.R. Kadam

37

S1-P7 Trends in Rainfall and Temperature Distribution over Saurashtra Region D.D. Sahu, M.C. Chopada and H.L. Kacha

40

S1-P8 Annual and Seasonal Variability of Rainfall and Temperature at Akola, MaharashtraAnil Karunakar, M.B. Nagdeve and M.M. Ganvir

46

S1-P9 Annual and Seasonal Rainfall Variability in different Agricultural Research Stations of Northern Transition Zone (Zone-8) of KarnatakaS.I. Halikatti, M.P. Potdar, U.K. Hulihalli and S.P. Dineshkumar

47

S1-P10 Impact of Climatic Change on Agriculture in Indian ScenarioPraveen Kumar Verma, N.K. Mishra, D.S. Thakur and S.K. Patil

51

S1-P11 Integrated Farming System – A Mitigation Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture in addressing the Climate Change Needs B.K. Ramachandrappa, H. Mariraju, P.C. Balakrishna Reddy, H.P. Ashok Kumar and K.N. Harsha

53

S1-P12 Partitioning efficiency of short and long duration pulse crops under enhanced CO2 levelsP. Raghu Ram Reddy, M. Vanaja, Abdul Razzak, P. Vagheera, N. Jyothi Lakshmi, S.K. Yadav, M. Maheswari, and B. Venkateswarlu

57

S1-P13 Interactive Effects of Carbondioxide Enrichment and Nitrogen Nutrition on Growth and Yield of SunflowerN. Jyothi Lakshmi, M. Vanaja, M. Maheswari, S.K. Yadav, Ch. Srinivasa Rao and B.Venkateswarlu

59

S1-P14 Decadal Analysis of Rainfall Data in the Context of Climate Change and its Impact on Crop Management in Kovilpatti, Tamil NaduR. Babu and T. Ragavan

60

S1-P15 Response change of grain yield and harvest index between kharif and rabi sorghum varieties at two levels of elevated CO2M. Vanaja, P. Raghu Ram Reddy, M. Maheswari, N. Jyothi Lakshmi, S.K. Yadav, Jainender, G.G.S.N. Rao and B. Venkateswarlu

62

S1-P16 Temporal Drought Analysis for North-Eastern Dry Zone of KarnatakaP. Praveen, S. Shirahatti, U. Satishkumar, S.S.Kumathe, B.K. Desai, B. Maheshwara Babu1 and K. Nagaraj

64

S1-P17 Impact of Improved Dryland Technology on Crop Yields in Micro Watershed of Southern RajasthanS.K. Sharma, A.K. Kothari, R.K. Sharma, K.C. Laddha, S.N. Sodani, G. Ravindra Chary, G.R. Maruthi Shankar and P.K. Mishra

70

S1-P18 Assessment of Changing Rainfall Trends in agro-climatic zones of India: Strategies for Prioritization in rainfed agricultureG. Ravindra Chary, G. R. Maruthi Sankar, K.P.R.Vittal, P.K. Mishra, B. Venkateswarlu and G. Pratibha

71

S1-P19 Climate variability in Ranchi region of JharkhandP.K. Singh and A.K. Baxla

74

II

Session II: Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies in Crops and Cropping Systems

Oral Presentations


S2-O1 Assessment of Climate change impact on soybean productivity grown under rainfed conditions in India using simulation modeling V.S. Bhatia, Kanchan Jumrani and Sita Jamra

77

S2-O2 Assessment of Rainfed Cropping Systems for Aberrant Weather Scenario in Marathwada RegionV.V. Dahiphale, S.R. Oza, M.I.A. Baig and S.B. Choulwar

81

S2-O3 Climate change and its impact on Indian and Kashmir Horticulture F.A. Banday, M.K. Sharma and Aroosa Khaleel

86

S2-O4 Time Series Analysis of Temperature Variations and its Impact on Sugarcane P.K. Shrivastava, K.A. Kaleria, Vipul Parmar and R.G. Patel

88

S2-O5 Climate change and its impact on Wheat in two extreme geographical locations of Indo-gangetic plainP. Vijaya Kumar and G.G.S.N. Rao

91

S2-O6 Regional Mapping of Evapotranspiration for assessment of crop water demands under climate change scenario Adarsh Singh, P.R. Ojasv and, Harendra Yadav

94

S2-O7 Assessment of rice yield under rainfed and irrigated condition in Chhattisgarh using crop simulation model S.R. Patel, A.S.R.A.S. Sastri, A.S. Nain and D. Naidu

96

S2-O8 Acclimation of Brassica species towards elevated CO2 in relation to moisture deficitRanjan Das and B. Haloi

98

S2-O9 Rice yield trend analysis, simulation studies on impact of climate change and adaptation through change in date of sowing in representative centres of Bihar A.A.Haris, S. Biswas, V. Chhabra and R. Elanchezhian

103

S2-O10 Effect of changing environment (rainfall) on productivity of bajra and cowpea under rainfed condition in semi-arid region R.B. Sharma, S.C. Sharma, J.S. Mann and Shyam Singh

106

S2-O11 Crop weather relationship studies in chickpea for improving its adaptation to climate change K.K. Agrawal, UPS Bhadauria, Amit Jha and Sanjay Jain

109

S2-O12 Impact of Climate Change on Pearl millet in Indian Arid ZoneD.V. Singh

111

S2-O13 Strategies for enhancing drought adaptation and productivity of Rabi sorghum under changing climate scenario S.S. Rao, N. Seetharama, J.S. Mishra, H.S. Talwar, PR More, V.D. Solunke, R.M. Kokate, M.S. Shinde, D.V. Kausalkar, S.R. Gadakh, S.V. Nirmal, J.V. Patil, DI Jirali, K.N. Pawar, Aswathama, B.B. Channappa Goudar, V.P. Chimmad, Prabhakar and B.S. Rana

113

S2-O14 Effect of Different Changing Environments on Evapotranspiration, Water Use and Seed Yield of Sunflowers under Rainfed Conditions U.P.S. Bhadauria, D.S. Tomar, S.K. Sharma, K.K. Agrawal and V.S. Tomar

116

S2-O15 Climate change – its impact on the incidence of mango leafhopper Idioscopus niveosparus Leth. (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in relation to early initiation of flowering in mango Rajesh Verma and Swati Singh

119

III

S2-O16 Seasonal Changes in Rainfall Patterns Influencing Cropping Pattern of Arid Rajasthan A.S. Rao and R.S. Purohit

120

S2-O17 Understanding Pest Outbreaks through Real Time Monitoring of Pest Incidence and Weather – A Case Study of Spdoptera Litura (F) in Soybean Based Cropping Systems in MaharashtraY.G. Prasad, P. Jeyakumar, G.G.S.N. Rao, Arjun M. Phule, V.U.M. Rao, A.V.M.S. Rao, M. Gayathri, Niranjan Singh, A.K. Karojia, S. Sathyakumar, V. Ravikumar Amar Nath Sharma, O.M. Bombawale and, B.Venkateswarlu

122

Poster Presentations


S2-P1 Global climate change and sugarcane production in subtropical India-an overview D.V. Yadav and G.K. Singh

126

S2-P2 Crop Diversification with Climate-Resilient Oilseed Crops for Resource Conservation during Aberrant Weather ConditionsG. Suresh and C.V. Ragahavaiah

127

S2-P3 Phenology and Grain yield of kharif Sorghum as influenced by weather at Parbhani in Maharashtra M.G. Jadha, V.G. Maniyar and G.R. More

129

S2-P4 Role of weather variables in outbreaks of bollworm in cotton at Parbhani in Maharashtra M.G. Jadav, V.G. Maniyar and G.R. More

129

S2-P5 Suitability of performance of different crop production systems under variable rainfall situationsR. Sammauria, J.K. Balyan, L.K. Chhata, Q.G. Qureshi, R.K. Sharma, M.L. Jat, F.C.Bairwa and H.L. Salvi

130

S2-P6 Effect of different growing environments on growth and yield of Sali rice in mid-hills of Meghalaya U.S. Saikia, B. Goswami, K.K. Satapathy, O.P. Singh and S.V. Ngachan

132

S2-P7 Contingent Crop Planning under Delayed Monsoon Condition in Rainfed Production System of the Scarcity Zone of MaharashtraD.K. Kathmale, J.D. Yadav, S.V. Patil and J.R. Kadam

135

S2-P8 Cotton based Intercropping system under Rainfed conditionI.M. Patel, P.G. Patel and A.M. Patel

138

S2-P9 Production Potential and Economics of Castor based Intercropping System under rainfed condition P.G. Patel, I.M. Patel, A.M. Patel

140

S2-P10 Effect on Changing Environments on Evapotranspiration, Water Use and Seed Yield of Sunflower Under Rainfed Condition U.P.S. Bhadauria, D.S. Tomar, K.K. Agrawa and, V.S. Tomar

141

S2-P11 Impact of Climate Change on the incidence of mango hopper in high rainfall zone of Konkan region M.V. Zagade and J.N. Chaudhari

143

S2-P12 Screening of pigeonpea genotypes for drought tolerance in relation to yield under rainfed conditionS.B. Choulwar, V.V. Dahiphale, S.R. Oza and M.I.A. Baigh

146

S2-P13 Studies on Amelioration of Water stress through use of osmoprotectants S.U. Pawar and A.N. Gitte

149

IV

S2-P14 Strategy and Methodology of Breeding for Drought Prone Areas – Heterozygote Advantage in BarleyJ.P. Lal. Singh Harbhajan, Nandan R. and H. Kumar

153

S2-P15 Evaluation of castor (Ricinus communis L.) germplasm for water use efficiency (WUE) and root characters Parvathaneni Lakshmamma, Lakshmi Prayaga and Chunduri Sarada

155

S2-P16 Genotypic variability for root characters and WUE in Sunflower Lakshmi Prayaga, Parvathaneni Lakshmamma and C. Sarada

157

S2-P17 Intercrop diversification in Sorghum based intercropping systems J.P. Deshmukh, S.S. Wanjari, M.S. Dandge and V.M. Bhale

160

S2-P18 Rice bean-based intercropping systems for maximizing productivity, profitability and energy use efficiency in rainfed upland of Orissa P.K. Roul, R. Sahood and D.K. Bastia

163

S2-P19 Weather Parameter Based Water Required Estimation In Basmati Rice A.S. Jadhav and S.K. Raskar

167

S2-P20 Impact of Weather Change on cropping Pattern of Marathwada regionP.R. Jaybhaye, P.R. Kamble, V.G. Maniyar and U.M. Khodke

169

S2-P21 Impact of unusual weather parameters on the performance of rainfed crops in malwa region Deepak H. Ranade, S.K. Choudhary, S.K. Mujalde and Indu Swarup

172

S2-P22 Phenophasic development model for sunflower under rainfed temperate conditions of Kashmir valley Raihana Habib Kanth, B.A. Khanday and K.N. Singh

173

S2-P23 Manipulations in sunflower planting dates and spacings for contingent planning under drought conditions in Kashmir valleyRaihana Habib Kanth, B.A.Khanday and K.N. Singh

173

S2-P24 Horsegram for risk minimization under drought condition S.N. Sodani, S.K. Sharma, L.K. Jain, R.K. Sharma and A.K. Kothari

174

S2-P25 Physiological characterization of blackgram genotypes for higher biomass and water use efficiency K. Renuka Devi, G. Rama Rao and K. Balakrishna Reddy

177

S2-P26 Effect of Abscisic Acid (ABA) on Seed Germination of Indian Mustard (Brassica Napus) and its reversal by Gibberelic acid (GA3) and KinetinB.K. Sinha, A.K. Tiku, S.A. Mallick and Moni Gupta

181

S2-P27 Effect of high temperature on yield and quality of greengram, chickpea and wheat S.D. Singh, Shilpi Misra, S. Kalpana, Bidisha Chakrabarti, Vinod Kumar and Ramesh Harit

181

S2-P28 Effect of seasonal temperature on productive characters of holdeo (Hf X Deoni Interse) CrossbredD.S. Chauhan, J.J. Bhopale, M.G. Jadhav and S.S. Khillare

184

S2-P29 Productivity Response of Potato under Limited Irrigation Regime in Relation to Weather Parameters P.K. Bora, K. Kurmi, N.G. Barua and R.M. Karmakar

184

S2-P30 Weather Based Pest Forewarning System for Maize Cob Borer U.S. Saikia, A.K. Vishwakarma, B. Goswami, K.K. Satapathy and S.V. Nagachan

185

S2-P31 Aerobic rice : an adoptive strategy under changing climatic condition in Bihar A. Nilanjaya, A. Narayana and A. Sattar

188

V

S2-P32 Effect of wet spell on productivity of groundnut in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh B. Sahadeva Reddy, A. Malliswara Reddy, Y. Padmalatha and B. Ravindranatha Reddy

195

S2-P33 Improving abiotic stress adaptation of soybean to climate change : Drought as case study K.B. Hebbar, P. Ramesh, S. Ramana, N.R. Panwar, Ajay, Pooja Singh, S. Kundu and A. Subba Rao

199

S2-P34 Identification of elite genotypes by using single spore progenies technique for Agaricus bisporus production to mitigate climate change Varsha Jain, M.C. Yadav and P.K. Sharma

203

S2-P35 Maize Based Intercropping to Reduce Risk of Crop Failure and Increased Income, Em-ployment and Nutritional Security in Upland Badi (Homestead Garden) Farming SituationD.S. Thakur, D. Khalkho, S.K. Patil, S.K. Nag and R.L. Sharma

205

S2-P36 Evaluation of Fingermillet genotypes for relative drought resistance Y.A. Nanja Reddy, E.G. Ashok, B.N. Dhananjaya, B. Anjaneya Reddy, Jayarame Gowda, K.T. Krishne Gowda and M.V. Chennabyri Gowda

207

S2-P37 Moisture stress management in standing soybean crop under contingency situation M.B. Nagdeve, M.M. Ganvir, V.V. Gabhane and Anil Karunakar

212

S2-P38 Phenotypic stability of yield and its component traits in field pea in Bastar plateau zone of Chattisgarh Sandeep Bhandarkar, M.K.Singh and D.S.Thakur

216

S2-P39 Stability analysis in sesame genotypes under rainfed situation of Bastar plateau zone of Chattisgarh M.K.Singh, Sandeep Bhandarkar and Santosh Kumar

220

S2-P40 Studies on the evapotranspiration at different phonological stages of rainfed cotton under dry land vertisols of southern agroclimatic zone of Tamil NaduT. Ragavan and N.S. Venkataraman

222

S2-P41 Rainfall use efficiency of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) based cropping systems under varied rainfall situations P. Padmavathi, S.P. Wani, Lakshmi Prayaga, I.Y.L.N Murthy, K. Mahavishnam and G. Ramesh

224

S2-P42 Effect of basal and foliar fertilization on productivity of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) under rainfed conditionH.S. Kushwaha

227

S2-P43 Seed oil quality and yield as impacted by enhanced CO2 in an edible and a non-edible oilseed cropS.K. Yadav, M. Vanaja, P. Raghu Ram Reddy, N. Jyothi Lakshmi, Abdul Razzak, P. Vagheera, G. Archana, M. Maheswari, and B. Venkateswarlu

230

S2-P44 Indian Livestock: A Contributor or Mitigator of Climate ChangeShalander Kumar, D.V.B. Ramana, K Kareemulla and B Venkateswarlu

233

S2-P45 Effect of Intercropping Systems and Organic Manures on Fodder Yield, Quality and Nutrient Uptake in Cenchrus and Dolichos Lab Lab Under Rainfed Condition L.R.Meena, J.S.Mann and Roop Chand

235

S2-P46 Regional Crop Planning Using Rainfall and Crop Evapo-transpiration in a Semi Arid RegionU.M. Khodke and M.L. Chavan

239

S2-P47 Assessment of Agro-Climatic Variability and its Effect on Rice Based Production System at Varanasi A.K.Nema, S.R.Singh, G.R.Maruthi Sankar and T.Singh

240

VI

S2-P48 Productivity and Water Use Efficiency of Soybean Varieties as Influenced by Plant Populations under Variable Rainfall SituationsB.G. Shivakumar and B. Gangaiah

243

S2-P49 Root Architecture of Green Gram (Vigna radiata (L.) radiata. Wilczek),a Food Legume as Influenced by Moisture Stress and Elevated CO2 Levels V. Maruthi, K.Srinivas, P.Raghu Ram Reddy, K.S.Reddy, Arun Kumar Shankar, B.M.K.Reddy, B.Venkateswarlu, B.Sanjeeva Reddy, K.Surender Rao and G. Prem Kumar

245

S2-P50 Effect of changes in crop seasonal rainfall on the productivity of sunflower-pearl millet rotation under semi-arid vertic inceptisols of Tamil Nadu M. Rajeswari, G.R. Maruthi Sanka and V. Subramanian

247

S2-P51 Modelling the impact of climate change risk and climate change uncertainty on rice-wheat system – A case study over Indo-Gangetic Plains in India N. Subash and H.S. Ram Mohan

249

S2-P52 Effect of elevated CO2 on yield and quality of greengram, soybean, chickpea and Wheat S.D. Singh, S. Kalpana, Shilpi Misra, Vinod Kumar and Ramesh Harit

254

Volume - IISession III: Climate Change and Natural Resources: Soil, Water and BiodiversityOral Presentations

Paper Code # Title / Authors Page #

S3-O1 Afforestation in watersheds and wadi for carbon credits and climate change mitigation K.G. Karmakar and M.S. Haque

261

S3-O2 Impact of contour cultivation on rainfall-runoff relationship and productivity in rainfed agriculture S.M. Taley

265

S3-O3 Impact of conservation agricultural practices on CO2 emissions and influence on soil nitrogen fractions in rainfed semi-arid tropical AlfisolK.L. Sharma, J. Kusuma Grace, Pravin K Gajbhiye, M. Madhavi, K. Srinivas, U.K. Mandal, G.R. Korwar and B. Venkateswarlu

268

S3-O4 Carbon stocks in different soil types in relation to rained production systems and climate in tropical IndiaCh. Srinivasarao, B. Venkateswarlu, K.P.R. Vittal, Sumanta Kundu and B.Gangaiah

272

S3-O5 Effect of global warming on evapotranspiration demand of hot arid zone of India R.K. Goyal, P.C. Moharana and Anurag Saxena

274

S3-O6 Agri-horti-system for Risk Management and Livelihood Security of the farmers in Rainfed Production System of the Scarcity Zone of MaharashtraD.K. Kathmale, N.J. Danawale and J.R. Kadam

277

S3-O7 Statistical Assessment of Changes in Rainfall Distribution and its effect on crop productivity in different soil and agro-climatic conditions G.R Maruthi Sankar, P.K. Mishra, G. Ravindra Chary, M. Osman, K.L. Sharma, G.G.S.N. Rao and B. Venkateswarlu

280

S3-O8 Impact of Climate Change on Weeds and Weed Management in SorghumJ.S. Mishra, S.S Rao, H.S Talwar and N. Seetharama

287

S3-O9 Vulnerability assessment of kharif rainfed sorghum to climate change in SAT regions of India K Boomiraj and SP Wani

289

VII

Poster PresentationsPaper code # Title /Authors Page #

S3-P1 Impact of Temporal Variability of Rainfall on Optimal Utility and Life Expectancy of Rainfed Tanks under Semi-Arid Hydrologic Settings of North-Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka U. Satishkumar, P. Balakrishnan and K. Ramaswamy

294

S3-P2 Development of Sustainable Watershed Projects in Rainfed regions to address Climate Change scenarioKaushalya Ramachandran, M. Gayatri, V. Bhaskar and P. Kartik Raj

297

S3-P3 Impact of Climate Change on Soil Health under Rainfed ConditionM. P. Sharma

298

S3-P4 Scope of conservation agriculture in dryland horticultural crops in the context of climate changeN.N.Reddy, V.S.Rao and B.Venkateswarlu

300

S3-P5 Drought Management in Pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum(L)A.M. Patel, I.M. Patel and P.G. Patel

301

S3-P6 Agroforestry interventions for sustained productivity in vertisols of northern dry zone of Karnataka S.B. Kalaghatagi and B.S. Nadagoudar

302

S3-P7 Integrated agri-horti-silviculture model for development of upland farming system for minimizing drought impactsS.K. Patil, D.S. Thakur, D. Khalkho and R.K. Naik

304

S3-P8 Integrated agri-horticulture model-Utilization and recycling of harvested water by paddle operated low lift pump D. Khalkho, D.S. Thakur, S.K. Patil and R.K. Naik

306

S3-P9 Floods-Act of Nature or Manmade Disaster Ruchi Chauhan and M.S. Hooda

307

S3-P10 In-situ moisture conservation through different tillage practices in castor – cotton crop rotation under rainfed condition R.N. Singh, P.G. Patel and A.M. Patel

310

S3-P11 Impact of management and genotype on the performance of Jatropha curcas L. under high but aberrant annual precipitation A.Mishra, S.K. Mohanty, B. Behera, C.R. Subudhi and M.K. Mohanty

311

S3-P12 Roth C Model – its Evaluation for Soil Carbon Reserve in Selected Long Term Fertilizer Experimental Sites T. Bhattacharyya, D.K. Pal, A.S. Deshmukh, R.R. Deshmukh, S.K. Ray, P. Chandran, C. Mandal and B. Telpande

316

S3-P13 Effect of global warming on carbon reserves in Kheri soils, Madhya Pradesh T. Bhattacharyya, D.K. Pal, A.M. Nimje, S.K. Ray, P. Chandran, C. Mandal, M. Venugopalan, A.S. Deshmukh, B. Telpande and R.R. Deshmukh

318

S3-P14 Inter row and inter plot water harvesting systems on the productivity of rainfed pearl millet under vertisol of semi arid region in Tamil NaduT. Ragavan, N.S. Venkataraman and R. Babu

320

S3-P15 Influence of sowing environments and in situ moisture conservation measures on the performance of rainfed cotton under vertisol of semi-arid regionT. Ragavan, N.K. Sathyamoorthy and A. Sathyavelu

322

S3-P16 Pasture development strategies on sloppy degraded land in semi-arid regions S.C. Sharma, J.S. Mann and Roop Chand

324

VIII

S3-P17 Effect of gypsum on sodic soils and saline water for soil health and higher fodder production in semi-arid regionRoop Chand, J.S. Mann, S.C. Sharma and L.R. Meena

326

S3-P18 Water harvesting through farm pond and utilization of conserved water for vegetable crops in relation to rainfall C.R. Subudhi and Sagar Chandra Senapati

328

S3-P19 Effect of contour bunding on yield of maize crop in North Eastern Ghat Zones of Orissa in relation to high rainfall C.R. Subudhi, S.K. Mohanty and A. Mishra

330

S3-P20 Soil moisture conservation through efficient residue management to ensure double cropping in rainfed hill ecosystems of North East India Anup Das, P.K. Ghosh, S.V. Nagachan, G.C. Munda and K. Enboklang

332

S3-P21 Effect of subsoil mulching on crop response and soil properties K. Kathirvel, R. Thiyagarajan and D. Manohar Jesudas

332

S3-P22 Measuring biomass and carbon stock in Emblica Officinalis (aonla) based agrihorticul-ture system using CO2 Fix model under rainfed condition in semi-arid regions Ram Newaj, Ajit, Badre Alam, A.K. Handa, R.S. Yadav, A. Vankatesh and R.H. Rizvi

335

S3-P23 In situ moisture conservation techniques for sustainability of rainfed crops to mitigate climate change in North West Himalayas Sanjeev K. Sandal, S.C. Sharma, Pradeep K Sharma and V.K. Suri

336

S3-P24 Emission of greenhouse gases from soil under kharif maize (Zea mays) Amrita Daripa, Arti Bhatia, Himanshu Pathak, Anita Chaudhary, Vinay Kumar Singh and Ritu Tomer

338

S3-P25 Rain Water Management for Maximization of Farm Productivity and Conservation of Natural Resources in Alfisols of KarnatakaG.N. Dhanapal, K.N. Harsha, M.H. Manjunatha and B.K. Ramachandrappa

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S3-P26 Integrated Management of Micro-Watershed for Enhancing Water Productivity in Alfisols of Karnataka M.H. Manjunatha, G.N. Dhanapal, K. Somashekara, B.K. Ramachandrappa andK.N. Harsha

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S3-P27 Rainwater Harvesting for Drought Proofing and Productivity Enhancement of FCV Tobacco in South Coastal Andhra PradeshR. Srinivasulu, M. Osman, V. Krishna Murthy, K.V. Rao, K.L. Prasad and B. Narsimulu

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S3-P28 Soil quality and sustainability as influenced by chemical, physical and biological indicators in cultivated land use systems in rainfed region under submontaneous tract of Punjab S.S. Dhaliwal, Bijay Singh, B.D. Sharma and K.L. Khera

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S3-P29 Performance of Various Types of Vegetative Barriers as Interbund Management on Soil and Water Conservation and Biomass production of Sunflower on Inceptisol D.B. Bhanavase, A.B. Pawar, A.L. Pharande and A.N. Deshpande

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S3-P30 Agrotechniques for rainwater management in cotton for rainfed condition V.S. Shinde, L.S. Deshmukh, S.K. Raskar and D.N. Gokhale

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S3-P31 Effect of protective irrigation at different critical growth stages on yield and economics of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) V.S. Shinde, L.S. Deshmukh, S.K. Raskar D.N. Gokhale and G.D. Gadade

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S3-P32 Soil moisture as influenced by climatic parameters in Dryland Vertisols of southern Tamil Nadu S. Jothimani and T. Raghavan

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IX

S3-P33 Mitigating flooding and salinity stress by biodrainage in climate change scenario R. Angrish, P.K. Sharma, C. Ranil, K.S. Dattal and V.K. Singh

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S3-P34 Insitu moisture conservation and rainwater harvesting techniques for higher almond production under rainfed conditions Dinesh Kumar, N. Ahmed, M.K. Verma and R.K.Verma

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S3-P35 Status of Available Nutrients in Turmeric Growing Soils in Tropical Humidity Climate of Kandhamal District and their Relationship with Soil Physical Properties S.C. Nayak, A. Mishra, C.R. Subudhi and B. Jena

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S3-P36 Land Use System for reducing climatic risk and maximizing food, fodder and fuel in semi-arid environmentJ.S. Mann, S.C. Sharma and Roop Chand

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S3-P37 Effect of Climate on Economics of fodder crops (Stylosanthes hamata and Dinanath grass) in Bastar district of Chhattisgarh Praveen Kumar Verma, S.K. Nag, D.S. Thakur and S.K. Patil

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S3-P38 Identification of physiologically efficient genotypes of Jatropha under elevated CO2N. Sunil, M. Vanaja, Vinod Kumar, Jainender, J. Ashok Kumar, P. Raghu Ram Reddy and K. S. Varaprasad

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S3-P39 Effect of Residue Management and Tillage on Soil moisture and Crop yields of Maize under Rainfed conditionsB.Sanjeeva Reddy and Ravikant V.Adake

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S3-P40 Preliminary Studies on Conversion of Maize Stalks into Biochar for Terrestrial Seques-tration of Carbon in Rainfed AgricultureG.Venkatesh, G.R.Korwar, B.Venkateswarlu, K.A.Gopinath B.Sanjeeva Reddy, Uttam Kumar Mandal, Ch. Srinivasarao and Minakshi T. Grover

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S3-P41 Scope of Biodiesel in Mitigation of Climate Change in Andhra Pradesh G.R. Rao, I. Srinivas, Atul Dange and P. Srikala

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Session IV: Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies in Livestock and FisheriesOral Presentations


S4-O1 Strategies to mitigate the effect of slaughterhouse effluents on climate change S. Vaithiyanathan and N. Kondaiah

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S4-O2 Building resilience of rainfed production systems to climate change: livestock water productivity perspectives Amare Haileslassie I, Michael Blummel, Madar Samad, Floriane Clement, Katrien Descheemachker and Anandan Samireddypalle

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S4-O3 Climate Change: Innovative Livelihood Support Interventions in Rainfed RegionsSreenath Dixit and B. Venkateswarlu

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S4-O4 Effects of increased ambient temperature on poultry mortality and egg production M.R. Reddy, S.V. Rama Rao, U. Rajkumar, M. Shanmugam, K. Radhika and G. Jagadeswar Rao

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S4-O5 Interrelationship between methane and milk production in buffaloesR.C. Upadhyay, Ashutosh, S.V. Singh and Rita Rani

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S4-O6 Farmers’ Cropping Strategy Under Adverse Climatic Conditions: A Case Of Small Ru-minant Based Farming System Shalander Kumar, K. Kareemulla, C.A. Ramarao and B.M.K. Raju

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Poster Presentations Paper code # Title / Authors Page #

S4-P1 Integrated rice-duck-fish farming system in lowland for coping with draought and increased income in ChattisgarhD.S. Thakur, S.K. Patil, D. Khalkho and R.L. Sharma

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S4-P2 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies for Rainfed Crops and fodder production systems in Namakkal district, Tamilnadu S. Alagudurai, C. Sharmila Bharathi, M. Daisy, S.Shanthi Priya, A. Natarajan and B. Mohan

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S4-P3 Spatial distribution of enteric methane emissions from ruminant livestock in Andhra Pradesh D.B.V. Ramana, A. Vijaya Kumar, D .Sudheer and B.M.K. Raju

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S4-P4 Effect of elevated CO2 level on biomass yield, quality and in vitro digestibility of groundnut haulms D.B.V. Ramana and M Vanaja

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S4-P5 Climate Change Impacts on Rainfed Livestock Farming in IndiaS.P.S. Somvanshi, Ashutosh, S.V. Singh, Syma Ashraf, Anil Kumar, Rita Rani and R.C. Upadhayay

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Session V: Social and Economic Impacts, Risk Management and Policy IssuesOral Presentations


S5-O1 Key Drivers for Success of Adoption of Rainfall Insurance by Farmers and Assessment of Changes in Rainfall Pattern for Identifying the Need for Improvements in Pricing of Rainfall Risks: A Case of GujaratNatu Macwana and Raghvendra Singh

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S5-O2 Area specific weather forecasts, dissemination, and farmers’ timely adoption – Now a reality H. Venkatesh, G.G.S.N. Rao, S.N. Kulkarni and V.U.M. Rao

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S5-O3 Adaptability of Indian Agriculture to Climate Change : NABARD’s Initiatives for Sustainable Agricultural Development E.V. Murray and K.C. Badatya

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S5-O4 Making Index-based Rainfall Insurance Work for Rainfed Agricultural Households : Lessons from a Field Experiment in India Sarthak Gaurav

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S5-O5 Climate change: Perception and Adaptation Strategies of Farmers in Rainfed Farming systems of Tamil Nadu K. Palanisami, C.R. Ranganathan, S. Senthilnathan and Govindarajan

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S5-O6 Farmers’ perceptions on climate change and its impact on agriculture in Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh M.P. Jain, S.K. Choudhary, R.S. Nema, Indu Swarup and M. Patidar

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Poster PresentationsPaper code # Title / Authors Page #

S5-P1 Farmers’ perceptions and adaptation measures towards Climate Change in Ananthapur District of Andhra Pradesh K. Ravi Shankar, K. Nagasree, M.V. Padmanabhan and B. Venkateswarlu

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S5-P2 Response and Evidences of Farmers to Climate Change – A Case Study of Southern RajasthanS.K. Sharma, S.N. Sodani, R.K. Sharma, A.K. Kothari, K.C. Laddha and M.L. Jat

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S5-P3 Climate Change mitigation through Natural Resource Management- Role of NABARDAjaya Sahu, Sukanta K. Sahoo, N. Shankara Rao and P.P. Desai

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XII

Session - III

Climate Change and Natural Resources:Soil, Water and Biodiversity

Oral PresentationsS3-O1 to S3-O8

Poster PresentationsS3-P1 to S3-P41

National Symposium on Climate Change and Rainfed Agriculture, February, 18-20, 2010, CRIDA, Hyderabad, India

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S3-O1: Afforestation in Watersheds and WADIs for Carbon Credits and Climate Change Mitigation

K.G. Karmakar1 and M.S. Haque2 National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), Bandra Kurla Complex,

Bandra East, Mumbai-400051, [email protected]

ABSTRACTNABARD in the 1990s initiated a watershed development programme which involved conservation, regeneration and judicious utilization of natural resources. Among various components of the watershed development programme viz., soil and water conservation, crop management, fodder development, livestock management, etc. Afforestation activities were also undertaken especially on the ridges with the people’s active participation. These activities under Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol can demonstrate a win-win situation for stakeholders from the point of view of climate change, carbon sequestration, carbon credit and sustainable development. Properly designed, these projects conserve and / or increase carbon stock and at the same time improve rural livelihoods by supplying firewood, fodder, fruits and timber. Under the watershed approach, NABARD has developed an area of 1.7 million hectares, till December, 2009 in 17 states with grant assistance of Rs.260.58 crores and with loan cum grant assistance of Rs.386.73 crores. However, NABARD’s total commitment for watershed development with grants is Rs. 566.12 crores and under loan cum grant it is Rs. 1156.28 crores. It has also developed 45,356 ha area under WADI (a small orchard), which are basically horti-silviculture projects and are eligible for Carbon Emission Reduction (CER) and carbon credits. NABARD has appointed a consultant to undertake detailed studies of these plantations for estimating CERs and carbon credits. It has also sanctioned a climate change proofing/ adaptation project in agriculture under watershed approach to an NGO, “Watershed Organisation Trust” (WOTR) jointly with Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), to develop more insights and working models in the agriculture sector.

INTRODUCTIONNational Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is an apex developmental bank with the mandate to promote sustainable and equitable agriculture and rural prosperity through effective credit support, related services, institutional development and other innovative mechanisms. It’s main objective is to facilitate credit flow for agriculture and integrated rural development, promote and support policies, practices and innovations conducive to rural development and strengthening the rural credit delivery system through institutional development measures and effective supervision.

The National Agriculture Policy, 2000 has stressed the need for agroforestry for efficient nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, organic matter addition and for improving drainage systems. Planning Commission, Government of India (2001) has stated that in order to bring 33% of the land mass under tree cover, 28 million ha revenue land, 18 million ha under rainfed and 10 million ha under irrigated conditions are to be brought under agroforestry cover, besides rehabilitating 15 million ha degraded forest land by 2012. To fulfill the above objectives, efforts are necessary to promote new agroforestry projects in the 16 different ecological regions of the country.

NABARD is a pioneering developmental financial institution in popularising forest trees under agroforestry and in collaboration with WIMCO, a wood based industry had promoted Poplar (Populus deltoides) clones


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under agroforestry in the 1980s in the States of Punjab, Haryana, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh which has been highly successful and today Poplar is a household name and a highly profitable business activity in these States. While Poplars were promoted under irrigated conditions, Eucalyptus were promoted under Farm forestry projects in rainfed conditions in the 1990s in collaboration with ITC-Bhadrachalam Paperboards in Khammam District of Andhra Pradesh, which has been successful and today the Paper Mill uses mainly Eucalyptus pulpwood for paper making. NABARD also promoted Leucaena leucocephala, Casuarina equisetifolia, Anthocephalus chinensis, Tectona grandis, Bamboos etc. under agroforestry in different parts of the country.

METHODOLOGY Watershed Development Programme: This programme was initiated by NABARD in the1990s to reduce poverty and improve the standard of living of people by introducing conservation, regeneration and judicious utilization of natural resources for environmental sustainability. The programme consists of two phases:

(a) Capacity Building Phase (CBP): This phase is administered in village communities with NGOs preparing technical plans and implement and supervise the watershed projects on site.

(b) Full Implementation Phase (FIP): After successful completion of CBP, the project enters FIP which is the main phase administered by NABARD in association with support organizations like NGOs. A very important issue is the routing of all implementing funds through the Village Watershed Committees through the NGOs. Under watershed, another very important activity is women promotion/ gender integration and the activities which have been taken up by the women out of this fund are drinking water schemes, drainage repair, soak pits, kitchen gardens, community halls, flour mill on group basis, dairy, poultry, stall fed goat rearing, health camps, exposure visits, etc.

NABARD’s Watershed Development FundThe Union Finance Minister in his budget speech for 1999-2000 had announced the creation of a Watershed Development Fund (WDF) in NABARD with broad objectives of unification of multiplicity of watershed development programme into a single national initiative through involvement of village level institution. In pursuance of this, WDF was created in NABARD with a contribution of Rs.100 crore each by Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India and NABARD. The objective of the fund is to spread the message of participatory watershed development. It will be utilized to create the necessary framework conditions to replicate and consolidate the isolated successful initiatives under different programmes with the Government, Semi-Government and NGO sectors. Thereby all the partners involved viz. watershed community, Central and State Government Departments, Banks, Agriculture Research Institutions, NGOs and NABARD can act in concert to make a break-through in participatory watershed development. WDF was thus operationalised in close coordination with the Central and State Governments as a continuum of their efforts but with a distinct identify.

Utilisation of WDFThe fund is utilized mainly for the following purposes:

• Promotional effort with community, NGO, SHG, Panchayat, etc.,

• Capacity building on grant basis,


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• Selectively full-scale financing of collaborative watershed projects on a pilot basis with grant under loan finance,

• Supplementary flexible financing for watershed project,

• Financing implementation of watershed projects through the State Governments on loan basis, Supporting promotional activities for micro credit promotion of SHGs, etc.

The WDF was operationalised with flexibility and apart from the activities stated above, other related and essential activities were also supported.

WADI Development Programme under Tribal Development Fund (TDF) NABARD has been closely associated with the implementation of KfW-Germany sponsored WADI (a small orchard) programme for the poor tribal families in Gujarat and Maharashtra States. The WADI model was found to be very effective in creating sustainable livelihood for tribal families. In order to support similar deserving tribal families in other parts of the country, NABARD from its own resources created a dedicated fund called Tribal Development Fund by making an initial contribution of Rs.50 crore. The fund was operationalised on 1 April 2004 and is being augmented from time to time. The fund is used to support all WADI and other sustainable micro enterprises undertaken by tribal families with loan/ grant assistance.

Various components of the programme The core component of the WADI programme is combination of fruit crops suitable to the area and forestry species on the periphery of the land. Generally two horticulture tree species are selected with few forestry species in the model to minimize biological and marketing risks. While, the fruit trees will generate income after 4-5 years, the forestry species will provide firewood and work as a fence and also act as a shelter belt. It also helped in reducing pressure on the existing forest. The main activities of WADI are soil conservation, water resources management, sustainable horticulture and human resource development. The programme has been highly successful with people’s participation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAmong various components of watershed and WADI development viz., soil and water conservation, crop management, fodder development, livestock management, etc. Afforestation activities with both horticultural and forestry crops were also undertaken especially on the highlands with people’s participation. These activities under Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) of Kyoto Protocol ( KP) can demonstrate a win-win situation from the point of view of climate change and sustainable development. Properly designed, these projects conserve and / or increase carbon stock and at the same time improve rural livelihoods by supplying firewood, fodder, fruits and timber. Under KP only Afforestation and Reforestation (AR) activities are eligible for claiming carbon credits through Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). After meeting the rules and preconditions, revenue generated from sale of carbon credits from AR projects offer huge potential for diversifying Indian agriculture and increase the livelihood base of Indian farmers. Under watershed approach, NABARD has developed 1.7 million hectare land area till December, 2009 in 17 States. The total fund released so far is Rs. 647.32 crores. It has been roughly estimated that around 5% of watershed areas are with tree plantation cover which will account for 85,000 hectares area under AR and is eligible for Carbon Emission Reduction (CER) and carbon credit. The tree species planted in the watersheds are: Mango (Mangifera indica), Cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale) Shisam (Dalbergia sissoo), Arjun


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(Terminalia arjuna), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Teak (Tectona grandis), Eucalyptus tereticornis, Acacia auriculiformis, Casuarina equisetifolia, Bamboo sp. etc. Generally under well managed AR projects, 20 t carbon emission per ha is reduced. Based on this assumption, NABARD’s 85,000 ha area under AR will be responsible for reducing a total of 1.7 million tonne carbon emission. In case of WADI, the entire 1 acre area of each tribal family will be eligible for claiming carbon credits, as it is a tree based farming intervention. The major horticultural trees planted are mango (M. indica) and cashewnut (A.occidentale) with several forest trees like Eucalyptus sp, Acacia sp., Neem (Azadirachta indica), Casuarina equisetifolia, Teak (T. grandis), etc. on the border including bamboo. Till August 2009, an area of 45,356 ha has been developed with grant assistance of Rs. 52.43 crores. As these interventions are well planned, well documented, and well managed tree plantations i.e. much more organized than watershed plantations, carbon emission reduction will be more and is estimated at around 40 MT per ha within 5- 8 years’ of plantation growth and responsible for reducing a total of 1.8 million tonne carbon emission.

In collaboration with GTZ, New Delhi, NABARD has appointed a consultant to undertake detailed studies on the AR implemented projects in Watersheds and WADIs to prepare a Project Idea Note (PIN) for host country approval by making a presentation to Designated National Authority (DNA), which is the Ministry of Environment and Forests for India. If approved by DNA, Project Designed Document (PDD) will be prepared for submitting before United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) for registration. Before this, validation by Designated Operational Entities (DOE) will be necessary to estimate actual CERs that can be obtained from these plantations. In the same pattern, it will be desirable for CRIDA and other similar institutions to initiate a massive programme of Agroforestry plantations on farmer’s land for reducing carbon emission for climate change mitigation and claiming carbon credits, besides enhancing the livelihood security of Indian farming community. If necessary, NABARD will assist these organizations in their AR activities in relation to Climate Change Adaptation. In fact, NABARD plans to develop Watershed plus activities in the already implemented watersheds for livelihood security of farmers on a sustainable basis.

NABARD and Climate Change Adaptation ProjectNABARD has recently approved a study for Climate Change Adaptation measures in Agriculture under Watershed approach jointly with Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), Switzerland to the NGO, “Watershed Organisation Trust” (WOTR), Pune. The project will be implemented in 3 clusters comprising of 25 villages in the Akole and Sangamner blocks of Ahmednagar District of Maharashtra state. The total population that will benefit from the project will be 25,786 persons of 4745 households of 25 villages spread over a geographical area of 20,558 ha. Incidentally, this will be the first such project regarding Climate Proofing / Climate Resilient and Climate Change Adaptation in Agriculture in India.

REFERENCES1. Govt. of India 2001.Report of the task force on greening India for livelihood security and sustainable development,

Planning Commission, New Delhi.

2. Haque, M.S. and K.G. Karmakar., 2006. NABARD’s initiatives in funding clonal eucalypts under short rotation Forestry. Published as Report no. 4 in “Wood production in Agroforestry and in Short-rotation forestry systems-synergies for rural development” by Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Uppasala, Sweden.


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3. Haque, M.S. and K.G. Karmakar. 2008. Prospects of Afforestation and Reforestation projects for mitigation and climate change in India. The paper was presented and published in the book of Abstracts of the International Conference “Adaptation of Forests and Forest Management to changing climate with emphasis on forest health” held at Umea, Sweden from 25-28 August.

4. Karmakar, K.G. and M.S. Haque. 2009. NABARD’s initiatives in reducing carbon emission and climate change mitigation through Watershed approach. Presented and published in the Souvenir of International Conference on climate change and environmental sustainability in India and Canada- Approaches and Strategies, held at University of Madras from 16-18 September.

5. National Agriculture Policy, 2000. Dept. of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

S3-O2: Impact of Contour Cultivation on Rainfall-Runoff Relationship and Productivity in Rainfed Agriculture

S.M. TaleyAgro-ecology & Environment Centre

Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi VidyapeethAkola - 444 104 (M.S.); [email protected]

ABSTRACTOn the basis of improved and traditional cultivation practices in medium soil, a field experiment was carried out to test suitability of across the slope and contour cultivation with vegetative contour hedges at 1 m Vertical Interval) in controlling runoff, soil and nutrient losses. Data over the period of nine years pertaining to the surface runoff reveals the order of suitability of contour cultivations along with the vegetative hedges for controlling runoff and soil loss as T3 > T2 > T4 > T1 with runoff values as 14.98, 20.42, 22.46 and 28.93 per cent of the 437.41 mm rainfall causing runoff with the soil loss 1.36, 2.31, 3.99 and 7.21 t/ha respectively. Maximum reduction (55 to 63 %) in NPK was observed in contour cultivation along the vetiver hedge (T3). Over the period of nine years the yield levels of sorghum in medium soil were found enhanced by 14.40 to 19.38 per cent in contour cultivation (T2 and T3) and 7.45 per cent in cultivation across the slope (T4) over the traditional practice of cultivation along the main slope (T1). The results indicated that contour cultivation along the vegetative hedges (T3, T4) are effective in controlling runoff, soil and nutrient losses. The developed 4th degree polynomial rainfall-runoff relationships can be successfully used for predicting runoff in medium soil.

INTRODUCTIONAlmost three fourth of the cultivated area in India is non irrigated and this results the large annual fluctuations in crop production. Indian rainfed agriculture is depends on the South - West monsoon and its consequent vulnerability is well known. In spite of 119.4 cm average rainfall in India, nearly 80 per cent of the area is semi arid and arid. Drought is a common feature and nearly, 259.7 m ha (70%), lands in the country are susceptible to droughts. Many a times irrigation projects are projected to combat the drought effects, however, extent of lands dependent on rains for developing productive agro-ecosystem is around 73 and 88 per cent in India and Maharashtra state, respectively. Situation in Vidarbha region is also not encouraging because 89 per cent of total cultivated is under rainfed agriculture, further the scope for increasing irrigation potentials, appears to be very limited. Efficient utilization of water (yield per unit of water used) is the


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only way of boosting agricultural production. Because of the fragile nature of the eco-system the rainwater management in rainfed agriculture soil and water conservation is of paramount importance, and receive top priority in rainfed farming. This can only be possible by linking the farming with attempts of in-situ soil and water conservation cultivation practices like contour farming. Providing the means of higher and prolonged residual soil moisture conservation to every farmer is must at least to part of his holding alone, so that weather vagaries can be considerably modified and will come to the rescue of farmers (Ulemale 1988).

MATERIALS AND METHODSA field experiment in medium soil was conducted at Dr. P.D.K.V., Akola during 1988 – 2005. The experi-mental area (19o51’ and 21o16’ North latitude and 76o38’ and 77o44’ East longitude) is lying in assured rainfall zone in Vidarbha region (Maharashtra). The climate of the area is semi-arid sub-tropical. The rains received during monsoon period (June to September). July and August are the most erosive months. Four plots were developed with the help of tractor driven and bullock drawn implements. Average size of the plot was 125 x 28 m. The main and lateral slopes of the plots were maintained 1.6 per cent and 0.7 per cent. The cultivation practices adopted for growing of the sorghum crop were cultivation along the main slope (T1) and across the slope (T4) contour cultivation along the leucaena (T2) and vetiver (T3) hedge at 1 m V.I. Runoff, soil and nutrient losses were estimated from the various cultivations practices. Recording rain gauge was used to measure the rainfall and to automatic stage level recorder with ‘H’ flume of 30cm depth were used to measure the runoff. The runoff hydrographs were analyzed by the method given by Ullah et. al. (1972). Representative runoff samples were collected and estimated the soil, and nutrient losses (kg/ha). Similarly the rainfall and runoff data compiled for 9 years and used to develop the prediction equations.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION Data pertaining to the surface runoff, soil and nutrient losses reveals the order of suitability of contour cultivation along with the vegetative hedges at 1 m. V.I. for controlling runoff, soil and nutrient losses as T3>T2 >T4>T1 with 14.98, 20.42, 22.46 and 28.93 per cent runoff and similarly 1.36, 2.31, 3.99 and 7.21 t/ha soil loss, respectively. Similarly over the period of five years maximum reduction in nutrient losses were observed 54 to 63 per cent in T3 followed by T2 (49-52%) and T4 (33-37%) over T1. It was observed that over the period of nine years the maximum reduction in runoff was observed in T3 (48.22%), followed by T2 (29.42%) and T4 (22.46%) over T1. Similarly maximum reduction in soil loss was observed in T3 (81.13%), followed by T2 (67.95%) and T4 (44.66%) over T1. The yield levels were found favourably enhanced in contour cultivation by 19.38 per cent in T3 followed by 14.41 per cent in T2 and 7.45 % in T4 over T1.

It was interesting to note that there were in all 72 runoff events recorded in cultivation along the slope (T1) and were found reduced up to 67, 63 and 58 in contour cultivation with leucaena key line (T2), and vetiver key line (T3) at 1 m V.I. and cultivation across the main slope (T4) respectively. This may be due to the increase in time of concentration in the vetiver hedge (T3) followed by leucaena hedge (T2) and cultivation across the slope (T4) respectively, as compared to cultivation along the slope (T1). Therefore a maximum reduction in runoff, soil and nutrient losses was observed in contour cultivation with higher levels of productivity.

The best-fitted equation observed in case of T3 is 4th degree polynomial with 0.72 R2 value. The reason to this poor coefficient may be due to runoff passes through vetiver hedge slowly in thin uniform sheet. Therefore any runoff can occur only after attaining the certain head at upstream side of the vetiver contour key line which increases the time of concentration and there by allowing more runoff water to be absorbed


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and hold the moisture in the soil profile for long time and assist to enhance the yield levels.The 4th degree polynomial model was observed as the best fit for T1, T2, T3 and T4. Sharma et. al. (2005) also reported that polynomial are the best equations for various land configurations like broad base furrow, ridge and furrow, flat bed for prediction of the runoff. Rainfall data recorded in the year 1990-91 and 2005-06 was used to test goodness of fit of best fit equation. The developed equations are given below:

Table 1: Developed best fit prediction equation for rainfall-runoff relationship for various contour cultivations (crop: sorghum) in medium soil.

Sr. No.

Type of equation Fitted equation Fitted equation

I T1 – Cultivation along the main slope IIT2 – Contour cultivation along the leucaena hedge at 1 m V.I.

i) Linear fit Y = -7.78 + 0.47 X (R2= 0.82) i) Y = -7.74 + 0.38 X (R2= 0.78)

ii) Quadratic fitY = 2.53 + 0.07 X -0.002 X2

(R2= 0.85)ii) Y = 1.57 + 0.02X -0.002X2 (R2= 0.83)

iii)4th degree polyno-mial fit

Y = -6.08 + 0.74 X - 0.01 X2 + 1.07E-04 X 3 -2.54E-07 X4 (R2= 0.86)

iii)Y = -3.81 + 0.46 X - 0.007 X2 + 7.84 E-05 X 3 -1.94 E-07 X4 (R2= 0.84)

iv) Logarithm fit Y = -60.00 + 20.62 In (x) (R2= 0.67) iv) Y = -48.80 + 16.35 In (x) (R2= 0.83)

IIIT3 – Contour cultivation along the vetiver hedge at 1 m V.I.

IV T4 – Sowing across the main slope

i) Linear fit Y = -3.64 + 0.23 X (R2= 0.66) i) Y = -7.76 + 0.40 X (R2= 0.79)

ii) Quadratic fitY = -1.69 + 0.16 X -0.0004 X (R2= 0.66)2

ii) Y = 1.92 + 0.03 X -0.002 X2 (R2= 0.83)

iii)4th degree polyno-mial fit

Y = 11.81-1.07 X - 0.031 X2 - 0.0002 X 3 +6.71 E-07 X4 (R2= 0.72)

iii)Y = -7.83 + 0.847 X - 0.02 X2 +0.0001 X 3 -3.75 E-07 X4 (R2= 0.84)

iv) Logarithm fit Y = -12.32 + 4.84 In (x) (R2= 0.58) iv) Y = -51.42 + 17.35 In (x) (R2= 0.64)

Note: In which Rainfall (X) and runoff (Y) are in mm.

CONCLUSION From the study it is concluded that

1. Each field need to be considered as micro-watershed for developing rainwater management layout.

2. Vegetative hedges on contour in the centre of field and outlet point can be developed appropriately.

3. On arable cropped lands with medium soil cover, contour cultivation along vegetative hedge at 1m V.I. is recommended to achieve higher crop yield and in-situ rainwater and soil conservation. Many times it is difficult to maintain 1m V.I. because of variation in size of fields and their alignment owned by the farmers. Hence it is recommended to develop 1 to 2 vegetative hedge on contour in the field (at 60 – 75 m horizontal interval) and a short L shaped and / or diagonal hedge with grass strip at outlets points of the fields.

4. 4th degree polynomial models are the best fit to have a reasonably close match for the prediction of the runoff.


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REFERENCES1. Sharma, R.K. and Verma S.K. and Raghuwanshi S.R. 2005. Rainfall-Runoff study under various land configurations

in rainfed sodic black soil condition. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 4(1 & 2):56-61.

2. Ullah, W.; S.K. Gupta and S.S. Dalal. 1972. Hydrological measurement for watershed Research. Jugal Kishore and Co., Dehradun, India: 160-180.

3. Ulemale, H.B., 1988. A treatise on water resources and action plan for higher income stability to farmers in Vidharbha. 18-29.

S3-O3: Impact of Conservation Agricultural Practices onCO2 Emissions and Soil Nitrogen Fractions in

Rainfed Semi-Arid Tropical Alfisol

K.L. Sharma, J. Kusuma Grace, Pravin K. Gajbhiye, M. Madhavi, K. Srinivas, U.K. Mandal, G.R. Korwar, and B. Venkateswarlu

Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad. [email protected]

ABSTRACTCarbondioxide emissions from soil as influenced by conservation agricultural practices were studied in a semi-arid tropical Alfisols under sorghum-castor system during winter months i.e. from Nov.-Jan (315 to 30 Julian days). It was observed that tillage, residue application and nitrogen levels, significantly influenced soil CO2 emissions. Surprisingly, relatively higher CO2 emission (232.0 mg CO2 m

–2 hr-1) was recorded in minimum tillage plots compared to conventional tillage (216.0 mg CO2 m

–2 hr-1) which could be attributed to higher microbial activity because of more biomass availability for microbial respiration. Moreover, the observations were recorded after 5 months of the tillage treatments (or sowing of crop) i.e. immediately after harvest of the crop. Presumably, by that time, the oxidative influence of conventional tillage might have come down because of compaction, etc. The plots which received nitrogen @ 60 Kg N ha-1 (236.5 mg CO2 m

–2 hr-1) showed significantly higher CO2 emissions compared to control (210.5 mg CO2 m–2 hr-1).

Among the residues, highest amount of emission was recorded in the plots which received sorghum stover (232.5 mg CO2 m

–2 hr-1) followed by gliricidia loppings surface applied @ 2 t ha-1 (225.0 mg CO2 m–2 hr-1).

Conspicuous influence of the tillage, residues and N levels on various soil N fractions / pools were also studied. Significantly higher amount of ammonical N was observed under conventional tillage (35.5 mg kg-1) compared to minimum tillage (26.8 mg kg-1). Residue application significantly improved inorganic N pools over ‘no residue’ application. Fertilizer N application significantly increased ammonical and nitrate N. The order of contribution of different hydrolyzable fractions towards total hydrolyzable N was: amino acid N (51.5%) > unidentified N (21.4 %) > hydrolyzable ammonical N (13.01%) > hexosamine N fraction (8.41 %). This paper deals in depth with the influence of conservation agricultural practices on CO2 emissions and N pools under rainfed semi-arid tropical Alfisol.

INTRODUCTIONCarbondioxide (CO2) fluxes from soil and organic matter on soil surface are major components of the terrestrial C cycle. Organic matter content of agricultural soils is highly correlated with their potential productivity, tilth and fertility. Despite the organic matter being low in semi-arid dry soils, its effect on soil properties is of major significance even at low concentration. It has been widely studied that reductions in


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soil organic matter (SOM) over time in agricultural soils are largely due to tillage, no or less recycling back to the soil, and soil erosion. These losses owing to tillage in semi-arid regions have been reported to the extent of 20-50%. The losses of SOM in soil occurs as CO2 emissions which is mostly influenced by soil temperature, soil moisture, microbial activity, tillage, residue application, type of residues, soil moisture and root respiration. The CO2 efflux from the soil surface to the atmosphere results from biological CO2 production in the soil (mainly from the respiration of plant roots and soil organisms) and the transport of CO2 through and out of the soil. Hence, the measurement of soil respiration or CO2 soil flux when soils are without crop can give some quantitative information on the effects of management practices on C storage and C budget and build up or depletion in Soil Organic C and SOM loss over a period of time. Further, conservation agricultural practices like tillage, residue application and balanced fertilization have also been found influencing the quantum of N in different pools and transformation of N from one pool to another and consequently impact nitrogen release and availability to growing crops. The nitrogen present in soil can generally be classified as inorganic or organic. About 95% or more of the nitrogen in surface soils usually occurs in organic forms. There are several reports on the influence of management practices on nitrogen pools (Keeney and Bremner, 1966; Sharma et al., 1992; Mulvaney et al., 2001; Reddy et al., 2003) and their contribution towards availability pool. The present study was conducted to monitor the influence of land management practices on CO2 fluxes released to the atmosphere and relative variations in N pools under semi-arid tropical climate.

METHODOLOGYA long-term experiment which was initiated during the year 1995 at Hayathnagar Research Farm of Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, in a strip split-split plot design with two tillage practices (conventional (CT) and minimum tillage (MT)) as the main treatments, three residue levels (dry sorghum stover (SS); fresh gliricidia loppings (Gliricidia maculata) (GL) and no residue (NR)) as sub plot treatments and four nitrogen levels viz., 0 kg N ha-1 (N0), 30 kg N ha-1 (N30), 60 kg N ha-1 (N60) and 90 kg N ha-1 (N90) as the sub-sub plot treatments with three replications was adopted for monitoring CO2 emissions and N pools. Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare (L)) and castor (Ricinus communis (L)) were used as test crops in a two-year rotation. Nitrogen was applied every year in two equal splits, one at sowing and another 45 days after sowing while phosphorus was applied to each crop at 30 kg P2O5 ha–1. The CO2 release pattern from soil was recorded after the harvest of the crop during winter months (315 to 30 Julian days) using alkali trap method (Carter, 1993) and the amount of CO2 emission was expressed in mg m–2

hr-1. The inorganic Nitrogen fractions viz., exchangeable ammonical N, nitrate-N, fixed ammonical N and the organic N fractions viz., total hydrolysable N comprising of hydrolyzable ammonical N, hexosamine N, amino acid N and the unidentified N were also estimated (Bremner, 1967; Cheng and Kurtz, 1963).

RESULTSCarbondioxide flux was recorded in a sorghum-castor system after the harvest of the sorghum crop during winter months (315 to 30 Julian days). From the data on CO2 emissions as influenced by tillage, residue application and nitrogen levels, it was observed that residues and N levels significantly influenced CO2 emissions from soil (Table 1 & Fig 1). However, significant effect of tillage was not seen on some of the Julian days. Irrespective of N levels and residues, in minimum tillage plots, relatively higher CO2 emission (232.0 mg CO2 m

–2 hr-1) was recorded compared to conventional tillage (216.0 mg CO2 m–2 hr-1). This may

be attributed to higher microbial activity because of more biomass availability for microbial respiration. Moreover, the observations were recorded after 5 months of the tillage treatments (or sowing of crop) i.e. immediately after harvest of the crop. Presumably, by that time, the oxidative influence of conventional tillage might have come down because of compaction, etc. On an average, the plots which received nitrogen


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@ 60 Kg N ha-1 (236.5 mg CO2 m–2 hr-1) showed significantly higher CO2 emissions compared to control

(210.5 mg CO2 m–2 hr-1). On an average over tillage and N levels, among the residues, highest amount of

emission was recorded in the plots which received sorghum stover (232.5 mg CO2 m–2 hr-1) followed by

gliricidia (225.0 mg CO2 m–2 hr-1). The plots that did not receive any residue showed significantly lower

emissions (213.5 mg CO2 m–2 hr-1). Prima facie, from the data, it was seen that the extent of emission of

CO2 under these semi-arid tropical Alfisols during winter months (Nov.-Jan) having soil temperature 26.2 to 32.3 oC, varied from as low as 150 mg CO2 m

–2 hr-1 to as high as 323 mg CO2 m–2 hr-1.

Table 1: Effect of tillage, residues and N levels on CO2 emission in rainfed Alfisols during winter months in sorghum castor system.

Tillage ResiduesCO2 emission at different intervals (mg CO2 m

-2 hr-1)Julian Day or day of the year calendar

N levels 315 332 339 346 353 360 4 17 30

CT

Sorghum stoverN0 323 206 150 233 237 230 191 192 162

N60 367 244 181 289 261 258 240 210 208Gliricidia N0 207 238 131 213 224 228 120 166 232

N60 255 253 152 237 238 243 186 189 255

No residueN0 201 233 153 185 211 202 197 174 222

N60 232 239 165 194 221 218 207 190 247

MT

Sorghum stoverN0 206 219 201 238 262 254 223 199 191

N60 244 262 226 254 283 269 225 224 222Gliricidia N0 232 237 226 208 242 235 152 233 244

N60 283 261 250 223 264 249 253 245 294

No residueN0 283 235 194 189 220 222 158 178 236N60 269 248 207 213 235 235 219 193 255

Tillage (T) NS NS ** NS ** ** ** * **Residue (R) ** ** * ** ** ** ** ** **Nitrogen (N) ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **

T x R ** NS ** ** ** * ** ** **T x N * ** NS * NS NS ** NS NSR x N ** ** NS ** * NS ** NS **

T x R x N * NS NS ** NS NS ** * **

CT: Conventional tillage; MT: Minimum tillage; NS: Non-significant *Significant difference at p=0.05. ** Significant difference at p=0.01

mg

CO

2 m-2 h

r-1

Fig. 1. Effect of tillage, residues and N levels on CO2 emission in rainfed Alfisol during winter months (315 to 30 Julian days) – Average effects.


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Nitrogen fractionsAmong the inorganic fractions, exchangeable ammonical nitrogen varied from 17.1 to 42.1 mg kg-1 while the nitrate-N varied between 3.89 to 13.4 µg g-1 of soil across the management treatments (Fig. 2). Significantly highest ammonical N was observed under conventional tillage (35.5 mg kg-1) than under minimum tillage (26.8 mg kg-1). Residue application significantly improved inorganic N fractions over ‘no residue’ application. Fertilizer N application significantly increased ammonical and nitrate N. Total hydrolyzable N varied from 333.6 to 648.9 mg kg-1 across the management treatments and residue application significantly increased total hydrolyzable N in soils. On an average, total hydrolyzable N was 508.5, 481.6 and 440.4 mg kg-1 under sorghum residues, gliricidia loppings and ‘no residue’ plots, respectively. Fertilizer N also played an important role in improving the total hydrolyzable N pool and it was 577.2 mg kg-1 of soil @ 90 kg ha-1. The order of contribution of different hydrolyzable fractions towards total hydrolyzable N was: amino acid N (51.5%) > unidentified N (21.4 %) > hydrolyzable ammonical N (13.01%) > hexosamine N fraction (8.41 %). Conspicuous influence of the application of residues and N levels on hexosamine N was observed while the influence of tillage and other interaction effects was not noticed. Tillage, residues as well as N levels significantly influenced the amino acid N fraction. On an average, significantly highest amino acid N content was observed under minimum tillage (265.0 mg kg-1) followed by conventional tillage (225.7 mg kg-1). Unidentified N fraction was significantly highest under conventional tillage (148.7 mg kg-1) while under minimum tillage it was 110.2 mg kg-1. Among the residues, on an average, the unidentified N fractions were significantly lower under application of gliricidia loppings (117.0 mg kg-1) followed by ‘no residue’ application (127.5 mg kg-1) while it was slightly higher under sorghum stover application (143.7 mg kg-1). Fixed ammonical N, which represent the nitrogen retained in the clay lattices, varied between 97.8 to 183.8 mg kg-1 across the management treatments and was significantly influenced by tillage, residue application as well as varying N levels.

Fig. 2. Long-term effects of tillage, crop residue application and varying levels of N on nitrogen pools in soil under sorghum-castor system in rainfed Alfisol.


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REFERENCES1. Bremner, J.M.1967. ‘Nitrogenous Compounds’, In: A.D. McLaren and G.H. Peterson. (eds.), Soil Biochemistry,

Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, pp. 19-66.

2. Carter, M.R. (1993) Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis, Lewis Publishers, Toronto.

3. Cheng, H.H. and Kurtz, L.T. 1963. Chemical Distribution of Added Nitrogen in Soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 27: 312–316.

4. Keeney D.R. and Bremner, J.M. 1966. Comparison and evaluation of laboratory methods of obtaining an index of soil nitrogen availability. Agron. J., 58:498.

5. Mulvaney, R.L., S.A. Khan, R.G. Hoeft, and H.M. Brown. 2001. A soil organic nitrogen fraction that reduces the need for nitrogen fertilization. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 65:1164–1172.

6. Reddy, K.S., Muneshwar Singh, Tripathi, A.K., Mahavir Singh, and Saha, M.N. 2003. Changes in amount of organic and inorganic fractions of nitrogen in an Eutrochrept soil after long-term cropping with different fertilizer and organic manure inputs. J. Plant Nutri. Soil Sci., 166 (2): 232-238.

7. Sharma, K.L., Bajaj, J.C., Das, S.K., Rao, U.M.B. and Ramalingaswami, K. 1992. Nutrient transformation in soil due to addition of organic manure and growing crops. I Nitrogen. Fert. Res., 32: 303-311.

S3-O4: Carbon Stocks in Different Soil Types in Relation to Rained Production Systems and Climate in Tropical India

Ch. Srinivasarao1, B. Venkateswarlu1, K.P.R. Vittal2, Sumanta Kundu1 and B.Gangaiah3

1 Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Saidabad Post, Andhra Pradesh, 500059; [email protected]

2 National Institute for Abiotic Stress Management, Baramathi, Maharastra3 Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi – 110 012

ABSTRACTThe objective of the present study was to examine carbon stocks at twenty-one sites under on going rainfed production systems and management regimes since the last 25 years on dominant soil types, covering a range of climatic conditions in India. Organic carbon stocks in the soil profiles across the country showed wide variations and followed the order Vertisols>Inceptisols>Alfisols>Aridisols. Inorganic carbon and total C stocks were larger in Vertisols than in other soil types. Soil organic carbon stocks decreased with depth in the profile, while inorganic carbon stocks increased with depth. Among the production systems, soybean, maize and groundnut based systems showed higher organic carbon stocks than other production systems. However, the highest contribution of organic carbon to total carbon stock was under upland rice system. Organic carbon stocks in surface layer of the soils increased with rainfall (r=0.59*) while inorganic carbon stocks in soils were found in the regions with less than 550 mm annual rainfall. INTRODUCTIONAgricultural soils are among the earth’s largest terrestrial reservoirs of carbon and hold potential for expanded carbon sequestration. They thus provide a prospective way for reducing atmospheric concentration of CO2. At the same time, this process provides other important benefits in terms of increased soil fertility and environmental quality. Due to low carbon (C) in the dryland soils, there is high potential for C sequestration.


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As fertilizer input in dryland agriculture is low, mineralization of organic matter acts as a major source of plant nutrients. Maintaining or improving organic carbon levels in tropical soils is more difficult due to rapid oxidation of organic matter under prevailing high temperatures. However, maintaining or improving soil organic matter is a prerequisite to ensuring soil quality, productivity and sustainability.

MATERIALS AND METHODSSoil samples were collected from 21 locations representing a wide range of climatic conditions in tropical India, which were under long-term cultivation of dryland production systems. Climate varied from arid, semi-arid to sub-humid, with mean annual rainfall ranging from 412 mm to 1378 mm. Depth-wise sampling of soils (0.15 m interval up to 1.05 m depth) was undertaken at 21 locations and at each location, sampling was done based on several dug out pits and finally a composite sample was made for each horizon. Walkley and Black method was used to estimate soil organic carbon and CaCO3 content in soils was determined by standard acid-base titration method. Bulk density of each horizon was determined by weight by volume. The size of carbon stock in each profile was calculated following the method described by Batjes (1996).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONOrganic, inorganic and total carbon stocks varied between and within soil types. Vertisols and associated soils contained higher carbon stocks, followed by Inceptisols<Alfisols<Aridisols. In general, soil organic carbon (SOC) content was greater than inorganic carbon in Alfisols and Aridisols, while inorganic carbon (SIC) was larger than organic carbon in Vertisols and Inceptisols. The SOC stocks ranged from 26.69 to 59.71 Mg ha-1 with a mean of 43.74 Mg ha-1 in Inceptisols, from 23.28 to 49.83 Mg ha-1 with a mean of 30.82 Mg ha-1 in Alfisols, from 28.60 to 95.90 Mg ha-1 with a mean of 46.38 Mg ha-1 in Vertisols and from 20.10 to 27.36 Mg ha-1 with a mean of 23.73 Mg ha-1 in Aridisols. Soil carbon content mostly depends on, climate, soil type and land use. Significantly lower levels of organic carbon in these soils are attributed to high rates of oxidation of soil organic matter due to high temperature in tropics.

Carbon stocks varied with production system and showed significant interaction with soil type. Soybean-based production system (62.31 Mg C ha-1) showed higher organic carbon stocks, followed by maize-based (47.57 Mg ha-1) and groundnut-based (41.71 Mg ha-1) systems. Pearl millet and finger millet-based systems showed lower organic carbon stocks. On the other hand, cotton system (275.3 Mg ha-1) and post-rainy (rabi) sorghum production system (243.7 Mg ha-1) primarily on Vertisols and associated soils, showed higher SIC while the SIC was lowest in soils under lowland rice systems (18.15 Mg ha-1). Highest total carbon stocks were found under cotton based production system, followed by rabi sorghum-based and was lowest in pearl millet-based system. However, percent contribution of organic carbon to total carbon stock was higher under rice-based system, while the highest inorganic carbon contribution to total carbon was observed under cotton-based.

In general, SOC stocks increased as the mean annual rainfall increased. Significant correlation (p< 0.05) was obtained between SOC stock and mean annual rainfall (r=0.59*). On the other hand, SIC stocks decreased with the increase in mean annual rainfall from 156.40 Mg ha-1 (<550 mm) to 25.97 Mg ha-1 (>1100 mm). As the SIC stocks were more dominant than SOC, total carbon stocks decreased with increase in mean annual rainfall from 183.79 Mg ha-1 in the arid environment (<550 mm) to 70.24 Mg ha-1 in sub-humid regions (>1100 mm). However, CEC showed significant positive correlation (r=0.81**) while clay content in soil showed non-significant positive correlation with organic carbon stocks. This indirectly indicates type of clay mineral with larger surface area is largely responsible for higher carbon sequestration.


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S3-O5: Effect of Global Warming on Evapotranspiration Demand of Hot Arid Zone of India

R.K. Goyal, P.C. Moharana and Anurag SaxenaDivision of Natural Resources and Environment, Central Arid Zone Research Institute,

Jodhpur 342003. [email protected]

ABSTRACTThe possible changes in different components of hydrological cycle due to climate change is likely to have serious implication for the present ecosystem. Present study is based on the assessment of likely effects of global warming on evapotranspiration and consequently on the water demand of Rajasthan state. FAO Penman-Monteith model was used to estimate evapotranspiration (ETo) demand and sensitivity of ETo has been studied for increase in temperature within a possible range of 1 to 3% (i.e 0.42oC to 1.24oC). The average annual ETo demand for the Rajasthan is estimated as 1701 mm. The study suggests that as small as 1% increase in temperature (or ≤0.42oC) from present normal temperature will enhance the annual evapotranspiration demand by 11.7 mm leading to additional annual water demand of 2249.93 mcm based on present land use pattern besides additional evaporation loss of 40.36 mcm water annually from wetlands. Any increase in water demand, especially in drought prone regions like Rajasthan, represent potentially the most serious impact of climate change on agriculture both at a regional and global level. These effects are independent of the increased demands from both human users and natural ecosystem that will occur at the same time.

INTRODUCTIONGlobal climate change has emerged as a major scientific and political issue in last two decades. There are sufficient evidences to show that the earth’s temperature has risen by more than 0.5oC since 1880 and continues to rise at faster rate (Martinez-Austria, 1994). The main reason for global warming is considered as increase in concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global warming due to greenhouse

Vertisols and associated soils had relatively greater SOC stocks than other soil types while soils of less rainfall regions showed larger inorganic carbon content than soils of high rainfall regions. Amount of rainfall was significantly related with amounts of organic carbon stocks in the soils and legume- based production systems showed higher organic carbon sequestration. As soils of India are very low in organic carbon, its depletion occurs at a rapid rate due to continuous cultivation and exposing the subsoil organic matter. However, long-term manure experiments under rainfed conditions showed marginal improvements in organic carbon levels with regular additions of organic manures. But most of the dryland farmers are not in a position to add FYM or crop residue regularly in absence of their own cattle. Therefore, alternative measures like minimum tillage, green manuring, cover cropping, green leaf manuring like gliricidia, compositing the farm waste, vermicomposting the farm and household waste and inclusion of legumes in the system may be suggested having potential for improving carbon stocks in Indian soils. This could bear long-term consequences in sustaining natural resources.

REFERENCES1. Batjes, N.H. 1996. Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world. European J. of Soil Science, 47:151-163.


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effect is expected to cause major changes in climate of some areas. Evapotranspiration (ET) being the major component of hydrological cycle affects crop water requirement and future planning and management of water resources.

Study AreaThe study has been conducted for the Rajasthan state with an area of 342239 km2 and is situated between 23o3’ N and 30o12’ N latitudes and 69o 30’ E and 78o 17’ E longitudes. Based on rainfall data of 1901 to 2002 the average annual rainfall of the western arid region has been worked out as 317 mm and that of rest of eastern Rajasthan is 680 mm with overall average rainfall of 554 mm for the state. The coefficient of variation (CV) of rainfall varies between 30 to 50%. Every alternate year is drought year for the state. The overall probability of drought for the state is 47%. The State presently consists of 32 districts. The total cropped of the state is 192302 km2 (56.12% of total area) which includes double cropped area also. The total irrigated area is 61345 km2 (31.9% of total cropped area or 17.9% of total area of Rajasthan State. The total annual groundwater availability is 11159 mcm as against total annual water demand (draft) of 11,626 mcm. The overall groundwater stage of development for the whole state is 104 %. Presently out of total 32 districts, 14 districts are in the category of overexploited, 4 are in critical zone, 8 are in semi critical zone and remaining 6 are considered in safe category.

Global Warming and EvapotranspirationThe greatest certain threat from climatic changes is by increase in evaporative losses and water demands caused by higher temperature (Irving, 1993). Globally evapotranspiration trends are projected for +5% to +10% increase due to increase in temperature by +2 to +5oC under equivalent doubling of atmospheric CO2 from pre-industrial level (Schneider et al., 1990). Wetherald and Manabe (1981) found that global evaporation changes by 3% when temperature changes by 1o Celsius. Similarly, Budyko (1982) suggests a 5% increase in evapotranspiration demand for each degree Celsius rise in temperature. Lal and Chander (1993) have suggested a rise in annual mean surface temperature of 2.0 -3.5°C over the Indian subcontinent by the year 2090. According to them warming would be most pronounced over the northwestern India.

Estimation of EvapotranspirationFAO recommended Penman-Monteith combination method (Allen et al., 1998) has been used for the estimation of reference evapotranspiration. The recommended method is said to overcome shortcomings of the previous FAO Penman method and provides results that are more consistent. According to Penman-Monteith combination equation, ETo can be expressed as

)u34.01(

)(u273T

900G)R(408.0ET

2

2n

o +++

+=

as ee

where ETo = reference evapotranspiration (mm day-1)

Rn = net radiation at the crop surface (MJ m-2 day-1)

G = soil heat flux density (MJ m-2 day-1)

T = mean daily temperature at 2 m height (oC)

u2 = wind speed at 2 m height (m s-1)


276

es = saturation vapor pressure (kPa)

ea = actual vapor pressure (kPa)

es-ea = saturation vapor pressure deficit (kPa)

∆ = slope of vapor pressure curve (kPaoC-1)

γ = psychrometric constant (kPaoC-1) = 0.665 x 10-3.P

P = atmospheric pressure (kPa)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONWeekly reference evapotranspiration was calculated using above described Penman-Monteith equation. The average annual ET demand for the State of Rajasthan (India) is estimated as 1701 mm. Sensitivity of ETo has been studied by increasing temperature within a minimum possible range of 1 to 3% from mean value keeping other parameters constant. As small as 1% increase in temperature (≤0.42oC based on normal maximum temperature of Rajasthan) will enhance the evapotranspiration demand by 11.7 mm on annual basis. It will cause an additional annual water demand of 718 mcm and 2245 mcm for the whole state based on net irrigated area (61345 km2) and total cropped area (192302 km2) respectively. As per 2001 records, the total available utilizable groundwater for whole Rajasthan is 11159 mcm and increase of 1% in temperature will put additional stress of 6.43% – 22.16% on existing groundwater resources based on present landuse pattern. Increase in temperature by 1% will reduce number of safe districts from 6 to 3 and bring additional districts in the category of ‘critical’ and ‘overexploited’. Similarly, an increase in temperature by 2-3% from normal data (i.e. 0.82–1.24oC) due to increased concentration of greenhouse gases will leave only one district in the category of ‘safe’ zone and remaining 31 districts will be mostly in the category of ‘overexploited’. The satellite data of Rajasthan by IRS 1A/1B and LISS for 1992-93 shows a total wetland area of 3450 km2 (i.e. average exposed area of all natural and manmade water bodies) which includes 1239 km2 ha as natural and 2210 km2 as manmade wetland area. Increase in evaporation due global warming will cause additional annual water loss of 40.4, 80.7 and 121 mcm for 1, 2 and 3% increase in temperature, respectively.

CONCLUSIONSWater will continue to be a vital resource in arid and semi-arid regions of the world, and conflict over its access and possession are likely to worsen in water stressed regions such as Rajasthan. Even without changes in other parameters water availability can be decreased by 10% or more simply owing to temperature increase of 2oC (≈ 4.8% increase over mean maximum temperature of the state i.e. 41.6oC) – well within the range of expected change. In terms of changes in rainfall, no clear trend of increase or decrease in average annual rainfall over India have been observed (Lal, 2001). However, it is clear that in some regions, a relatively small decrease in water availability can readily produce drought conditions. Since this state is not blessed with good perennial river systems, so any increase in water demand require careful planning for future water resource development. More emphasis is needed to develop technologies for reducing water losses in reservoirs, conservation of rainwater and development of such crop varieties that require less water.

REFERENCES1. Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, Dirk & Smith Martin (1998) Crop Evapotranspiration. FAO Irrigation and

Drainage paper 56 Rome, 300 p.


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2. Budyko, M.I. (1982) The Earth’s climate: past and future. International Geophysics Series, New York, Academic Press, 29:307

3. Irving M. M.(1993) Confronting Climate Change: Risk, Implications and Responses. Cambridge University press. pp 382.

4. Lal, M. & Chander, S. (1993) Potential impacts of greenhouse warming on the water resources of the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Environmental Hydrology.1 (3): 3-13.

5. Lal, M. (2001) Climate change- implications for India’s water resources. Journal of Indian Water Resources Society. 21(3): 101-119.

6. Martinez-Austria, P. (1994) Efficient use of Irrigation Water. Efficient Water Use Montevideo, UNESCO/ROSTLAC. 379 p.

7. Schneider, S.H., Gleick, P.H. & Mearns, L.O. (1990) Prospects for climate change, in climate change and US water resources, P.E. Waggoner (ed.) John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp.41-47.

8. Wetherald, R.T and Manabe, S. (1981) Influence of seasonal variation upon the sensitivity of a model climate. J. Geophys. Res., 86 (C2): 1194-1204.

S3-O6: Agri-Horti-System for Risk Management and Livelihood Security of the Farmers in Rainfed Production System of the Scarcity Zone of Maharashtra

D.K. Kathmale, N.J. Danawale and J.R. Kadam All India Co-ordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, Krishak Bhavan,

Near D.A.V. College, MPKV, Solapur-413 002 (M.S.)[email protected]

ABSTRACTMaharashtra, which is the second largest state of western peninsular India, has over 84% of its arable land dependent on rainfall for agriculture and livelihoods. In the dryland agriculture due to vagaries of climate and cropping is always risky. Agri-horti-system is a land-use system that involves ecologically acceptable integration of dryland horticulture with agricultural crops, so as to get increased total productivity in a sustainable manner. Accordingly, an experiment on agri-horti system was conducted at AICRPDA, Solapur from 2001to 2008 on medium deep soil (45 cm depth). During all the years of experimentation rainfall was deficit from -5.4 to -51.5% as compared to normal rainfall of 723.4 mm except year 2005. In the alleys of drumstick + aonla at 8m x 4m, different crops and cropping systems were intercropped.

Results revealed that highest gross returns of 17826 Rs. ha-1, net returns 11142 Rs. ha-1 and B:C ratio of 2.67 was observed due to pearlmillet + pigeonpea (2:1) cropping system associated with aonla + drumstick alleys followed by sunflower + pigeonpea (2:1) cropping system, where in gross returns of 19896 Rs. ha-1, net returns 9347 Rs. ha-1 and B:C ratio of 2.30 was observed. However, highest sustainability value index (0.46) was observed in the aonla +drumstick +pearlmillet cropping system, followed by aonla +drumstick + (pearlmillet + pigeonpea 2:1) cropping system (0.41) and aonla +drumstick + sunflower + pigeonpea (2:1) intercropping system (0.34). Lower values (<3.0) of SYI were observed in crops viz. drumstick, sunflower and pigeonpea associated with aonla +drumstick alleys. This is due to more fluctuation in the yield of the crops over years.


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During the drought year 2003-04 (351 mm rain in 25 rainy) except pearlmillet all the crops were failed, however, the drumstick showed better performance and recorded green pod yield of 273 to 492 kg ha-1

in association with different crops and cropping systems. Rainfed agriculture is the life line for small and marginal farmers in the country and supports 40% of the India’s human population and two third of the livestock and it is practiced on nearly two third of arable land (96 m ha). Maharashtra, has over 84% of its arable land depends on rainfall for agriculture and livelihoods. The soils of scarcity zone are characterized as very shallow soils (10%) shallow soils (26%) and medium deep (47.0%) and deep soils (17%). The dryland area in Scarcity Zone of Maharashtra is facing many more natural calamities. The rainfall is scanty, erratic and ill-distributed with unsure onset of monsoon. Vagaries of climate reflected in dwindling of crop productivity as against the bouncing demand of food grains. Integration of trees with agricultural crops, so as to get increased total productivity in a sustainable manner from a unit of farmland. Integrating trees with the crops on a farm can create additional sources of income, spread farm labor throughout the year, and increase the productivity of the other enterprises, while protecting soil, water, and wildlife.

Accordingly, an experiment on agri-horti system involving aonla, drumstick and various crops and cropping systems was initiated with an objective to evaluate the performance of agri-horti system in terms of yield, economic viability and sustainability under dryland condition.

MATERIALS AND METHODSA field experiment was conducted at the research farm of All India Co-ordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, Solapur situated at 1704’ N latitude and 7505’ E longitude with elevation 483.63 m above MSL. The agro-climate is characterized by hot semi-arid with dry summer and mild winters. The mean annual rainfall at Solapur is 723.4 mm with 43 rainy days. The average maximum temperature ranges from 29.9 to 40.1 0C and minimum temperature ranges from 13.8 to 24.8 0C.

Table 1. Rainfall received during the experimental years (Normal: 723.4 mm)

Year 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09Rainfall 600.2 644.5 351.1 638.1 758.9 684.2 523.0 693.2Rainy days 37 49 25 43 49 43 33 41Surplus/ Deficit% -17.0 -11.0 -51.5 -11.5 +5.0 -5.4 -27.7 -4.2

The experimental soil was medium deep (40-45 cm depth), low in available nitrogen content (131 kg ha-1), medium in available phosphorus content (12.9 kg ha-1) and high in available potash content (560 kg ha-1) with pH 7.85.

Main crop consists of alleys of aonla (Emblica officinalis L.) planted at 8 m x 8 m spacing and drumstick (Moringa oleifera Lam.) planted in between two aonla plants in a row during the year 2001-02. In-situ soil moisture conservation techniques (micro watershed catchments) were prepared for the each tree. Different crops viz. pearlmillet (PM), pigeonpea (PP) and sunflower (SF) and cropping systems pearlmillet + pigeonpea (2:1), sunflower + pigeonpea (2:1) were sown in between the alleys of aonla + drumstick (DS). The experiment was planned in the randomized block design (RBD) with three replications. In all there were 21 numbers of plots having plot size of 56.00 m x 8.00 m. All the recommended package of practices


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were followed for all the crops. Sustainability of the system (SYI) was worked out as suggested by the Vittal et. al. (2002). The yield of drumstick was obtained up to fifth year and there after drumstick plants were removed. Aonla crop started commercial yield from sixth year.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONYield of drumstick/Aonla: The drumstick and aonla yield in association with different crops/cropping systems ranged from 299 to 368 kg ha-1. During the year 2003-04 (51% deficit rainfall 351 mm) except pearlmillet all the crops were failed, however, the drumstick recorded green pod yield of 273 to 429 kg ha-1. Drumstick pods developed and ready for marketing from the month of October by that time harvesting of other crops was over except pigeonpea and five to six pickings were obtained. This ensured good work distribution for the labourers and year round income.

Yield, economics and sustainability of crops and cropping systemPooled data revealed that pearlmillet + pigeonpea (2:1) intercropping recorded grain yield 1172 and 310 kg ha-1 and fodder yield 2110 and 978 kg ha-1. of main crop and intercrop respectively. Pearlmillet as sole crop produced grain and fodder yield 1332 and 2462 kg ha-1 respectively. Significantly higher gross monetary returns Rs 19268 ha-1 were observed due to aonla + pearlmillet + pigeonpea (2:1) system (Table-2). The same treatment also recorded significantly higher net returns of Rs. 13240 ha-1 and B:C ratio of 3.11, however, this treatment was at par with aonla + sunflower + pigeonpea (2:1) system, aonla + perlmillet, aonla + pigeopea system. Highest sustainability (0.56 sustainable value index) was observed in the aonla +drumstick + (pearlmillet + pigeonpea 2:1) cropping system followed by aonla +drumstick +pearlmillet cropping system (0.41 SYI). However lower values (<3.0) of SYI were observed in other crops. Mapa et al. (1992) reported higher sustainability in an alley cropping with maize and glyricidia in in Sri Lanka.

Table 2. Economics of agri-horticultural system under dry land condition.

Treatments Drumstick /Aonla yield

(kg ha-1)

Yield (kg ha-1) Grossreturns(Rs ha-1)

Netreturns(Rs ha-1)

B:C ratio SYI

Grain Stover

Aonla + DS 299 595 - 11230 5714 2.00 0.28Aonla + PM 308 1396 2542 14847 9249 2.59 0.46Aonla + PP 327 545 2891 15250 8942 2.35 0.39Aonla + SF 343 564 1316 13631 6853 1.96 0.29Aonla + (PM + PP 2:1) 330 1210 (287) 2222 (1010) 19268 13240 3.11 0.56Aonla + (SF + PP 2:1) 316 435 (306) 1058 (1063) 17698 11156 2.62 0.40Aonla + Fallow 368 - - 7360 4167 2.32 0.38General mean 327 - - 14404 8474 2.42 -S.E+ 35.1 - - 1713 1713 0.28 -C.D. at 5 % NS - - 4912 4912 0.81 -CV (%) 21.8 - - 22.5 22.5 25.5 -

CONCLUSIONFor achieving higher returns and sustainability on medium deep soils following agri-horticultural system is suggested.


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• Planting of aonla at the spacing of 8m x 8m

• Planting of drumstick in the line of aonla in between two aonla plant at 8 m x 8m spacing

• In the alleys of aonla + drumstick sowing of pearlmillet + pigeonpea (2:1) intercropping, or sunflower + pigeonpea (2:1) intercropping or pearlmillet at the spacing of 45 x 15 cm

• Remove drumstick after six years of panting after taking yield for five years

• Aonla yield start six years after planting

REFERENCES 1. Mapa, R.B., Kumara, D.K.G.N.P., Kopke, U. (ed.); Schulz, D.G. 1992. Sustainability of agriculture through alley

cropping by improving soil physical properties. Proceedings 9th International Scientific Confe. IFOAM: Organic agriculture a key to a sound development and a sustainable environment, Nov. 16 to 21, 1992, Sao Paulo, Brazil. : 207-212.

2. Vittal, K.P.R, Maruti Sankar, G.R., Singh, H.P. and Sarma, J.S. 2002. Sustainability of Practices of Dryland Agriculture Methodology and Assessment – Bulletin, CRIDA, Hyderabad.

S3-O7: Statistical Assessment of Changes in Rainfall Distribution and its Effect on Crop Productivity in Different Soil and Agro-Climatic Conditions

G.R. Maruthi Sankar, P.K. Mishra, G. Ravindra Chary, M. Osman, K.L. Sharma, G.G.S.N. Rao and B. Venkateswarlu

All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad – 500 059.

[email protected]

ABSTRACTAmong different weather variables, optimum quantity of rainfall and its distribution from sowing to harvest would be essential for sustainable crop productivity under rainfed conditions. In this paper, a statistical assessment has been made by considering the effects of rainfall and its distribution on the productivity of different rainfed crops viz. upland rice at Phulbani, finger millet at Bangalore, maize at Arjia, soybean at Indore, groundnut at Anantapur, and cotton at Akola under permanent manorial trials conducted during the last 25 years at different AICRPDA locations. The monthly rainfall from June to November, crop growing period, soil fertility of N, P and K nutrients were considered for modeling their effects on yield of crops attained in different years. The change in rainfall and its variability at each location were assessed by grouping the yearly rainfall data into different groups viz., < 500 mm (arid), 500-750 mm (dry semi-arid), 750-1000 mm (wet semi-arid), 1000-1250 mm (dry sub-humid), 1250-1500 mm (wet sub-humid) and > 1500 mm (per humid) situations. The effects of monthly rainfall on yield of crops were assessed for attaining a sustainable level of yield, with a high and significant predictability based on models. The sustainability of yield attained by different treatments was measured by making a valid comparison of the difference of mean yield of a treatment and prediction error based on a model with the mean of maximum yield of treatments attained every year.


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Assessment of changes in rainfall and its distribution over different years

At Phulbani, the mean monthly rainfall of June to November during 1994 to 2008 ranged from 30 mm (Nov) to 275 mm (Aug) in 5 years under 750-1000 mm; 1 mm (Nov) to 366 mm (Jul) in 2 years under 1000-1250 mm; 10 mm (Nov) to 446 mm (Aug) in 4 years under 1250-1500 mm; and 2 mm (Nov) to 580 mm (Jul) in 4 years under > 1500 rainfall group. In 15 years, the rainfall ranged from 14 mm (Nov) with 197.8% variation to 374 mm (Aug) with 60.6% variation. At Bangalore, the mean monthly rainfall of July to November during 1984 to 2008 was in a range of 54 mm (Jul) to 105 mm (Oct) in 3 years under < 500 mm; 38 mm (Nov) to 199 mm (Sep) in 11 years under 500-750 mm; 51 mm (Nov) to 263 mm (Sep) in 8 years under 750-1000 mm; and 77 mm (Nov) to 435 mm (Oct) in 3 years under 1000-1250 mm rainfall group. In 25 years, the mean rainfall was in a range of 50 mm (Nov) with 95.5% variation to 200 mm (Sep) with 50.3% variation.

At Arjia, the mean monthly rainfall of June to September during 1998 to 2008 ranged from 52 mm (Jun) to 164 mm (Jul) in 6 years under < 500 mm; 79 mm (Sep) to 283 mm (Jul) in 3 years under 500-750 mm; and 74 mm (Sep) to 539 mm (Aug) in 2 years under 750-1000 mm group. In 11 years, the mean rainfall ranged from 66 mm (Sep) with 99% variation to 217 mm (Jul) with 53.6% variation. At Anantapur, the mean monthly rainfall of July to November during 1985 to 2008 ranged from 36 mm (Nov) to 96 mm (Oct) in 15 years under < 500 mm; 9 mm (Nov) to 201 mm (Sep) in 8 years under 500-750 mm; and 37 mm (Nov) to 303 mm (Aug) in one year under 750-1000 mm group. In 24 years, the mean rainfall ranged from 27 mm (Nov) with 122.8% variation to 128 mm (Sep) with 65.8% variation.

At Indore, the mean monthly rainfall of June to October received during 1992 to 2008 ranged from 2 mm (Oct) to 160 mm (Aug) under < 500 mm in 2 years; 32 mm (Oct) to 184 mm (Jul) under 500-750 mm in 4 years; 21 mm (Oct) to 295 mm (Jul) under 750-1000 mm in 7 years; 36 mm (Oct) to 397 mm (Jul) under 1000-1250 mm in 3 years; and 55 mm (Jun) to 677 mm (Jul) under 1250-1500 mm in one year. In 17 years, the mean rainfall ranged from 27 mm (Oct) with 102.3% variation to 288 mm (Sep) with 52.2% variation. At Akola, the mean monthly rainfall of June to November received during 1987 to 2008 ranged from 17 mm (Oct) to 123 mm (Jul) in 3 years under < 500 mm; 7 mm (Nov) to 164 mm (Aug) in 9 years under 500-750 mm; 33 mm (Nov) to 242 mm (Aug) in 8 years under 750-1000 mm; 8 mm (Sep) to 339 mm (Jun) in one year under 1000-1250 mm; 153 mm (Oct) to 393 mm (Jul) in one year under > 1250 mm group. In 22 years, the mean monthly rainfall ranged from 18 mm (Nov) with 218.4% variation to 191 mm (Aug) with 48.3% variation. The mean and variation (%) of rainfall received in different years are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Mean and coefficient of variation of monthly rainfall (mm) at different locations.

Center (year)

Rainfall (mm)group (years) Statistic Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Total

Phulbani 750-1000 (5) Mean 111 218 275 173 48 30 825(1994-2008) CV 35.7 28.8 19.3 33.2 91.6 136.9 5.0

1000-1250 (2) Mean 197 366 188 249 210 1 1210CV 6.5 0.8 40.6 11.4 5.4 141.4 3.6

1250-1500 (4) Mean 265 248 446 359 82 10 1400CV 47.4 19.5 29.7 37.7 116.0 164.3 5.8

> 1500 (4) Mean 279 580 518 313 123 2 1813CV 61.7 28.7 72.8 65.4 83.4 146.8 10.0


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Over-all (15) Mean 208 342 374 270 99 14 1293CV 60.7 52.0 60.6 52.5 88.8 197.8 31.8

Bangalore <500 (3) Mean 104 54 57 66 105 65 450(1984-2008) CV 49.9 51.1 42.1 37.6 62.9 62.6 10.7

500-750 (11) Mean 69 95 113 199 135 38 648CV 96.1 42.0 44.9 47.7 46.5 83.2 13.8

750-1000 (8) Mean 85 121 163 263 198 51 881CV 64.7 66.3 55.0 31.0 35.4 125.2 10.3

1000-1250 (3) Mean 95 92 251 170 435 77 1121CV 107.5 66.9 39.8 54.4 38.6 84.8 6.3

Over-all (25) Mean 81 98 139 200 188 50 756CV 77.4 59.1 61.2 50.3 66.7 95.5 28.1

Arjia <500 (6) Mean 52 164 106 58 379(1998-2008) CV 80.9 62.7 47.7 121.5 20.6

500-750 (3) Mean 102 283 173 79 644CV 84.6 53.0 38.0 115.7 15.8

750-1000 (2) Mean 111 281 539 74 1006CV 71.3 4.7 15.7 41.3 3.8

Over-all (11) Mean 76 217 203 66 565CV 80.9 53.6 87.2 99.0 45.7

Anantapur <500 (15) Mean 43 63 89 96 36 327(1985-2008) CV 94.3 64.3 53.8 53.5 103.9 22.4

500-750 (8) Mean 160 168 201 117 9 654CV 88.1 63.1 48.2 65.1 175.4 12.2

750-1000 (1) Mean 225 303 123 94 37 782Over-all (24) Mean 89 108 128 103 27 455

CV 117.2 85.8 65.8 57.3 122.8 40.7Indore <500 (2) Mean 119 110 160 15 2 406(1992-2008) CV 6.1 76.6 4.6 57.7 141.4 18.0

500-750 (4) Mean 145 184 170 121 32 652CV 86.9 12.3 37.5 63.0 88.3 15.1

750-1000 (7) Mean 136 295 238 178 21 869CV 44.4 31.3 44.6 56.8 140.9 5.7

1000-1250 (3) Mean 143 397 366 141 36 1083CV 31.3 15.0 17.9 56.0 29.3 2.5

>1250 (1) Mean 55 677 269 228 80 1308Over-all (17) Mean 133 288 237 142 27 843

CV 53.7 52.2 43.4 66.3 102.3 29.1Akola <500 (3) Mean 91 123 92 71 17 20 414(1987-2008) CV 57.8 52.9 20.4 86.9 173.2 117.9 13.6


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500-750 (9) Mean 113 154 164 120 50 7 608CV 68.4 55.7 48.1 51.8 118.3 269.7 12.1

750-1000 (8) Mean 161 205 242 158 61 33 861CV 34.3 47.6 38.9 40.2 78.2 173.3 8.9

1000-1250 (1) Mean 339 321 268 8 184 1120>1250 (1) Mean 208 393 253 301 153 1308Over-all (22) Mean 142 187 191 130 60 18 728

CV 56.6 54.6 48.3 60.1 100.0 218.4 32.1

Performance of fertilizer treatments under different rainfall situationsA comparison of effects of control, 100% inorganic, 100% organic and 50% organic + 50% inorganic fertilizer on different crops has been made and the mean and variation of yield attained over years are described in Table 2. At Phulbani, maximum mean rice yield in the range of 1520 to 1707 kg/ha with minimum variation of 13.6 to 44.7% was attained by 50% organic + 50% inorganic fertilizer under 1000-1250, 1250-1500 and > 1500 mm rainfall situations in 2, 4 and 4 years respectively, while 100% organic gave maximum mean yield of 1969 kg/ha with minimum variation of 30.1% under 750-1000 mm rainfall in 5 years under moist sub-humid alfisols. At Bangalore, maximum mean finger millet yield in the range of 2206 to 3082 kg/ha with minimum variation of 7.3 to 21.9% was attained by 50% organic + 50% inorganic fertilizer in 3,11, 8 and 3 years under < 500, 500-750, 750-1000 and 1000-1250 mm rainfall situations respectively, while 100% organic had lowest variation of 24.6% in 500-750 mm rainfall under semi-arid alfisols.

At Arjia, maximum maize fodder yield of 3208 to 5438 kg/ha was attained by 50% organic + 50% inorganic fertilizer under < 500 (6 years) and 750-1000 mm (2 years) compared to mean of 3646 kg/ha in 11 years. 100% inorganic gave maximum mean yield of 2743 kg/ha in 500-750 mm rainfall in 3 years. The lowest variation of 31 to 45.1% was in control under < 500 and 750-1000 mm, while 100% inorganic had lowest variation of 98.6% in 500-750 mm rainfall under semi-arid vertisols. At Anantapur, maximum mean groundnut pod yield of 879 to 1250 kg/ha was attained by 100% inorganic treatment, while lowest variation of 18.9 to 49.3% was attained by 100% organic treatment. A maximum mean pod yield of 916 kg/ha with a variation of 45.1% was attained by 100% inorganic treatment compared to 863 kg/ha with lowest variation of 40% attained by 100% organic treatment in 24 years under arid alfisols.

At Indore, maximum mean soybean yield of 1608 to 2582 kg/ha with variation of 7.2 to 38.2% was attained by 50% organic + 50% inorganic fertilizer in < 500, 500-750, 750-1000, 1000-1250 and > 1250 mm rainfall situations, compared to mean yield of 2157 kg/ha with a variation of 28.3% by same treatment in 17 years. However, lowest variation of 6.1 to 37.6% was attained by 100% organic treatment in < 500, 500-750 and 1000-1250 mm rainfall, while 50% organic + 50% inorganic fertilizer had lowest variation of 29.4% in 750-1000 mm rainfall in semi-arid vertisols. At Akola, maximum mean cotton yield in the range of 371 to 925 kg/ha with minimum variation of 28.1 to 63.7% was attained by 50% organic + 50% inorganic fertilizer treatment under < 500, 500-750, 750-1000, 1000-1250 during 3, 9, 8 and one years respectively, while 100% inorganic treatment gave maximum yield of 750 kg/ha in one year under > 1250 mm rainfall situation, The control was found to have the lowest variation of 54.8% under 750-1000 mm rainfall occurred in 8 years and 51.2% during all the 22 years of study under semi-arid vertisols.


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Table 2. Mean and variation of yield attained by treatments in different rainfall situations.

Center Rainfall

(mm) group

Mean (kg/ha)(I = Inorganic & O = Organic)

Coefficient of variation (%)(I = Inorganic & O = Organic)

Con-trol

100% (I)

100% (O)

50% (I) + 50% (O) Con-trol 100%

(I)100%

(O)50% (I) + 50% (O)

Phulbani 750-1000 749 1941 1969 1895 39.3 43.6 30.1 37.71000-1250 469 1274 1667 1667 28.3 29.3 36.4 13.61250-1500 480 1203 1421 1520 55.4 80.5 33.0 28.1> 1500 650 1457 1516 1632 80.9 64.2 50.0 44.7Over-all 623 1549 1679 1707 55.0 53.2 35.2 34.5

Bangalore <500 532 1415 1883 2206 120.1 63.1 34.0 7.3500-750 706 2197 2567 2941 65.6 42.5 24.6 27.6750-1000 444 1662 2572 3082 66.3 36.6 13.8 9.21000-1250 172 1315 2283 2880 90.1 39.7 29.4 20.4Over-all 537 1826 2452 2891 79.7 45.4 23.4 21.9

Arjia <500 2608 3128 3139 3208 45.1 48.2 47.4 50.6500-750 2027 2743 2703 2690 103.3 98.6 100.2 110.5750-1000 3559 5195 5192 5438 31.0 45.9 41.1 46.6Over-all 2690 3502 3498 3646 48.4 55.0 53.9 54.3

Anantapur <500 726 879 857 863 50.6 54.7 49.3 51.9500-750 738 941 854 971 28.5 28.6 18.9 31.3750-1000 966 1250 1013 1182Over-all 741 916 863 912 42.5 45.1 40.0 43.4

Indore <500 985 1573 1379 1608 14.4 6.8 6.1 7.2500-750 1528 2061 1874 2128 14.0 12.5 11.6 12.7750-1000 1429 2097 1996 2200 35.7 31.6 34.4 29.41000-1250 1286 2442 2416 2582 39.1 38.1 37.6 38.2>1250 691 1574 1282 1795Over-all 1331 2057 1927 2157 33.1 29.1 32.8 28.3

Akola <500 233 309 326 371 33.0 46.8 41.9 28.1500-750 524 765 706 851 45.7 45.1 38.2 38.2750-1000 543 753 776 925 54.8 57.0 65.5 63.71000-1250 530 850 750 850>1250 560 750 650 740Over-all 492 699 678 805 51.2 52.6 55.3 54.8

Assessment of effect of monthly rainfall on crop productivityEffects of monthly rainfall on yield are measured based on regression models of yield attained by fertil-izer treatments (Table 3). At Phulbani, August rainfall influenced rice yield attained by control and 100% inorganic fertilizer, while June, August and September rainfall had a significant effect on yield attained by 50% N (FYM) + 50% N (urea) + recommended PK and 50% N (FYM) + PK. Control gave a R2 of 0.69 with a SYI of 16% compared to R2 of 0.81 and SYI of 47% attained by 50% N (FYM) + 50% N (urea) +


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recommended PK. At Bangalore, finger millet yield of control was significantly influenced by July, August and November rainfall, while yield of 100% NPK (urea) by November rainfall. The R2 ranged from 0.33 for FYM @ 10 t/ha to 0.83 for 100% NPK. FYM @ 10 t/ha + 50% NPK (urea) was efficient with maximum SYI of 52.7%, while 100% NPK (urea) gave SYI of 30.1% compared to 5.6% of control.

At Arjia, July rainfall significantly influenced maize yield attained by control, 50 kg N/ha (urea) and 15 kg N (compost) + 10 kg N/ha (urea). The R2 ranged from 0.62 for 15 kg N (compost) + 10 kg N/ha (green leaf) to 0.96 for control. The SYI ranged from 16.1% for 15 kg N (compost) + 10 kg N/ha (green leaf) to 36.5% attained by 100% recommended fertilizer. At Anantapur, July and November rainfall significantly influenced groundnut pod yield attained by 20 kg N + 40 kg P + 40 kg K/ha and 50% N through FYM (10 kg N/ha) + 50% NPK, while July rainfall influenced control yield. The R2 ranged from 0.18 for 100% N (groundnut shells ~20 kg N/ha) to 0.32 for 50% N through FYM (10 kg N/ha) + 50% NPK. The SYI ranged from 34.1% for control to 43.1% for 100% N (organic) viz., 100% N (groundnut shells ~ 20 kg N/ha).

At Indore, August and September rainfall significantly influenced soybean yield attained by 60 kg N + 35 kg P/ha and 100% organic viz., FYM @ 6 t/ha, while July, August and September rainfall influenced yield attained by 50% N through organic (Residues @ 5 t/ha) + 50% N through inorganic (20 kg N/ha) + 13 kg P/ha compared to no significant effect on control. The R2 was in a range of 0.86 for control to 0.98 for 20 kg N+ residues @ 5t/ha + 13 kg P/ha. 60 kg N + 35 kg P/ha gave a maximum SYI of 55.6%, while control lowest of 30.8%. Residues @ 5 t/ha + 20 kg N + 13 kg P/ha gave SYI of 51.2%, while FYM @ 6 t/ha gave SYI of 50.3%. At Akola, rainfall had no effect on cotton yield. The R2 ranged from 0.35 for 50 kg N + 25 kg P/ha to 0.45 for control, while SYI ranged from 11.2 for control to 14.8% for 25 kg N+25 kg P/ha + 25 kg N (Leucaena).

Table 3. Regression models for assessing the effect of monthly rainfall on crop yield.

Center Treatment Regression model of yield through rainfall R2 Error SYIPhulbani (Rice) Control Y = 323 – 0.996 (Jun) + 1.03 (Jul) + 0.993* (Aug) –

0.009 (Sep) – 1.544 (Oct) 0.69* 225 15.0

100% (I) Y = 1047 – 1.153 (Jun) + 1.296 (Jul) + 2.066* (Aug) – 0.29 (Sep) – 4.138 (Oct) 0.75** 512 44.0

100% (O) Y = 1664* – 2.933* (Jun) - 1.076 (Jul) + 0.482* (Aug) + 2.936* (Sep) – 5.923 (Oct) 0.85** 511 47.0

50% (I) + 50% (O)

Y = 1324* + 2.669* (Jun) – 1.083 (Jul) + 0.658* (Aug) + 3.934* (Sep) – 6.582 (Oct) 0.81** 478 47.0

Bangalore (Finger mil-let)

ControlY = – 4564** + 4.64 * (Jul) – 2.08* (Aug) – 1.75 (Sep) – 0.57 (Oct) + 6.24* (Nov) + 17.17** (CGP) + 5573* (OC) – 1.58 (SP) + 17.95** (SK)

0.78* 299 5.6

100% (I)Y = - 543 + 2.75 (Jul) – 0.69 (Aug) – 0.49 (Sep) – 2.18 (Oct) + 8.05* (Nov) + 30.36** (CGP) + 274 (OC) – 18.23** (SP) + 3.89 (SK)

0.83** 492 30.1

100% (O)Y = 1039 – 0.65 (Jul) – 0.26 (Aug) – 0.38 (Sep) + 1.66 (Oct) + 1.47 (Nov) + 8.21 (CGP) + 287.32 (OC) – 4.39 (SP) + 6.11 (SK)

0.33 483 44.2

50% (I) + 50% (O)

Y = 598 + 2.17 (Jul) + 1.45 (Aug) – 0.38 (Sep) + 0.67 (Oct) + 1.94 (Nov) + 10.86 (CGP) – 938 (OC) – 0.64 (SP) + 8.87 (SK)

0.35 527 52.7


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Arjia (Maize) Control Y= -10191 – 1.87(Jun)+ 5.78* (Jul) –1.75 (Aug) –

4.66 (Sep) + 712* (SMS) – 359* (SMH) 0.96* 465 30.8

100% (I) Y = –22642 – 17.94 (Jun) – 2.43 (Jul) + 3.36 (Aug) – 13.79 (Sep) + 2662 (SMS) – 2199 (SMH) 0.94 867 36.5

100% (O) Y = –15194 + 7.21 (Jun) – 0.79 (Jul) + 3.82 (Aug) – 6.49 (Sep) + 1415 (SMS) – 1127 (SMH) 0.62 2334 16.1

50% (I) + 50% (O)

Y = –60038 – 18.21(Jun) – 2.77 (Jul) + 4.42 (Aug) - 12.59 (Sep) + 3237 (SMS) – 1643 (SMH) 0.86 1442 30.5

Anantapur(Groundnut) Control Y = 376 + 1.30* (Jul) – 0.09 (Aug) + 0.58 (Sep) +

1.02 (Oct) + 2.97 (Nov) 0.24 315 34.1

100% (I) Y = 433 + 1.95* (Jul) – 0.04 (Aug) + 0.82 (Sep) + 0.99 (Oct) + 4.01* (Nov) 0.30 397 40.5

100% (O) Y = 473 + 1.03 (Jul) – 0.11 (Aug) + 0.80 (Sep) + 1.16 (Oct) + 3.30 (Nov) 0.18 357 43.1

50% (I) + 50% (O)

Y = 432 + 1.97* (Jul) – 0.03 (Aug) + 0.82 (Sep) + 0.99 (Oct) + 3.75* (Nov) 0.32 373 41.5

Indore(Soybean) Control

Y = 1502 - 8.39 (CGP) - 9.06 (Jun) + 0.91 (Jul) - 0.87 (Aug) + 0.88 (Sep) + 24.22 (Oct) + 7614 (OC) - 25.75 (SP) + 1.40 (SK) - 184.64 (SS)

0.86 275 30.8

100% (I)Y = 6315*- 111.8* (CGP) + 9.65 (Jun) - 4.54 (Jul) + 9.26* (Aug) + 9.09** (Sep) - 22.85 (Oct) +1588 (OC) - 10.27 (SP)+ 2.69 (SK) +147.74(SS)

0.96** 188 55.6

100% (O)Y = 8030**- 71.7** (CGP) + 3.68 (Jun) – 1.46 (Jul) + 5.34* (Aug) + 6.18** (Sep) – 3.57 (Oct) - 331 (OC) – 16.82 (SP) – 0.32 (SK) + 8.54 (SS)

0.95* 230 50.3

50% (I) + 50% (O)

Y = 8856** - 95.6** (CGP) + 2.88 (Jun) - 2.97** (Jul) + 6.97** (Aug) + 8.23** (Sep) - 3.86 (Oct) - 934* (OC) - 28.68* (SP) + 1.84 (SK) + 45.52 (SS)

0.98** 127 51.2

Akola(Cotton) Control

Y = 334 - 1.23 (CGP) + 1.33(Jun) + 0.90 (Jul) + 0.19 (Aug) + 1.00 (Sep) - 1.32 (Oct) -1.16 (Nov) + 600.7 (OC) - 11.65 (SP) + 0.09 (SK)

0.45 278 11.2

100% (I)Y = -1177 + 1.10 (CGP) + 0.85 (Jun) + 1.35 (Jul) + 0.53 (Aug) -0.09 (Sep) - 1.58 (Oct) -1.89 (Nov) + 1362.9 (OC) - 10.82 (SP) + 2.64 (SK)

0.35 441 13.5

100% (O)Y = -2175 + 1.18 (CGP) + 0.21 (Jun) + 1.43 (Jul) + 0.77 (Aug) – 0.51 (Sep) – 1.26 (Oct) - 2.10 (Nov) + 3029.4 (OC) – 16.35 (SP) + 2.39 (SK)

0.42 425 13.2

50% (I) + 50% (O)

Y = -3048 + 6.46 (CGP) + 0.51 (Jun) + 1.14 (Jul) - 0.09 (Aug) -1.22 (Sep) - 0.83 (Oct) -3.19 (Nov) + 2829.3 (OC) - 23.91 (SP) + 3.57 (SK)

0.42 455 14.8

* and ** indicate significance at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 level, respectively


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S3-O8: Impact of Climate Change on Weeds and Weed Management in Sorghum

J.S. Mishra, S.S. Rao, H.S. Talwar and N. SeetharamaDirectorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030 (Andhra Pradesh)

[email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACTAtmospheric CO2 is projected to increase from current levels of approximately 380 ppm to 550 ppm by the end of 21st century (Nakisenovic et al. 2000). Maximum CO2 beneficial effects will likely require more fertilizers (to support bigger plants), optimum temperature, unrestricted root growth and excellent control of weeds, insects and diseases (Wolfe, 1994). Increasing atmospheric CO2 and associated changes in climate have the potential to directly affect weed physiology and crop-weed interactions vis-à-vis their response to weed control methods. Some crops and weeds will benefit by changing climate and increasing atmospheric CO2, at the expense of other species that do poorly and become less important in the region. Weed species have a greater genetic diversity than most crops and therefore, under the changing scenario of resources (eg., light, moisture, nutrients, CO2), weeds will have the greater capacity for growth and reproductive response than most crops. Differential response to seed emergence with temperature could also influence species establishment and subsequent weed-crop competition. Increasing temperature might allow some sleeper weeds to become invasive (Farming Ahead, 2007; Science Daily, 2009). The increased temperature and aridity are expected to alter the distribution and impact of weeds. However, under high temperature and water stress conditions, C4 plants may exhibit significant growth increase in response to CO2 enrichment.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is a staple cereal grown in both rainy (June-October) and post-rainy (November-February) seasons in the semi-arid and arid parts of India on marginal and least fertile soils where only few other crops can survive. Because of its drought tolerance, sorghum can be cultivated in areas that are often too hot and dry for other crops to be grown. Weeds are a major deterrent in increasing the sorghum productivity as they compete with crop for soil moisture and nutrients, which are the major limiting factors in semi-arid areas. Sorghum is a C4 plant. It is infested with both C3 (major broad-leaved weeds except Amaranthus viridis and Portulaca oleracea, which are C4) and C4 (major grassy weeds and sedges) weeds. Various studies have indicated that the growth of C3 plants tends to be stimulated more by CO2 enrichment than the growth of C4 plants. Therefore, the future increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration might increase the competitive impact of C3 weeds in sorghum. Ziska (2001) concluded that as atmospheric CO2 continues to increase, vegetative growth, competition and potential yield of C4 crops could be reduced when they compete with C3 weeds. Ziska and Runion (2006) reported that in case of similar photosynthetic path way of crop and weed such as sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) and shattercane (S. bicolor), weed growth was favoured by CO2 enrichment. Similarly the growth and reproduction of Parthenium hysterophorus was increased with CO2 enrichment (Gogoi and Mishra, 2007). Ziska (2003b) reported that in a weed-free environment, increased CO2 significantly increased the leaf weight and leaf area of sorghum but no significant effect on seed yield or total above-ground biomass relative to the ambient CO2 condition. Increase in velvet leaf (Abutilon theophrasti) biomass in response to increasing CO2 reduced the yield and biomass of sorghum. Similarly, as CO2 increased, significant losses in both seed yield and total biomass were observed for sorghum-redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexux) competition. Increased CO2 was not associated with a significant increase in redroot pigweed biomass. These results indicate potentially greater loss in a widely grown C4 crop from weedy competition as atmospheric CO2 increases. In another experiment, Ziska (2001) observed that the vegetative growth, competition and potential yield of sorghum


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could be reduced by co-occurring of common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) as the atmospheric CO2 increases. In sorghum-Striga interference, Watling and Press (1997) observed that a high CO2 concentration resulted in taller sorghum plants, greater biomass, photosynthetic rates, water-use efficiencies and leaf areas and lower Striga biomass/host plant and a greater rate of photosynthesis. Parasite stomatal conductance was not responsive to CO2 concentration. Striga emerged above ground and flowered earlier under the lower CO2 concentration.

Implications for managementWeeds will be more aggressive and difficult to control as CO2 continues to rise (Wolfe et al. 2007). Chemical weed control using atrazine (pre-emergence) and 2,4-D (post-emergence) is the most effective and economical in sorghum. The efficacy of herbicides is greatly influenced by environmental variables such as soil moisture, temperature and humidity. Several studies (Ziska et al., 1999; 2004; Ziska and Goin, 2006) demonstrate a decline in herbicide efficacy with rising CO2. Decreasing stomatal conductance with increased CO2 might reduce the uptake of both soil and foliar applied herbicides. Declining efficacy of herbicide with increasing CO2 is likely to affect the environmental and economic cost of herbicide usage (Ziska et al., 1999). Beneficial soil microbial populations important for nutrient recycling and herbicide degradation and other processes are likely to be highly sensitive to climate change and CO2-mediated effects on chemical composition of both crop and weeds. Climate change also alters the efficacy of bio-control agents by changing the growth and reproduction of target weed.

Hand hoeing or manual weeding with hand tools such as sickle and khurpi or animal-drawn mechanical implements such as blade harrows are still the most common practices performed for weed control in sorghum. These implements cut and discs roots. The rising CO2 may increase the below-ground root growth relative to above-ground shoot growth (Ziska, 2003a). Increased root and rhizome growth particularly in perennial weeds like Cyperus rotundus, Sorghum halepense, due to elevated CO2 may make the mechanical weed control more difficult.

REFERENCES1. Farming Ahead, March 2007, No. 182. pp. 38-40. www.kondinin.com.au

2. Gogoi, A.K. and Mishra, J.S. 2007. Impact of global warming on weeds and weed management. In: Abstracts, New and Emerging Issues in Weed Science. Biennial Conference, Indian Society of Weed Science, CCS, HAU Hisar, 2-3 November, 2007, p.107.

3. Nakićenović N, et al. 2000. IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

4. Science Daily, 2009. http://www.sciencedaily.com

5. Watling J.R., Press, M.C., 1997. How is the relationship between the C4 cereal Sorghum bicolor and the C3 root hemi-parasites Striga hermonthica and Striga asiatica affected by elevated CO2 Plant Cell and Environ. 20, 1292-1300.

6. Wolfe, D.W. 1994. Physiological and growth responses to atmospheric CO2 concentration. In: Pessarakli M (ed) Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology. Marcel Dekker. New York.

7. Wolfe, D.W., Ziska, L.H., Seaman, A., Petzoldt, C., Chase, L. and Hayhoe, K. 2007. Projected Change in Climate Thresholds in the Northeastern U.S.: Implications for Crops, Pests, Livestock, and Farmers. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change.


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8. Ziska, L.H. 2001. Changes in competitive ability between a C4 and a C3 weed with elevated carbon dioxide. Weed Sci. 49 (5): 622-627.

9. Ziska, L.H. 2003a. Evaluation of the growth response of six invasive species to past, present and future carbon dioxide concentrations. J. Exp. Bot. 54: 395-404.

10. Ziska, L.H. 2003b. Evaluation of yield loss in field sorghum from a C3 and C4 weed with increasing CO2. Weed Sci. 51, 914-918.

11. Ziska, L.H. and Goins, E.W. 2006. Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide and weed populations in glyphosate treated soybean. Crop Sci 46: 1354-1359.

12. Ziska, L.H. and Runion, G.B. 2006. Future weed, pest and disease problems for plants. In: Newton P, Carran, A., Edwards, G., Niklaus, P. (eds) Agroecosystems in a Changing Climate, CRC Press, New York.

13. Ziska, L.H. and Runion, G.B. 2006. Future weed, pest and disease problems for plants. In: Newton P, Carran A, Edwards G, Niklaus P (eds) Agroecosystems in a Changing Climate, CRC Press, New York.

14. Ziska, L.H., Faulkner S.S. and Lydon, J. 2004. Changes in biomass and root:shoot ratio of field-grown Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), a noxious, invasive weed, with elevated CO2: implications for control with glyphosate. Weed Sci 52: 584-588.

15. Ziska, L.H., Teasdale, J.R. and Bunce, J.A. 1999. Future atmospheric carbon dioxide may increase tolerance to glyphosate. Weed Sci 47:608-615.

S3-O9: Vulnerability Assessment of kharif rainfed Sorghum to Climate Change in SAT regions of India

K. Boomiraj and S.P. WaniABSTRACTThe fourth assessment report of IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) makes it clear that the global average temperature has been increased by 0.740C over the last 100 years and projected temperature increase is about 1.8 to 40C by 2100. It is very likely that all regions will experience either declines in net benefits or increases in net costs for increases in temperature greater than about 2-30C. The developing countries are expected to experience larger percentage losses, global mean losses could be 1-5% GDP for 40C of warming (IPCC, 2007). This paper presents the impact and adaptation of climate change on sorghum to climate change in semi arid tropics (SAT) regions of India. InfoCrop, a generic dynamic crop model, provides inte grated assessment of the effect of weather, variety, pests, and soil management practices on crop growth and yield, as well as on soil nitrogen and organic carbon dynamics in aerobic, anaerobic conditions, and also greenhouse gas emissions. The model has reasonably predicted phenology, crop growth yield. Sorghum crop was found to be sensitive to changes in carbon dioxide (CO2) and temperature. Future climate change scenario analysis showed that sorghum yields (CSH 16 and CSV 15) are likely to reduce at Akola, Anantpur, Coimbatore and Bijapur. But yield of CSH 16 will increase little in Gwalior (0.1%) at 2020 and there after it will reduce. At Kota the sorghum yield is likely to increase at 2020 (3.3 & 1.7% in CSH 16 and CSV 15 respectively) and no change at 2050 and yield will reduce at 2080 in both varieties. The increase in yield at Gwalior and Kota at 2020 is due to reduction in maximum temperature and increase in rainfall from current. Adoption of adaptation measure like one irrigation (50mm) at 40-45 days after sowing would be better adaptation strategies for rainfed kharif sorghum with existing varieties in the selected location of the SAT regions.


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IntroductionSorghum is the fifth most important cereal crop grown on 47 million ha in 99 countries in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the Americas. Major producers are the USA, India, Nigeria, China, Mexico, Sudan and Argentina. In India Sorghum is mainly grown in the Deccan Plateau, Central and Western India apart from a few patches in Northern India as a dryland cereal crop. It is nutritionally superior to other fine cereals such as rice and wheat with high fiber content, minerals and slow digestibility. As sorghum is generally cultivated in nutrient-poor soils in frequently drought prone areas, it offers food and fodder security through risk aversion on sustainable basis. Traditionally, sorghum is grown for food and fodder purposes. In view of decreasing demand for sorghum (Rainy season, (Kharif) sorghum grain in particular) as a food crop, it is increasingly diverted for various alternative uses such as animal feed, poultry feed, potable alcohol from grain (Dayakar Rao, 2008). Water stress is one the major constrain in sorghum production in rainfed area. Crop simulation analysis for Kharif sorghum at Parbhani showed that a temperature increase of 3.3 oC, which is expected to increase by the end of this century, will on average reduce the crop yield under good management by 27%. However, the effect of 11% increase in rainfall will be marginal. Due to limited studies to assess the probable impact of climate change on sorghum productivity in SAT regions of India. The objective of this study was therefore to quantify the impact of future climate change on sorghum crop with an additional objective of the study was to assess the benefits of adaptation strategy like supplemental irrigation.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Model descriptionInfoCrop considers following processes of growth and development, soil water, nitrogen and carbon, and crop-pest interactions. Each process is described by a set of equations, the parameters of which vary depending upon the crop/cultivar.

• Crop growth and development: phenology, photosynthesis, partitioning, leaf area growth, storage organ numbers, source: sink balance, transpiration, uptake, allocation and redistribution of nitrogen.

• Effects of water, nitrogen, temperature, flooding and frost stresses on crop growth and development.

• Crop-pest interactions: damage mechanisms of insects and diseases.

• Soil water balance: root water uptake, inter-layer movement, drainage, evaporation, run off, ponding.

• Soil nitrogen balance: mineralization, uptake, nitrification, volatilization, inter-layer movement, denitrification, leaching.

• Soil organic carbon dynamics; mineralization and immobilization.

• Emissions of green house gases: carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O).

The basic model is written in Fortran Simulation Translator programming language (FST/FSE; Graduate School of Production Ecology, Wageningen, The Netherlands), a language also adopted by the International Consortium for Agriculture Systems Application (ICSA) as one of the languages for systems simulation (Jones et al., 2001). Another version of the model has been developed to facilitate its greater applications in agricultural research and development by the stakeholders not familiar with programming. The user-interface of this software has been written using Microsoft. Net framework while the back-end has FSE models and databases in MS-Access. More details of the model are provided by Aggarwal et al. (2006a & b).


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2.2. Climate change impact assessmentClimate change scenarios : Impact of projected climate change scenarios was assessed by running the regional validated model for 2020, 2050 and 2080. The functions were from the output of the HadCM3 A2a scenario, which has continuous population rise along with regionally oriented economic development. Impact of changing climate on sorghum crop yield in A2 scenario was assessed.

1.3. Adaptation StrategiesOne adaptation strategy (50 mm supplemental irrigation at 40-45 DAS) was selected and crop model was run for future climate change scenarios. Yield loss of rainfed sorghum was compared with district average, current rainfed potential as well as with adaptation measures.

3. Results and Discussion3.1. Impact assessment3.1.1. CSH 16 –Sorghum hybridIn future climate change A2a scenarios projected sorghum yield showed a spatial as well as varietal variation among all six regions (Fig 1). The yield of CSH 16 is likely to reduce in four regions (8.6% in Coimbatore, 6.3% in Bijapur, 2.6% Akola and 2.5% in Anantpur) and increase in Kota (3.3%) and Gwalior (0.1%) at 2020. But at 2050 onwards the reduction of yield would occur in all six regions. A2050, the more yield reduction would occur at Coimbatore (20.6%) and by Bijapur (17.5%). The least reduction is projected at Kota (0.1%) followed by Anantpur (3.9%), Akola (6.4%) and Gwalior (6.5%). The highest reduction is going to occur in Coimbatore region (31.7%), followed by Bijapur (25.6%), Gwalior (20.9%), Akola (16.3%), Anantpur (9.1%) and Kota (8.0%) by the end of the century.

3.1.2. CSV 15 Sorghum varietyThe yield reduction of CSV 15 (Fig. 2) would also have spatial variation. At 2020 the yield reduction will occur in all regions except Kota, where there will be, 1.7% increase in yield. After 2020, the same trend has been observed like CSH 16, such as the highest yield reduction would occur in Coimbatore (31.3%) and Bijapur (24.8%) followed by Gwalior (16.5%), Anantpur (14.6%) and Akola (11.3%). The less reduction is observed in Kota (8.4%) by 2080.

Yield reduction of sorghum with future climate change scenarios in different locations of India was primarily attributed to reduction in crop growth period (days to anthesis and days to physiological maturity) with rise in temperature. This highest reduction in Coimbatore is because of its low rainfall during kharif season as well as temperature rise (2.60C) in 2080. The yield increase at Gwalior and Kota during 2020 is, due reduction maximum in temperature (0.20C) from current and little increase in rainfall.

Increasing temperature lowered days to flowering and days to maturity, which in turn lowered total crop duration. In plants warmer temperature accelerates growth and development leading to less time for carbon fixation and biomass accumulation before seed set resulting in poor yield (Rawson, 1992; Morison, 1996). Simulated results also confirmed reduction in leaf area index with climate change which in turn lowered the radiation use efficiency (RUE) of the crop. Less leaf area together with low RUE has lowered net photosynthesis and finally reducing total dry matter production of sorghum crop. Pidgeon et al., (2001) also reported that changes in climate affect crop radiation use efficiency (RUE). Spatial variation in temperature as well as rainfall and its distribution led to spatial variation in yield reduction. This study support the


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recent report of the IPCC and a few other global studies which indicate a probability of 10-40% loss in crop production in India with increase in temperature by 2080-2100 (Fischer et al. 2002, Parry et al. 2004, IPCC, 2007). Simulation study conducted by Singh et al., (2008) also revealed that with rise in temperature, rain becomes deciding factor in regulating crop production. It is envisaged that the increase in temperature, if any, may be compensated by increase in rainfall.

3.2. Adaptation strategiesThere are lot of adaptation strategies has been highlighted in fourth assessment report of IPCC such as alteration of sowing date, replacement of variety, supplemental irrigation etc. The change of sowing date and changing variety are applicable for assured irrigation condition or irrigated crops; we have taken supplemental as one of the adaptation method in rainfed areas. Also government of India is promoting micro-watersheds in rainfed areas, which can store the excess water collected during peak rainfall and can be utilized for supplemental irrigation. A supplemental irrigation at 40-45 DAS is found to prevent yield loss to certain extent irrespective of the different SAT regions of India. The supplemental irrigation could improve the yield (CSH 16) up to 33.7%, 19.9%, 19%, and 4.2% (Fig. 1) at Coimbatore, Anantpur, Bijapur and Kota respectively. At Gwalior and Akola the simulated yield shows that there will be little improvement (2%) due to a supplemental irrigation. The same way the simulated results showed that there could be better improvement in yield of sorghum variety CSV 15 (Fig. 2) at Coimbatore (28%), Bijapur (20%), Anantpur (17%), and Kota (5%). There is no much improvement at Gwalior (0.5%) and Akola (0.9%). Because at Akola and Gwalior the average rain fall during the crop growth period (600 mm and 720 mm respectively) is higher than that of other selected SAT regions which has received low average rainfall (480 mm at Kota, 372 mm at Bijapur, 368 mm at Anantpur and 196 mm at Coimbatore)during crop growth period. So in these two regions, the variety of longer duration than present variety might be a better adaptation strategy.

Summary and conclusionResults from this simulation study revealed that InfoCrop model can successfully simulate growth and yield of kharif sorghum crop across different locations of India. Simulated yield of sorghum was found to be sensitive to changes in atmospheric CO2 and temperature. Yield of sorghum (C4 crop) increased with elevated CO2 concentration in some extent, while the positive effect of increased CO2 was nullified by temperature rise. The above result supports the adverse impacts of future anticipated climate change on sorghum growth and yield. Spatial variation was noticed in terms of its yield loss with all selected SAT regions in India are due to soil type and weather parameters such as temperature and rainfall. Adaptation strategies like a supplemental irrigation would be helpful in preventing yield loss of rainfed sorghum crop in all locations except Gwalior and Akola.

Acknowledgement

We acknowledge Sir Dorabji Tata Turst and Sir Ratan Tata Trust for providing financial support for this study and Dr. P.K. Aggarwal (National Professor - ICAR) for providing InfoCrop- Sorghum model for this research.References:1. Aggarwal, P.K., Banerjee, B., Daryaei, M.G., Bhatia, A., Bala, A., Rani, S., Chander, S. Pathak, H., Kalra,

N., 2006b. InfoCrop: A dynamic simulation model for the assessment of crop yields, losses due to pests, and environmental impact of agro-ecosystems in tropical environments. I. Model description. Agricultural systems, 89, 1-25.


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2. Aggarwal, P.K., Kalra, N., Chander, S., Pathak, H., 2006a. InfoCrop: A dynamic simulation model for the assessment of crop yields, losses due to pests, and environmental impact of agro-ecosystems in tropical environments. I. Performance of the model. Agricultural systems, 89, 47-67.

3. Dayakar Rao, B. 2008. Sorghum cultivation in India: Past and Future. In: Sorghum Improvement in the new millennium by Reddy Bellum, V.S., Ramesh, S., Ashok Kumar, A. and Gowda, C.L.L.(eds) 2008. International Crop Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics. ISBN 978-92-9066-512-0. PP. 1-6.

4. Fischer G, Mahendra Shah and H.V. Velthuizen 2002.Climate Change and Agricultural Vulnerability. A special report prepared by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) as a contribution to the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg 2002.

5. IPCC., 2007. Climate change- impacts, adaptation and vulnerability technical summary of Working group II. to Fourth Assessment Report of Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Paultikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J. and Hanon, C.E. (Eds.)), Cambridge University press, Cambridge, U.K. pp.23-78.

6. Morison, J.I.L., 1996. Global environmental change impacts on crop growth and production in Europe. Implications of global environmental change for crops in Europe. Aspects of Applied Biology. 45, 62-74.

7. Parry, M.L., Rosenzweig, C., Iglesias, Livermore, A.M., Fischer, G., 2004. Effects of climate change on global food production undes SRES emission and socio-economic scenarios. Global Environ. Change. 14, 53-67.

8. Pidgeon, J.D., Werker, A.R., Jaggard, K.W., Richter, G.M., Lister, D.H., Jones, P.D., 2001. Climatic impact on the productivity of sugar beet in Europe, 1961–1995. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 109, 27–37.

9. Rawson, H.M., 1992. Plant responses to temperature under conditions of elevated CO2. Australian Journal of Botany 40,473-490.

10. Singh, M., Kalra, N., Chakraborty, D., Kamble, K., Barman, D., Saha, S., Mittal, R.B., Pandey, S., 2008. Biophysical and socioeconomic characterization of a water-stressed area and simulating agri-production estimates and land use planning under normal and extreme climatic events: a case study. Environ. Monit. Assess. 142, 97-108.

With Adaptation CSV - 15

-20.0

-15.0

-10.0

-5.0

0.0

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20.0

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Without adaptation CSV - 15

-35.0

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Akola Anantpur Coimbatore Gwalior Bijapur Kota

With Adaptation CSH - 16

-25.0-20.0-15.0-10.0

-5.00.05.0

10.015.020.025.0

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e

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yield

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Without adaptation CSH - 16

-35.0-30.0

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-5.00.0

5.010.0

% lo

ss in

yiel

d

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At2050

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Akola Anantpur Coimbatore Gwalior Bijapur Kota

Fig. 1. Simulated percent change in yields (CSH 16) in HadCM3 – A2a scenarios of climate change without and with adaptation.

Fig. 2. Simulated percent change in yields (CSV 15) in HadCM3 – A2a scenarios of climate change without and with adaptation.


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S3-P1: Impact of Temporal Variability of Rainfall on Optimal Utility and Life Expectancy of Rainfed Tanks under Semi-Arid Hydrologic Settings of North-Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka

U. Satishkumar1 P. Balakrishnan1 and K. Ramaswamy2

1College of Agril Engg., Raichur2Dept. of Soil and Water Conservation Engg., Tamil Nadu Agril. University, Coimbatore

[email protected]

ABSTRACTThe traditional tank systems in northern Karnataka under varied hydrologic settings, serve as long-term measure for mitigation of droughts and floods apart from serving the community as sources for meeting the irrigation and domestic demands. Based on the dead storage capacities and validated sediment inflow rates of selected cascade system of tanks (0.43 to 1.17 kg m-2) that carried along the annual inflow volume at average probability level (2.3-year return period), the projected life expectancy of cascade tanks of Devanpalli, Tuntapur, Yergeri and Gunjalli tanks would be 64, 22.2, 34.9 and 10.2 years respectively. The application of Chance-constrained linear programming model for monthly operation of inflows of the cascade system with different exceedance probabilities (P=0.5, 0.1, 0.45, and 0.9) have shown that even in a situation wherein the total storage capacities of the Devanpalli, Tuntapur and the Yergeri upstream tanks would get reduced by 16.17 to 23.72 per cent due to sedimentation, their functioning in terms storage, handling the flood inflow, release policy would not be affected in any way.

INTRODUCTIONAccording to the Third Assessment Report of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (Anonymous, 2000), one of the impacts of climate change on water resources is intensification of the global hydrologic cycle affecting both the ground and surface water availability. The predicted variability in the total amount of precipitation, its frequency and intensity may affect the magnitude and timing of runoff. When these are on the surplus side, they will create flood like situation and when on the deficit side, drought-like situations. The impacts of climate change are also predicted to be dependent on the baseline condition of the water supply system and the ability of water resource managers to respond to climate change in addition to pressures due to increase in demand owing to population growth, technology, economic, social and legislative conditions.

The tank resource systems (0.471 M at present) in India not only have a long history as a means of sources to meet irrigation (6.27 M ha potential) and domestic demands but also as a long-term measure of mitigation of droughts and floods. In recent decades, the area under tank irrigation system in Karnataka (36,672 tanks of varied sizes) has declined to 0.192 M ha (28% of the total potential i.e. 685 M ha) due to inconsistent management against recurring floods and droughts, siltation and subsequent land degradation in the catchment area. The tank cascade system as a whole rather than its individual tanks (cascade sizes in Karnataka vary from 2 to 19 tanks) will be of more logical focus for moderating/tackling the extreme events (Sakthivadivel, 2003). Studies on interdependency between catchment–waterspread-command areas of the cascade systems will be crucial in deciding the sustainability against adverse impacts of climate change on ecology and social values of tank systems (Itakura, 1995).


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MATERIALS AND METHODSA typical cascade tank system (3,401 ha) selected under semi-arid conditions of Raichur district in northern Karnataka (Latitude 160 5’- 160 12’N and Longitude E 770 19’ -770 25’E) has come into existence long ago and the storage capacities, catchment and command areas of the four constituent tanks (Devanpalli, Tuntapur, Yergeri and Gunjalli in the descending order) have been subjected to remarkable changes over the period. In the study area, the maximum temperatures recorded during the months of April to June were in the range of 41 to 42.60C and the minimum temperature during the months of November to January was in between 12 and 180C. Major portion of the year remains dry and average humidity was observed between 23.5 and 55 per cent. During the period of July to September, the tanks were found to receive appreciable runoff in good rainfall years. Presently, out of the 2,317 ha area under agriculture, which extensively consists of sandy clay loam (1,040 ha) and loamy sand (1,277 ha) soils, the cascade system commands an area of 388.3 ha. The prevailing semi-arid and sub-tropical climatic conditions of the area demand careful temporal analysis of the rainfall-runoff relation and subsequent inflow pattern to assess the viability of the tanks in terms of meeting the irrigation and domestic demands and flood routing capabilities. In the wake of such situations during many seasons in the past, the farming community has faced the problems in adopting a proper release policy in relation to variable inflows, which has led to the consequences of disparity in water sharing, excessive irrigation, low water use efficiency, mono-cropping, under-rated duty and premature crop loss due to water shortage.

The analysis of available length of historic daily rainfall data of the study area during 1970-2007 (38 years) pertaining to the representative raingauge located near Yergeri tank was carried out and the maximum rainfall quantities of 1-day, consecutive 2-day and consecutive 3-day during each water year were obtained. Similarly, probable annual, seasonal and monthly rainfall behaviour was also predicted. The best-fit distributions for daily, monthly, seasonal and annual rainfall were obtained by frequency analysis of the above daily rainfall data and χ2-test. The hydrologic response of Tuntapur tank (second in series) catchment to the rainfall events was quantified in terms of hydrographs and analyzed to derive hydrograph parameters namely time to peak (tp) and corresponding peak discharge (Qp) during the investigation period (2005-’07). The measured hydrograph parameters were used to derive synthetic hydrographs for other ungauged tanks (3 nos.) of the cascade based on the criteria of hydrologic similarity. The best-fit polynomial regression equation for rainfall-runoff relation was arrived at using the observed values pertaining to Tuntapur tank. Further, adopting the SCS Curve Number method, the runoff volumes were estimated for all the tanks. The sediment inflow into the water spread areas of the tanks was measured through the capacity-contour survey method.

The inflow handling capacity of each tank individually and the cascade effect on its downstream tank, water release pattern for irrigation, evaporation and seepage losses were analyzed through water balance equation method for the investigation period 2005-’07. The sustainable depth of groundwater pumping and the yield were estimated for each tank command area based on the analysis of historic fluctuations in the observation wells in the command areas of Tuntapur and Yergeri tanks. The approach of explicit stochastic optimization was employed to relate inflow at different probability levels with release and in turn used to estimate the optimal capacity under the prevailing hydrologic uncertainty (Mujumdar and Nageshkumar, 1990).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONDuring the period of 1970-2007 (38 years), the annual rainfall varied from 1,320 mm (1974) to 311.7 mm (1994) with an annual average of 666.8 mm. The number of rainy days per year ranged from 17 to 56 and the magnitude of rainfall per rainy day varied from 38.9 to 11.4 mm with an average of 19.3 mm. The


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observed one day, consecutive 2-day and 3-day maximum rainfall magnitudes were 237, 264 and 308 mm respectively. The maximum probable rainfall of 222 mm in one day could be expected at 100-year return period (Gumbel distribution), while the same corresponding to 2-day and 3-day were 251 mm and 420 mm respectively. At least 645 mm rainfall could be expected once in two years with maximum in July (154 mm), followed by September (145 mm), August (143 mm), June (91.2 mm), October (78 mm) and May (34 mm) at 2.3-year return period (probability = 0.45 which corresponds with average rainfall). The rainfall would be as low as 5.1 mm in January, followed by 10.1 mm in December for 100-year return period. The analysis revealed that June month is not much promising in terms of sufficient inflow into the tanks as compared to July, August and September months, which has decisive implications on seasonal cropping pattern especially under tank systems.

Based on hydrograph analysis, the average peak discharge and the time to peak pertaining to Tuntapur tank were found to be 68,511 m3 h-1 and 1.33 h respectively. The time to peak for Devanpalli, Yergeri and Gunjalli tanks varied from 1.14 to 1.39 h, whereas the peak discharge ranged between 25,451 and 77,379 m3 h-1. The rainfall-runoff relationship of Tuntapur tank catchment area was best represented by the polynomial regression equation of Y =0.002 X2 +0.2272 X –1.691, where Y = runoff, mm and X = rainfall, mm. At least 116 mm of annual runoff once in two years and the maximum contribution in September (30 mm) followed by August (26 mm), July (24 mm), and June (16 mm) months could be expected at the probability level of 45 per cent (equal to average rainfall). It could be inferred that an annual rainfall of 942.6 mm or more could occur corresponding to 100-year return period and accordingly, the tanks need to be managed and operated to store maximum possible water with least spillage.

Devanpalli tank (19,89,181 m3 total capacity in 2007) would be expected to overflow corresponding to inflows of the return period of 3-4 years. Similarly, Tuntapur tank (11,87,799 m3) could possibly receive the inflows upto MWL or more for the return period of 4 years, whereas it would be 2-3 years for Yergeri tank (11,75,294 m3). The Gunjalli tank, last in the cascade system and of very smaller capacity (43,815 m3) would have a fairer chance of getting filled up almost every year. Based on the sediment inflow rates (0.43 to 1.17 kg m-3), dead storage capacities and annual inflow volume at average probability level (2.3-year return period), projected life expectancy of Devanpalli, Tuntapur, Yergeri and Gunjalli tanks would be 64, 22.2, 34.9 and 10.2 years respectively.

Owing to cascade effect, on receipt of return flow from the immediate upstream tank and at the same time, in the process of contributing its portion of inflow as return flow to immediate downstream tank, Tuntapur tank system was found to gain a net catchment area in the range of 62.5 to 39.59 ha. Similarly, for Yergeri and Gunjalli tanks the gain in the catchment area was in the range of 31.75 to 7.59 ha and 29.4 to 11.11 ha respectively. Devanpalli tank was observed to contribute a net area in the range of 102.64 to 119.03 ha. The mean sustainable drawdown or pumping depth in the wells of the command areas of Tuntapur and the Devanpalli tanks should not be more than 3.11 m to possibly get replenished within 2 to 4 years depending upon rainfall quantity. Similarly, in case of Yergeri and the Gunjalli tanks, the average sustainable pumping depth was 2.18 m. The optimal capacities of the Devanpalli, Tuntapur and the Yergeri tanks except Gunjalli tank could be still smaller by 16.17 to 23.72 per cent without subjecting to any stress and they would be able to handle the same inflow pattern by their respective capacities as they possess now.

CONCLUSIONSTo summarize, the present studies on temporal rainfall variability across the monsoon periods over the years at Raichur region confirm the necessity of reviewing the management strategy of vital traditional tank


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systems in terms of cascade arrangement to serve efficiently as irrigation source and long-term measure of mitigation for droughts and floods. Owing to cascade effect, downstream tanks in their response help in conserving the outflows as well as return flows substantially. However, there is a need to verfy, optimize and reshape their sizes to accommodate the variable inflows. At the same time, there is also a strong need to impart inbuilt and sustainable conservation measures so as to maintain their optimal sizes against the sedimentation over the decades for ensuring the irrigation potential while withstanding the climatic variability.

REFERENCES1. Anonymous, 2000. Climate Change 2000, The science of climate change, Assessment report of the IPCC Working

Group I and WMO/UNEP, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

2. Itakura, J. 1995. Water balance model for planning rehabilitation of irrigation tank cascade system in Sri Lanka. International Water Management Institute Report, Sri Lanka. pp. 22-43.

3. Mujumdar, P.P. and D. Nageshkumar. 1990. Stochastic models of streamflow - some case studies. Journal of Hydrological Sciences 35(4) : 395-410.

4. Sakthivadivel, R.S., C.R. Savadamuthu, P.K. Balakrishnan and C. Arputharaj. 2003. A pilot study of modernisation of tank irrigation in Tamil Nadu. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Modernisation of Tank Irrigation Systems: Problems and Issues, Centre for Water Resources, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, pp. 1–16.

S3-P2: Development of Sustainable Watershed Projects in Rainfed Regions to address Climate Change Scenario

Kaushalya Ramachandran1, M. Gayatri, V. Bhaskar and P. Kartik Raj1Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad – 500059

[email protected]

ABSTRACTWatershed-based development is the accepted strategy for sustainable growth in the vast rainfed regions of India. Since 1980s when the program was initiated, it aimed to enhance agricultural production, conservation of natural resources and raising rural livelihood of farming communities. Although soil and water conservation was initially the primary objective that saw large public investment, later its’ focus shifted to principles of equity and enhancing rural livelihood opportunities and more recently to sustainable development. At present the emphasis is on regeneration of degraded fragile lands in the rainfed regions. Several noteworthy watershed projects have been carried out since the inception of the program and some have yielded sterling results. However, many have failed to yield satisfactorily because of improper characterization of the watersheds, poor project planning and implementation. To address this issue, a study was undertaken in eight watersheds in Telangana region in Andhra Pradesh in AESR 7.2, to understand the critical issues that determine sustainable development of rainfed agriculture through implementation of watershed projects.

The study used tools of Geomatics in tandem with conventional methods to identify the issues critical for sustainable development of rainfed agriculture. Fifty-one sustainability indicators (SI) were constructed and a methodology was developed to identify the critical indicators for sustainable development of agricultural


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S3-P3: Impact of Climate Change on Soil Health under Rainfed Condition

M.P. Sharma Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture

K.D. Farm, Old Air Field, Post Office: Rangreth, Srinagar-190 007 (J&K), [email protected]

ABSTRACTThe global climate change since several decades increasing the average temperature of the air above the earth’s surface would rise by 1.8 to 6.4 oC by the end of the century. The IPCC has projected 0.5 to 1.2 oC rise in temperature by 2020, 0.88 to 3.16 oC by 2050 and 1.56 to 5.44 oC by 2080, depending on the scenario of future development. Overall, increase in temperature is remarkably higher during winter (rabi) season than in raining (kharif) season. The inevitable change in climate and its effect on ‘green house’ have major impact on Indian agriculture in general and rainfed in particular. The salient characteristics of Inceptisol of the rainfed agro-ecosystem are low in organic carbon, slightly alkaline to acidic in reaction, CaCO3 accumulation in the upper 150 cm of soil, lead to moderate profile development and low biological activities due to low organic matter content, aggregate formation is inadequate due to high friability, the soils are prone to erosion, the rainfed soils are generally low in fertility due to poor organic matter content and nutrient poor materials on which they are formed.

Impact of Climate Change on Soil HealthThe potential impacts on soil health resulting due to climate change would be in the organic matter supply temperature regimes, hydrology and salinity.

The following are the major consequences of global climate change on soil health.

• Soil carbon levels are expected to decrease due to decreased net primary production.

• Any gains by increased plant water use efficiency, due to elevated CO2 are likely to be outweighed by increased carbon mineralization after episodic rainfall, and reduced annual and growing season rainfall. The quality of soil organic matter may also shift where the more inert components of the carbon pool prevail. The residues of crops under elevated CO2 concentration will have higher C:N ratio, and this may reduce their rate of decomposition and nutrient supply. Increase of soil temperature will increase N mineralization, but its availability may decrease due to increased gaseous losses through processes such as volatilization and denitrification.

production system in the region. The indicators were used to evaluate the five aspects of sustainability namely, productivity, viability, security, protection and acceptability. The use of GIS and remote sensing technique also facilitated in analysis of inter- and intra- temporal variations in impact of WDP across the selected watersheds. The study helped in identifying critical indicators for sustainable development of rainfed agriculture and aspects that required emphasis under WDP that could help in mitigation of impact of climate change.


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• With increased temperature and higher rate of evapo-transpiration, soil will be drier. This may also result in lowering of groundwater table at some places. The melting of glaciers in the Himalayas will increase water availability in the Ganges, Bhramaputra and their tributaries in the short run, but in the long run the availability of water will decrease considerably. The soil water balance in different parts of India will be disturbed and the quality of groundwater along the coastal tract will be more affected due to intrusion of sea water.

• Change in rainfall volume and frequency, and increasing events of intense wind may alter the severity, frequency and extent of soil erosion. Therefore, an increased risk of soil erosion and nutrient loss due to reduced vegetation cover in combination with torrential rainfall and greater wind intensities is expected.

• Rise in seal level may lead to salt-water ingression in the coastal lands turning them less suitable for conventional agriculture. Transient salinity may increase as capillary rise dominates, bringing salts into the root zone in salt affected soils. Leaching during torrential rainfall events may be limited due to surface sealing. Increased subsoil drying increase concentration of salts in the soil solution. Conversely, the severity of saline scalds due to secondary salinisation may abate, as groundwater levels fall in line with reduced rainfall.

• Soil biodiversity and its functions are expected to change under conditions of elevated CO2, and changed moisture and temperature regimes. As soil biodiversity regulates nutrient dynamics and many disease risks, nutrient availability to crops and pastures could change as per the exposure to soil-borne diseases.

The strategies for mitigating methane emission from rice cultivation could be altering water management, particularly promoting mild-season aeration by short-term drainage; improving organic matter management by promoting aerobic degradation through composting or incorporating it into soil during off-season drained period; use of rice cultivars with few unproductive tillers, high root oxidative activity and high harvest index; and application of fermented manure like biogas slurry in place of unfermented farmyard manure. Methane emission from ruminants can be reduced by altering the feed composition, either to reduce the percentage which is converted into methane or to improve the milk and meat yield.

The most efficient management practice to reduce nitrous oxide emission is site-specific nutrient management. The emission could also be reduced by nitrification inhibitors such as nitrapyrin and dicyandiamide. There are some plant- derived organics such as neem oil, neem cake and karanja seed extract which can also act as nitrification inhibitors. Mitigation of CO2 emission from agriculture can be achieved by increasing carbon sequestration in soil through manipulation of soil moisture and temperature, setting aside surplus agriculture land, and restoration of soil carbon in degraded land. Soil management practices such as reduced tillage, manuring, residue incorporation, improving soil biodiversity, micro aggregation, and mulching can play important roles in sequestering carbon in soil.

Potential adaptation strategies to deal with the impact of climate change are developing cultivars tolerant to heat and salinity stress and resistant to flood and drought, modifying crop management practices, improving water management, adopting new farm techniques such as resource conserving technologies (RCTs), crop diversification, improving pest management, better weather forecasts and crop insurance and harnessing the indigenous technical knowledge of farmers. As far as soil health is concerned; the impact of climate change needs to be addressed through soil organic matter.


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S3-P4: Scope of Conservation Agriculture in Dryland Horticultural Crops in the Context of Climate Change

N.N. Reddy, V.S. Rao and B. VenkateswarluCentral Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad

[email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACTHorticultural crop production in drylands depends upon reliable water resources for life saving irrigation atleast in the initial years of orcharding. In tree crops, climate change related events like consecutive droughts and cyclones adversely affect phenological events and subsequently crop yields. Indian horticulture sector represents a broad spectrum of agribusinesses, involving growers in the production of a wide range of commodities. Sectors include field-scale vegetables, protected crops, bulbs and outdoor flowers, hardy nursery stock, mushrooms, orchard fruit, and soft fruit. Collectively, these make a significant contribution to the economy, both in terms of rural employment and income. Horticulture and agriculture provides major employment in the rural areas. A significant proportion of horticultural holdings, both large and small scale, traditional and organic, are dependent on irrigation to provide the high quality continuous supplies of premium quality produce. Dryland horticulture is practiced with minimal quantities of irrigation at critical stages for optimum crop productivity. In such a situation Conservation Agriculture (CA) comes handy.

Conservation Agriculture has received global focus for its carbon sequestration potential. Carbon sequestration potential by agriculture could offset about 38% of the estimated annual increase in CO2 emissions. The concept of carbon credit payments could result in a further financial benefit to CA adopters. Systems, based on high crop residue addition and no tillage will accumulate more carbon in the soil, compared to the loss into the atmosphere resulting from plough-based tillage. During the initial years of implementing conservation agriculture the organic matter content of the soil is increased. This organic material is decomposed slowly, and much of it is incorporated into the soil profile, thus the liberation of carbon to the atmosphere also occurs slowly. In the total balance, carbon is sequestered in the soil, and turns the soil into a net sink of carbon. This could have profound consequences in the fight to reduce green house gas emissions into the atmosphere and thereby help to forestall the calamitous impacts of global warming. By adopting to CA practices in the of drylands and semi arid tropical regions, natural resources conservation can takes place saving on input use for optimum crop production for sustainable production in an ever changing climate scenario. The environmental benefits of CA are less erosion possibilities, better water conservation, improvement in air quality and a chance for larger biodiversity in a given area. It safeguards the genetic resources, develop suitable cultivar of different crops, and augment the production and protection technologies and technologies for enhanced quality production and shelf-life of commodities.


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S3-P5: Drought Management in Pearlmillet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.)]

A.M. Patel, I.M. Patel and P.G. Patel Centre for Watershed Management, Participatory Research & Rural Engineering

S.D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar – 385 506 (Gujarat)

ABSTRACTNorth Gujarat Region is drought prone and soils of this region are loamy sand having high infiltration rate and poor water holding capacity. Thus, the conservation of soil moisture can be done by reducing plant population and opening furrow between two rows. Checking of evaporation losses by mulching and improve soil productivity/conserved moisture by green manuring/mulching of sun hemp in between two rows which help in mitigation the drought effect. Hence this experiment was planned with a view to study the effectiveness of different management practices in order to overcome the drought situation at All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture (AICRPDA), SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar during kharif – 2003 to kharif – 2007. Nine treatments studied were (T1 : Pearl millet (PM) 45 cm, T2 : PM + sun hemp 2:1 (GM 30 DAS) paired row 30 / 60 cm, T3 : PM + sun hemp 2:1 (Mulching 30 DAS) paired row 30 / 60 cm, T4 : PM + sun hemp 4 :2 (GM 30 DAS) rows 30 cm, T5 : PM + sun hemp 4:2 (Mulching 30 DAS) rows 30 cm, T6 : PM third row removed 30 DAS for fodder (rows45 cm), T7 : PM third row removed 30 DAS for fodder & furrow making (rows 45 cm), T8 : PM (rows 45 cm) + straw mulching (30 DAS) 5 t ha - 1, T9 : PM (rows 45 cm) + soil mulching (30 DAS). Grain and fodder yield were affected significantly due to different drought management treatments during all the years except 2005. On the basis of five years pooled data it was inferred data showed that PM + sun hemp 4:2 (in-situ GM 30 DAS) gave significantly higher grain yield of pearl millet (1980 kg ha-1) which was 19.50 % higher than normal practices. Gross return of Rs. 16807 ha -1 and BCR value of 2.53 was also higher in same treatments.

It is concluded that to harvest higher grain and fodder yield of pearl millet with maximum gross and net return, pearl millet crop should be sown immediately after on set of monsoon keeping 30 cm spacing of PM + sun hemp 4:2 row ratio (in situ green manuring of sun hemp around 30 DAS by the help of rotary dry land weeder).

Table 1. Economics of different treatments of drought management practices (Set-I).

TreatmentsGrain yield

(kg ha-1)

Fodder yield

(kg ha-1)

Total income

(Rs ha-1)

Cost of Cultivation

(Rs ha-1)

Net returns (Rs ha-1)

BCR

T1Pearmillet (rows 45 cm) 1657 8244 20672 6050 14622 2.42

T2 PM + Sunhemp 2 : 1 (GM 30 DAS) 1738 8070 21105 6650 14455 2.17

T3

PM + Sunhemp 2 : 1 (Mulching 30 DAS) paired row 30 / 60 cm

1769 8515 21783 6550 15233 2.33

T4PM + Sunhemp 4 : 2 (GM 30 DAS) rows 30 1980 8607 23457 6650 16807 2.53

T5

PM + Sunhemp 4 : 2 (Mulching 30 DAS)rows 30 cm

1786 8178 21573 6550 15.23 2.29


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T6

PM third row removed 30 DAS for fodder (rows 45 cm)

1272 6346 15886 6100 9786 1.60

T7

PM third row removed 30 DAS for fodder and furrow making rows, 45 cm

1360 6412 16612 6300 10312 1.64

T8PM (rows 45 cm) + straw mulching (30 DAS) 1851 8706 22589 7450 15139 2.03

T9PM (rows 45 cm) + soil mulching (30 DAS) 1756 8744 21914 6150 15764 2.56

Prices : Pearl millet : Grain : 7.50 kg -1 , Fodder : 1.00 kg -1

S3-P6: Agroforestry Interventions for Sustained Productivity in Vertisols of Northern Dry Zone of Karnataka

S.B. Kalaghatagi and B.S. NadagoudarUniversity of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad Regional Agricultural Research station,

PB. No.-18 Bijapur – 586101. Karnataka; [email protected]

ABSTRACTField experiment was carried out at Regional Agricultural Research Station, Bijapur to study the effects of NFTs on growth and yield of arable crops on Vertisols. A trial consisted of two NFTs (nine-year-old) planted at 7.2 and 12.6 m row spacing, four test crops (bengalgram, sorghum, safflower and sunflower) and three distances viz., 1, 2 and 3 m away from NFTs was tried under rainfed conditions. The results revealed that, growth and yield components of test crops were significantly higher with Faidherbia albida than Hardwickia binata. Grain yield of bengalgram, sorghum, safflower and sunflower was higher with F.albida by 18, 35, 19 and 56 per cent, respectively as compared to H. binata. Growing of test crops with H.binata at wider row spacing (12.6m) and with F. albida at closer row spacing (7.2m) was found superior. Soil fertility and soil moisture status was higher in closer row spacing (7.2m) of F.albida.

The BC ratio (2.25) and internal rate of returns were higher (30%) with H.binata at 7.2m than 12.6m row spacing. The NFTs+ sunflower system recorded higher net present value. The tree height was significantly higher (7.63m) with H.binata and DBH dit not differ significantly between two NFTs.

INTRODUCTIONTree components in agroforestry systems can be significant sink of atmospheric carbon (C) due to their fast growth and high production systems. Agroforestry can arguably, increase the amount of C stored in lands devoted to agriculture while still allowing for the growing of food crops (Kursten, 2000). In agroforestry systems, tree component is managed often intensively by pruning for minimizing competition and maximize complementarily. The pruned materials are mostly non-timber products. Such materials often are returned to the soil. Besides, the amount of biomass and therefore C that is harvested and exported from the system is relatively low in relation to the productivity of the tree. Therefore, unlike in tree plantations and other monoculture systems, agroforestry seems to have unique advantage in terms of C sequestration.


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The global contribution of agroforestry as a sink of carbon has been estimated in different eco-regions based on the tree growth rates and wood production, and assuming that the ratio of C in biomass is 50%, average C storage by agroforestry practices to be 9, 21,50 and 63 Mg C/ha in semi-arid, sub-humid, humid and temperate regions (Schroeder, 1994). At global scale, agroforestry could be implemented on 585 to 1275 x 106/ ha and these lands could store 12 to 228 Mg c/ha under the prevalent climatic and edaphic conditions In India, evidence is now emerging that agroforestry systems are promising land use system to increase and conserve aboveground and soil C stocks to mitigate climate changes.

METHODOLOGYA field experiment was conducted at Regional Agricultural Research station, Bijapur (Karnataka) on Vertisols under rainfed conditions. In this trial nine-year-old two nitrogen fixing trees (NFT’s) viz., Faidherbia albida and Hardwickia binata (main plots), two row spacings of NFT’s viz., 7.2 m and 12.6 m (sub plots), three distances d1 (1 m), d2 (2 m) and d3 (3 m) (sub-sub plots) and test crops viz., bengalgram, rabi sorghum, safflower and sunflower were assessed in 1 m interval up to 3 m distance from the tree line. The experiment was laidout in split-split plot design and was replicated three times. The crop management practices were adopted as per the recommended package of practice of the region to each crop. The growth and yield observations were recorded from the each treatment and grain yield of crops were converted on hectare basis in kilograms.

RESULTSSignificantly higher grain yield of bengalgram was recorded with F. albida in 7.2 m row spacing at 1 m away (641.00 kg/ha) and lowest in association with H.binata at 12.6 m row spacing and at 1 m away. Similar trend was observed with respect to yield components and growth attributes.

Grain yield of rabi sorghum was higher in association with F.albida (893.92 kg/ha) and it was higher in closer row spacing at 2 m away from the NFT’s. The grain yield of rabi sorghum was lower in association with H.binata in 12.6 m row spacing at 1 m away (598.00kg/ha). In treatment combination, the extent of increase in grain yield of sorghum with F.albida was 35.33 and 37.53 per cent over H.binata and control treatment (no tree sp.) respectively. Seed yield of safflower was significantly higher in association with F.albida. The extent of increase in again yield of safflower with F.albida was 8.30 and 11.45 per cent over H.binata and control treatment (no tree Sp.).

The grain yield of sunflower was significantly higher with F.albida (796.56 kg/ha). In treatment combinations, seed yield of sunflower was higher in association with F.albida in closer row spacing at 1 m away (893.67 kg/ha) and was lowest in closer row spacing of H. binata at 1 m away (612.50 kg/ha). The extent of increase in seed yield of Sunflower with F.albida was 28.82 and 30.45 per cent over H.binata and control (no tree sp) respectively.

The positive impact of F.albida on crop yields has long been recognized. The most unique feature of F.albida is that it exhibits ‘reversed’ leaf phenology by shedding its foliage during the cropping seasan. Its bare tree branches reduce evapo transpiration and increase relative humidity beneath the canopy without reducing crop yields (Rhoads, 1997). H.binata has numerous advantages under wider row spacings (Gill et al.1998).

The internal rate of returns (IRR) realized was higher (30%) in association with H.binata in closer row spacing of 7.2 m at 1 m away from the tree line. The net present value (NPV) was more with agroforestry


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system as compared to sole cropping. Between four arable sole crops, sunflower, realized higher NPV (Rs. 1,458 ha-1) and was lowest with safflower (Rs. 194ha-1). The NPV increased 5-6 times with H.binata than that of F.albida. The NFTs + sunflower system recorded five fold in crease in NPV than that of NFTs + safflower system. The BC ratio was more with H.binata in association with any of the arable crops in either of the row spacings (2.25). Between arable crops, BC ratio was maximum in sunflower (1.64) and lowest with safflower (1.09).

Incidental solar radiation (%) was significantly higher with F.albida than H.binata. It was higher (92.28%) in wider row spacing and increased significantly with increase in distance from the NFTs. In different treatment combinations, Incidental solar radiation was higher in open area (100%) followed by F.albida either in 7.2 m or 12.6 m row spacing at any distance and was lower with H.binata either in 7.2 m or 12.6 m row spacing at any distance. Soil moisture at sowing, flowering, grain filling and at harvesting stages of arable crops was higher with F.albida followed by H.binata and was lowest in open area (no tree sp.).

REFERENCES1. Gill, A.S. Debroy, R. and Chaudhary, B.L. 1998. Effect of multipurpose tree species on pulse under semi arid

conditions. Indian Journal of Agronomy 43 (3): 560-565.

2. Kursten, E. 2000. Fuelwood production in agroforestry systems for sustainable land use and CO2 mitigation. Ecological Engineering 16:69-72.

3. Rhoades, C.C. 1997. Single tree influences on soil proper ties in Agroforestry: lessons from natural forest and savanna ecosystems. Agroforestry Systems. 35.71- 94.

4. Schoeder, P. 1994, carbon storage benefits of agroforestry. Agroforestry Systems. 27: 89-97.

S3-P7: Integrated Agri-Horti-Silviculture Model for Development of Upland Farming System for minimizing drought impacts

S.K. Patil, D.S. Thakur, D. Khalkho and R.K. NaikAll India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland Agriculture,

S.G. College of Agriculture & Research Station, IGKV, Kumhrawand, Jagdalpur (C.G.) – 494005; [email protected]

ABSTRACTThe Research Project on Dryland Agriculture and National Agriculture Innovation Project are in operation by College of Agriculture & Research Station, Jagdalpur. Village Tahakapal, Guniapal & Tandpal (Block Tokapal) in the domain area is taken under for the study of this integrated agri-horti-silviculture model. The funds from NREGP are used for construction soil water conservation structures. The agri-horti-silviculture work is done through research projects. In the existing practice, the uplands (Marhan & Tikra ) are cultivated only once (small millets in kharif or niger and horse gram is taken in mid kharif). Most of the uplands are left fallow. The existing crops could provide Rs 1000-2000/ ha.

INTRODUCTION The region of bastar in Chhattisgarh situated in southern part and represents a unique blend of nature and


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people. More then 60% area is under forest and the tribal community dominated in this bio- diverse zone. Paddy is main livelihood system in bastar region with drought as a major constraint. The tribal dominated Bastar region of Chhattisgarh, has only 2.5% double cropped area whereas the rainfall is quite high (1200-1400 mm) with excellent potential of water harvesting (550-650 mm surplus). The harvesting of water is attempted through several government schemes (DPAP, IWDP, NREGP) with limited success.

METHODOLOGYThe present study was conducted in Village Tahakapal, Guniapal & Tandpal (Block Tokapal). Primary data was collected from selected growers minor millets. Data was collected through personal interview method with the help of pre-tested questionnaires. The detailed enquiry was done in the year 2008-2009.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION Technology

The uplands are divided into small pieces by trenching and bunding (0.5*0.5m) at 10m intervals. A shallow percolation dug well (3m dia, 10’ deep) is constructed at bottom of field. The trenches were connected to this percolation dug well. The land between two trenches was used for cultivation of maize and rainfed vegetables. Fruit trees (mango, Chickoo, Aonla, Guava, Lemon, Pomogranate) were planted on bunds of trenches. The field is fenced through vegetative fencing (Jatropha, Acacia, Glyreciedia, Tasmania) for fodder and fuel.

Performance

Due to adoption of this technology farmers have started getting income of Rs 10000-12000 Rs/ ha from maize and vegetables. This cultivation became possible due to conservation of soil and water in uplands. The soil condition has improved in 4 years. It is expected that this income will further increase in next 3-4 years when fruit trees will start yielding. The farmer has built his house and the unproductive wasteland is regenerated. Impact and Up scaling

This technology is suitable for upland (marhan, tikra and badi) farming situation which is 6-8 % (50-70000 ha) of cultivated area in Bastar region. If this technology is up-scaled even to 20% upland area it is likely to have very large impact on net income and food and nutritional security of tribal farmers.

Recommended domain

Bastar, Narayanpur, Dantewada and Bijapur districts of Chhattisgarh where uplands are 55% of TGA. This technology can be used in upland Badi farming situation which is about 6-8% of cultivated area and is very suitable for NREGP.


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S3-P8: Integrated Agri - Horticulture Model - Utilization and Recycling of Harvested Water by Paddle Operated Low Lift Pump

D. Khalkho, D.S. Thakur, S.K. Patil and R.K. NaikAll India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland Agriculture, S.G. College of Agriculture & Research Station, IGKV, Kumhrawand, Jagdalpur (C.G.) – 494005; [email protected]

ABSTRACTBastar, the tribal belt of Chhattisgarh have huge possibilities of recycling of harvested water in areas having undulating topography, steep and rolling slopes and consisting of all the five typical land situations (Badi homestead garden, Marhan, Tikra, Mal and Gabhar) of Bastar district along with parts of Dantewada, Narayanpur, Bijapur and kanker districts of Chhattisgarh. At present, Bastar is bounded by mono cropping system of having Paddy in Kharif and then fallow in Rabi and summer season. Under many developmental activities, the tribal farmers are motivated to take vegetables during rabi season by utilizing the harvested water from various water harvesting structures. But they were unable to acquire good yield due to lack of knowledge for proper water use efficiency techniques of the irrigation system.

INTRODUCTION The region of Bastar in Chhattisgarh situated in southern part represents a unique blend of nature and people. More then 60 percent area is under forest and the tribal community dominated in this bio-diverse zone. Paddy is main livelihood system in Bastar region having drought as a major constraint. The tribal dominated Bastar region of Chhattisgarh, has only 2.5% double cropped area whereas the rainfall is quite high (1200-1400 mm) with excellent potential of water harvesting (550-650 mm surplus). The harvesting of water is attempted through several government schemes (DPAP, IWDP, NREGP) with limited success.

METHODOLOGYThe present study was purposively conducted in Bastar district along with parts of Dantewada, Narayanpur, Bijapur and Kanker districts of Chhattisgarh for the study of this integrated agro-horti model. Primary data was collected from selected growers of minor millets. Data was collected through personal interview method with the help of pre-tested questionnaires. The details enquiry was done in the year 2008-2009.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION TechnologyRunoff from cropped and fallow lands is harvested in small farm ponds in the lower lands (Lower part of Mal and Gabhar) of a marginal farmer named Sh. Sampat S/O Sh. Ramu of village Tahkapal, Post- Chhaparbhanpuri, Tehsil-Tokapal, District-Bastar (C.G.) with a land of 1.5 acre. About 3150 m3 of water can be stored in the pond in one season from the runoff collected from the upper side of the farmland. Farmer is cultivating Paddy (Poornima) in kharif followed Cauliflower, Tomato (Pusa ruby), Onion (Royal Selection), Radish, Coriander (Selection-81), spinach palaksag and lalbhaji) in rabi season with the help of Paddle operated low lift pump. The paddle operated low lift pump is a low cost, maintenance free, manually operated pump with a discharge capacity of about 3000-4000 hr from a suction depth of 10-12 ft. The pump is very light weight and easy to install and use. One woman or even a child of above 14 yrs of age can operate this pump for more than 2 ½ hrs/day without exertion.


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PerformanceCrop Yield from field (Kg) Area (sq.m) Average Rate (Rs/kg) Amount (Rs)Cauliflower 5230 2348 8 41840Tomato 155 126 5 775Onion 1800 1484 13 23400Raddish 250 371 8 2000Coriander 70 371 25 1750Spinach palaksag 65 371 8 520Lalbhaji 60 371 8 480

Total 70765

Impact and Up scalingAbout 12.5% increase in the yield of paddy is experienced due to the replenishment of groundwater by water harvesting structures. The second cropping system will improve the socio economic condition of the farmers and village as a whole. About 8% farmers in the area have adopted the recycling of harvested water for vegetable crops and nearly every villager have understood the concept and benefits of reutilizing the harvested water.

REFERENCES1. Bhuiyen, S.I. and R.S. Ziegler. (1994). On-farm rainwater storage and conservation system for drought alleviation:

issues and challenges, in S.I. Bhuiyan (ed), On-farm Reservoir Systems for Rainfed Ricelands, IRRI, Los Banos.

2. Garrity, D.P. (1992). On-Farm research methods in the uplands: selecting an experimental approach in Rice Farming Systems Technical Exchange 2(3), Asian Rice Farming Systems Network (IRRI) and Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute (UPLB).

S3-P9: Floods - Act of Nature or Manmade Disaster

Ruchi Chauhan and M.S. HoodaDepartment of Forestry, CCS HAU, Hisar, Haryana 125004; [email protected]

ABSTRACTAlmost every Indian river is poisoned with sewage and chemicals. Across the country, factories, tanneries and dysfunctional sewage treatment plant release million of tones of filth into the rivers every day. During the rains it swells and becomes angry and destroys everything. Big houses and colonies have been set up along the river. Loss of vegetation is also a cause of flood.We have to clean all the rivers. It cannot be clean just by the technology, just by setting up the right kind of infrastructure, there has to be an intermixing of culture, faith, science and technology.

INTRODUCTIONThere are many disruptive effects of flooding on human settlements and economic activities. However, floods (in particular the more frequent/smaller floods) can bring many benefits, such as recharging ground water, making soil more fertile and providing nutrients in which it is deficient. Flood waters provide much needed water resources in particular in arid and semi-arid regions where precipitation events can


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be very unevenly distributed throughout the year. Freshwater floods in particular play an important role in maintaining ecosystems in river corridors and are a key factor in maintaining floodplain biodiversity (WMO, 2007). But on the other hand it brings damage in a great extent.

RESULTSHundreds of corpses are burnt on the wooden pyres on river banks. Soot-covered men bustle about, ranking in the still growing ashes sweeping them into river. Downstream, hundreds scrub themselves with soap and plunge into the water. Still further down, groups of women wash cloths with laundry soap. Grey dust from the pyres floats atop the waves, mixing with flower garlands and foam. The dust and debris resurfaces some distance away, this time intermixed with polythene bags, empty cans and dirty clothes. Many have linked the Ganga to dirty drain. Its water is toxic. Hundreds of liters of sewage and waste from industrial plants are pumped into the river every day. But it’s not the Ganga alone. Big houses and colonies have been set up along the river. It’s crammed for space. Delhi is a prime example of a disaster just waiting to happen. Many permanent structures have come up near the Yamuna, including a Metro station, a temple (Akshar Dham) and a flyover. Further ‘development’ is underway (Nag, 2009). Recent report of IPCC warns that South Asia may be prone to extreme events of flooding owing to climate change. Floods are increasing in frequency and intensity. Course changing rivers like the Kosi cause havoc almost every year (Table 1). Parts of Punjab and Haryana states may also be flooded in the near future after short spells of extreme rainfall and populations near the Ravi and Chenab may be affected. The 2006 Barmer floods are a case in point such a thing is unimaginable in a parched desert. The recorded history in Barmer points to scarce rainfall in the past 90 years or so. Loss of vegetation (deforestation) will lead to a risk increase. With natural forest cover the flood duration should decrease. Reducing the rate of deforestation should improve the incidents and severity of floods. (Bradshaw et. al. 2007). This may be a sign of climate change.

Effects: The main effects of flood are as under:

• Physical damage - Can range anywhere from bridges, cars, buildings, sewer systems, roadways, canals and any other type of structure.

• Casualties - People and livestock die due to drowning. It can also lead to epidemics and waterborne diseases.

• Water supplies - Contamination of water. Clean drinking water becomes scarce. Diseases - Unhygienic conditions. Spread of water-borne diseases.

• Crops and food supplies - Shortage of food crops can be caused due to loss of entire harvest. However, lowlands near rivers depend upon river silt deposited by floods in order to add nutrients to the local soil.

• Trees - Non-tolerant species can die from suffocation. (Bratkovich, et al., 1993). Economic - Economic hardship due to temporary decline in tourism, rebuilding costs, food shortage leading to price increase etc.

Table 1. Figures of Flood

Sr. No.

Name of the Basin

River length Basin area Basin

populationMajor cities

Last flood

1. Ganga Yamuna basin

2500 km from the Himalyas - W Bangal

861000 sq km 300 million

Delhi, Ahamadabad, Kanpur, Varanasi, Patna and Kolkata 29 class-1

2008


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2. Brahmaputra basin 2900 km 651334 sq km 75million Dibrugarh, Lakhim-

pur and Guwahati 2008

3. Kosi basin 720 km 69300 sq km110 million (popu-lation density 701 per sq km)

Delhi and Madhepura 2008

4. Mahanadi basin 900 km

1321000 sq km in Orrissa and Chhat-tisgarh

34 million Sambhalpur and Cut-tack 2008

5. Narmada Basin 1312 km

98796 sq km in Gujrat, MP and Maharastra

25 million Jabalpur Vadodara and Bharauch 2008

6. Godavari basin 1465 km

312,812 sq km (9.5% of India’s total geographical area)

61 million (75% rural and 25% urban)

Nasik, Rajamundary 2009

7. Krishna basin 1300 km

258,948 sq km in Karnatka, AP and Maharashtra

74.2 million (popu-lation density 287 per sq km

Vijaywada 2009

Source: Times of India.

There are warning signs elsewhere and they need to be acted upon. We have to clean all the rivers. It can not be clean just by the technology, just by setting up the right kind of infrastructure, there has to be an intermixing of culture, faith, science and technology. Potential dangers include: water polluted by mixing with and causing overflows from foul sewers, electrical hazards, carbon monoxide exposure, musculoskeletal hazards, heat or cold stress, motor vehicle-related dangers, fire, drowning, and exposure to hazardous materials (NIOSH, 2008). Because flooded disaster sites are unstable, clean-up workers might encounter sharp jagged debris, biological hazards in the flood water, exposed electrical lines, blood or other body fluids, and animal and human remains.

Control: In many countries across the world, rivers prone to floods are often carefully managed. Defences such as levees (Petroski, 2006), bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from bursting their banks. When these defences fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes are used. Coastal flooding has been addressed in Europe and the Americas with coastal defences, such as sea walls, beach nourishment and barrier islands.

REFERENCES1. Bradshaw C.J.; Sodhi N.S.; Peh S.H. and Brook B.W. (2007). Global evidence that deforestation amplifies flood

risk and severity in the developing world. Global Change Biology. 13: 2379-2395.2. China blows up seventh dike to divert flooding. China Daily. 2003-07-07. 3. Henry P. (2006). Levees and Other Raised Ground. 94, American Scientist. Pp. 7–11. 4. Nag, K. 2009. Why Blame God? Times of India. 2009-11-10.5. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH 2008). Storm and flood cleanup.6. NIOSH (2008). NIOSH warns of hazards of flood cleanup work. NIOSH Publication No. 94-123.7. Stephen B. and Lisa B, (1993). Flooding and its Effects on TreesUSDA Forest Service. Northeastern Area State

and Private Forestry, St. Paul, MN, September 1993.8. WMO/GWP (2007). Associated Programme on Flood Management.


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S3-P10: In situ moisture conservation through different tillage practices in castor - cotton crop rotation under rainfed condition

R.N. Singh, P.G. Patel and A.M. PatelCentre for Watershed Management, Participatory Research & Rural Engineering,

S.D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar – 385 506 (Gujarat)[email protected]

ABSTRACTTillage practice is in vogue for development of agriculture. Although there has been much progress in the development of suitable tillage implements tillage of the soil is still the most difficult and time consuming in production of crops. It has been estimated that on an average about 30 per cent of the total expenditure for crop production is for tillage operation. There is plenty of scope in reducing the expenditure if the objectives of tillage are understood and if the operations are carried out at the right time and with proper implements. The physical, chemical and biological activity of the soil is improved by tillage when the tillage operations are carried out when the soil moisture is satisfactory. The tillage also checked the weeds, soil moisture content in the soil by different types of implements which is a high state of productivity. A field experiment was conducted during the rainy season of 2007 and 2008 at Cotton Research Station, SDAU, Khedbrhamma with a objective to conserve in-situ moisture conservation and to utilize the maximum natural resources. Castor GCH-7and cotton G.cot-10 were taken in crop rotation. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with five treatments viz., deep ploughing with disc plough and M.B. plough and Shallow ploughing with cultivator, disc harrow and shallow ploughing (farmers practice). The castor and cotton were sown at 90 x 60 cm. The soil samples were taken at 0-30 cm for soil moisture content. The rainfall received during the crop period was 870 mm (41day) during 2007 and 499 mm(25day) during 2008. Data on growth, yield components and yield were recorded as per normal procedure. On the basis of two years data tillage system were found significantly and castor seed yield was significantly higher (2543 kg ha-1) in deep ploughing with disc plough which was 49.53% higher than shallow ploughing, with a net return of Rs. 57,575/ha and BC ratio of 9.6 and higher moisture content (1.72) (Table 1). The similar results were also obtain in cotton seed yield (Table 2). The significantly higher cotton seed yield (1069 kg ha-1) was found in deep ploughing with disc plough which was 42.53% higher than shallow ploughing with high net returns (Rs. 19229/ha) and BCR (3.40) and higher moisture content (1.99).

Table 1. Yield and economics of different tillage practices treatment on castor (Kharif-2007).

TreatmentsYield (kg/ha) Cost of

cultivation(Rs/ha)

Gross income

(Rs/ha)*

NetIncome(Rs/ha)

B:C ratio

Moisture content at harvest

0-30 cm depthGrain Fodder

T1 : Deep ploughing with disc plough 2543 2148 6000 63575 57575 9.60 1.72

T2 : Deep ploughing with M.B. plough 2257 1878 6000 56425 50425 8.40 1.61

T3 : Shallow ploughing with cultivator 1929 1598 6000 48225 42225 7.04 1.29

T4 : Shallow ploughing with disc harrow 1974 1656 6000 49350 43350 7.23 1.43


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T5 : Shallow ploughing Farming mathod 1700 1460 5500 42500 37000 6.73 1.21

Mean 2081 1748S.Em 52.80 41.63C.D. (0.05) 162.7 128.3C.V. (%) 5.07 4.76Rainfall (mm) 870 (41)

Table 2. Yield and economics of different tillage practices treatment on cotton (Kharif-2008)

Treatments Yield (kg/ha) Cost of cultivation

(Rs/ha)

Gross income (Rs/ha)*

Net Income (Rs/ha)

B:C ratio

Moisture content at harvest

0-30 cm depthGrain Stalk

T1 : Deep ploughing with disc plough 1069 2016 8000 27229 19229 3.4 1.99

T2 : Deep ploughing with M.B. plough 1019 1804 8000 25926 17926 3.24 1.78

T3 : Shallowploughing with cultivator 835 1520 8000 21255 13255 2.66 1.58

T4 : Shallow ploughing with disc harrow 831 1298 8000 21100 13100 2.64 1.42

T5 : Shallow ploughing Farming method 750 1570 8000 19143 11143 2.39 1.19

Mean 901 1598S. Em 27.26 71.40C.D. (0.05) 84.00 220.00C.V (%) 6.05 8.94Rainfall (mm) 499 (25)

S3-P11: Impact of Management and Genotype on the Performance of Jatropha Curcas L. under High but Aberrant Annual Precipitation

A. Mishra1, S.K. Mohanty1, B. Behera2, C.R. Subudhi1 and M.K. Mohanty3

1AICRP on Dryland Agriculture (OUAT), Phulbani-762001, Orissa2 Dept. of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, Orissa

3College of Agril. Engg. & Technology, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, [email protected]

ABSTRACTAn experiment is being conducted in the research farm of AICRP on Dryland Agriculture (OUAT), Phulbani-762001, Orissa to study the effect of management and genotypes on the overall plant growth and seed yield of Jatropha curcas L. In one set of experiment, impact of management was studied on one genotype (IST-1) of Jatropha curcas L. and in the other experiment thirteen genotypes were evaluated under uniform


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agronomic management. Plant height, spread, flowering, fruiting and seed yield were recorded in different treatments. Although it is recommended to grow Jatropha under poor management and unproductive lands, good management was found to have significant impact on the % survival, overall growth as well as fruit and seed yield. Similarly, prominent variation was observed among the genotypes as well as plants within a genotype with respect to biometric characters and seed yield. In third year of plantation, the seed yield varied from 17.43g/plant in Kovilpatti to 283.81g/plant in Urli Kanchan. Similarly, 100-seed weight in different genotypes varied from 54.90g in IST-1 to 75.87g in CRIDA 06JJ. The kernel/seed ratio showed narrow variation ranging from 0.576 in Kovilpatti to 0.650 in CRIDA 06JJ.

INTRODUCTIONJatropha curcas L., commonly called Physic nut (English) or Ratanjyot (Hindi) or Baigaba (Odia) belonging to family Euphorbiaceae, has recently received much attention due to more suitability of its oil as bio-diesel. It is grown in low to high rainfall areas under tropical climate and can be used to reclaim land. It is an important plant for erosion control and soil improvement, promotion of women, poverty reduction and renewable energy (Henning, 2002). The extracts from leaves and twigs are having anti-bacterial (Varadarajan et.al., 2006) and fungicidal (Tequida Meneses et.al., 2002) properties. Although this plant is widely grown in hedges, very little study has been made on its response of this crop to better management and variation among different genotypes for growth and productivity in Orissa. The present investigation attempts to study the response of Jatropha curcas to better agronomic management as well as to compare the performance of thirteen genotypes with respect to plant growth and seed yield during three initial years under rainfed condition.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe Jatropha curcas genotypes used in the present investigation include one local collection; four received from CRIDA, Hyderabad; and eight received from Dr. P.K. Sahu, AICRP on underutilized crops, OUAT, Bhubaneswar. Stem cuttings of all the thirteen genotypes were rooted in polythene bags containing sand + soil + FYM mixture in 1:1:1 ratio. After rooting, the cuttings were planted in the main field in pits of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm at a spacing of 3m x 3m. To each pit, 2 kg FYM, 100g Neem cake, 20g Urea, 120g SSP, 16g MOP and 20-25g Chloropyriphos were applied and the seedling was planted at the centre of the pit.

Two sets of experiments were carried out to examine the influence of management and genotype on overall plant growth and seed yield. In the first set of experiment, a single Jatropha curcas genotype IST-1 was tested with two management conditions: no management vs. good agronomic management after planting. Good management included hoeing and weeding at root zone at regular intervals, application of manures and fertilizers, need-based plant protection measures every year, pruning at the beginning of 2nd year and cultivation of blackgram as intercrop during three initial years while no such practices were employed under “no management” condition. However, uniform agronomic practices were employed to both the treatments (“no management” and “good management”) at the time of planting. Twenty plants of genotype IST-1 were observed for each treatment. In the second set of experiment, all the 13 Jatropha curcas genotypes were tested under good agronomic management. The genotypes were compared with respect to overall plant growth (height and spread), fruits/plant, seed yield, 100-seed weight and kernel/seed ratio. During 2006, monsoon started 5 days earlier and in other two years, monsoon started almost on or before the normal date (Table 1). The total amount of rainfall received during 2006, 2007 and 2008 was 2030.6 mm, 1580.20 mm and 1531.80 mm, respectively with high monthly variation (Table 2).


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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSince Jatropha was grown under red lateritic sandy-loam soil on hitherto barren upland, heavy infestation of termites was noticed during initial growth stage of plants in spite of chloropyriphos application. The weed population was also high resulting competition with young plants. Under these adverse conditions, 70% plants of genotype IST-1 died during first year and 90% plants died after two years under “no management” condition (Table 3). The remaining 10% plants exhibited poor growth with very low seed yield (17.5 g/plant) compared to the plants grown under “good management” condition (163 g/plant) during third year. The survival % under “good management” after 1st and 2nd year was 83.33% and 79.17%, respectively. There was also much variation in height and spread of plants between the two treatments in three different years. The Jatropha genotypes attained mean plant height of 127.67cm in Phulbani Local-1 to 234.24cm in Hansraj after 3 years of planting (Table 4). Similarly, mean plant spread ranged from 111.33cm in Phulbani Local-1 to 279cm in CRIDA 06JL. There was much variation among plants within a genotype with respect to both plant height and spread. During monsoon period (July to mid-October), matured fruits were obtained only from genotypes collected from Bhubaneswar and average number of fruits harvested per plant ranged from 41.95 in SKN-Big to 92.14 in Urli Kanchan. During post-monsoon period (mid-October to January), all the genotypes set fruits ranging from 9.0 in Kovilpatti to 48.5 in CRIDA 06JL. Looking at the mean fruit yield of different genotypes, it is quite evident that maximum fruiting in Jatropha curcas occurs during monsoon period under rainfed condition. Compared to the second year, it was observed that there was manifold increase in seed yield during 3rd year in all the genotypes (Table 5). However, the fruit and seed size were uniform over years within a genotype. There was variation in seed yield, 100-seed weight and kernel: seed ratio among different Jatropha curcas genotypes. In third year, the seed yield varied from 17.43g/plant in Kovilpatti to 283.81g/plant in Urli Kanchan. The 100-seed weight in different genotypes varied from 54.90g in IST-1 to 75.87g in CRIDA 06JJ. The kernel/seed ratio showed narrow variation ranging from 0.576 in Kovilpatti to 0.650 in CRIDA 06JJ.

The annual rainfall during each year under investigation was over 1500mm but with lot of variation with respect to total rainfall as well as distribution over months. In the first year, life-saving irrigation was provided at 15-25 days intervals during continuous dry period but irrigation was totally stopped afterwards. The survival was not a problem from second year onwards due to absence of irrigation. This shows the extent of drought tolerance of adult (over one year old) plants. Although this short period of study is not sufficient to draw any valid conclusion, still it was an observation that post monsoon showers particularly in March was helpful in inducing heavy flowering. The information obtained from the present investigation clearly shows that Jatropha curcas responds well to good agronomic management and there is variation among different genotypes with respect to overall plant growth and yield attributing traits. The experiment going on in the field is likely to give more exciting results in future. Although this finding goes against the popular campaign for growing Jatropha in waste lands without much aftercare, it is hoped that it attempts to unravel the truth.


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REFERENCES1. Henning, R.K.2002. Using the indigenous knowledge of Jatropha: the use of Jatropha curcas oil as raw material

and fuel. IK-Notes, World Bank; Washington (USA).47:4.2. Varadarajan, M., Guruchandran, V., Nagarajan S. M., Natarajan, E., Nataraj, T., Vignesh, G. and Rajesh, R.2006.

Plant Archives. 6(2): 593-595.3. Tequida-Meneses, M.,Cortez-Rocha, M., Rosas-Burgos, E.C., Lopez-Sandoval, S., Corrales-Maldonado, C.2002.

Revista Iberoamericana de Micologia.19(2):84-88.

Table 1. Monsoon scenario of Phulbani during 2006-08.

Description Normal Actual in 2006 Actual in 2007 Actual in 2008Date of onset on monsoon 10th June 5th June 11th June 2nd JuneDate of cessation of monsoon 6th October 2nd October 28th September 9th OctoberTotal rainfall (mm) 1407.34 2030.6 1580.20 1531.8Number of rainy days 65 58 64 76

Table 2. Monthly rainfall (mm) at Phulbani during 2006-08.

MonthNormal 2006 2007 2008

Rainfall (mm)

RainyDays

Rainfall (mm)

RainyDays

Rainfall (mm)

RainyDays

Rainfall (mm)

RainyDays

January 9.47 0.63 0 0 0 0 61.4 3February 14.21 1.03 0 0 21.6 1 2.4 0March 20.13 1.48 0 0 5.4 2 12.6 2April 31 2.33 2 0 21.6 3 12.6 2May 57.3 3.4 139.2 6 86 5 4.6 1June 188.7 9.1 297.7 10 424 10 270 15July 350.4 14.73 412.5 10 188.4 7 263 13August 383.2 14.95 987.2 18 363.8 18 422.4 22September 228.2 10.95 176 11 465.4 18 449.3 14October 95.7 4.95 13 3 1 0 31 3November 24 1.35 3 1 3 0 2.5 1December 5.03 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0Total 1407.34 65.1 2030.6 59 1580.2 64 1531.80 76

Table 3. Comparative growth and seed yield of Jatropha curcas cv. IST-1 under good management and no management conditions.

ParametersGood management No management

1 year 2 years 3 years 1 year 2 years 3 yearsSurvival % 83.33 79.17 79.17 30.00 10.00 10.00Plant height (cm) 71.30 160.79 215.95 51.00 101.00 112.25Plant spread (cm) 71.20 174.11 221.68 53.50 76.00 115.60% plants flowering 70.00 79.00 82.50 33.33 50.00 100.00% plants fruiting 5.00 79.00 82.50 0 50.00 50.00Seed yield/plant (g) 0 15.21 163.05 0 0 17.50


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Table 4. Growth and fruiting behaviour of Jatropha genotypes during 3rd year of planting.

Sl.No. Genotype

Plant height (cm)

Plant spread (cm)

No of fruits harvested / plant

Monsoon(July to mid-

October)

Post-monsoon(Mid- October to

January)

Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range

1. IST-1 215.95 154-268 221.68 91-300 75.84 0-271 23.26 0-75

2. SKN-Big 208.50 169-300 219.21 121-350 41.95 0-196 26.58 0-162

3. SKNJ-4 229.35 183-293 219.47 164-300 66.12 0-201 39.88 0-99

4. Chhatrapati 218.30 185-262 210.40 146-272 44.36 0-127 29.5 0-69

5. Phule-1 222.68 123-281 231.79 145-297 83.79 0-177 31.54 0-90

6. Urli Kanchan 221.39 146-268 225.83 168-300 92.14 0-355 34.48 2-94

7. JH-1 230.94 172-285 244.0 182-355 52.35 1-175 30.53 0-59

8. Hansaraj 234.24 177-288 239.35 177-295 65.06 11-159 42.59 7-85

9. CRIDA 06JJ 200.0 198-202 215.0 200-230 - - 41.0 34-48

10. CRIDA 06JL 204 200-208 279.0 268-290 - - 48.5 48-49

11. CRIDA 06JR 178.33 174-183 180.0 157-193 - - 13.0 9-16

12. Kovilpatti 181.5 166-197 154.5 133-176 - - 9.0 5-13

13. Phulbani Local-1 127.67 110-151 111.33 83-127 - - 12.33 0-19

Table 5. Seed yield, 100-seed weight and kernel: seed ratio of Jatropha genotypes.

Sl.No. Genotype

Seed yield / plant (g)100-seed

wt (g)Kernel / Seed

ratio2007(2nd year)

2008(3rd year)

1. IST-1 15.21 163.05 54.90 0.577

2. SKN-Big 14.25 138.11 67.70 0.634

3. SKNJ-4 24.63 215.60 67.80 0.630

4. Chhatrapati 26.38 156.82 70.64 0.615

5. Phule-1 37.09 242.95 70.42 0.597

6. Urli Kanchan 24.95 283.81 74.49 0.630

7. JH-1 28.44 156.27 62.76 0.615

8. Hansaraj 20.75 228.78 70.61 0.632

9. CRIDA 06JJ - 93.32 75.87 0.650

10. CRIDA 06JL - 109.81 74.70 0.643

11. CRIDA 06JR - 26.13 67.00 0.619

12. Kovilpatti - 17.43 64.56 0.576

13. Phulbani Local-1 - 23.81 66.14 0.637


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S3-P12: Roth C Model - Its Evaluation for Soil Carbon Reserve in Selected Long Term Fertilizer Experimental Sites

T. Bhattacharya, D.K. Pal, A.S. Deshmukh, R.R. Deshmukh, S.K. Ray, P. Chandran, C. Mandal and B. Telpande

National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Amravati Road, Nagpur 440010, Maharashtra; [email protected]

ABSTRACTSoil carbon changes depend on the land use system, type of management practice and time. There is an increasing concern about the soil quality vis-à-vis organic carbon content in soils due to global warming and enhanced CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. This has led to estimate carbon stock in soils at global and regional levels. The objective of the present study was to evaluate Roth C model for total soil carbon (TOC) reserve under four long term fertilizer experimental (LTFE) sites representing sub-humid (Sarol, Nabibagh and Panjri) and semi-arid (Teligi) climate in India. The plant carbon input rate was calibrated using organic carbon and other soil parameters using Roth C. The results showed that Roth C could simulate changes in TOC in two contrasting eco-sites for surface soil layers.

INTRODUCTIONSoil carbon plays an important role in global carbon cycle and thus helps influencing the mitigation of atmospheric levels of green house gases with reference to CO2. Soil organic carbon is extremely important since it determines ecosystems to control soil fertility and crop performance. A number of methods has been used to estimate changes in soil organic carbon stocks at the regional and global level (Bhattacharyya et al, 2007). Examples of regression approaches indicate the utility of long term experimental datasets to evaluate TOC turnover and its extrapolation for future scenarios. It is in view of this the present study was undertaken to evaluate and predict TOC changes in different LTFE sites representing varying bioclimatic systems in the country.

MATERIALS AND METHODSFour LTFE sites viz., Sarol, Nabibagh, Panjri and Teligi were taken for the study. The LTFE site of Sarol (Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India) represents alluvial soils of the Black Soil Region (BSR). Sarol soil is a member of very fine, smectitic, hyperthermic typic haplusterts. These soils are formed in alluvium of nearly level old flood plain. Typically, Sarol soils have very dark grayish brown, moderately alkaline, clay surface horizons. The surface soils of the experimental site showed oxidisable organic carbon of 7.0 g kg-1, calcium carbonate equivalent of 6.5%, bulk density of 1.5 Mg m-3 and cation exchange capacity of 51.3 cmol (p+) kg-1. Soybean and Safflower crops were grown annually, in College of Agriculture Farm, Indore, Madhya Pradesh during 1983 to 1985 (Sharma and Gupta, 1993). The LTFE site of Nabibagh, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh represents another typical shrink-swell soil of the BSR belongs to fine, smectitic, hyperthermic Typic Haplusterts. These soils are clayey, moderately alkaline with organic carbon of 8.0 g kg-1, CEC of 45.9 cmol (p+) kg-1, calcium carbonate equivalent 5.1%, and bulk density 1.3 Mg m-3 (0-15 cm). Nabibagh LTFE was started during 2002 with a soybean-wheat cropping rotation at Indian Institute of Soil Science farm in Bhopal and continued till 2005. Out of the twelve treatments, we selected six treatments for the present study. Panjri soil belongs to the very fine, smectitic, hyperthermic Typic Haplusterts. These soils are clayey, moderately alkaline with organic carbon of 7.0 g kg-1, CEC of 63.0 cmol (p+) kg-1, calcium carbonate equivalent of 4.8% and bulk density of 1.5 Mg m-3. Trials were started during 1986 with cotton-sorghum


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crop rotation at Central Institute of Cotton Research farm in Nagpur which continued till 1997. Total eight treatments were selected for the present study (Venugopalan and Pundarikakshudu, 1999). The LTFE site of Teligi represents a typical shrink-swell soil of the BSR. The Teligi soils belong to fine, smectitic, isohyperthermic Sodic Haplusterts. These soils are clayey, strongly alkaline with organic carbon 15.0 g kg-1, CEC 51.4 cmol (p+) kg-1, calcium carbonate equivalent 10.5%, and bulk density of 1.2 Mg m-3. LTFE at Teligi was started during 1984 and continued till 1994 with a rice (Kharif and Rabi) cropping system at Agriculture Research Station, Siruguppa, Karnataka and continued till 1994. Out of the twelve treatments, we selected five treatments for the present study (Bellaki et al, 1998). RothC-26.3 is a model for the turnover of organic carbon of the top soils. It permits capturing the effects of soil type, temperature, moisture content and plant cover on the turnover process. It uses a monthly time step to calculate TOC (t ha-1), microbial biomass carbon (t ha-1) on years to centuries timescale (Jenkinson et al, 1987; .Jenkinson and Coleman, 1994).To fit the model to the data collected from these four LTFE sites, the necessary first step was to run Roth C with an annual input of organic carbon that had been selected iteratively to give the TOC at the start of each experiment. We followed this step for each site.

RESULTSThe LTFE data for Sarol site indicated that TOC marginally increased when carbon is externally added through inorganic fertilizers with reference to with control. Rapid increase in TOC is observed due to the addition of FYM in combination with inorganic fertilizers. Regular application of NPK increased the TOC slightly. Teligi data showed that organic carbon added through external sources like, cow dung slurry, paddy straw and Glyricidia, increases TOC. It was also observed that a regular application of NPK marginally influences TOC during the experimental period (1984-1995). Nabibagh site was modeled for the surface horizon (0-10 cm). Nabibagh LTFE data indicated that TOC marginally increased due to external application of inorganic fertilizers. Rapid increase in TOC in various treatments is seen due to the addition of FYM and other organic substances like paddy straw (PS), urban compost (UC), Glyricidia, wheat residue (WR) in combination with inorganic fertilizers. Regular application of NPK increasesed TOC. For Panjri soils the data obtained after applying the RothC indicated the effective increase in TOC with external addition of FYM as compared to control and NPK treatments. It was also observed that like other sites application of NPK alone at Panjri did not influence the TOC content significantly during the experimental period (1986-1997).

The root mean square error (RMSE), considered as modeling error, ranged from 5.8 to 7.85, 0.91 to 9.83, 3.57 to 17.37 and 3.18 to 17.47 in the surface layers of Sarol, Teligi, Nabibagh and Panjri sites respectively. The simulation biases expressed by M (relative error) for all the treatments at these sites were non-significant. Observed trends in TOC consist of an increase for all the selected treatments in the sub-humid site of Sarol and Nabibagh; while manures alone or in combination increase TOC appreciably in Teligi and Panjri. TOC remained, however, almost similar over years for the control (no fertilizer or manure) and NPK treatments in all the four sites.

REFERENCES1. Bhattacharyya, T., Pal, D.K., Easter., M., Batjes, N.S., Milne, E., Gajbhiye, K.S., Chandran, P., Ray,

S.K., Mandal, C., Paustian, K., Williams, S., Killian, K., Coleman, K., Falloon, P., Powlson, D.S. (2007). Modeled soil organic carbon stocks and changes in the Indo-Gangetic plains, India from 1980-2030. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 122:84-94.


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2. Sharma, R.K. and Gupta, R.K. (1993). Recent Advances in Dry Land Agriculture, Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur 411-428.

3. Venugopalan M.V., and Pundarikakshudu, R. (1999). Long Term Fertilizer Experiment in Cotton Based Cropping in Rainfed Vertisols. Proceedings of a National Workshop on Long-Term Soil Fertility Management through Integrated Plant Nutrient Supply. Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, India, P.283.

4. Bellaki, M.A., Badnur, V.P., and R.A. Setty. (1998). Effect of Long-Term Integrated Nutrient Management on some Important Properties of a Vertisol. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science, 46:176-180.

5. Jenkinson, D.S., Hart, P.B.S., Rayner, J.H., and Parry, L.C. (1987). Modeling the turnover of organic matter in long-term experiments at Rothamsted. INTECOL Bulletin, 15, 1-8.

6. Jenkinson, D.S and Coleman, K.C. (1994). Calculating the annual input of organic matter to soil from measurements of total organic carbon and radiocarbon. European Journal of Soil Science 45, 167-174.

S3-P13: Effect of Global Warming on Carbon Reserves in Kheri Soils, Madhya Pradesh

T. Bhattacharyya , D.K. Pal., A.M. Nimje, S.K. Ray, P. Chandran, C. Mandal, M. Venugopalan, A.S. Deshmukh, B. Telpande and R.R. Deshmukh

National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Amravati Road, Nagpur 440010, Maharashtra, India

ABSTRACTCrop productivity and soil organic carbon (SOC) turnover are strongly influenced by climate, management practice, land use system and time. Assigning changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) under future climate change scenarios using models at regional or global scales are important. The present study aims to evaluate RothC model in estimating total organic carbon (TOC) changes under long-term fertilizer experimental site of Kheri under sub-humid climate. Kheri site has been modelled for surface layer (0-20 cm) and root mean square error ranged from 2.05 to 12.39. The simulation biases expressed by M (relative error) for all the treatment at these sites were non-significant. Observed trends in TOC consisted of an increase in the manurial treatment in combination with recommended dose of fertilizers, TOC remained, however, almost similar over years for all the other treatments. We presumed a subsequent increase in mean annual temperature of 0.250C per decade over 100 years and used Roth C model to study the effect of global warming. Modelled TOC decreased by 1.47 per cent in single layer as compared to a fall of 1.43 per cent when the same soil was modelled assuming it as five different layers.

INTRODUCTIONSoils can be described as a layered structure where process such as respiration produces CO2 at various depth while diffusion and convention transport CO2 between the soil layers and out of soil. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is one of the most important indices of soil productivity. Management practices of soil can either emit CO2 or sequester carbon. Appropriate soil management can both improve soil productivity and reduce


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the decomposition of SOC, thus reducing emission of CO2 to the atmosphere. Models for the turnover of soil organic matter (SOM) are currently being used to better understand SOM turnover processes, and as a part of system to predict agronomic yields and make recommendations for applications of fertilizers, to aid policy decision regarding C sequestration option, or investigate the effect of climate change and land use on SOM (Jenkinson et al, 1991). It is therefore important to test these models using datasets from long term fertilizer experiments (LTFE) covering the soil types, climate and land use of various regions. In the present study we have made an attempt to evaluate one such available model (RothC) in LTFE at Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh to find out the effect of global warming on soil reserves.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe study area is a part of the ongoing All India Coordinated Research Project on Long Term Fertilizer Experiments with soybean-wheat-maize fodder cropping sequence initiated during 1992 at the Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishva Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh (23010”53’ N and 79055”19’E longitude). The soil represents Kheri series (Typic Haplustert). The soils developed in basaltic alluvium are deep, clayey, moderately well to imperfectly drained with pH 7.6, electrical conductivity 0.18 dSm-1. The crops (soybean-wheat-maize fodder) were grown in rotation and the recommended fertilizer applications for these crops were as 20:80:20, 120:80:40 and 80:60:20 kg ha-1 respectively. The climate is sub-humid moist with mean annual air temperature of 26.30C (mean annual maximum 32.80C, and mean annual minimum 18.80C) and mean annual rainfall of 1285 mm. Actual mean monthly temperature (calculated from maximum and minimum monthly temperatures), and average rainfall for 56 years (1951 to 2006) were used for creating the weather files.

Roth C – 26.3 is a model for the turnover of soil organic carbon. It allows for capturing the effect of soil type, temperature, moisture content and plant cover on the turnover process. It uses monthly time step to calculate TOC (t ha-1) microbial biomass carbon (t ha-1) on years to centuries timescale (Jenkinson et al, 1987). To fit the model to the data collected from this LTFE site, the necessary first step was to run Roth C with an annual input of organic carbon that had been selected iteratively to give the TOC at the start of the experiment.

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONSThere are efforts to find out relation between global warming vis-à-vis modelled TOC stocks. The assumption of top soil as a single unit grossly overestimates the effect of global warming. We used five layers of soil (0-20, 20-40, 40-60, 60-80 and 80-100 cm) and generated data for modelled TOC stocks for Kheri site and compared it with the same site TOC stock considering 0-100 cm as a single unit. RothC data showed difference between modelled TOC stocks of five layers and single layer model respectively. We presumed a subsequent increase in mean annual temperature of 0.250C per decade over 100 years (1990 to 2090) and ran RothC. TOC held within top 100 cm decreased by 1.47 per cent in single layer when compared to a fall of 1.43 per cent as the same soil was modelled assuming it as an entity of five different layers. Treating soil as a combination of different layers will thus project actual effects of global warming in accelerating decomposition of soil carbon and the resultant release of CO2 from soil organic matter. The total simulation error in terms of RMSE in Kheri ranges from 2.05 to 12.39%. The simulation bias expressed by M was found to be not significant for all the treatments since the t values were lesser than the critical 2.5% two–tailed t value. Observed trend in TOC consists of an increase in only manure in combination with recommended dose of NPK. TOC remained however almost similar over years for the control (no fertilizer and manure) and various level of NPK treatments.


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REFERENCES1. Coleman, K., Jenkinson, D.S., Crocker, G.J., Grace, J.K. Lir., Korschens, M., Poulton, P.R., Richter,

D.D., (1997) Simulatin trends in soil organic carbon in long term experiments using RothC-26.3. Geoderma 81, 29-44.

2. Jenkinson, D.S., Hart, P.B.S., Rayner, J.H. and Parry, L.C. (1987) Modelling the turnover of organic matter in long-term experiments at Rothamsted. INTECOL Bulletin, 15, 1-8.

3. Jenkinson, D.S., Adams, D.E., and Wild, A. (1991) Model estimates of CO2 from soils in response to global warming. Nature, 351, 304-306.

S3-P14: Inter Row and Interplant Water Harvesting Systems on the Productivity of Rainfed Pearl Millet under Vertisol of Semi- Arid Region in Tamil Nadu

T. Ragavan, N.S. Venkataraman and R. BabuAICRP on Agrometeorology, Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti-628 501, Tamil Nadu

ABSTRACTThe results of the experiment revealed that among the different inter row and interplant water conservation measures tried, the ridges and furrows with tide ridging was recorded significant influence in the moisture conservation and promotion of growth and yield attributes and grain yield of pearl millet. In the integrated nutrient management system, application of 50 per cent recommended dose of fertilizers along wit 2.5t ha-1 of farm yard manure and bio fertilizer (Azospirillum @2kg ha-1) as soil application registered significant increase in the grain yield. From the study it was confirmed that the response of pearl millet well to the nutrients under conjunctive use of manures and fertilizers was high and economically advantageous in terms of productivity.

INTRODUCTIONPearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) is one of the most important cereal crop grown in Tamil Nadu, especially under dry land conditions. The crop is well known for its quick growing ,short duration and also drought ,heat tolerant and well adopted to different soil types of different eco systems. Because of its higher yield potential and dry matter production under water deficit drought prone areas it had marked influence over the different ecological zones. However the productivity of rainfed pearl millet is low due to erratic and scanty nature of rainfall (Singhal, 2003), which limits the productivity potential of pearl millet crop. Integrated moisture conservation and nutrient management system are the most pragmatic approaches to sustain higher yield levels of agricultural production (Wani et.al.1997). Keeping this view, during rabi (NEM) season to study the influence of different inter row and inter plant water harvesting systems with nutrient management on the grain yield of rainfed pearl millet study was taken.

METHODOLOGYField experiments were conducted during two consecutive rabi seasons of 2002 and 2003 at black soil research farm of Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti( located at south zone of Tamil Nadu between 8˚43’and 9˚20’ North Latitude and between 77˚4’ and 78˚25’East Longitude at an altitude of 90 M, above


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MSL). The soil at experimental site was classified under the family of Typic chromusterts with low in available N, P and medium in available K and soil pH was 8.1. The soil texture is clayey with the bulk density of 1.27 Mg/ m3 with a field capacity of 35 per cent and permanent wilting point of 14 per cent. The rain fed region of this tract experiences the annual rainfall of 721mm and seasonal rainfall of 385mm in North East Monsoon received in 27 rainy days. The treatments comprising of four moisture conservation practices and integrated nutrient management practices were studied. The experiment was laid out in strip plot design with three replications. The pearl millet cultivar ICMV 221 was used as test crop. As per the treatment structure the chemical and bio fertilizers were scheduled, integrated and applied to the crop.

RESULTSThe results of the experiment revealed that among the different inter row and interplant water conservation measures tried, the ridges and furrows with tidge ridging recorded significant influence in the moisture conservation and promotion of growth and yield attributes and grain yield of pearl millet(1982kg/ha). This might be due to higher retention of soil moisture by the water conservation measure and soil moisture content at all the stages were higher in the tied ridged practice. This has helped in better utilization of conserved moisture and applied fertilizer nutrients, prevent the runoff water and enhance the entry of rain water into the soil profile. Under conventional method of cultivation, the soil moisture content was comparatively lesser than the improved inter row and interplant conservation measures. The in-situ soil moisture conservation measures not only conserves the rainwater under drought prone areas but also pave the way for speedy and safe disposal of excess water and reduce the soil and water loses, stabilizing agricultural production in rain fed areas (Maruthi Sankar et al,.2006).In the integrated nutrient management system, application of 50 per cent recommended dose of fertilizers along wit 2.5t ha-1 of farm yard manure and bio fertilizer (Azospirillum @2kg ha-1) as soil application registered significant increase in the grain yield (1954 kg ha-1). The response of pearl millet to the nutrients under conjunctive use of manures and fertilizers was found to be economically advantageous. Superior performance of these integrated approach as exhibited in the present study corroborates the findings of Dalavi et.al., (1993). The in situ moisture conservation measures with integrated approach of combined use of nutrients from various sources helped in to meet out the nutrient demand at growth stages resulting in better vegetative growth, efficient dry matter accumulation and partitioning, sustaining yield levels, improve nutrient used efficiency and to restore soil physical, chemical properties and biological health.

REFERENCES1. Dalavi N.D., V.G. Patil, A.S. Jadhav and G. Harinarayana. 1993. Nitrogen economy through bioferilisers

in pearl millet. Journal of Maharastra Agricultural Universities, 18 (3):466-467.

2. Maruthi Sankar, G.R., K.P.R. Vittal, G. Ravindra Chary, Y.S. Ramakrishna and A. Girija. 2006. Sustainability of tillage practices for rainfed crops under different soil and climatic situations in India. Indian J. Dry land Agric.Res.and Dev., 21(1):60-74.

3. Singhal, V., 2003. Indian Agriculture. Indian Economy Data Research Centre, New Delhi.167-168.

4. Wani, A.G., A.D. Tumbare, T.M. Bhale and S.H.Sinde.1997. Response of pearl millet to N and moisture conservation practices under rainfed conditions. Indian J. Dryland Agric. Res. and Dev., 12(2):130-132.


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S3-P15: Influence of Sowing Environments and In Situ Moisture Conservation Measures on the Performance of Rainfed Cotton under Vertisol of Semi - Arid Region

T. Ragavan, N.K. Sathyamoorthy and A. Sathyavelu AICRP on Agrometeorology, Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti-628 501, Tamil Nadu

ABSTRACTThe experimental results revealed that under different sowing environments of rainfed situation, the cotton crop sown in the pre monsoon period of North East Monsoon resulted with higher boll numbers/ plants, boll weight and cotton kapas yield, which was comparable to monsoon sown crop and it was significantly higher than the late monsoon sown crop. The increased cotton kapas yield due to early sowing was 12 and 26.4 per cent over the monsoon and late monsoon sowing of cotton. The soil moisture conservation by different organic mulches had greater impact over the promotion of growth of cotton crop. Among the organic mulches the pearl millet stalk mulch and subabul loppings registered significantly higher and comparable growth and yield attributes and yield of cotton crop.

INTRODUCTIONClimate is one of the natural resources that play an important role in influencing agriculture and other human activities. The growth and productivity of crops depend on the elements of the physical environment in a particular system. Plant growth is an interaction of many complex processes, each of which is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Under rainfed eco-system every drop of rain water has to be effectively utilized for increasing the productivity per unit area. Cotton is an important commercial crop grown under rainfed conditions in Tamil Nadu. The Vertisol belts of southern agro climatic zone are well known for its cotton based production system. The variation in planting/cropping system modifies the macro and micro environment to which plants are exposed, hence there is need to study the influence of mulches in maintaining the crop micro environment under different planting systems and sowing environments (Khichar and Ram Niwas, 2006)

METHODOLOGYA field experiment was conducted during rabi season of 2002 - 2004 at Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti (located at south zone of Tamil Nadu between 8˚ 43’and 9˚ 20’ North Latitude and between 77˚ 4’ and 78˚ 25’ East Longitude at an altitude of 90 M, above MSL). The soil at experimental site was classified under the family of Typic chromusterts with low in available N, P and medium in available K and soil PH was 8.1. The soil texture is clayey with the bulk density of 1.27 Mg/ m3 with a field capacity of 35 per cent and permanent wilting point of 14 per cent. The experiment was laid out in split plot design with three replications. The treatments comprising, sowing of cotton under different environments viz, pre - monsoon sowing (39 th std week monsoon sowing (41st std week) later monsoon sowing (43rd std week) in the main plots and the sub - plot treatments with different organic mulching practices viz., dust mulching at 30th and 45th DAS, mulching with pearl millet stalk, mulching with uprooted weeds, leguminous haulms, subabul loppings, inter cropping with Black gram and mulching with crop residue after harvest and no mulch. Cotton variety KC2 was used as test crop. For intercropping system black gram variety CO5 was used. The mulch materials were applied to the plots at 20 DAS between the crop rows. The inter crop black gram haulms were applied at 65 DAS after collection of pods. The cotton crop was sown by dibbling, adopting a


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spacing of 45 cm between rows and 30 cm between the plants for pure stand. The paired row system of (30 / 60 cm) at 2:1 ratio was given for intercropping of cotton with inter row spacing 10 cm for black gram.. During the cropping season, a total rainfall of 326.6 mm in 18 rainy days and 317.5 mm of rainfall in 19 rainy days was received respectively of 2002 and 2003 rabi seasons.

RESULTSThe results of the experiments revealed that, among the different sowing environments, though the monsoonal rainfall occurrence was deficit in both the years, the crop sown during the pre monsoon sowing (39th std week) exhibited significant variation in the plant height, DMP and sympodial branch numbers in the cotton crop. However, these observations were comparable with the monsoon sown cotton (41 std week). But the growth and yield attributes of cotton under delayed sowing 43rd std week were reduced significantly due to lesser distribution of rainfall after boll formation. Favorable weather conditions and distribution of rainfall over the crop growing period would have positively influenced the growth of cotton when the crop sown well in advance. The cotton sown in the pre monsoon period resulted with higher boll numbers/ plants, boll weight and cotton kapas yield and which was comparable to monsoon sown crop it was significantly higher than the late monsoon sown crop. The increased cotton kapas yield due to early sowing was 12 and 26.4 per cent over the monsoon and late monsoon sowing of cotton. The advantages of early sowing in terms of utility of actual quantum of rainfall during the cropping season, promotion of growth and yield attributes and efficiency of conversion of heat energy into dry matter depends upon genetic factors and sowing time (Rao, et al, 1999). Among the organic mulches the pearl millet stalk mulch and subabul loppings registered significantly higher and comparable cotton growth and yield attributes. The intercropping of black gram turn into mulch after harvest gave the additional income, but not fully served as mulch because of defoliation after maturity. The stored soil moisture under mulch condition alleviated the stress effects, whereas the unmulched crops faced the moisture stress due to cessation of rains during the reproductive phase resulting lesser yield attributes and cotton kapas yield. The superiority of stalk mulch and subabul loppings exerted 14.4 and 15.6 per cent increased cotton kapas yield than the unmulched control. There results confirm the findings of Tarhalkar and Venugopal (1992).

REFERENCES1. Khichar, M.L. and Ram Niwas. 2006. Micro climate profiles under different sowing environments in

wheat. Journal of Agrometeorology. 8(2): 201-209.

2. Rao, V.U.M., Singh. D and Sing. R. 1999. Heat use efficiency of winter crops in Haryana J. Agrome-teorology. 1 (2): 143 - 148.

3. Tarhalkar, P.P and Venugopal, M.V. 1992. Effect of organic recycling of fodder legumes inter cropped with cotton on stabilizing productivity of rainfed cotton on marginal land Annual Report 1991-92. Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, 143 pp.


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S3-P16: Pasture Development Strategies on Sloppy Degraded Land in Semi-Arid Regions

S.C. Sharma, J.S. Mann and Roop ChandGrassland and Forage Agronomy, Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute,

Avikanagar, Rajasthan 304501; [email protected]

ABSTRACTAn experiment on sloppy degraded lands(4-6% slope) was conducted at CSWRI Avikanagar (Rajasthan) in order to establish cenchrus pasture through soil and water conservation measures in kharif 2008. The results reveal that moisture content at 15 cm soil depth, cenchrus height, tillers/clump, DMA/ clump, spike length, seed and dry fodder yields were significantly higher with V-ditch contour bund in comparison to without V-ditch contour bund. With V-ditch contour bund, dry fodder yield was higher by 49.95%. As per place of cenchrus planting at upper, middle and lower site on sloppy land, lower site of slope registered the higher dry fodder yield of cenchrus.

INTRODUCTIONDrought is a climatic phenomenon in rainfed eco-system of semi-arid region. Deficient soil moisture resulting from either sub-normal rainfall, speedy runoff on sloppy land or combination of these factors, cause poor vegetation. Area experiencing such conditions needs integrated management for proper soil and water conservation, efficient utilization of available rainfall (water) in rainfed agriculture in order to arrest degradation of natural resources and restoring productivity. Bunding is recommended for controlling soil erosion and moisture conservation in arable areas on slopes ranging from 1 to 6% (Singh et al. 1990). In-situ moisture conservation through watershed approach is helpful in utilizing sloppy degraded lands for pasture purposes (Sharma et al 2002). Keeping above in view, an experiment has been conducted to establish cenchrus pasture through soil and water conservation measures.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe experiment was carried out at Research Farm, CSWRI Avikanagar on sloppy degraded lands (4-6% slope) during kharif 2008. The soils of the experimental site was sandy loam in texture, neutral in reaction, poor in N, P content and organic carbon (0.34%) having infiltration rate of 20.4 mm/hour. After receiving first monsoon rainfall, the ‘V’ ditch contour bunds 60 cm in width with a depth of 52 cm were constructed and Cenchrus setigerus (dhaman grass) was sown across the slope at a spacing of 45 cm in between two contour bunds and raised as per the recommended practices. The treatments, comprised of ‘V’ ditch contour bunds as soil and water conservation measure and place of cenchrus planting i.e. upper, middle and lower slope site of experimental area, replicated thrice in a randomized block design. Total rainfall during the experimentation was 536 mm. The growth and yield observations of cenchrus and moisture status (at 15 cm soil depth) were recorded at periodic intervals at different stages and harvest of the grass.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONResults (Table1) indicate that moisture content at 15 cm soil depth during July, August, September and October months, cenchrus height, tillers/clump, dry matter accumulation (DMA) per clump, spike length, seed and dry fodder yields were significantly higher with V-ditch contour bund in comparison to without V-ditch contour bund. With V-ditch contour bund, dry fodder yield was higher by 49.95% due to better


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moisture content recorded throughout the season to that of without V-ditch contour bund. Similar results were reported by Sharma et al. (2002). Further, place of cenchrus planting at upper, middle and lower sites on sloppy land also exhibited significant variation in dry matter accumulation per clump, spike length, moisture content during crop season, seed and dry fodder yields. These parameters were considerably higher at lower site slope in comparison to upper site. However, cenchrus height and tillers/ clump were unaffected due to slope.

REFERENCES1. Sharma, S.C.; Mann, J.S. and Mehta, R.S. 2002. Performance of vegetative barriers in establishment of cenchrus

pasture in sandy loam soils of semi-arid regions. In: Resource Conservations and Watershed Management: Technology Options and Future Strategies. Eds. S. K. Dhyani et al Indian Association of Soil & Water Conservation, CSWCR&T, Dehradun. Pp- 105-07.

2. Singh, R.P.; Shriniwas Sharma, Padmanabhan, M.V.; Mishra, P.K. and Das, S.K. 1990. Field Manual on Watershed Management. Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad 500 009.

Table 1. Cenchrus height, tillers/clump, DMA/clump, spike length, seed and dry fodder yields and moisture content as affected by soil & water conservation measures and place of planting.

TreatmentsHeight60 DAS

(cm)

Tillers/clump

60 DAS

DMA/clump

60 DAS

SpikeLength

Seedyield(q/ha)

DFY(q/ha)

Moisture content (%)

July.08 Aug.08 Sept.08 Oct.08

Soil & water Conservation measures

Without V -ditch 115.78 14.82 145.06 6.22 0.81 65.30 2.23 4.08 2.05 0.83

With V -ditch 138.91 25.29 214.07 6.96 0.94 97.92 4.65 7.98 4.1 1.49

SEm ± 3.459 0.529 6.143 0.221 0.038 2.859 0.245 0.275 0.222 0.082

CD (0.05) 8.86 1.35 15.74 0.57 0.10 7.33 0.63 0.71 0.57 0.21

Place of planting

Upper contour 124.04 19.60 156.45 5.94 0.70 73.69 2.68 5.20 2.38 1.01

Middle contour 127.98 19.91 174.32 6.75 0.87 81.19 3.48 6.19 3.26 1.16

Lower contour 130.01 20.65 207.91 7.08 1.05 89.95 4.16 6.70 3.59 1.31

SEm± 4.236 0.648 7.524 0.271 0.047 3.502 0.031 0.034 0.028 0.010

CD (0.05) NS NS 19.28 0.70 0.12 8.97 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.02

DFY- Dry fodder yield


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S3-P17: Effect of Gypsum on Sodic Soils and Saline Water for Soil Health and Higher Fodder Production in Semi-Arid Region

Roop Chand, J.S. Mann, S.C. Sharma and L.R. MeenaGrassland and Forage Agronomy

Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan-304 501

ABSTRACTAn experiment was conducted at farmer’s field in 2008-09 to evaluate the gypsum application for amelioration of soil alkalinity and improve saline water quality under semi-arid region. The initial soil and water samples were collected and analyzed indicated salinity and alkalinity problem in soil and irrigation water. To ameliorate this problem, gypsum and green manure crops were used to reclaim the salt problem. The guar, dhaincha, sorghum and bajra were grown as kharif season crops. The guar and dhaincha crops were incorporated in the field after 45 days of sowing for decomposition. In rabi season, the barley crop was grown and gypsum was used to treat saline irrigation water. The results reveal that treatment of saline water with gypsum was quite effective which improved water quality by reducing pH (7.7) and produced higher bio-mass of barley (360 g/m2) as compared to without gypsum treated water (325 g/m2). Similarly, the dhaincha-barley crop sequence improved the soil health in terms of increase in organic carbon, reduction in soil pH and soil density. This cropping sequence also produced higher yields as compared to guar-barley, sorghum-barley and bajra-barley crop sequence. INTRODUCTIONIn semi-arid region of Rajasthan, irrigation with saline water containing high pH, RSC and soil alkalinity is extensively practiced for cultivation of fodder crops (Joshi and Dhir, 1991). Due to surface crusting, emergence of seedling is very poor, crops are patchy and yields are very low. The severity of degradation is directly related with the soil pH, concentration of salinity in terms of RSC (residual sodium carbonate) in irrigation water, soil texture and irrigation water requirement of the crop grown. Different technologies, developed for use of gypsum, depend on the dynamic changes in soil composition and physic - chemical properties of soils, sustainable management of saline water irrigated soils (Joshi and Dhir, 1994). Malik and Mohammad (1992) opined that gypsum takes less time to improve the soil problem as compared to biological methods of reclamation. Due to its solubility, low cost and availability; gypsum is the most commonly used amendment for reclaiming sodium affected soils and reduce the harmful effects of high sodium in irrigation waters. Ramzan et al. (1982) observed that 100 per cent gypsum requirement (GR) of soil and farm yard manure (FYM) had maximum reclamation efficiency followed by 50 percent gypsum and FYM. Since the dose of long term field studies are also required to evaluate the residual effect of gypsum in soil type and any water management condition. The objective of this study was to examine the changes in soil- physico chemical properties of salt affected soils irrigated with saline water as influenced by gypsum application.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was conducted at farmer’s field at Laxmipura village in TOT area under semi-arid condi-tions of Rajasthan. The initial soil and water samples of the experimental site were collected and analysed in laboratory. The soil of the selected field was clay loam having pH 8.5, EC 0.48 dS/m, bulk density 1.55 Mg/m3, low in available nutrients and organic carbon content (0.37%). Different cropping sequence were taken with guar, sorghum, bajra and dhaincha crops in kharif season. Out of these, guar and dhaincha crops were


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incorporated in the same field after 45 days of sowing for decomposition. In rabi season, barley was grown as subsequent crop. Barley was irrigated with saline well water along with gypsum treatment by gypsum tank method. The growth and yield observations were recorded.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results (Table 1) show that gypsum treated plots produced higher biomass of guar, sorghum, bajra and dhaincha crop as compared to non-treated gypsum plots in kharif season. The data recorded in barley crop reveal that the crop growth parametrs i.e plant height and DMA/plant was recorded higher with gypsum treated irrigation water as compared to without gypsum treated irrigation water. The highest barley height (55.67 cm) and DMA/plant (360 g/m2) was recorded with gypsum treated irrigation in dhaincha – barley sequence, which was due to better improvement of soil properties (Soil pH, organic carbon, bulk density) under dhaincha- barley cropping sequence as compare to other cropping sequences.

Table 1. Effect of gypsum treated and untreated water on plant height and dry matter accumulation of Barley (60 DAS) on mean basis.

Treatments Plant height (cm) Dry matter accumulation (g/m2)

Cropping system Without gypsum Gypsum treated Without gypsum Gypsum treated

Guar-Barley 45.00 51.33 310 355

Sorghum-Barley 39.67 48.54 255 320

Bajra-Barley 36.00 39.67 205 270

Dhaincha-Barley 48.67 55.67 325 360 Table 2. Effect of Gypsum treated water and FYM levels on soil physico-chemical properties.

Treatments Soil pH Organic carbon % Density mg/m3

Cropping system Without gypsum

Gypsum treated

Without gypsum

Gypsum treated

Without gypsum

Gypsum treated

Sowing 8.5 8.00 0.24% 0.22% 1.55 1.55

60 DAS 8.2 7.70 0.30% .34% 1.53 1.51

The application of gypsum treatment in soil in kharif and saline water irrigation in rabi season improved the soil health in terms of soil physico-chemical properties i.e. soil pH, EC, bulk density, organic carbon etc.

REFERENCES1. Joshi, D.C., and Dhir, R.P. 1991. Rehabilitation of degraded sodic soils in an arid environment by using Na-

carbonate for irrigation. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation 5:175-185.

2. Joshi, D.C., and Dhir, R.P. 1994. Amelioration and management of soils irrigated with sodic water in the arid region of India. Soil Use and Management 10:30-34.

3. Malik, K.A. and S Mohammad, 1992. Comparison of chemistry and biological methods for reclaiming sodic soils. Pak. J.of Sci. Res. 24 : 252-264.

4. Ramzan, M.C., A. Hamid, Insanullah and M.A. Javid. 1982. Role of organic and inorganic amendments in reclamation of saline sodic soils. Mona Publication No. 124.


328

S3-P18: Water harvesting through farm pond and utilization of conserved water for vegetable crops in relation to rainfall

C.R. Subudhi and Sagar Chandra SenapatiAICRPDA, OUAT, Phulbani-762001, Orissa; [email protected]

ABSTRACTA trial was conducted during 2005-06 and 2006-07 at All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture Phulbani, Orissa, India, with an objective to obtain the water loss and economics of the lined ponds. There were three treatments T1-Lined pond with soil cement plaster (6:1) 8 cm thickness, T2-Unlined pond, T3-No pond. Ten percent of the cropped area was dug for construction of the pond in Lined and Unlined pond treatments. The size of the pond is 7m top width, 1m-bottom width, 3m heights, and 1:1 side slope. The water harvested in pond was reutilized for the pumpkin crop, which was sown only in Lined pond treatment, as there was no water available in unlined pond so the crop was not sown there. Lined pond with soil cement (6:1) plaster of 8cm thickness gave highest tomato yield of 4.8 t/ha during kharif 2008-09 and radish root yield of 25.5 t/ha in rabi seasons of 2008-09. The water loss was 326 lit/day in lined pond and 24,000 lit/day in unlined pond. The benefit: cost ratio in lined pond was 3.04 as compared to 1.64 in unlined pond during 2008-09.

INTRODUCTIONThe light textured well-drained upland soils in North Eastern Ghat Zone of Orissa provide scope for cultivation of vegetables during rainy season. The intermittent dryspells and terminal drought affect the performance of those high value crops in most of the years. About 25% of the rainfall is lost as run-off. Harvesting of this run-off water in farm pond with proper lining will conserve the run-off water and recycling of this water for life-saving irrigation will protect the crop from drought/dryspell grown in 90% of land area. The ponds will be helpful for sustainability in productivity of dryland crops. Soil structure and organic matter status decide the water holding capacity of the soil. Keeping those points in view, the present experiment involving two water management systems (no pond and pond) has been designed with following objectives: to quantify the increase in land productivity and land use efficiency through on-farm water harvesting and to quantify the water/seepage loss in different ponds. METHODOLOGYTen percent of the cropped area was dug for construction of the pond in Lined and Unlined pond treatments. Size of the pond is 7m top widths, 1m-bottom width, 3m heights, and 1:1 side slope. The water harvested in pond was reutilized for the pumpkin crop, which was sown only in Lined pond treatment, as there was no water available in unlined pond so the crop was not sown there.


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RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Fig.1 Moving average for 10 years at Phulbani

0500

100015002000

1968

-

1971

-

1974

-

1977

-

1980

-

1983

-

1986

-

1989

-

1992

-

1995

-

1998

-

Years

Rai

nfal

l,mm

Table 1. Yield and economics with different lining treatment during 2008-09.

TreatmentsGrain Yield (kg/ha) Cost of

cultivation(Rs /ha)

Gross income (Rs /ha)

NetIncome (Rs /ha)

B:C ratioCauliflower(kharif)

Radish(rabi)

T1 4,800 25,500 81,700 2,49,000 1,67,300 3.04

T2 3,822 - 46,685 76,440 29,755 1.64

T3 3,021 - 32,750 60,420 27,670 1.85

Mean 3,881 25,500 53,712 1,28,620 74,908 2.18

2008-09 1195.1 mm (cauliflower)

515.8 mm (radish)

*Market value of the Cauliflower Rs 20 kg in 2007-08 Radish Rs 6/- per kg (2008-09)

Table 2 (a). Energy input and output in different treatments.

Treatments

Kharif Rabi

Energy input(MJ/ha)

Energy output(MJ/ha)

Energy Output :input ratio

Energy input

(MJ/ha)

Energy output

(MJ/ha)

Energy Output :

input ratio

T1 11977 18816 1.57 8365 99960 11.95

T2 11817 14982 1.27 -

T3 11793 11842 1.00 -

Table 3. Water loss during 2005-06 and 08-09 with different lining.

TreatmentWater loss (lit/day)

2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 Mean

T1-Lined pond with soil cement (6:1) plaster 8cm thickness 86 131 225 326 192

T2-Unlined pond 37,000 33,000 28,000 24,000 30,500

T3-No pond


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The highest B:C ratio (3.04) was obtained in lined treatment due to two crops was harvested (Table 1). Highest energy output : input ratio was obtained in lined pond in both Kharif (1.57) and rabi (11.95) and lowest in T3 i.e. No pond treatment Table 2. Considering both kharif and rabi maximum energy output : input ratio was obtained in lined pond (5.83). The mean water loss was presented in Table 3. The mean yield was highest (8.95 t/ha) in lined pond and water loss was lowest (192 lit/day) in lined pond. The lowest cauliflower yield was obtained in no pond (T3) treatment (3.02t/ha). Unlined pond gave a yield of 3.82 t/ha which was 20 % lower than the lined pond. The seepage loss in unlined pond was highest (30,500 lit/day) over the last four years. The no of irrigation was 5 and one in case of lined and unlined pond respectively during 2008-09. The cost of lined pond was Rs. 9,967/- and that of unlined pond was Rs 2,993/-. The water use efficiency was highest in lined pond (4.02 kg/ha/mm). The cost of lining per square meter was Rs 88/-.

Fig. 1. Rabi crop radish after giving irrigation from pond

Fig. 2. Lined pond

REFERENCES1. Panda R.K., Bhattacharya R.K. 1983, Lining of small irrigation channels of Irrigation and Power 83:385-391.

2. Subudhi, C.R. 2008. Study of lining materials for supplemental irrigation International symposium in “Agro Meteorology and food security” during 18-21 February,08 at CRIDA, Hyderabad.

S3-P19: Effect of Contour bunding on Yield of Maize Crop in North Eastern Ghat Zones of Orissa in relation to Rainfall

C.R. Subudhi, S.K. Mohanty and A. MishraAll India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland Agriculture,

Orissa University Agricultural Technology, Phulbani-762001; [email protected]

ABSTRACTA trial was conducted during the year 2008-09 to know the effect of contour bunding in farmers’ field at Rajikakhol village of Khajuripada block of Kandhamal district, Orissa. As Kandhamal district was effected mostly by heavy rainfall during rain season, the crop lands were mostly damaged by the heavy rain and top fertile soil was eroded. So this trial was conducted with two treatments.T1-Contour bund in 10 m horizontal interval and control, with an objective to assess the crop damaged area and soil loss and to know the yield loss by the farmers. It was observed that 21% of the crop land was saved from the erosion with a 5 ha of


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soil loss can be checked and also 10% of maize yield can be obtained by construction of contour bund. So it can be recommended to construct contour bunding with 10m horizontal interval to check soil erosion and higher crop yield in North Eastern Ghat Zones of Orissa.

INTRODUCTIONAs Kandhamal district was effected mostly by heavy rainfall during rain season, the crop lands were mostly damaged by the heavy rain and top fertile soil was eroded, so the poor tribal farmers they face a heavy loss. Many authors they defined the effect of contour bunding to check soil erosion (Subudhi et al 2004, a, b, c). Present study was under taken to assess the impact of contour bunding on crop damaged area, soil loss and yield

METHODOLOGYA trial was conducted during the year 2008-09 to know the effect of contour bunding in farmers’ field at Rajikakhol village of Khajuripada block of Kandhamal district, Orissa, with treatments: T1- contour bund in 10 m horizontal interval and T2 - control. Two soil conservation treatments were evaluated in maize crop on land with 8-10% slope.

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONThe treatment with contour bund at 10m horizontal interval (HI)saved 5 tonnes of soil per ha and recorded maize seed yield of 46.9 q/ha with net return of Rs 18101.00 and B:C ratio of 1.85. In control plot, maize yield of 42.5 q/ha was realised with net return of Rs 15300.00 and B:C ratio of 1.75.

Table 1. Seed yield of maize and B:C ratio in different treatments.

TreatmentsSoil

saved t/haSeed yield of Maize, q/ha

Cost of cultivation Rs/ha

Gross return Rs/ha

B:Cratio

% of area damaged by heavy rainfall

T1-Contour bund with 10m HI

5 46.9 21,295 39,396 1.85 nil

T2-Control 0 42.5 20,400 35,700 1.75 21%

Mean 44.7 20848 37,548 1.80

CONCLUSION It can be recommended to construct contour bund with 10m horizontal interval to check soil erosion and higher crop yield in North Eastern Ghat Zones of Orissa.

REFERENCE1. Subudhi, C.R., Behera, B., Sethi, P.K. Sharma, K.N. and Swain, S.N. (2004a) Creation of temporary structures

across drainage line in degraded watershed. Indian Journal of Power and River Valley Development.Vol-July-Aug: 164-167.

2. Subudhi, C.R., Behera, B., Sethi, P.K., Sharma, K.N., and Swain, S.N. (2004b) Waste weir for safe disposal of excess runoff from field. Indian Journal of Power and River Valley Development Vol-Nov-Dec: 307-310.

3. Subudhi, C.R., Behera, B., Sethi, P.K., Sharma, K.N. and Senapati, P.C. (2004c) Conservation trenches for plantation crop. Indian Journal of Power and River Valley Development. Vol-Nov-Dec: 329-332.


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S3-P20: Soil Moisture Conservation through Efficient Residue Management to Ensure Double Cropping in Rainfed Hill Ecosystems of North East India

Anup Das, P.K. Ghosh, S.V. Nagachan, G.C. Munda and K. Enboklang Division of Water Management, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam,

Meghalaya-793 103; [email protected]

ABSTRACTAlthough the North Eastern Hill region of India receives a high amount of rainfall (2450 mm) both in terms of intensity and frequency, most of the precipitation goes waste because of improper soil conservation measures and inadequate rainwater harvesting. In arable lands on hill slopes and uplands, growing a second crop during winter season without moisture conservation measure is hardly possible. As a result cropping intensity in the region remains very low (120%). A simple and very low- cost technique of in–situ soil moisture conservation in maize–toria system has been developed using residue of preceding maize crop grown during rainy season. In-situ residue management of preceding maize crop supplemented with green biomass of Ambrosia artimisifolia, a local weed available in plenty applied before sowing of toria, maintained optimum soil moisture for supporting good germination, growth and higher yield of toria. Six residue management combinations were tested viz. control, Maize stalk cover (MSC), MSC + Ambrosia sp. @ 5t/ha, MSC + Ambrosia sp. @ 10t/ha, MSC + poultry manure @ 5t/ha + Ambrosia sp. @ 5t/ha and MSC + FYM @ 10t/ ha under conservation and conventional tillage systems. Results showed that various residue management practices significantly increased SOC over the time period. The soil moisture content measured at various soil depths revealed that it was consistently higher in residue management treatments, which was also reflected in relative leaf water content and water saturation deficit values. All the residue management practices recorded higher crop yield for maize and toria. Treatment MSC + Ambrosia sp. @ 10t/ ha recorded highest seed yield of rabi crop toria (957 kg/ha), which was 398% higher than control with no moisture conservation practices. The study indicated that the integrated management of crop residues (MSC) and weed biomass (Ambrosia sp. @ 10t/ha) under conservation tillage contributed most suitable soil physical environment as well as favourable soil moisture for support of double cropping with high yield in hill eco-system of north-east India.

S3-P21: Effect of Subsoil Mulching on Crop Response and Soil Properties

K. Kathirvel, R. Thiyagarajan and D. Manohar Jesudas

Department of Farm Machinery, Agricultural Engineering College and research InstituteTamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimabtore, India; [email protected]

ABSTRACTDeep tillage loosens the subsoil layers that remain moist. Presence of organic mulch material in subsoil could also make the subsoil biologically active and enhance the root growth into subsoil layers. A tractor operated two row subsoil mulch cum fertilizer applicator has been developed for application of coir pith uniformly in subsoil at desired rate of application and depth. The unit is built around a chisel plough. The effect of subsoiling and mulching on crop response and soil properties was investigated. The treatments


333

include composted coir pith mulch, raw coir pith mulch, subsoiling with out mulch and control without mulch. The experiment was conducted for rainfed cotton crop. Raw coir pith and composted coir pith @ 20 t ha-1 was applied in subsoil layer at 350 to 450 mm depth. The composted coir pith mulch registered 14.1, 18.5, 2.7, 8.3, 18.6 and 16.6 per cent higher plant height, boll formation, root length, root spread, root volume and yield respectively. The soil strength in terms of cone index was the lowest in composted coir pith treatment (0.513 MPa) followed by raw coir pith (0.590 MPa), subsoiling (0.717 MPa) and control (2.240 MPa) on cone index. The deep loosening and placement of mulch at the subsoil layer just below the plant rows resulted in reduction of soil strength which helped the plant roots to penetrate deep into this layer and proliferate in vertical subsoil trenches. The recompaction of subsoil trenches was prevented due to the presence of raw and composted coir pith mulch. The effect of mulching is predominant when placed at medium depth of 250-350 mm and deeper depth of 350-450 mm when compared to shallow depth.

INTRODUCTIONCrops grown under rainfed conditions are prone to water stress, owing to rapid loss of soil moisture and development of mechanical impedance to root growth. The stress can be alleviated by enlarging rooting volume in the soil and/or by regulating the supply of soil moisture. Incorporated residue can improve soil drainage and reduce bulk density. Mulches have been found to decrease soil moisture losses by reducing soil temperature and evaporation, promoting favourable soil biotic activities, reducing hard soil setting and contributing plant nutrients. Subsoil placement of mulch would prevent it from dispersed during subsequent tillage operations. Controlled application rate and depth of placement in the field can contribute to make management of organic manure a more technologically and economically interesting alternative for soil and crop growth. The performance evaluation of two row subsoil coir pith mulcher for cotton in comparison with subsoiling and no mulching is reported.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The two row subsoil coirpith cum fertilizer applicator is built around a chisel plough. The functional components include a pair of chisel plough, coirpith and fertilizer hopper with metering device and agitator for the coirpith. The performance of the prototype two row subsoil coir pith mulcher was evaluated in field. The treatments include composted coir pith mulch, raw coir pith mulch, subsoiling with out mulch and control without mulch. The raw and composted coir pith was applied at optimal level of 350-450 mm depth and 20 t ha-1 and application rate respectively. The cotton seeds were sown manually at row-to-row spacing of 750 mm and plant-to-plant spacing of 300 mm. The evaluational parameters are crop response viz. plant height, number of bolls formed, root length, root spread, root volume and yield and soil properties viz., moisture content and soil compaction

.


334

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONPlant height in composted coir pith, raw coir pith and subsoiled treatment plots increased by 69.3, 54.8 and 46.4 per cent over control (No mulch). Plant height increased by 15.6 and 5.7 per cent in composted coir pith and raw coir pith mulched treatment plots over subsoiling. Composted coir pith mulch registered 14.1 per cent higher plant height than raw coir pith mulch. The number of bolls per plant in composted coir pith mulch, raw coir pith mulch and subsoiled treatment plots increased by 64.1, 38.5 and 26.5 per cent over control. The number of bolls per plant increased by 29.4 and 9.4 per cent for composted coir pith and raw coir pith mulched treatment plots over subsoiling. The composted coir pith mulch proved its superiority by recording 18.5 per cent higher number of bolls than raw coirpith mulch. Subsoiled plot recorded the maximum root length of 534 mm than composted coir pith mulch (494 mm) and raw coir pith mulch (481 mm) treatment plots. The root length in the composted coir pith, raw coir pith and subsoiled treatment plots is 32.4, 29.0 and 43.2 per cent higher over control. The better root spread in composted coir pith and raw coir pith mulched treatment plots is reflected with 21.4 and 12.1 per cent higher values over subsoiling. Composted coir pith mulch registered 8.3 per cent higher root spread than raw coirpith mulch. The root volume is increased by 36.6 and 15.3 per cent for composted coir pith and raw coir pith mulched treatment plots over subsoiling. The root volume of cotton is 12.1 per cent more in composted coir pith mulch when compared to raw coir pith mulch. The yield in composted coir pith mulch, raw coir pith mulch and subsoiled treatment plots is 116.7, 85.7 and 66.7 per cent higher over control. The yield is higher by 30.0 and 11.4 per cent in composted coir pith and raw coir pith mulched treatment plots over subsoiling. The composted coir pith mulch recorded 16.8 per cent increased cotton yield than raw coir pith mulch. The cone penetrometer resistance was measured directly on the row and the cone index was computed. In the treatment effect, the cone index was the lowest for composted coir pith treatment (0.513 MPa) followed by raw coir pith (0.590 MPa), subsoiling (0.717 MPa) and control (2.240 MPa) on cone index. The soil moisture content in the composted coir pith mulched plot, raw coirpith mulched plot and subsoiled plot without mulch is consistently higher than that of the control plots at medium and deeper depths during the growth period of cotton. The pattern of soil strength after second crop of cotton during the subsequent year clearly indicated the reduction of soil impedance in the zone at which the mulch has been applied. Each soil strength profile dips clearly in the zone of mulching and above and below the mulched zone, there is a zone of increased soil impedance. All the mulched plots showed lower soil strength than the control, thus confirming the persistence effect of soil loosening due to mulching. The effect of mulching was predominant at medium and deeper depth of placement when compared to shallow depth of placement. The raw and composted coir pith mulched plots recorded 35.7 and 37.5 per cent increase in yield respectively confirming the persistence effect of mulching on second crop yield during the subsequent year also.

CONCLUSIONSubsoil mulching has long term effect, compared to surface incorporation. Application of coir pith as subsoil mulch could prevent recompaction of subsoil and also improve the soil structure. Subsoil mulching with coir pith is a new concept. Deep loosening of soil and placement of coir pith in subsoil layers as mulch directly below the crop rows would improve the root zone which would not recompact during subsequent years. A prototype of tractor operated two row subsoil coir pith mulcher cum fertilizer applicator was developed and evaluated in field condition and compared with subsoiling and control plots. The composted coir pith mulch registered 14.1, 18.5, 2.7, 8.3, 18.6 and 16.6 per cent higher plant height, boll formation, root length, root spread, root volume and yield respectively. In the treatment effect, the cone index was the lowest for composted coir pith treatment (0.513 MPa) followed by raw coir pith (0.590 MPa), subsoiling (0.717 MPa) and control (2.240 MPa) on cone index. The soil moisture content in the composted coir pith mulched plot, raw coirpith mulched plot and subsoiled plot without mulch is consistently higher than that of the control plots at medium and deeper depths during the growth period of cotton. The effect of mulching is predominant when


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S3-P22: Measuring biomass and carbon stock in Emblica Officinalis (aonla) based agrihorticulture system using CO2 Fix model under rainfed condition in semi-arid regions

Ram Newaj, Ajit, Badre Alam, A.K. Handa, R.S. Yadav, A. Vankatesh and R.H. Rizvi

National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Gwalior Road, Jhansi-284003, Uttar [email protected]

ABSTRACTGreen vegetation due to their photosynthetic mechanism in presence of light, water and CO2 can sequester carbon from atmosphere and lock it in the form of biomass. Carbon sequestration through agroforestry is attractive because, it sequesters carbon in vegetation and possibly in soil and it reduces the need for slash, increases the income of farmers and reduces extraction the natural forest for income augmentation. Climate and soil are the key resources that influence the choice of farming enterprises in rainfed regions. Aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) is the best option among the semi-arid and arid fruit crops and has all required qualities for rainfed areas. In India, presently about 20,000 hectares of land under aonla cultivation and it has good potential to augment the income of farmers as well as increase the productivity of semi-arid regions.

Carbon sequestration potential of an agrihorticulture system was studied in which aonla (Emblica officinalis) as tree and greengram as crop component planted at NRCAF, Jhansi under rainfed conditions during 1996 in very poor soil having very shallow depth and low moisture holding capacity, known as rakar soil of the Bundelkhand regions. The soil has 20 to 58 % gravel of 72 to 80 mm size, 89.6% sand, 5.8% silt, 5.0% clay, pH 7.9, EC 0.16mmhos/cm, ESP 0.83me/100g, organic carbon 0.32%, nitrogen 161.7 kg ha-1, phosphorus 13.2 kg ha-1 and potassium 120.6 kg ha-1. The biomass table was developed on the basis of 13-years growth

placed at medium depth of 250-350 mm and deeper depth of 350-450 mm when compared to shallow depth. The pattern of soil strength after the harvest of the second crop observed during the subsequent year in the same experimental plot clearly indicated the reduction of soil impedance in the zone at which the mulch has been applied. Also the yield data proved that raw and composted coir pith mulched plots recorded 35.7 and 37.5 per cent increase of cotton production respectively over non mulched plot. This confirmed the persistence effect of mulching during the subsequent year.

REFERENCES1. Adeoye, K.B. and M.A. Mohamed-Saleem, 1990. Comparison of effects of tillage methods on soil physical prop-

erties and yield of maize and stylo in a degraded ferruginous tropical soil. Soil and Tillage Research, 18:63-72.

2. Chancy, H.F. and E.J. Kamprath, 1982. Effects of deep tillage on soil coastal plain. Soil. Agron J 74: 657-662.

3. Garner, T.H., A. Khalilian and M.J. Sullivan, 1989. Deep tillage for cotton in coastal plain soils – cost/returns. Proc. Beltwide Cotton Conference, 1: 168–171. Memphis Tenn.: National Cotton Council.

4. Raper, R.L., J.H. Edwards and D.T. Hill, 1996. Vertical trenching of cellulose waste to hinder hardpan reconsolidation. Paper No. 961044 Written for presentation at the1996 ASAE Annual International Meeting sponsored by ASAE.


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data and it was extrapolated for another 12-years using non-linear regression. The carbon sequestration potential of the system was simulated for 25-years rotation period. Changes in biomass, soil organic carbon, carbon sequestered and CO2 equivalent carbon sequestered were estimated using CO2 FIX model version 3.1. In order to simulate growth biomass, the model uses as input the growth rate of stem volume, which was derived from yield table developed through allometric equation. From the growth rate of stem volumes, growth rates for foliage, branches and roots are calculated, using time-dependent allocation coefficients. The carbon content in biomass was analyzed through CHNS-O analyzer and other parameters were taken from secondary data published in various form.

Simulation was carried on 25-years period for biomass, carbon stock, soil carbon and carbon sequestered. Total biomass (above and belowground) accumulation in tree varied from 0.08 to 16.20 t ha-1 and herbaceous biomass varied from 0.71 to 0.48 t ha-1 during different years. The biomass (above and belowground) of herbaceous layer was higher during the beginning of the experiment but it reduced with the increasing age of tree. The soil organic carbon during 1996 was 8.35 t ha-1 and it increased up to 13.42 t ha-1 at age of 25-years. Carbon sequestered by the system varied from 8.7 to 30.12 t C ha-1. Similarly CO2 equivalent carbon sequestered in the system varied from 31.89 to 110.47 t CO2 equivalent C ha-1 during different years.

S3-P23: In Situ Moisture Conservation Techniques for Sustainability of Rainfed Crops to Mitigate Climate Change in North West Himalayas

Sanjeev K. Sandal, S.C. Sharma, Pradeep K. Sharma and V.K. SuriCSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University Palampur, Himachal Pradesh -176062 (India)

[email protected]

ABSTRACTField experiments conducted by All India Coordinated Research Project on Water Management in high rainfall areas have indicated that in-situ moisture conservation and its carry-over not only enhanced the crop productivity of rainfed maize-wheat cropping sequences but also maintained optimum hydro-thermal regimes throughout the year to mitigate any climatic variations. Conservation tillage through utilization of available bio mass in hills may be a better option to sustain crop productivity of rainfed crops in hills, where irrigations facilities are difficult to generate and maintain.

INTRODUCTIONIn North West Himalayas, success and failures of field crops mainly depend upon rainfall distribution in terms of time and space since, about 80% cultivated area is rainfed. Majority of the rains (80%) in general, occur during monsoons (July-September) and rest is received throughout the year. Keeping in view the rainfall patterns, the scientifically improved technologies of the field crops have been disseminated to farming community, but climate changes i.e. occurrence of drought or excess run off generation as a result of changed rainfall distribution have made researchers to re-orient their research programmes for generation of risk proof technologies. In the present context, in situ moisture conservation including conservation tillage seems to be the better option for maintaining the optimum soil hydro-thermal regimes not only during the rainfed crops growing seasons but all through the year, irrespective of crop durations.


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The rainfall data indicate that most of the rains are received during mid June to mid–September. Winter rains are meager and erratic. During September to December and again from March to June, the evaporation exceeds rainfall which depletes soil of its moisture reserves. These periods coincide with sowing of rainfed kharif (summer) and rabi (winter) crops, respectively. Quite often, the frequent light showers are not sufficient for preparation of seed bed as the evaporation during this period is quite high. If these showers are conserved and carried –over for few days in the seed-zone then it is possible to get kharif crops germinated without pre-sowing irrigation. Similarly, the soil profile is wet at recede of monsoon, but continuously lose moisture till sowing of winter crops. If right from the recede of monsoon (mid of September), soil moisture is conserved in-situ, then it is possible to germinate the succeeding crops like wheat well in time (Mid October –November). Two decade research on in situ rain-water conservation technologies conducted by AICRP on Water Management, Palampur Centre have indicated that it is possible to maintain optimum soil water and temperature throughout the crop growing season especially in case of rainfed maize-wheat sequence which is the most commonly followed cropping sequence. Conservation tillage is a generic term encompassing different soil management practices. It is generally defined as any tillage system that reduces loss of soil or water relative to conventional tillage, often a form of non-inversion tillage that retains protective amount of residue mulch on soil surface. Any material used at the surface of the soil, primarily to minimize the loss of water by evaporation or to keep down weeds may be designated as mulch. Mulches such as sawdust, manure, weeds, straw, leaves, crop residues, etc. are highly effective in checking evaporation.

METHODOLOGYIn hilly terrains, the agro-climatic conditions are favourable for growing of summer crop like maize. Experiences reveal that maize must be at knee high stage before the occurrence of monsoon rains. It is possible through conservation of pre-monsoon showers with application of organic mulches of available biomass and sowing maize with minimum tillage. This practice not only conserves pre-monsoon showers in-situ, but also prevents the soil erosion during heavy monsoon rains.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSandal et al. (2009) reported that application of Lantana and Eupatorium etc as mulch, 25-30 days before sowing of maize recharged the seed zone moisture. Sowing succeeding maize with minimum tillage + mulching material conserved higher soil moisture which might have had to optimum seedling emergence, better root and shoot growth consequently higher grain, stover yields, B.C ratio and N uptake in comparison to conventional tillage + mulch and conventional tillage.

The moisture stress conditions prevailing from September to December/January delay sowing of rainfed rabi crops like wheat, resulting in poor germination and early crop establishment, sub-optimal nutrient uptake and ultimately low yield. Conservation tillage conserves and carries over soil moisture in-situ which provides optimum hydro-thermal regimes at sowing and during crop growth stages. One way to conserve moisture in-situ is to apply mulch to the previous standing maize (the most important crop in hills) at recede of monsoon rains (Prihar et al.1979, Sandhu et al. 1992, Acharya and Kapur 1993, Sandal and Acharya 1997). The applications of tender twigs of Lantana to the previous standing maize help in conservation and carry-over of moisture (Acharya and Kapur 1993). Its application immediately after harvest of maize and wheat crops may help in the conservation of rain water, particularly the pre-monsoon showers for sowing of rainfed maize. Light showers received before sowing of wheat may enhance the conserved moisture in the seed-zone for sowing of wheat crop. Sharma et al. (1990) found that maize stalk mulch with or without


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tillage conserved 35.6 and 63.6 per cent more moisture / 450 mm soil than tillage treatment and fallow control in 1986-87, between maize harvest and sowing of wheat. The corresponding moisture conservation in 1987-88 was 16.8 and 26.0 mm, respectively.

Uncertainty of rainfall occurrence is not only affecting crop productivity but also discouraging the farmers to go in for crop intensification or diversification. Under such situation, there is need to further standardize and popularize the conservation tillage technologies for maintaining optimum soil health to mitigate climatic changes.

REFERENCES1. Acharya, C.L. and Kapur, O.C. (1993) In-situ moisture conservation for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) through

mulching previous standing maize crop with wild sage (Lantana camara). Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 83, 481-488.

2. Prihar, S.S., Singh, R., Singh, N. and Sandhu K.S. (1979) Effect of mulching previous crop as fallow on dryland maize and wheat. Experimental Agriculture 15, 129-134.

3. Sandal, Sanjeev. K. and Acharya, C.L. (1997) Effect of conservation tillage on moisture conservation, soil-physical conditions, seedling emergence and grain yield of rainfed maize (Zea-mays) and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 67, 227-31.

4. Sandal, Sanjeev K, Naveen Datt, Sharma R.P., Sankhyan, N.K. and Lav Bhushan (2009). Effect of resource conservation technologies with common weed biomass and fertilizer levels on soil moisture content, productivity and nutrient content and uptake of maize (Zea mays) in wet temperate zone of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 79:545-548

5. Sandhu, K.S., Bendi, D.K., Prihar, S.S. and Saggar, S. (1992) Dryland wheat yield dependence on rainfall, applied N and mulching in preceding maize. Fertilizer Research 32, 229-237.

6. Sharma, P.K., Kharwara, P.C. and Tewatia, R.K. (1990) Residual soil moisture and wheat yield in relation to mulching and tillage during preceding rainfed crop. Soil Tillage Research 15: 279-284.

S3-P24: Emission of Greenhouse Gases from Soil under Kharif Maize (Zea mays)

Amrita Daripa, Arti Bhatia, Himanshu Pathak, Anita Chaudhary, Vinay Kumar Singh and Ritu Tomer

Division of Environmental Sciences, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi [email protected]

ABSTRACTGlobal warming induced by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) in the atmosphere is a matter of concern. A field experiment was carried out (June to October, 2008) at the farm of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi to quantify the impact of different levels of N fertilizer and elevated carbon dioxide concentration on nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide emission from soil in maize. The denitrification and decomposition (DNDC) simulation model was also used to simulate the emission of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide from maize. Peaks of N2O-N flux


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were observed after every dose of N application. The cumulative emissions of N2O-N ranged from 521 to 817 g ha-1during the crop growth period and were 18% higher in 160 kg N ha-1 treatment over the 120 kg N ha-1. The flux of CO2-C fluctuated between 3.10 kg ha-1 d -1 to 13.59 kg ha-1d -1 during the total crop growing period. Highest cumulative CO2-C emissions were observed in 160 kg N ha-1 treatment at 840 kg CO2-C ha-1. The cumulative N2O-N emission was 13% lower under ambient CO2 as compared to the elevated CO2 (500±50 ppm). The global warming potential was highest in 160 kg N ha-1 treatment at 1083 kg ha-1. There was no significant increase in maize yield under elevated carbon dioxide. Carbon efficiency ratio (C fixed/C emitted) was the highest in 160 kg N ha-1 treatment. Harvest index under elevated CO2 was 2.7% lower over ambient control. The cumulative N2O-N emissions simulated using the DNDC models were in good agreement with the observed values, though the temporal values showed variability. The model simulated higher carbon dioxide emissions as compared to the observed values.

INTRODUCTIONMaize is an important cereal crop in India, grown in 7.8 million ha of land, with a production of 19.5 million tones and average yield of 1912 kg ha-1 (FAI, 2007-08). With an increase in demand for maize products its production has to increase in the future. Maize has a high yield potentiality which can be achieved with higher inputs of nitrogen. Increased application of N fertilizer might lead to an increase in the emissions of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide from soils under maize.

Nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are two important greenhouse gases (GHGs) contributing approximately 5% and 60% respectively to the enhanced green house effect (IPCC, 2007). Agricultural soil is a significant source of atmospheric N2O and studies consistently reveal that N fertilization increases their emission. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased from 280 ppmV at the beginning of the industrial revolution to 385 ppmV at present and is increasing at the rate of 1.5 ppmV annually (IPCC, 2007). Elevated CO2 levels in the atmosphere not only improve crop yields due to increased photosynthesis but also influence the biomass partitioning and carbon allocation to the roots. This has a direct impact on the carbon and nitrogen dynamics in soil and may impact the soil organic matter decomposition, thereby impacting the soil CO2 and N2O emission. Thus the objectives of the study were as follows 1) To evaluate emission of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide from soil in kharif maize under different levels of nitrogen fertilizer application 2) To assess the impact of elevated carbon dioxide on growth and yield of maize 3) To simulate emission of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide from maize using the Denitrification and Decomposition (DNDC) model.

METHODOLOGYTo meet the above said objectives a field experiment was conducted in the research farm of Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, in maize (June- October) on alluvial sandy loam textured soil. The experiment was carried out with five treatments arranged in randomized block design with three replications. Three treatments were in ambient chamber less plots and two treatments were carried out in open top chambers (OTCs). For N2O gas samples were collected from the treatments by closed chamber technique on different days. The analysis was carried out by gas Chromatography using ECD detector. Carbon dioxide was sampled and analyzed using Infra red based continuous soil CO2 flux analyzer (LI-8100) with a 20 cm short term survey chamber to obtain soil CO2 flux. Soils from different treatments were sampled at regular intervals for analysis of soil physico-chemical properties. Yield and growth parameters were recorded after harvest of crop.


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RESULTSThe temporal value of nitrous oxide emission ranged from 181 µg m-2 d-1 to 1828 µg m-2 d-1 within the crop growth period. Peaks of N2O-N flux were observed after every dose of N fertilizer application, which supplied the substrate for nitrification (NH4

+-N) and subsequently for denitrification (NO3--N). The peak

emission of 1828 µg m-2 d-1 of N2O-N was obtained on 66 DAS in the 160 kg N ha-1 treatment after application of N fertilizer at 64 DAS. The cumulative emission of N2O-N in the 160 kg N ha-1 treatment was 18% higher over the 120 kg N ha-1.

The temporal value of CO2 flux fluctuated between 3.10 kg ha-1 d -1 to 13.59 kg ha-1 d -1 during the total crop growing period. In case of fertilizer treatments higher CO2 emissions were observed for 160 kg N ha-1

treatment as compared to other fertilizer treatments. Higher emissions of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide were observed under elevated carbon dioxide conditions in the open top chambers.

The cumulative N2O-N emission was 13% lower in the ambient CO2 as compared to the elevated CO2 treatment. The global warming potential was highest in 160 kg N ha-1 treatment.

The 160 kg N ha-1 treatment significantly increased the crop productivity but the increase was not significant in case of elevated CO2 treatment. Harvest index in elevated CO2 was 2.7% lower over ambient control.

The DNDC model was able to simulate the nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions and crop growth parameters in close agreement with the observed values. The simulated values of N2O emissions were in good agreement with the model output but the temporal values showed variability. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions simulated by the model were higher than the observed values.

REFERENCES1. Fertilizer Statistics (2007-2008). The Fertilizer Association of India, New Delhi.

2. IPCC, (2007). Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Inter Governmental Panel on climate change. Report of the Working Group II. Cambridge, UK.

3. Pathak, H., Li, C. and Wassmann, R. (2005). Greenhouse gas emissions from Indian rice fields: Calibration and upscaling using the DNDC model. Biogeosciences. 2:113-123.

S3-P25: Rain Water Management for Maximization of Farm Productivity and Conservation of Natural Resources in Alfisols of Karnataka

G.N. Dhanapal, K.N. Harsha, M.H. Manjunatha and B.K. Ramachandrappa

All India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland Agriculture,University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru ; [email protected]

ABSTRACT The arable lands in the micro-watersheds in Alfisols are more prone to runoff and nutrient losses lead to degradation of natural resources. A long term research cum demonstration is being conducted with regard


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to soil and water conservation and utilizing the harvested water for protective irrigation and Pisciculture. During the cropping season, maximum runoff collection per hectare was recorded in cultivated catchment than forest catchment. In the cultivated catchment area, maximum runoff and soil loss was observed in ground nut and lowest runoff and soil loss was observed in maize and finger millet + red gram inter cropping system respectively. It also indicated that Nase grass as live barrier is effective to reduce run-off and soil loss. The runoff was collected and stored in farm ponds and the same was used for protective irrigation in double cropping system. Highest forage yield was produced by giant bajra followed by South African maize grown during the early Kharif. Significantly higher french bean green pod yield was recorded in early grown sweet sorghum plots followed by giant bajra; Suvidha recorded significantly higher green pod yield as compared to Anoop. However, french bean receiving 100% recommended dose of fertilizers recorded higher green pod yield as compared to 75% of recommended dose of fertilizers. Growth and development of all the four breeds of fishes was normal and each weighed 450-500g after complete maturity. By adopting scientific method of fish production about 50-60 kg fully matured fishes (4-6 months) could be harvested in farm pond (180 m3) depending upon the maintenance of pond water. So that, on an average Rs.2100/- would be the additional income from fish production. In nutshell, crop soil and water productivity is enhanced by good rain water management in Alfisols.

INTRODUCTIONJawaharlal Nehru said “Every thing can wait but not the agriculture”, In the globalized and liberalized era it has become utmost necessary to feed the compounding population from fixed land resource and stagnated productivity. In the earlier efforts to improve production and productivity we have ignored the sustainability and natural resource conservation measures. Later it was realized when the things were coupled with global warming and climate change, thereby, it has become prime agenda to sustain the production and productivity. The success of rainfed agriculture depends on efficient utilization of rain water with a prime objective “Better Crop/Cash for Every Rain Drop”. The eastern dry zone of Karnataka receives 776 mm of rainfall. The distribution and intensity of rainfall is highly erratic over years. The Alfisols of the region are more prone to all types of erosion resulted in loss of top soil and nutrients accumulated in the water storage structures. The uncertainty of rainfall and lack of attention to conserve rain water is the major problem in rainfed agriculture. Ultimately it had resulted in increased runoff, reduced ground water recharge, severe erosion, loss of nutrients silting and sedimentation problems. Thus, the nutrient rich run-off water could be utilized for production of crops, rearing of fishes and livestock under dry land condition. In Karnataka, Alfisols accounts for 27% of the total cultivated area possess poor water holding capacity and more prone to soil and water erosion due to surface crust formation; thus, affect the potential of crop production. The mean annual rainfall of the State is 1139 mm distributed in 34 rainy days with a variance of 30-45%. The experimental site Dry Land Agricultural Project G.K.V.K receives an annual rainfall of 927 mm in 62 rainy days causes an average of 10-15% runoff over 20-25 events. The excess rainfall collected as runoff in storage structures depends on rainfall intensity and duration, frequency of rainy days, soil texture and structure, soil slope, vegetative cover etc. It is evident that runoff water utilization improve crop, water and soil productivity under scarce water resources.

Soil and water conservation: rain water harvesting Restoration and maintenance of resources in the long run in micro-watershed requires holistic and continuous management strategies. In watershed areas, natural resources were conserved through soil and water conservation methods, compatible crops and cropping systems, inter-terrace management practices, agro-forestry etc., The arable lands in the micro-watersheds in Alfisols are more prone to run-off and nutrient losses lead to degradation of resources. Every year 40-45 kg ha-1 organic matter, 6-8 kg N ha-1, 0.6-0.9 kg


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P2O5 ha-1, and 3.7-4.5 kg K2O ha-1 of nutrients is lost due to unchecked runoff. Keeping these facts in view, a long term research cum demonstration experiment is being conducted since 1990 at dry land center, GKVK, Bangalore. The average normal rainfall (1972-2007) received at dry land agriculture project was 927 mm of which 18.1 per cent (166.7 mm), 55.6 per cent (513.1 mm) and 24.9 per cent (229mm) was received during pre rainy (March- May), rainy (June- September) and post rainy season (October-December) respectively. The rainfall was fairly well distributed from March to October with two peaks one in May (97.5 mm) and another in September (203.9 mm). The average number of rainy days is about 62 days in a year).

METHODOLOGYThe experiment was conducted in non-replicated permanent blocks with plot size of 4mx16m. Each block is separated by about ten years old well established Khus (Vetivera zizinoides) Nase grass (Pennisetum hoenickeri) Meghalayan grass and Broom stick grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) as live barriers on open ended contour bunds .The number of run-off events and soil loss were recorded in each block.

RESULTS During both the cropping season maximum runoff collection per hectare (1054 cu.m) was recorded in cultivated and catchment than forest catchment (Table 1). In the cultivated catchment area maximum runoff (274.7mm) and soil loss (11.2 t/ha/yr) was observed in ground nut. On the other hand lowest runoff and soil loss was observed in maize and finger millet + red gram inter cropped area. The long term experimental data indicated that Nase grass as live barrier is effective to reduce run-off and soil loss (Table 2). The runoff was collected and stored in farm ponds and the same was used for protective irrigation in double cropping system. Farm ponds lined with soil and sand in 8:1 proportion with 5 cm of thickness recorded minimum seepage loss of water (4.9lt/m2/day) as compared to brick and cement lining and unlined tanks (137.0 lt/m2/day).

Utilization of harvested farm pond water Double cropping system with protective irrigation

Alfisols in the dry lands of Karnataka suffer from intermittent drought. The rainfall received in two peaks is maximum during south-west monsoon (Aug-Sept) with average annual rainfall of 927 mm distributed in 62 rainy days. The numbers of rainfall events which cause run-off were ranged from 25-30, depending upon intensity and duration of continuous rainy days. The run-off water collected in farm pond could be utilized for protective irrigation during dry spells. We found that early sowing of fodder crops followed by chilli, French bean, baby corn with protective irrigation during dry spells improved the system productivity under rainfed eco-system.

METHODOLOGYThe experiment was laid out in double split plot design involving three forage crops(65-70 days) in the first season and two French bean varieties with two fertility levels was taken up after the harvest of forage crops .Two protective irrigations (approximately 5 cm depth) were provided during dry spells of August and September months from the farm pond.

RESULTSThe forage yield produced by giant bajra was significantly higher (46.7 t/ha) followed by South African maize (43.2 t/ha) and it was low in Sweet sorghum (39.9 t/ha). Significantly higher French bean green pod


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yield (6940 kg/ha) was recorded in early sown sweet sorghum plots followed with giant bajra (6640 kg/ha). Among French bean varieties, Suvidha recorded significantly higher green pod yield (7080 kg/ha) as compared to Anoop (5610 kg/ha). However, French bean receiving 100% recommended dose of fertilizers recorded higher green pod yield (6900 kg/ha) as compared to 75% of recommended dose of fertilizers (5780 kg/ha).

From the experiment it is evident that among fodder crops higher net return and B.C ratio was observed in Giant Bajra (Rs 21496 ha1 and 2.91 respectively) Where as French bean crop grown after the harvest of Sweet Sorghum recorded higher net return and BC ratio as compared to other crops. Among French bean cultivars, Suvidha recorded higher net returns (Rs.49500) and B:C ratio (3.32) ratio as compared to Anoop variety of french bean (Rs.34,800 and 2.63, respectively).the trends were similar with respect to chilli yield. This technology could be adopted by the dry land farmers wherever there is a facility of storage structures to collect runoff water (Table4).

Pisciculture (Fish Production)The Alfisols of Karnataka are more prone to all types of erosion resulted in loss of soil and nutrients accumulated in the water storage structures. Thus, the nutrient rich run-off water could be utilized for rearing of fishes and livestock under dry land condition. Keeping these facts in view, a study was conducted during 2007-09 to know the profitability of fish production in farm ponds along with crop production activity. The composite fish culture scientific technology for getting maximum fish production from the unit area through stocking of compatible species of fish for rational utilization of natural fish food resources and farm management techniques (Senthivelu et al., 2008).

METHODOLOGYDifferent breeds of fishes viz., Common Carp, Catla, Rohu and Grass Carp fish fingerlings were released in 4:3:2:1 proportion respectively to farm ponds (180 m3). The catchment area for farm ponds is from arable and non- arable land. Application of lime, organic and inorganic fertilizers is essential to improve the soil condition and supplement the nutrients in the soil and water to ensure adequate and continued supply of fish food organisms. Rate of lime application depends on the soil status. For normal soils, lime was applied @ 40 kg at 2-3 days before release of fingerlings to the pond. Initial dose of 120 kg cow dung, 5 kg of super phosphate and 5 kg of urea were applied at about 8-10 days before stocking the fingerlings. Thereafter, 10 kg of cow dung, one kg of single super phosphate and one kg of urea was applied every month to maintain good growth of plankton. Every day, ground nut cake and rice bran were applied at the rate of 4% of the body weight of fishes (Basavaraju, 2002). Observations on length, width and weight of fishes were recorded at different intervals.

RESULTSA successful fish rearing is possible up to three months in the farm ponds. Results indicated that growth and development of all types of fishes was normal and each weighs 500g after complete maturity. By adopting scientific method of fish production about 50-60 kg in farm pond (180 m3) fully matured fishes (4-6 months) depending upon the maintenance of pond water could be harvested. So that, on an average Rs.2100/- would be the additional income from the activity (Table5 and 6).

CONCLUSIONRain water harvesting is a technology of runoff farming which is most feasible in dry land areas. The


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technology of rain water harvesting is highly location specific. In very low rainfall areas, there is a need to induce runoff by treating the uncultivated catchments with the objectives of its collection in the cropped micro-watershed. Nase grass as live barrier was helpful in reducing runoff and soil loss in micro-watershed. Runoff harvesting in reservoirs and its subsequent recycling for crop production is an essential component of dry land agriculture.

Scarcity of fodder could be overcome by growing fodder/forage crops in early Kharif and chilli /vegetable crops could be raised by giving 2-3 protective irrigations stored in the farm pond.

The fish culture in dry land areas is technically viable and economically feasible and could be adopted by marginal and small farmers. All the fish breeds performed better in growth and development. Effectiveness of Pisciculture depends on period of water availability in farm ponds. Normally area receiving rainfall more than 650 mm/annum would be sufficient for fish production.

REFERENCES1. Basavaraju, Y., 2002, Potential for fish culture in water harvesting structures in watersheds, In: workshop on

watershed development programmes in Karnataka, April, 30, 2002 pp: 74-81.

2. Seenappa, D. and Khadar Khan, H., 2008, Jalaanayana Krishi Hondagalli Meenu Saakane (Kannada), technical leaf let, Directorate of Extension, UAS, Bangalore.

3. Senthivelu, M., Surya Prabha, A.C. and Srikanth, M., 2008, Farm ponds: A boon for sustainable dry land agriculture, Rashtriya Krishi Technical Magazine, 3(20):55-57.

Table 1. Runoff water collection from different catchments (Mean of 8 years).

Months Rainfall(ha. cu.m)

Runoff collection (ha cu .m)

Forest catchment Cultivated catchment

First cropping seasonMayJuneJuly

1066 (106.6) **973 (97.3)

1155 (115.5)

104.065.595.5

204.8152.6159.5

Sub total 3194 (319.4) 262.0 516.4

Second cropping seasonAugustSeptemberOctoberNovember

866 (86.6)2466 (246.6)1000 (100)409 (40.9)

42.6256.2131.217.3

61.6277.0189.210.5

Sub total 4744 (474.4) 447.2 538.2

Total 7938 (793.8) 709.3 (8.9 %*) 1054.6 (13.3 %*)

** Indicate total rain fall in mm

* Indicates per cent runoff to the total rainfall


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Table 2. Runoff and soil loss under different crop management practices during 2008.

Treatments Runoffevents

Runoff CausingRainfall (mm)

Runoff(mm)

Runoff to totalrainfall (%)

Soil loss (t/ha)

T1: Crop sown across the slope with Khus 19 700.0 297.1 28.2 5.13T2: Crop sown across the slope with Nase 19 700.0 242.2 23.1 4.98T3: Crop sown across the slope with Meghalayan grass 25 798.6 320.2 30.4 8.01

T4: Crop sown across the slope with Broomstick grass 25 789.6 318.6 30.3 7.98

T5: Natural vegetation 13 519.8 55.9 (9 %) 5.3 0.59

Table 3. Soil and runoff losses in fallow and canopies of different crop (mean of 12 years).

Sl. No. Particulars Mean values of 12 years

1 Rainfall (mm) 948.4

2 Runoff causing rain (mm) 561.9

3 FallowRunoff (mm) 241.1

Soil loss (t/ha/year) 11.7

4 Ground nutRunoff (mm) 224.7


5 Finger milletRunoff (mm) 179.7


6 MaizeRunoff (mm) 139.4


7 Finger millet + Red gramRunoff (mm) 113.7


Table 4. Performance of double cropping system under organic mulching and protective irrigation through farm ponds.

Treatments Yield Gross income (Rs./ha) Net income (Rs./ha) B:C ratio

Fodder t/ha

F.Bean*kg/ha Fodder F. Bean Fodder F.Bean Fodder F.Bean

Main plots South African maize 43.2 5460 30240 54600 18740 33300 2.62 2.56

Sweet sorghum 39.9 6940 27930 69400 16630 48100 2.47 3.25

Giant bajra 46.7 6640 32690 66400 21490 45100 2.91 3.11CD (0.05) 6.08 1143


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Subplots French .BeanAnoop 5610 56100 34800 2.63Suvidha 7080 70800 49500 3.32CD (0.05) 1020Sub-Sub Plots100% 6900 69000 47700 3.2375% 5780 57800 37000 2.76CD (0.05) NS

*French Bean

Table 5. Different sized Farm ponds and lining material

Particulars / Pond dimensions Big Farm pond Small Farm pond

(Micro-watershed)

Top dimensions (m) Length – 35 mWidth – 33 m

Length – 10.5 mWidth – 10.5 m

Bottom dimensions L x W – 27 m x 26 m L x W– 6 m x 6 mPond depth 3.5 m 3 mFarm pond capacity 3200 Cubic meter 180 Cubic meterWater storage capacity 32 lakh litres 1.8 lakh litresLining Kadapa slab Soil + Cement (8:1)Height of lining material 1.2 m 3.0 m

Area of liningBottom - 901 Sq. m 4 Sides - 155 Sq. m(34.2 x 2 sides= 68.4 Sq. m & 43.2 x 2 side s= 86.4 Sq. m)

Bottom - 36 Sq. m4 Sides - 138 Sq. m(34.26 x 4 sides)

Total area lining 1056 Sq. m 175 Sq. m

Table 6. Economics of fish production (180m3)

Particulars Rs.Farm pond preparation (lime and cow dung) 100Fish fingerlings 150Fish feed 940 kg@ (Rs.7.5/kg) 300Cow dung 300 kg (Rs. 500/ tonne) 150Maintenance 200Total expenditure 900Fish yield 60 kg (Rs.50 /kg): Gross income 3000Net profit (Rs.) 2100

Source: Seenappa and Khadar Khan, 2008


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S3-P26: Integrated Management of Micro - Watershed for Enhancing Water Productivity in Alfisols of Karnataka

M.H. Manjunatha, G.N. Dhanapal, K. Somashekara, B.K. Ramachandrappa and K.N. Harsha

All India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland Agriculture,University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru ; [email protected]

ABSTRACTThe success of rainfed agriculture depends on efficient utilization of rain water and soil conservation. Among the resources harvested runoff water plays crucial role in improving farm productivity and resource conservation. Nase grass as live barrier is effective to reduce runoff and soil loss as compared to Khus grass. Horse gram was sown during early Kharif and it was incorporated in situ as a green manuring crop followed by short duration finger millet (100-105 days). The harvested water was utilized life saving irrigation in raising dry land horticulture/orchard crops, nursery, planted else where. Overall utility of farm pond water is worked out to develop a workable module for up-scaling. Biomass yield of horsegram, grain and straw yield of finger millet was higher at lower reach as compared to upper reach in both Nase and Khus live bar-rier blocks. Among different tree species Silver oak and Casurina performed better as part of Agro-forestry component. Highest yield and income was realized with bottle gourd and an additional income of Rs 797/- was realized with effective utilization of harvested water profitably. Mean while, harvested rain water was used to nourish dry land horticultural crops such as amla, pomello, papaya, banana, drumstick and curry leaf planted around the farm pond and else where in the farm.

INTRODUCTION The success of rainfed agriculture depends on efficient utilization of rain water with prime objective “Bet-ter crop for every rain drop”. The watershed programme for dry land development is now emphasized with holistic approach for resource conservation and their effective utilization. The research efforts so for are concentrated on individual aspects rather than as integrated approach. Significant deviation in rainfall dis-tribution pattern quantity is being experienced in late 1990s is mainly attributed to the above issue. So there is need to develop agro-technique which is suitable, viable, environmentally friendly and socially accept-able in conserving the natural resources like soil and water in long range and needs continues monitoring of these resources under varied climatic situations. In this regard, watershed management involving soil and water conservation, inter-terrace management practices, agro-forestry were integrated with improved cropping system and crop management practices to assess their impact on resource buildup/degradation, productivity and economics of the system.

Among the resources harvested runoff water plays crucial role in improving farm productivity and resource conservation. The research results over years at the Dry land Agriculture Center of G.K.V.K indicated that farm ponds are the effective storage structure in order to reduce crop loss during intermittent droughts, to improve water productivity, cropping intensity and economic feasibility under diversified farming system. Keeping these in view the present study was planned to serve as research cum large scale demonstration plots.

METHODOLOGY The experiment was laid out in non-replicated permanent blocks with varying plot size (2640 - 5610 m2).


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The experimental area was divided in to upper and lower blocks and each block is separated by about ten years old well established Khus (Vetivera zizinoides) and Nase grass (Pennisetum hoenickeri) live barriers along contour bunds, and results were compared with no live barrier (control). On open ends of contour bunds the tree species viz., subabul, silver oak, Casurina equisetifolia, Melia azadirachta, Acacia nilotica and Eucalyptus hybrid were planted at 24m apart as component of agro-forestry, which inturn acted as additional live barrier all along the contour bund. The number of runoff events and soil loss were recorded in each block. Horse gram was sown during early Kharif and it was incorporated in situ as a green manuring crop followed by short duration finger millet (100-105 days).The farm ponds of dimension 180 m3 has been excavated in micro watershed to facilitate collection of excess runoff water and recycle it for crop production by protective irrigation during dry spells. The farm ponds were lined with cement and soil in 1:8 proportion to prevent seepage losses. Excess runoff collected in the farm ponds will be measured and lowering in water level is monitored. Efforts will be made for lifting the collected water with low cost devices for utilizing the water for diversified utilizations inter alia life saving irrigation for raising dry land horticulture crops, nursery, dry land orchard crops planted else where. Overall utility of farm pond water is worked out to develop a workable module for up-scaling.

RESULTSThe long term experimental data indicated that Nase grass as live barrier is effective to reduce run-off and soil loss. Nase grass was considered as effective live barrier in reducing runoff (65.5 mm) and soil loss (3.15 t/ha) as compared to Khus grass (Annon, 2004). In-situ incorporation of early Kharif sown horse gram followed by short duration finger millet is considered as sustainable practice for improving soil and crop productivity in dry lands. The experimental results indicated that biomass yield of horse gram was higher at lower reach (13,711 and 13,485 kg/ha) as compared to upper reach in both Nase and Khus live barrier blocks (11,880 and 11,205 kg/ha) respectively. Relatively higher grain and straw yield of finger millet was recorded in lower reaches in both the live barriers as compared to upper reaches. While, Nase grass live barrier is found to be effective in reducing soil loss and improving grain yield of finger millet (Annon, 2008). The tree species viz. Casurina equisetifolia, silver oak, Fidherbia albida, subabul, Acacia nilotica and Eucalyptus hybrid are most suitable for planting on bunds. Among these, Silver oak and Casurina found better because of their tall growing nature with least shading effect and compatible with the annual crops. Eleven year old silver oak grown on bunds gave a net profit of Rs.25,000/- as additional income (Annon., 2002).

Different vegetables were grown around the farm pond by utilizing the harvested water. Among different vegetable crops highest yield and income was realized with bottle gourd (35 kg and Rs 354/- respectively). Due to this additional component an additional income of Rs 797/- was realized with effective utilization of harvested water profitably. Mean while, harvested rain water was used to nourish dry land horticultural crops such as smla, pomello, papaya, banana, drumstick and curry leaf.

CONCLUSION In southern Karnataka, alfisols are low in organic carbon and crust formation is a major problem for early and uniform establishment of crops. In these areas, by taking the advantages of early rains a photosensitive horse gram crop (Cv.PHG-9) could be sown in May for in-situ green manuring. In a good rainfall year, 13-15 t/ha-1 (65-70 days old crop) of horse gram biomass could be incorporated. After 15-20 days of incorporation, a medium to short duration varieties of finger millet can be grown successfully so that on an average 26- 28 q/ ha-1of grain yield could be harvested. By practicing this technology, 50% of the recommended nitrogen for the succeeding finger millet crop could be cut down, mean while, if the crop experienced any dry spell


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during its growth and development the harvested water could be used as protective irrigation. This practice results in conserving soil and water in micro-watersheds. Watershed management involves soil and water conservation (contour cultivation), inter-terrace management practices (live barrier along the contour), agro-forestry (Sivleroak, Mangium on bunds). Fall ploughing followed by sowing of horse gram for in-situ green manuring at pre-flowering stage (65 to 70 days after sowing) followed by sowing of finger millet (GPU-28).

REFERENCES

1. ANONYMOUS, 2002, Annual Report (2002-03), AICRPDA for Dry Land Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru



S3-P27: Rainwater Harvesting for Drought Proofing and Productivity Enhancement of FCV Tobacco in South Coastal Andhra Pradesh

R. Srinivasulu1, M. Osman2, V. Krishna Murthy3, K.V. Rao2, K.L. Prasad3 and B. Narsimulu4

1CTRI Regional Station, Kandukur, Prakasam and 2Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad. 3Central Tobacco Resource Institute, 4IGFRI, Jhansi

ABSTRACTSouth Coastal Andhra Pradesh is prone to both droughts and floods and receives rainfall from South–West and North–East Monsoon. The study was initiated to overcome prolong dry spells by providing one life saving irrigation to improve the yield of flue cured virginia (FCV) tobacco. Nine farm ponds were dug for rainwater harvesting and recycling. The yield of cured leaf improved in all the six years of study period and ranged between 12 and 31 per cent with one life saving irrigation over control (rainfed). This translated to an additional net income ranging from Rs. 2255/- to Rs. 17049/- per hectare. The BC ratio for lined pond was worked out to be 1.34, while net present value (NPV) and IRR was estimated as Rs.21938/- and 16%, respectively. The payback was estimated as 12 years for lined pond after discounting the cost and returns. INTRODUCTIONThe Southern Coastal Region of Andhra Pradesh is characterized as hot, dry sub-humid ecosystem with predominant soil type of red sandy loams (Alfisol). The region is prone to both droughts and floods due to depressions in Bay of Bengal and their frequency is going to increase with climate change (Ramakrishna, 2007). The costal area receives an annual rainfall of 935mm, both from S-W and N-E monsoon in the proportion of 55:40, respectively and the rest in the off-season. Rainfall pattern taking 10 year moving average over four decades indicates an increasing trend with October and November as wettest months (Rao et al, 2004).

The main crop of this region is tobacco and the cropping period is October–February, which coincides with N-E monsoon. The crop faces dry spells during the active vegetative phase (44–49 standard week) or at maturity phase (50–8 standard week) due to early withdrawal of NE monsoon or sometimes at both


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the phases. Although ground water is available in some areas but is not fit for irrigation as it contains high chlorides which affects the quality of tobacco leaf. Further, area being close to the sea results in ingress of seawater due to excessive draft of ground water. In view of the above, a study was initiated at Regional Station of Central Tobacco Research Institute (CTRI), Kandukur mandal of Prakasam district in Andhra Pradesh to improve the yield of tobacco through rainwater harvesting and recycling using farm pond technology.

METHODOLOGYThe area was surveyed for delineating micro-watershed using “Total Station Survey Equipment” and CTRI Micro-watershed is covered in toposheet No. 57M/16, Nellore and Prakasam Districts, with North latitude 79o 55’44” and East longitude of E 15o 13’ 33’’ with a permanent benchmark at 16.53m mean sea level. This micro-watershed having a area of 26.0 ha falls under Mutteru basin, Index no. 086/128, Catchment–4, Sub-Catchment –A, and Watershed code no.74 that drains into Manneru River, which in turn joins Bay of Bengal. Waterways were designed based on catchment area of different fields, rainfall intensity and peak flow rate for safe disposal and harvest of rainwater. A total length of 3926 m of waterways was dugout for networking of farm ponds (2 lined and 7 unlined). The lined (digging and brick masonry cement plastered) pond costed Rs. 95,000 in 2003 having a dimension of 16.5mx16.5m top, 8.5m x 8.5m bottom and depth 4.0m with 1:1 slope. The total capacity of the pond is 689 m3 and area of catchment is 2.0 ha. The improvement in terms of cured leaf yield was recorded with one time supplemental irrigation using flooding method from 2003-04 to 2008-09 for six years. The economics of farm pond (lined) in terms of BC ratio, IRR, Net Present Value (NPV) and payback was worked after discounting the cost and returns for a period of 20 years.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The total volume of rainwater harvested (8020m3) through nine farm ponds was found sufficient enough for irrigating 10 ha area with surface irrigation (40mm depth) while 20 ha with alternate furrow irrigation (25mm depth) after considering the losses due to evaporation and seepage. Even after harvest of more than 300m3 per hectare, there was surplus flow indicating a scope for more storage, thus farm ponds of 689m3 capacity were found ideal for a catchment of 2 ha. The pond occupies an area of only 1.4 per cent considering the top dimension of 16.5m x16.5m (272m2) for an area of 2.0 ha. The area occupied by pond is small compared to 10% -12% advocated for on-farm reservoirs (OFRs) in rainfed rice growing areas of Orissa, Chattisgarh and Jharkhand (Panigrahi and Panda, 2003). Small farmers owning 2.0 ha of land in moist semi-arid areas receiving more than 750 mm of annual rainfall can easily adopt the pond technology provided the initial cost is met either by government or soft loan at 3% interest rate. The cost of lining is high and it accounts 70% of the total cost as it involves cement, sand, bricks and labour. This is one time investment and it is cheaper than providing irrigation water through canal system, which is presently costing more than Rs. 2.0 lakhs per ha (fixed cost) without accounting for recurring expenditure. Soft loans are being advocated for construction of these ponds as they will not only harvest rainwater but will capture top soil rich in nutrients which would otherwise will be lost permanently, making the poor farmer still poorer in the long run. The usefulness of these ponds in mitigating drought and floods is unquestionable and contributes to climate change adaptation.

The lined pond of 689m3 capacity was found sufficient for one supplemental irrigation to 1.25 ha of cultivated land (Table 1). The water stored was applied when the dry spell exceeded 15 days during active vegetative phase. The additional yield and economics of supplemental irrigation was found to be quite favorable. The additional yield of cured leaf on average was 22% higher than control (rainfed), which is 216 kg/ha (average of 6 years).and yield increase ranged between 12 and 27 per cent. It has been amply


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proved in various studies under rainfed condition that one time supplemental irrigation improves the yield of crops from 18% to 80% depending upon the stage of crop (Wani et al., 2008). In rainfed rice growing areas, supplemental irrigation was found to improve the yield of rice by 29% using the harvested water from on farm reservoirs (Panigrahi and Panda, 2003).

Table 1. Water budgeting of farm pond lined with brick.

Capacity of farm pond (full capacity by October end) 689 m3

Catchment area 2.0 haWater loss by evaporation (October to December) 136 m3

Water available for irrigation 553 m3

Water requirement for one irrigation for one hectare at 40mm depth 400 m3

Area that can be irrigated with available water 1.38 haActual area irrigated 1.25 ha

The price of cured leaves varied from Rs. 34/- to Rs. 97/- per kg during the study period (2003-09), thus yielding an additional net income ranging from Rs. 2255/- to Rs. 17049/- per hectare (Table-2). Application of supplemental irrigation to high value crops like chillies and tomatoes will definitely be a still more paying proposition when compared to tobacco.

Table 2. Impact of one supplemental on yield and returns of FCV tobacco.

TreatmentCured leaf

Average2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Control (kg ha-1) 1147 942 1003 983 1002 1094 1034Irrigated (kg ha-1) 1416 1238 1249 1102 1183 1311 1250Additional yield (kg ha-1) 269 296 246 119 181 217 221Improvement in yield (%) 23 35 25 12 18 20 22Rate per kg (Rs.) 34 35 42 45 76 97 55Additional gain (Rs.ha-1) 9146 10360 10322 5355 13756 21049 12136Cost of irrigation (Rs.ha-1) 2000 2250 2600 3100 3500 4000 2938Net returns (Rs.ha-1) 7146 8110 7732 2255 10256 17049 9198

The BC ratio was worked out to be 1.34, while net present value (NPV) and IRR was estimated as Rs. 21938/- and 16%, respectively, taking life of pond as 20 years. However, the life of farm pond is much higher than 20 years and it can serve beyond with little maintenance. Most of the big reservoirs are showing signs of sickness due to siltation which is @ 1.0 to1.5 of their capacity, which will make them unviable after 100 to150 years of construction. Further, these farm ponds will complement big reservoirs, as they will act as silt trap and mitigate floods, thus will improve the efficiency and life of big reservoirs. The payback was estimated as 12 years for recovering the investment on pond after discounting the cost and returns, which is quite reasonable. However, in a study in Vertisols without lining, the cost of pond was recovered within a year as the stored was applied to tomatoes on an area of 2000m2 (0.5 acre) indicating vegetables and Vertisols are highly suitable for this technology followed by Alfisols with lining. The payback has considered only the tangible benefits but there many more intangible benefits like change in micro-climate, capturing of soil and nutrients, and recharge of groundwater for unlined ponds.


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Apart from improvement in yield, a positive impact was also noticed on quality of leaf, because of good quality of recycled water free of chlorides. The farm pond technology has received a positive response from Tobacco Board and also from farmers. About three thousand farmers visited the site and shown their willingness to adapt the pond technology with technical and financial support from governmental agencies. This is one of the strategies that have shown the potential to mitigate the adverse impact of variability in rainfall attributed to changing climatic scenario.

REFERENCES1. Panigrahi B and Panda SN. 2003. Optimal sizing of on-farm reservoirs for supplemental irrigation. Journal of

Irrigation and Drainage Engineering (ASCE), Vol 129 (2):435-448.

2. Ramakrishna, Y.S. 2007. Observed Impacts on Agriculture in Recent Past, paper presented in National Seminar on Climate Change – Impacts on Indian Agriculture, 12-13 October 2007, New Delhi.

3. Rao GGSN, Raji Reddy D, Ramakrishna YS and Srinivasa Rao G. 2004. Weather variability and its influence on agriculture in Andhra Pradesh. In Rainfed Agriculture Technologies for Different Agro-Eco Regions of Andhra Pradesh (eds. PK Mishra, M Osman, KVGK Rao and VVN Murthy), Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, pp:1-16.

4. Wani SP, Joshi PK, Raju KV, Sreedevi TK, Mike Wilson, Amita Shah, Diwakar PG, Palanisami K, Marimuthu S, Ramakrishna YS, Meenakshi Sundaram SS and Marcella D’Souza. 2008. Community Watershed as a Growth Engine for Development of Dryland Areas – Executive Summary. A Comprehensive Assessment of Watershed Programmes in India, ICRISAT, Patancheru, India, 28 pp.

S3-P28: Soil Quality and Sustainability as Influenced by Chemical, Physical and Biological Indicators in Cultivated Land Use Systems in

Rainfed Region under Submontaneous Tract of Punjab

S.S. Dhaliwal, Bijay Singh, B.D. Sharma and K.L. KheraDepartment of Soils, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab-141004

[email protected]

ABSTRACTThe higher levels of chemical, physical and biological indicators in cultivated land use system were due to addition of fertilizers and farmyard manure. Among different watersheds, the soil quality indices in Kolar Watershed (KW) showed non-sustainable due to its lower sustainability index value <1. Whereas, the other three watersheds were sustainable because their sustainability indices were >1. The increase in levels of biological indicators in different watersheds may be due to addition of farmyard manure. Further soil qual-ity and sustainability did not change with time span of one year.

INTRODUCTIONSoil quality is a critical component of sustainable agriculture and it is an index of capacity of soil to produce safe and nutritious crops in a sustained manner over long term and to enhance animal and human health without depletion of natural resources. Larson and Pierce (1994) suggested that the quality of soil represents a composite of its physical, chemical and biological properties that provide a medium for plant growth and


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biological activity. Soil quality and sustainability can be measured with the help of soil quality indicators that are measureable (Acton and Padbury 1993). Syers and Rimmer (1993) reported that a sustainable agricultural system is one that does not degrade the soil or significantly contaminate the environment while providing necessary support to human life. However, biological indicators of soil quality are believed to be more dynamic than those based on physical and chemical indicators. Aslam et al (1999) reported microbial indicators like potentially mineralizable nitrogen (PMN), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN), soil respiration, earthworm population and so on as potential indicators of soil quality. Keeping in view that several distinct land use systems exist in the region, the present investigation was carried out in cultivated land use system with the objectives to study the variation of physical, chemical and biological soil quality indicators in cultivated land use systems under different watersheds in ‘Kandi’ area of Punjab and to develop soil quality and sustainability indices under cultivated land use systems of different watersheds.

METHODOLOGYTo study the soil quality and sustainability, a field survey and laboratory analysis was carried out in cultivated land use system of four watersheds selected in foothill of lower shiwalik area of Punjab, near Zonal Research Station for Kandi Area, Ballowal Saunkhari, district Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar. For this investigation four watersheds namely Ballowal-Saunkhari Watershed (BSW), Kular Watershed (KW), Sadh Di Khad Watershed (SDKW) and Takarala Watershed (TW) were selected adjoining Zonal Research Station. The main characteristics feature of their selection was that these watersheds were having their existence on different topographies. The cultivated land use systems at different topographies were characterized with addition of chemical fertilizers and farm yard manure. In some watersheds the cultivated land use systems are located on its highly degraded sites under study, where erosion is a severe problem. Around 10 to 15 spots were randomly selected from each land use system in the watershed. Soil samples from 0-15 cm depth were collected from each spot. These surface soil samples were analyzed in the laboratory using standard procedures. The soil quality indices and sustainability evaluation was calculated with the technique described by Gomez et al (1996).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONChemical indicators played a pivotal role in determining the soil quality falling under Ballowal- Saunkhari watershed (BSW), Sadh Di Khad watershed (SDKW) and Takarala watershed (TW) which possessed higher levels of electrical conductivity (EC), cation exchange capacity (CEC) and organic carbon (OC) as compared to Kular watershed (KW). The results pertaining to EC, CEC and OC were not significant when KW was compared with cultivated land use systems of the remaining three watersheds. The increase in organic carbon (0.48 to 0.52%) in BSW EC from 0.28 to 0.32 dSm-1 in TW (Gilley et al 1997) and CEC from 14.2 to14.9 me100-1 gm in SDKW (Reganold and Palmer 1995) was due to addition of chemical fertilizers. Organic carbon and EC significantly correlated in BSW (0.37*), SDKW (0.42*) and TW 0.40*) thus possessed better soil quality (Lal 1989; Campbell et al 1998) compared to KW which are located on highly eroded and degraded region of the watershed. Available N content decreased from 272-259 Kg ha-1 in KW whereas, the same parameter increased in BSW, KW and SDKW. Interestingly both the available decreased in all the watersheds. A significant coefficient of correlation (0.44**) between available N and organic carbon was observed in TW (Gilley et al 1997). Available K decreased (328 to 317 Kg ha-1) in KW, and its levels increased in all the remaining watersheds.

Various physical parameters water holding capacity, bulk density, porosity and aggregate stability are dominant parameters which affect the quality of soils in BSW, SDKW, KW and TW. The water holding


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capacity (Gilley et al 1997), porosity (Campbell et al 1998) and aggregate stability (Karlen et al 1994) in BSW, SDKW and TW which reported higher levels as compared to KW. These results obtained for WHC, porosity and aggregate stability showed that the soils in cultivated land use system of these watersheds were of better quality as compared KW. Bulk density (Db was significantly low (Table 1) in cultivated land use system under BSW and TW (Campbell et al 1998; Rawat et al 1996) compared to, SDKW. Higher bulk density in pasture system was possibly due to compaction effect due to grazing by animals (Reganold and Palmer 1995) year after year and least soil disturbance.

Among the biological indicators, potentially mineralizable nitrogen (PMN), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) and soil respiration (CO2-C) were significantly higher in BSW and TW whereas, low values were reported in SDKW followed by KW (Table 1). Gilley and Doran (1997) and Campbell et al (1998) reported similar results for PMN and MBC. A significant coefficients of correlation of organic carbon with PMN (0.37*) and soil respiration (0.51**) were observed in BSW and TW. This showed that soils of cultivated land use systems in BSW and TW showed better soil quality indicators in making these watersheds more sustainable.

Variation in Soil Quality Parameters Among chemical indicators of soil quality, highest average index was observed in cultivated land use system (1.17) under BSW as compared to SDKW (1.11) and TW (1.17) indicating that these land use systems are more sustainable with respect to nutrient availability. On the other hand, the nutrient availability index values were lowest in KW (0.79). The values observed in KW were less than one indicating that soil characteristics are making the system less sustainable. Similarly the average of indicators values for physical parameters was higher in BSW (1.08) followed by SDKW (1.06), TW (1.09) and KW (0.95) during first sampling. The data showed that cultivated land use system in BSW, SDKW and TW were more sustainable. On the other hand the sustainability of the cultivated land use system resulted from biological indicators was highest in TW (1.17) compared to SDKW (1.14) and BSW (1.08). The final index of sustainability was highest in BSW (1.11) followed by SDKW (1.10), TW (1.10) and KW (0.86). On the basis of these sustainability analysis, it was concluded that different watersheds fall in the order of sustainability; BSW > SDKW = TW > KW. Doran and Gregorich (2002) and Gomez et al (1996) also reported the similar observations for agricultural farms. CONCLUSIONSThe higher levels of chemical and physical indicators in cultivated land use system were due to addition of fertilizers and farmyard manure. Cultivated land use system in BSW, TW and SDKW watershed had higher sustainability indicator values based on chemical, physical and biological soil quality parameters as compared to KW. Biological indicators values contributed the most towards sustainability where the farmers applied FYM.

REFERENCE1. Acton D F and G A Padbury (1993) A conceptual framework for soil quality assessment. In : Acton D F (ed) A

Program to Assess and Monitor Soil Quality in Canada : Soil Quality Evaluation Program Summary (Interim). pp 21-27. Centre for Land and Biological Resources Res, Research Branch, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Canada.

2. Aslam T, M A Choudhary and S Saggar (1999) Tillage impacts on soil microbial biomass C, N and P, earthworm and agronomy after two years of cropping following permanent pasture in New Zealand. Soil Tillage Res 51 : 103-11.


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S3-P29: Performance of Various Types of Vegetative Barriers as Interbund Management on Soil and Water Conservation and Biomass Production of Sunflower on Inceptisol

D.B. Bhanavase, A.B. Pawar, A.L. Pharande and A.N. DeshpandeZonal Agricultural Research Station, 97, Raviwar Peth, Post Box No.207,

Solapur-413002 (M.S.); [email protected]

ABSTRACTA non replicated field experiment under dryland condition was conducted to assess the feasibility of various type of vegetative barriers as interbund management in controlling runoff, soil loss and augmenting the production and productivity of sunflower during the year 2000-2001 to 2002-2003 and 2004-2005 to 2005-2006 for five years at Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Solapur. The vegetative barriers of Madras anjan (Cenchrus ciliarus), Marvel-8 (Dichanthium annulatum) and Subabul (Leucaena leucocephala) were established during 1998-99 at 21 meters horizontal interval as interbund. The site of experiment was

3. Campbell C A, B G McConkey, V O Biederbeck, R P Zentner, D Curtin and M R Peru (1998) Long-term effects of tillage and fallow-frequency on soil quality attributes in a clay soil in semiarid southeastern Saskatchewan. Soil Tillage Res 46 : 135-44.

4. Doran J W and E G Gregorich (2002) Soil quality and sustainable agriculture. In : Lal R (ed) Encyclopedia of Sol Science, Marcel Dekker, New York (In Press).

5. Gilley J E and J W Doran (1997) Tillage effects on soil erosion potential and sol quality of a former conservation reserve program site. J Soil Water Cons 52 (3) : 184-88.

6. Gilley J E, J W Doran, D L Karlen and T C Kaspar (1997) Runoff, erosion and soil quality characteristics of a former conservation reserve program site. J Soil Water Cons 52 (3) : 181-85.

7. Gomez A A, D E S Kelly, J K Syers, K J Coughlan and J W Doran (1996) Measuring sustainability of agricultural systems at the farm level. In : Doran J W and Jones A J (ed) Methods for assessing soil quality. pp 401-10. Soil Sci Soc Am Spec Publ. 49, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.

8. Karlen D L, N C Wollenhaupt, D C Arbach, E C Berry, J B Swan, N S Eash and J L Jordahl (1994) crop residue effects on soil quality following 10 years of no-till corn. Soil Tillage Res 31 : 149-67.

9. Lal R (1989) Conservation tillage for sustainable agriculture : Tropics Versus Temperate Environments. Adv Agron 42 : 85-197.

10. Larson W E and F J Pierce (1994) The dynamics of soil quality as a measure of sustainable management. In Doran J W, Coleman D C, Bezdicek D F and Stewart B A (ed) Defining Soil Quality for a Sustainable Environment. pp 37-51. Soil Sci Soc Am Spec Publ 35, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.

11. Rawat M S, R P Tripathi and Nand Ram (1996) Long term effect of puddling and fertilizer use in rice-wheat-cowpeas sequence on structural properties of soils. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 44 (3) : 364-68.

12. Reganold J P and A S Palmer (1995) Significance of gravimetric versus volumetric measurements of soil quality under biodynamic, conventional and continuous grass management. J Soil Water Cons 50 (3) : 298-05.

13. Syers J K and D L Rimmer (1993) Soil Science and sustainable land management in the tropics. CAB International, British Society of Soil Science. Wallingford, Oxon, U K.


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Inceptisol having land slope 2% and soil depth 45-50 cm. The plot size was 1.15 ha for each treatment. Distance between two mechanical contour bund was 110 meters. Pooled results indicate that various type of vegetative barriers treatment were superior over control in respect of runoff and soil loss. The vegetative barriers of Madras anjan gave minimum runoff (17.60 mm), soil loss (0.36 t ha-1) and higher grain yield and straw yield of sunflower (8.67 q ha-1) (20.35 q ha-1) respectively among all treatments. It was closely followed by vegetative barriers of Marvel–8 and Subabul. There was considerable reduction in runoff (34.66 to15.71%), and soil loss (40.90 to 24.59%) due to various types of vegetative barriers. The mean soil moisture was higher in vegetative barriers treatment (123mm) compared to the control (89 mm). Amongst the various vegetative barriers, Madras anjan barriers conserved slightly higher moisture as compared to other vegetative barriers. The soil moisture was also more in vicinity of vegetative barriers and dwindled as we go away from the bund.

INTRODUCTIONVegetative barriers of various grasses for soil and water conservation are drawing greater attention in recent years. Grasses which form effective barriers can obstruct the movement of rainwater as results of which, soil particles will settle near live bund allowing only the clear water to ooze out through barriers.

When there is wide spacing between two mechanical bunds, soil loss and runoff are occurred within two bunds. Under such condition vegetative barriers play vital role for in-situ soil and water conservation as inter bund management. It helps in preventing of the soil erosion and runoff. To increase their effectiveness, vegetative barriers should be established along contour as an inter bund at certain horizontal intervals. But little information is available on various type of vegetative barriers as inter bund management. Hence, the present study was planed to assess the feasibility of various types of vegetative barriers for reducing runoff, soil loss and enhancing in-situ rainwater conservation as well as augmenting production and productivity of sunflower.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe non-replicated field trial was initiated in July 1998-99 at Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Solapur on 4.60 ha to study the performance of different type of vegetative barriers on soil and water conservation along with their influence on production of sunflower on Inceptisol (Typic Ustropept) having soil depth 45-50cm. The plot size of each treatment was 1.15 ha. The average annual rainfall of study area was 723 mm. The average minimum and maximum temperature ranges between 13.3 to 19.9 oC and 29.8 to 40.9 oC, respectively. The site of experiment was silty clay having land slope 2%, bulk density 1.25 Mg m-3, Infiltration rate- 0.45cm hr-1, EC – 0.11 dS m-1, organic carbon-0.38 %, available P2O5 – 14.80 kg ha-1 and available K2O – 420 kg ha-1, respectively. The treatment of inter bund management viz. (1) vegetative barriers of Dichanthium annulatum (Marvel 8) at 21 meter horizontal interval, (2) Vegetative barriers of Cenchrus ciliarus (Madras anjan) at 21 meter horizontal interval, (3) Vegetative barriers of Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul) at 21 meter horizontal interval and (4) Control were imposed. Vegetative barriers of paired rows of grasses were planted at 21 meter horizontal interval as inter bund. The distance between two mechanical inter bund was 110 meter. The grasses were obtained from local nursery and cut into small slip with root intact. The slip of the grasses i.e. Madras anjan & Marvel-8 species were planted at 5 cm distance within the row. The distance between two key line was 30 cm for establishment of vegetative barriers. Soaked seed material of Subabul was used for establishment of vegetative barriers of Subabul. The height of Subabul planted as live bund was maintained at 30 cm height from the land surface. Thus, vegetative barriers were established under favorable rainfall condition and effective management of vegetative barriers within crop season. Runoff from each treatment was measured with help of automatic stage level recorder


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and representative runoff samples were collected for estimation of soil loss at each event. The soil moisture was determined by screw auger method at 3 meter distance from first and second bund of vegetative barriers and mean soil moisture was calculated from both the bunds. Test crop sunflower cv. SS-56 was used. Grain & stover yield data recorded at harvest. Fodder yield of vegetative barriers were also recorded periodically. For recording yield of sunflower 5 X 5 meter plot size was taken & five plots were selected from each treatments.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe rainfall distribution in study period was uneven. It ranged from 600.2 to 758.90 mm. Rainfall causing runoff and soil loss was low during 2004-2005 and high during 2005-2006. However, mean data indicated that out of total rainfall (654.00 mm), only 141.7 mm (21.66 %) was runoff causing rainfall.

Runoff and Soil lossThe results revealed that the runoff and soil loss occurred under each set of runoff plot and indicated that there was considerable reduction in runoff (34.66 % to 15.71), soil loss (40.90 % to 24.59) over control treatment due to various types of vegetative barriers. Amongst various type of vegetative barriers, the vegetative barriers of Cenchrus ciliarus at 21 meter horizontal interval resulted into minimum runoff (17.60 mm) and soil loss (0.36 t ha-1). This treatment has indicated reduction of runoff (34.66 %) and soil loss (40.90 %) to highest extent over control. The treatment of Dichanthium annulatum and Leucaena leucocephala barriers also shown same magnitude of runoff and soil loss. This was probably due to deep penetration of root and formation of dense base at soil surface thus, providing obstruction to water flow. Similar results were obtained by Bhardawaj (1990-91), Hegade (1986) and Chunale (2004).

Nutrient losses Results indicated that the more amount of nitrogen was lost due to runoff and soil loss as compared to phosphorus and potassium from all treatments. The vegetative barriers of Madras anjan treatment reduced mean minimum amount of nitrogen (3.04 kg ha-1), phosphorus (0.36 kg ha-1) and potassium (0.24 kg ha-1) among all treatments. The mean data shown that vegetative barrier of Madras anjan treatment reduced loss of nutrients NPK to extent of 46.85 per cent, 42.86 per cent and 52.94 per cent, respectively over control, which was closely followed by vegetative barriers of Marvel-8, followed by vegetative barriers of Subabul. These results are in accordance by Kale et al. (1983).

Soil moistureThe soil moisture in vegetative barriers treatments was high as compared to the control. In general, it was observed that soil moisture was higher in the vicinity of live bund and dwindled as distance away from the bund. In case of live bund of marvel-8, it decreased from 107 mm to 97 mm. In case of live bund of Madras anjan, moisture reduced from 123 mm to 110 mm. In case of Subabul live bund, soil moisture decreased from 103 to 74 mm as we go away from bund. Amongst the various barriers, vegetative barriers of Cenchrus ciliarus recorded highest mean soil moisture (123 mm) as compared to other treatments. Similar results are supported by Pawar et al. (1999).

Grain and stover yield and Monetary ReturnIt was observed that mean grain and stover yield of sunflower was statistically superior in vegetative barriers as against control. The highest mean grain yield (8.67 q ha-1) was gained in vegetative barriers of Cenchrus ciliarus among all treatments. It was closely followed by vegetative barriers of Marvel-8 (8.07 q ha-1) and


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Subabul (7.49 q ha-1), respectively. Similar trend was noticed in case of stover yield of sunflower as well as fodder yield of live bunds. This might be due to higher soil moisture conserved in vegetative barriers treatments. Data with regard to monitory returns and B:C ratio from Table 5 & 6, indicated that vegetative barriers of Madras anjan treatment recorded highest in term of monetary return (Rs.14,256/- ha-1) and B:C ratio (1.96) amongst all treatments. Vegetative barriers of Madras anjan, Marvel -8 and Subabul increased the yield of sunflower in terms of monetary returns to the tune of 66, 47 and 44% over control treatment. The efficacy of various vegetative barriers as inter bund management practice in conserving soil and water and increasing crop yield have been reported by Reddy et al. (1992), Singh and Venkataraman (1990).

The vegetative barrier of Cenchrus ciliarus gave mean highest yield (14.82 q ha-1) as compared to Marvel-8 barriers (9.59 q ha-1) and Subabul barriers (8.30 q ha-1), respectively. These results are in accordance with Katyal et al. (1992).

Based on the results of various vegetative barriers tested with regard to their utility for soil and water conservation along with fodder yield, Cenchrus ciliarus barriers at 21 meter horizontal intervals as inter bund management between two mechanical contour bund having distance 110 meter apart seems to passes desirous attributes for soil & water conservation in south scarcity zone of Maharashtra. The other vegetative barriers next in order were Marvel-8 and Subabul barriers which may be used as fodder and barriers for soil and water conservation as inter bund management.

REFERENCES1. Bharadawaj, S.P., 1991. Study on live bund for soil and water conservation and maize yield on 4% slope in Doon

Valley. Annual report CSWCRTI, 1990-91. Dehradun U.P. 41- 42.

2. Chunale, C.L., 2004. Evaluation of different grass species for soil binding and water aggregation properties under Sub Montane Zone of Maharashtra. Indian J. Soil Cons. 32(1): 24-27.

3. Hegade, N.G., 1986. Grow Subabul on contour. Indian Farming 35(5):20-30.

4. Katyal, J.C., P.K. Shriniwas, P.K. Mishra and M.V. Padmanabhan. 1992. Cost effective technologies for soil and water conservation in rainfed area. Rainfed Agriculture and Research News letter CRIDA, Hyderabad 1:15-21.

5. Kale S.K., V.G. Salvi, P.A. Varade and S.B. Kadrekar, 1983. Effect of different percent slope and crops on runoff, soil organic carbon loss, in latertic soil west coast Konkan, Maharashtra 58th annual convention of Indian Society of Soil Science held at Dehradun on October 8-12, pp. 172-173.

6. Reddy G.S., R.P. Singh and S. Shriniwas. 1992. Effect of vegetative barriers on production of rainfed sorghum and caster in Alfisol. Indian J. Dryland Agric. Res. Dev. 7(1):35-40.

7. Pawar R.B., M.D. Gund, D.B. Bhanavase and A.S. Takate. 1999. Grow vegetative barriers of Leucaena for soil and water conservation and higher yield under dryland condition. Farmers and Parliament 36 (9): 16-17.

8. Singh Gurmel and C. Venkataraman. 1990. Soil and water conservation technology for hilly ravine and semi-arid and red soil region. Indian J. Soil Cons. 18 (1 & 2):1-8.


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S3-P30: Agrotechniques for Rainwater Management in Cotton for Rainfed Condition

V.S. Shinde, L.S. Deshmukh, S.K. Raskar and D.N. GokhaleDepartment of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Parbhani – 431 402

[email protected]

INTRODUCTIONCotton the king of fiber popularly known as White Gold is an important cash crop of Maharashtra in general and Marathwada in particular. In rainfed areas of Maharashtra it plays a key role in economic and social condition of farmers. This crop utilizes 15% water resources, 27% fertilizer resources and 55% insecticide formulations of Indian agriculture but the productivity has been declined since 1996. Effective use of in situ rainwater conservation methods is necessary as it modify the root environment and availability of soil water to crop, which helped in drought preparedness measures, (Jadhav, 2004). Cotton productivity of Maharashtra is 191 kg lint/ha as compared to national average 375 kg lint/ha (Anonymous, 2004). Different land configuration and intercrops in cotton are helpful for in situ rainwater conservation and also improves seed cotton yield and water use efficiency. Rainwater is the key input in dryland agriculture. Much of the rain in dryland and areas fall in high intensities causing runoff. The runoff losses from field can amount to 20-40 per cent of storm rainfall. The management practices for in situ conservation of rainwater and ensuring its uniform distribution within the field and throughout the crop growth period for improving water holding capacity are the two basic requirement in dryland areas. To enhance the productivity in rainfed agriculture adoption of soil moisture conservation practices are very essential. Therefore, the influence of rainwater management practices through different agro techniques on yield, yield attributing and economics of cotton was investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODSAn experiment was conducted on influence of rainwater management practices through different agro techniques on yield, yield attributing and economics of cotton in Department of Agronomy, Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, during 2003-04, 2005-06 and 2006-07. The experiment was conducted in randomized block design with four replications having following eight treatments.

T1 Rainfed control (sole crop)

T2 Opening of furrows in each row (sole crop) after last interculture.

T3 Opening of furrows in alternate rows (sole crop) after last interculture

T4 Tied hoeing

T5 Recommended interculture

T6 Intercrop of one row of soybean in cotton (90 x 60 cm)

T7 Intercrop of one row of blackgram in cotton (90 x 60 cm)

T8 Intercrop of one row of greengram in cotton (90 x 60 cm)

The crop was sown in last week of June with spacing 90 x 60 cm2 and intercrops were sown in 1:1 proportion in additive series every year. The plot size was 7.2 x 7.2 cm2. Half dose of nitrogen (50 kg N/ha) and full dose of phosphorus and potash (50 kg/ha) was applied at the time of sowing and remaining half dose of nitrogen was applied at 30 DAS. Other cultural practices and plant protection measures were


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given according to the recommendations of MAU, Parbhani. At maturity observations on plant height (cm), number of monopodia and sympodia per plant, number of picked bolls per plant were recorded from five randomly selected plants in each plot. The average rainfall at Parbhani is 897mm however, the actual rainfall received during 2003-04, 2005-06 and 2006-07 was 724mm, 1335mm and 995mm respectively. Though rainfall in the first year of experimentation was less but it was well distributed throughout the year and in next two year, more than 50% rainfall was received in the month of July and August only.

RESULTS Growth and yield attributing charactersThe data revealed that the various growth and yield attributing characters were influenced significantly due to different in situ soil moisture conservation techniques (Table 1). Intercropping of cotton with soybean (1:1) attained maximum height (161 cm) which was at par with intercropping with balck gram, green gram and opening of furrow in every row and significantly superior over remaining soil moisture conservation technique, except T2. Influence of various in situ soil moisture conservation techniques on number of monopodia per plant was non significant whereas, cotton + soybean produced highest number of sympodia (25.32/plant) which was at par with cotton + black gram (24.87/plant) and opening furrow in each row (24.40/plant). Opening of furrow in each row produced significantly higher picked bolls (38.90/plant) than rainfed control. Harish et al. (1999) reported that seed cotton yield per ha was not influenced significantly by rainwater harvesting treatments but furrow opening increased plant height, monopodials and dry matter production per plant compared with controls.

Production componentThe pooled seed cotton yield was influenced significantly due to different in situ soil moisture conservation techniques. Among all land configurations interventions for moisture conservations, opening of furrow in each row recorded highest seed cotton yield (1820 kg/ha) and was significantly superior over rest of the land configuration techniques. However, all the intercropping systems were at par.

In respect of seed cotton equivalent yield cotton intercropped with soybean recorded highest seed cotton equivalent yield (2466 kg/ha) and was significantly superior over rest of the treatments, which was followed by cotton + black gram (2127 kg/ha) and cotton + green gram (1800 kg/ha) intercropping system. Aher (1997) also reported the higher seed cotton equivalent yield cotton intercropped with soybean.

Consumptive use and WUEThe consumptive use was not varied markedly due to different in situ soil moisture conservation techniques. However, among all the land configuration techniques opening of furrow in each row recorded highest WUE (3.15 kg/ha-mm). Among the different intercropping systems, higher WUE was recorded under cotton + soybean intercropping system (2.98 kg/ha-mm) where in rainfall had been fully utilized by both the crops and it was followed by cotton + blackgram (2.96 kg/ha-mm) and cotton + greengram (2.95 kg/ha-mm) intercropping systems.

Economic returnsAmong the different in situ soil moisture conservation treatments, cotton + soybean intercropping system recorded the highest gross return (Rs. 43344/ha), net returns (Rs. 27216/ha) and benefit:cost ratio of 2.68. It is due to the proper utilization of rainfall water by both the crops which improve all the growth and yield attributing characters as well as yield of both the crops.


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On the basis of three years study, it can be inferred that under rainfed condition intercropping system of cotton+ soybean was beneficial for improving in situ soil moisture conservation and water use efficiency, higher seed cotton yield and economic returns. In sole cotton for enhancing in situ soil moisture conservation and moisture use efficiency, the opening of furrows in each row after last interculture proved better. Aher (1997) also reported the higher economic returns obtained from cotton intercropped with soybean.

REFERENCES1. Aher, R.K. 1997. Effect of moisture conservation practices on yield and economics of different cropping systems

under rainfed condition. Ph.D. (Agri.) Thesis, MAU, Parbhani.

2. Anonymous. 2004. Crop hectarage up. Pestology:28(2):45.

3. Harish Shenoy, Gidnavar, V.S., Balraj, R. and Bhat, S.N. 1999. Effect of rainwater harvesting, planting population and fertilizer elvels on growth and yield of rainfed cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Adv. Agric. Res. In India, 12:71-75.

4. Jadhav, G.S. 2004. Integrated water management in watershed. Training Manual on watershed management, Pp 25-30.

Table 1. Seed cotton yield, seed cotton equivalent yield and ginning percentage as influenced by different treatments (2003-04, 2005-06, 2006-07 and pooled).

Treat-ments

Seed cotton yield (kg/ha) Seed cotton equivalent yield (kg/ha) Ginning (%)

03-04 05-06 06-07 Pooled 03-04 05-06 06-07 Pooled 03-04 05-06 06-07 Pooled

T1-RC 1495 1331 1186 1337 1494 1331.2 1186 1337 36.88 38.20 37.99 37.96

T2-ER 2260 1563 1637 1820 2260 1563.0 1637 1820 36.40 38.32 38.17 37.92

T3-AR 1969 1465 1312 1582 1969 1465.0 1312 1582 36.83 38.42 38.09 38.02

T4-TH 2050 1470 1360 1593 2050 1470.0 1360 1593 36.40 38.18 37.79 37.77

T5-RI 1946 1494 1341 1594 1948 1494.0 1341 1594 37.34 38.40 38.14 38.19

T6-Soy 1775(837)*

1649(1426)

1791(1198)

1735(1153) 2283 2466.0 2661 2470 37.09 38.60 35.33 38.25

T7-BG 1824(593)

1635(399)

1747(319)

1735(437) 2108 2127.0 2304 2180 37.55 38.46 38.19 38.41

T8-GG 1868(397)

1586(234)

1710(224)

1721(284) 2106 1800.0 2112 2006 36.22 38.38 38.31 37.87

SE+ 69.88 62.08 35.06 33.37 71.72 76.85 86.70 87.96 0.47 0.24 0.56 0.59

CD at 5% 205.26 182.34 102.95 98.21 210.64 225.73 254.62 223.43 NS NS NS NS

G. mean 1838.82 1523.3 1510.50 1639.80 2027.2 1714.5 1739.13 1822.63 36.84 38.37 38.13 38.05

*Figures in parenthesis indicate the grain yield of intercrop.**During 2004-2005 results obtained were non significant hence, no included.


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S3-P31: Effect of Protective Irrigation at Different Critical Growth Stages on Yield and Economics of Cotton (Gossypium Hirsutum L.)

V.S. Shinde, L.S. Deshmukh, S.K. Raskar D.N. Gokhale and G.D. GadadeDepartment of Agronomy, Marathwada Agricultural University,

Parbhani – 431 402, Maharashtra, India

IntroductionCotton is one of the most important cash crop of the rainfed areas of Maharashtra and plays a dominant role in the livelihood of the farmers in this region. An average productivity of cotton in Maharashtra is 260 kg/ha (Anonymous, 2007) which is near about three times less than India’s average l.e. 650 kg/ha. The main reason can be attributed for the low productivity is that, 90 per cent cotton cultivated area is rainfed. To enhance the productivity of cotton, better water management practices suitable for rainfed conditions should be introduced. Cultivation of cotton with protective irrigation is one of the mechanism to enhance the productivity and this approach should be based on critical growth stages. (Grimes et al.1968; Buttar et al. 2005). Hence, the present investigation was undertaken to study the response of cotton to protective irrigation at different growth stages to find out the most critical growth stages of cotton for irrigation.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe field experiments were conducted during kharif 2003, 2005 and 2006 at experimental farm of Department of Agronomy, Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani. The soil of experimental site was deep black having a pH of 8.1. The soil was low in available nitrogen (170 kg/ha), medium in available phosphorus (40 kg/ha) and high in available potash (870 kg/ha). The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with four replications. Nitrogen @100 kg/ha was applied to the crop in three split doses, first 20 kg/ha at the time of sowing, 2rd and 3rd @ 40kg/ha at 30 DAS and 60 DAS respectively. Phosphorus and potash were applied @ 50 kg/ha each at the time of sowing only. The spacing adopted was 90 x 60cm. An average of 3-4 protective irrigations were given in August, November and December as per treatments. All the recommended package of practices were followed for control of insects-pests.

The treatment details of the experiment are as follows

T1 - Rainfed control

T2 - Irrigation at square formation stage

T3 - Irrigation at flowering stage

T4 - Irrigation at boll development stage

T5 - Irrigation at square formation and flowering stages (T2 + T3)

T6 - Irrigation at flowering and boll development stages (T3 + T4)

T7 - Irrigation at square formation, flowering and boll development stages (T2 + T3 + T4)

T8 - Irrigation at 0.8 IW/CPE (60 mm IW)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSeed cotton yieldThe data pertaining to seed cotton yield during 2003-2004 ,2005-2006 and 2006-2007 on were pooled


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basis are presented in Table 1. Irrigating cotton at 0.8 IW/CPE ratio produced highest seed cotton yield and was on par with irrigating cotton at three critical growth stages l.e. square formation + flowering + boll development stage during all the years of experimentation and on pooled basis found significantly superior over rest of the treatments. Srinivasulu and Hema (2008) also reported the similar findings. However, during 2005 and on pooled basis, irrigating cotton at square + flowering + boll formation stages (T7) and flowering + boll formation (T6) were on par with each other.

Economic returnsOn the basis of mean of three years experimentation, the data presented in Table 2 revealed that among the different irrigation treatments, irrigating cotton at 0.8 IW/CPE ratio recorded higher gross returns (Rs.34441 /ha) and net returns (Rs. 19113 /ha). However, irrigating cotton at critical growth stages l.e. at square formation + flowering + boll development stages recorded highest benefit : cost ratio (2.25)

Consumptive use and water use efficiencyConsumptive use of water by cotton increased significantly with increase in irrigation level at different critical growth stages (Table 3). The maximum water use of 840 /ha-mm was recorded under 0.8 IW/CPE ratio treatment followed by irrigation at all the three critical growth stages. However, WUE decreased with increasing number of irrigations. The higher WUE was recorded under singly irrigation at square formation stage (2.53 kg/ha mm). On the basis of three years study, it can be inferred that under rainfed condition, scheduling of protective irrigation to cotton either at 0.8 IW/CPE ratio (75 mm CPE) or at three critical growth stages i.e.at Square formation + Flowering + Boll development proved beneficial for higher seed cotton yield, water use efficiency and economic returns.

REFERENCES1. Anonymous, 2007. Annual Report 2007, All India Co-ordinated Cotton Improvement Project, Project Co-

ordinator, Coimbature, Tamil Nadu.

2. Buttar, G.S., Mahey, R.A. and Aggarwal. N. 2005. Effect of sowing dates, planting methods and irrigation scheduling on the growth and yield of American cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L) J.Cotton Res. Dev. 19 : 213-15

3. Grimes, D.W., Wahood, V.T. and Dickson, W.L. 1968. Alternate furrow irrigation for San Jaquin Valley cotton. Califronia Agric. 22 : 4-6.

4. Srinivasulu, K., and Hema, K. 2008. Response of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) to irrigation at critical growth stages in the Vertisols of coastal Andra Pradesh. J. cotton Res. Dev. 22 (1) 42-44.

Table 1. Seed cotton yield as influenced by different irrigation treatments.

TreatmentsSeed cotton yield (kg/ha)

2003-04 2005-06 2006-07 Pooled

T1 – Rainfed control. 1250 1494 1146 1283

T2 – Irrigation at square formation stage. 1358 1521 1294 1384

T3 – Irrigation at flowering stage. 1278 1525 1322 1387

T4 – Irrigation at boll development stage. 1476 1705 1512 1545

T5 – Irrigation at square formation and flowering stage (T2 + T3) 1657 1566 1560 1605

T6 – Irrigation at flowering and at boll development stage (T3 + T4) 1813 1729 1742 1768


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T7 – Irrigation at square formation, flowering and boll development stage (T2 + T3 + T4)

2102 1717 1871 1894

T8 - Irrigation at 0.8 IW/CPE (60 mm IW) 2297 1964 1897 2044

SE+ 59.3 42.6 29.3 81.8

CD at 5% 174.2 125.3 86.3 247.7

Mean 1654 1652 1543 1614

Table 2. Effect of application of protective irrigation on economics (Mean of three years).

TreatmentsGross

Returns (Rs/ha)

Cost of cultivation

(Rs/ha)

Net Returns (Rs/ha)

B:Cratio

T1 – Rainfed control. 21618 13328 8290 1.62

T2 – Irrigation at square formation stage. 23320 13328 9992 1.75

T3 – Irrigation at flowering stage. 23370 13828 9542 1.69

T4 – Irrigation at boll development stage. 26033 13828 12205 1.88

T5 – Irrigation at square formation and flowering stage (T2 + T3)

27044 13828 13216 1.96

T6 – Irrigation at flowering and at boll development stage (T3 + T4)

29790 13828 15962 2.15

T7 – Irrigation at square formation, flowering and boll development stage (T2 + T3 + T4)

31913 13828 18085 2.31

T8–Irrigation at 0.8 IW/CPE (60 mm IW) 34441 15328 19113 2.25

Mean 27191 13891 13300 1.95

Table 3. Consumptive use (ha-mm) and water use efficiency (kg/ha-mm) as influenced by different irrigation treatments.

TreatmentsCU (ha-mm) WUE (Kg/ha-mm)

03-04 05-06 06-07 Mean 03-04 05-06 06-07 MeanT1 – Rainfed control. 510.00 545.12 530.00 528.37 2.45 2.74 2.16 2.43T2 – Irrigation at square formation stage. 530.00 560.14 548.19 546.11 2.56 2.72 2.36 2.53T3 – Irrigation at Flowering stage. 558.12 600.02 567.98 575.37 2.29 2.54 2.32 2.41T4 – Irrigation at boll development stage. 590.92 662.34 654.80 636.02 2.49 2.57 2.30 2.43T5 – Irrigation at square formation and Flowering stage (T2 + T3)

610.48 675.29 684.45 656.74 2.71 2.31 2.27 2.44

T6 – Irrigation at Flowering and at boll development stage (T3 + T4)

684.28 687.38 764.37 712.01 2.65 2.52 2.27 2.48

T7 – Irrigation at square formation flower-ing and boll development stage (T2 + T3 + T4)

775.40 765.40 8.24.71 788.50 2.71 2.24 2.26 2.40

T8 - Irrigation at 0.8 IW/CPE 846.14 810.13 864.18 840.15 2.70 2.42 2.19 2.43

Mean 638.16 663.22 576.74 660.40 2.57 2.50 2.26 2.44


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S3-P32: Soil Moisture as Influenced by Climatic Parameters in Dryland Vertisols of Southern Tamilnadu

S. Jothimani and T. RaghavanAll India Co-ordinated Research Project on Dryland Agriculture,

Agricultural Research Station (TNAU), Kovilpatti – 628 501; [email protected]

ABSTRACTSoil and water are the key natural resources which play a vital role in increasing food production in agriculture especially rainfed and dry land agriculture. Abiotic stresses, particularly low water availability affect the survival, growth and yield of crop plants in rainfed situation. The studies on influence of climatic parameters such as soil temperature, rainfall, wind velocity, evaporation on soil moisture need much attention to formulate effective technologies for soil moisture conservation. It is in this context the present study was conducted. The available and total soil moisture in the present study ranged from 5 to 20 per cent and 20 to 45 per cent respectively and the rate of increase started from October last week during the onset of monsoon to the December third week. The morning soil temperature (7.18 AM) and the wind speed significantly and negatively influenced the available soil moisture content at different depths. The total soil moisture was significantly and negatively correlated with all the climatic parameters except rainfall. Application of organic source of N alone or in combination with inorganic N as 50 : 50 basis significantly increased the soil moisture than the absolute control and inorganic N alone.

INTRODUCTION

Soil and water are the key natural resources which play a vital role in increasing food production in agriculture especially in rainfed and dry land agriculture. In India, out of an 143 m ha of net cultivated area, 97 m ha (68%) is dry land, producing 44% of the country’s food requirements and supporting 40% of human and 60 % of livestock population (NBSSLUP, 2001). In Tamil Nadu, the dry lands occupy an area of 3.19 m ha (56%) of net cultivated area which supports 50% of the states’ human population and contribute 40% of food basket (Thiyagarajan and Natarajan, 2001). Crop production is hindered by various stresses viz. water shortage, extreme temperature, flooding, soil salinity, acidity and metal pollutants encountered by plants in the field which disturb numerous physiological and biochemical processes in the plant. Abiotic stresses, particularly low water availability affect the survival, growth and yield of crop plants in rainfed situation. Since, the water deficit is a major factor limiting crop production (Jeyakumar et al., 2004) in dry lands, the study on the influence of climatic parameters such as soil temperature, rainfall, wind velocity, evaporation on soil moisture needs much attention to formulate effective technologies for soil moisture conservation.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe historic rainfall data of this region indicated that more than 60 per cent rainfall was received during the North East monsoon period and is suitable for a single rainfed crop in the rabi season. Therefore, the climatic parameters and soil moisture were correlated for the north east monsoon period of 2009 to propose appropriate technology for moisture conservation and to realize good yield. The soil moisture was recorded at 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45 cm depths during the standard weeks of north east monsoon period. The available moisture was determined by air drying of wet soil and the total soil moisture was estimated by oven dry method by following gravimetric analysis. The climatic parameter viz., soil temperature at different depths (5, 10 and 20 cm) was measured during morning and evening with the help of soil thermometers. The


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wind speed, rainfall and evaporation were observed with the help of wind vane, rain gauge and US pan evaporimeter, respectively. Correlations were worked out between the soil moisture (0-15, 15-30 and > 30 cm) and the climatic parameters viz. soil temperature at 7.18 AM and 2.18 PM (5, 10 and 20 cm depth), wind speed, rainfall and evaporation using the computer package of SSP 10 software. The outcome of the study is discussed below.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAvailable soil moisture: In general, the available soil moisture steadily increased from 5 per cent during the last week of October to 20 per cent during the middle of November and maintained a steady state up to 20th of December (Fig. 1). Among the four climatic parameters, the soil temperature recorded at various depths during morning hours (7.18 AM) and the wind speed alone significantly influenced the available soil moisture content at different depths. Both of them were negatively correlated with the available soil moisture (Table 1). The morning soil temperature at 10 cm depth had great influence on the available soil moisture than the other two depths. The wind speed also had negative influence on soil moisture and increased with increase in soil depth. The increased soil temperature significantly reduced the soil moisture as evidenced by more evaporation. Under the long term manurial experiment, the available soil moisture content was increased with increase in depth upto 15-30 cm and the moisture content was decreased at greater depth (Shanmugasundaram et al., 2004). However, application of organic alone or in combination with inorganic N as 50: 50 basis significantly increased the soil moisture than the absolute control and inorganic N alone.

Total soil moisture: The total soil moisture also increased from October last week (15 per cent) at the onset of monsoon to the December third week (25 per cent) with highest total moisture content of 45 per cent recorded on 19th November (Fig 2). The total soil moisture was significantly and negatively correlated with all the climatic parameters except rainfall which had positive correlation with the soil moisture. However, the significant influence of rainfall on soil moisture was noticed only in the surface soil depth of 0-15 cm (Table 2). The increase in soil temperature significantly decreased the soil moisture and the trend of decrease was intensified with depth of soil (Shanmugasundaram et al., 2004). The wind speed had greater negative correlation with the total moisture in deeper soil than the surface soil. This was due to the positive correlation observed between the wind speed and the soil temperature at all the depths. The total soil moisture content did not vary with the depth of soil and the amendments used under long term manurial experiment.

CONCLUSIONThe available and total soil moisture contents ranged from 5 to 20 per cent and 20 to 45 per cent respectively and the rate of increase started from October last week during the onset of monsoon to the December third week. Among the climatic parameters, the morning soil temperature (7.18 AM) and the wind speed significantly and negatively influenced the available soil moisture content at different depths. The increased soil temperature significantly reduced the soil moisture as evidenced by more evaporation. The total soil moisture was significantly and negatively correlated with all the climatic parameters except rainfall which had positive correlation with the soil moisture.


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Fig. 1. Available soil moisture of Vertisolsduring north east monsoon period

Fig. 2. Total soil moisture of Vertisols during north east monsoon period

REFERENCE1. Jeyakumar, P., M.A.J.R. Savery and S. Chidambaram. 2004. Physiological basis of crops suitable for dry land.

Proc. National Seminar on “Wasteland Management” Agricultural College and Research Institute, Killikulam. 26-27, December, 2004.

2. NBSSSLUP, 2001. Classification of dryland regions in India. National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur.

3. K. Shanmugasundaram, V. Veerabadran, M.S. Chandramala and V. Venkatachalapathy. 2004. Adoption of soil moisture conservation practice in dry lands. Proc. National Seminar on “Wasteland Mangement” Agricultural College and Research Institute, Killikulam. 26-27, December, 2004.

4. Thiyagarajan, T.M., and S. Natarajan. 2001. Dry land soils of Tamil Nadu. In: Dryland green revolution in Tamil Nadu: The perspectives, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore. Pp. 17-27.


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Table 1. Correlation between Available soil moisture and climatic parameters.

ParametersAvailable Soil Moisture at various depth

15 cm 30 cm 45 cm

Morning soil temperature

5 cm -0.510** -0.484* -0.519**

10 cm -0.582** -0.535** -0.526**

20 cm -0.536** -0.445* -0.379

Evening soil temperature

5 cm -0.109 0.008 0.100

10 cm -0.040 0.068 0.193

20 cm 0.109 0.173 0.250

Wind speed -0.402* -0.424* -0.467*

Rainfall -0.151 -0.194 -0.287

Pan Evaporation -0.249 -0.216 -0.265

Table 2. Correlation between total soil moisture and climatic parameters.

ParametersTotal Soil Moisture at various depth

15 cm 30 cm 45 cm

Morning soil temperature

5 cm -0.300 -0.390 -0.579**

10 cm -0.376 -0.434* -0.588**

20 cm -0.720** -0.734** -0.762**

Evening soil temperature

5 cm -0.707** -0.603** -0.555**

10 cm -0.742** -0.652** -0.542**

20 cm -0.727** -0.788** -0.704**

Wind speed -0.455* -0.541** -0.693**

Rainfall 0.446* 0.234 0.005

Pan Evaporation -0.603** -0.586** -0.695**


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370

S3-P33: Mitigating Flooding and Salinity Stress by Biodrainage in Climate Change Scenario

R. Angrish1, P.K. Sharma1, C. Rani1, K.S. Datta1 and V.K. Singh2

1Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, CCS HAU Hisar2Division of Environmental sciences, IARI, New Delhi

[email protected]

ABSTRACTOver the past hundred years or so vast areas worldwide were rendered fit for intensive agriculture with many efforts either by clearing deep rooted tree vegetation or by introducing irrigation in arid zones. After decades of profitable returns many of these domains, particularly those underlain with saline aquifers, have started degrading due to water logging and salinity. This is because a disturbed hydrological balance in the form of sustained percolation of surplus surface rain or irrigation waters to the saline water table resulted in the entire soil profile becoming waterlogged and saline.

INTRODUCTIONBio-drainage is the vertical drainage of soil water and consequent lowering of water table through strategically planted lots of trees. Typically, a cone of water table depression is formed below a block plantation or discharge area that may extend upto few hundred meters around keeping the water table below the root zone of the surrounding crop zone or recharge area. Biodrainage set up has low establishment and no effluent disposal problems. However, unlike surface drainage it may not work quickly in frequently ponded landscapes and appears to be a good supplement or even substitute to subsurface drainage. Further as trees exclude salts at the root level in the soil, evacuation of salts from the agroecosystem is not expected from biodrainage. Biodrainage systems have been successfully tested worldwide including India and a strong case for their large scale adoption is made out. For this a paradigm shift in the approach of drainage engineers in recognizing trees as potent drainage modules along with sensitization of the affected farming communities to adopt locally suited biodrainage based agroforestry models is paramount.

MATERIALS AND METHODSPit versus ridge plantingSoils waterlogged upto surface or sub-surface zones are anaerobic and the conventional pit planting technique, which loosens, the soil is not feasible here. On such problematic locations, soil ridges raised upto 0.5 m from the native soil surface are recommended. This helps in better establishment and subsequent growth of the seedlings on the waterlogged soils as it enables them to withstand anaerobic conditions produced by prolonged water logging or ponding.

Block plantationsHere a block of suitable trees is planted amidst a waterlogged area. The block plantation causes a cone of water table depression underneath the plantation. However, the spacial extent of lowering of groundwater table around the surrounding recharge area has been shown to vary from 40 m to even 730 m.

Strip plantationIn many Indian states, including Haryana, the standard unit of land with field bunds on all its four sides is


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an acre (0.4 ha) which may be about 66 m length in the east-west direction and 60 m width in north-south direction. Therefore, parallel strip biodrainage plantations in north-south direction 66 m apart and with two rows of trees on each strip on about 0.5 m raised ridges are recommended.

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONThe draw down effect of two adjacent Eucalyptus tereticornis block plantations was similar to the combined interacting cones of depression of two pumping wells. The magnitude of depression of water beneath the plantation is taken as the biodrainage potential of the tree species. The order of the biodrain potential is: Eucalyptus clone-10, Eucalyptus hybrid, Eucalyptus clone-130. Biodrainage potential shows a significant correlation with Leaf Area Index (LAI). Tree height, DBH, stomatal density and leaf transpiration rate also bore a significant positive correlation with biodrainage potential.

REFERENCES1. Angrish, R., Toky, O.P. and Datta, K.S., Biological 2006, water management: Biodrainage. Curr. Sci., 90, 897.

2. Angrish,R., Toky, O.P., and Patel, R.K eds. Biodrainage 2008: Potential and Practice. National Level Training Programme, February 1-6, 2008, Course Compendium, Directorate of Human Resource Management, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar.

3. Heuperman, A.F., Kapoor, A.S. and Denecke, H.W., 2002. Biodrainage – Principles, Experiences and Applications. Knowledge Synthesis Report No. 6. International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage (IPTRID), IPTRID Secretariat, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

4. Kapoor, A.S. 2001, Biodrainage, – A Biological Option for Controlling Waterlogging and Salinity. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi.

5. Ram, J., Garg, V.K., Toky, O.P., Minhas, P.S., Tomar, O.S. Dagar, J.C. and Kamra, S.K., 2007, Biodrainage potential of Eucalyptus tereticornis for reclamation of shallow water table areas in north-west India. Agrofor. Syst., 69, 147-165.

S3-P34: In situ Moisture Conservation and Rainwater Harvesting Techniques for Higher Almond Production under Rainfed Conditions

Dinesh Kumar, N Ahmed, M.K.Verma and R.K.VermaCentral Institute of Temperate Horticulture

Old Air Field, Rangreth-190007, Srinagar (J&K), [email protected]

ABSTRACTAlmond (Prunus amygdalus) is one of the important nut crop of temperate region in the country, mainly grown in Kashmir valley. It is cultivated on an area of 21,300 ha with an annual production of 15,620 mt. The productivity is very low (0.73 t/ha) as compare to highest productivity of 14.15t/ha in UAE. The main reason for low productivity is its cultivation under rainfed conditions on Karewa lands of Kashmir valley. The soils of the region are silty loam with poor drainage. The average annual rainfall of the region is 750 mm out of which 20-25% of total rain fall is available during the critical stages of fruit growth and development (May, June and July). For conservation and utilization of rain water, efficient water harvesting techniques are required. The water harvesting techniques like full moon, half moon, cup and plate and trench system have been created along with control plot for comparison in the field. The experiment has been laid out in randomized block design with three replications. The almond variety Non Pareil has been


372

planted at a spacing of 4 x 4m during the year March, 2003.The data on vegetative growth and nut yield were recorded. The trunk cross-sectional area of almond tree increases with increasing the age of tree and has been observed that there is linear relationship of trunk cross-section/area (TCA) with age of tree. The maximum cross-section area of tree (67.31 cm2) were recorded in Full moon + plastic mulch and minimum in control plots (37.15 cm2). The maximum nut yield (2.22 t/ha) was recorded in Full moon + plastic mulch followed by half moon + plastic mulch (2.16 t/ha) and minimum in control (0.803 t/ha). Similarly the maximum soil moisture content was recorded in full moon + plastic mulch during the entire growing period as compared to control.

INTRODUCTIONAlmond (Prunus amygdalus) is one of the important nut crop of temperate region in the country, mainly grown in Kashmir valley. It is a healthiest and most nutritious nuts of all, considered a well balanced cholesterol free food. They are low in saturated fat and contain many others protective nutrients like calcium and magnesium good for strong bones, vitamin-E and compounds called phytochemicals are power house, which help to protect against cardiovascular disease and even cancer, reduce heart risk of attack and lowers cholesterol. It is cultivated on an area of 21,300 ha with an annual production of 15,620 mt. The productivity is very low (0.73 t/ha) as compare to highest productivity of 14.15 t/ha in UAE. The main reason for its low productivity is due to its cultivation on rain fed Karewa lands of Kashmir valley. In dry rainfed areas, where there is no source of irrigation water, rain water harvesting techniques depending upon the topography combined with mulches can be very effective for conservation of moisture, enhancing water availability and increasing plant growth, fruit set and nut yield. The soils of the region are silty loam with poor drainage. The average annual rainfall of the region is 750 mm out of which 20-25% of total rain fall is available during the critical stages of fruit growth and development (May, June and July). For conservation and utilization of rain water, efficient water harvesting techniques along with mulches are required. The water harvesting techniques like full moon, half moon, cup and plate and trench system have been created along with control plot for comparison in the field of almond variety Non-Pareil.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe experiment was conducted at Research farm of Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture, Srinagar during 2008-09. It is situated at a latitude of 34 0 05‘ N and longitude of 74 0 50’ E and at an altitude of 1640 m above mean sea level. The soils of the area are silty loan with poor fertility status. The planting has been done at a spacing of 4 x 4 m in 2003. The treatment comprised of different water harvesting techniques viz., Half moon, Half moon + plastic mulch, Half moon + grass mulch, Full moon, Full moon + plastic mulch, Full moon + grass mulch, Cup & Plate, Cup & Plate + plastic mulch, Cup & Plate + grass mulch, Trench, Trench + Plastic mulch, Trench + grass mulch, Control (without water harvesting techniques and without mulch), Control + plastic mulch, and Control + grass mulch. The treatments replicated three times under FRBD.The observations on growth, nut number and yield were recorded as per the treatment. The soil moisture (0-30 cm depth) data were also recorded at periodical intervals from nut set to harvesting. The data were analyzed statically (Panse and Sukhatme, 1985) for interpretation of results and drawing conclusions.

RESULTSPlant growth and nut yield: The trunk cross-sectional area (TCA) of almond tree increased with increasing the age of tree and has been observed that there is linear relationship of TCA with age of tree. The maximum cross-section area of tree (67.31 cm2) was recorded in Full moon + plastic mulch system followed by Half


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moon + plastic mulch system. Whereas, minimum trunk cross-sectional area (37.15 cm2) was recorded in control plot. Maximum nut number and yield (2355 Nos, 3.559 kg/tree and 2.22 t/ha) were recorded in full moon + plastic mulch system followed by Half moon + plastic mulch (2267 Nos, 3.45 kg/tree, 2.16 t/ha) and minimum in control plots (894 Nos, 1284 kg/tree, 0.803t/ha) which is significantly higher over control of almond variety Non-Pareil.

Soil moisture: The soil moisture content was estimated at monthly intervals from nut set to maturity under different treatment. Maximum soil moisture content (15.75%) was recorded in Full moon structure + plastic mulch followed by Half moon + plastic mulch (15.67%). Minimum soil moisture content (11.23%) was recorded in control plots. Similarly the maximum soil moisture content was recorded in full moon + plastic mulch during entire growing period as compared to control in almond variety Non-Pareil.

REFERENCES

1. Almond production manual (1996). University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Pub.3364.

2. Panes, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. (1985). Statistical methods for agricultural workers. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi

3. Pritchard,T.L. (2001). Irrigation management for almond trees under drought conditions. University of California Davis (on line)<http//ucce ucdavis. Sdu/files/filelibrary/2019/1683.pdf>(23/07/2003).

4. Rawitz E. and Hillet D. (1974). Water harvesting by run-off inducement for irrigation of an almond orchard in a semi-arid climate. In: Proc. Water Harvesting symposium, Phoenix, Arizona, March.

5. Tavakoli, A.R. (1999-2003). Response of almond trees to micro-catchment-water harvesting (MCWH) methods in the Northwest of Iran. Dry land Agricultural Research Institute (DARI), P.O. Box 119, Maragheh, Iran.

S3-P35: Status of Available Nutrients in Turmeric Growing Soils in Tropical Humidity Climate of Kandhamal District and their

Relationship with Soil Physical Properties

S.C. Nayak, A. Mishra, C.R. Subudhi and B. JenaAICRPDA, Kandhamal

Orissa University of Agricultural Sciences and [email protected]

INTRODUCTIONSoil nutrients play a vital role in growth, development and yield of plant, and information on the nutrient status of an area can be helpful for judicious application of fertilizers and management practices for economical yield. Kandhamal district is a dryland area and represents elevation of 300 to 1100 m above mean sea level alongwith undulated topography and normal annual rainfall of 1407.54 mm in 65 rainy days. The climate is tropical warm sub-humid and the district is famous for growing organic turmeric & ginger. As the farmers are mostly tribals and ignorant, these two crops are grown without application of chemical fertiliser and pesticides. The forest litters are incorporated into soil resulting in high organic matter which


374

helps in achieving potential yield of turmeric and ginger. However, these crops are grown over wide variety of soils differing in physical properties and nutrient content. So this study was undertaken to study the soil properties and nutrient status in different locations and the correlation among them.

MATERIALS AND METHODSSurface soil samples (0-15 cm) were collected from 12 blocks of the Kandhamal district covering the turmeric and ginger growing areas. Ten numbers of soil samples from each block with 200 meter grid from one sample to other were collected. In all, 120 Nos. of representative soil samples from depth of 0-15 cm were collected, air dried, passed through 2 mm sieve and kept in properly labeled plastic bags for analysis. Name of the 12 blocks are given in Table 2. The textural class was determined following procedure of Piper, 1950.

The common physico-chemical properties were determined using standard procedure (Jackson 1973). The available Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in soil were extracted with DTPA solution (0.005 M DTPA + 0.01 M CaCl2 + 0.1 M triethanolamine, pH 7.3) and determined in atomic absorption spectrophotometer as out lined by Lindsay and Norvell (1978). Available B was extracted by hot water and determined colorimetrically using Azomethine - H as indicator (John et al. 1978). Available sulphur was extracted from soil by 0.15% CaCl2 solution and determined turpidimetricalley using BaCl2 solution (Chesnin and Yen 1950)

Soil samples were catgorised into low, medium and high levels for different nutrients by comparing the observed value with recommended level rating chart (Muhr et al. 1965). Nutrient index calculated by formula (Biswas and Mukharjee 1989) as give below.

Nutrient index = NL + 2 NM + 3 NH NL + NM + NH (Total no. of samples)

NL and NM and NH are nos. of samples in low medium and high categories, respectively. The nutrient index classes were categories on low <1.5 ; medium 1.5-2.5, and high >2.5.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe textural class of soil lies between loam to clay loam with sand, silt and clay percent varying from 34.4 to 54.8%, 17.8 to 26.0% and 27.2 to 32.2%, respectively (Table 1). Soil pH of the district ranges from highly acidic (4.7) to nearly neutral (7.6) with mean value of 6.58 lies in medium nutrient clays. The electrical conductivity was in low nutrient class within safe limit of salinity. organic carbon ranged from 0.112 to 2.646% with mean value of 1.08 which is categorised under high nutrient class. Most of the soil samples had high range of OC% due to incorporation of forest litters into cultivated fields. Available micro and secondary nutrients represented high nutrients class except in case of boron which was in medium nutrient class showing 54.2% deficiency.

The data on physico-chemical properties and available micro & secondary nutrient contents of soils in 12 blocks of the district revealed clear cut variation in soil texture, organic carbon, pH and EC in different blocks (Table 2). The sulphur content ranged from 7.15 to 32.84 ppm with mean value 18.98 ppm (Table 3). Soil of Kotagada block showed deficiency whereas soils of other blocks were medium to high in sulphur status. The available sulphur had significantly positive correlation with sand but negative correlation with clay (Table 4).


375

Available boron content in soil varied from 0.23 to 1.73 ppm with mean value of 0.82 ppm. Taking critical limit 0.7 ppm (Gupta 1967) 54.2% soil samples were boron deficient which was mostly in blocks of Tikabali, Chakapoda, Phulbani, Phiringia and Khajurpada. Boron content was positively correlated with sand, organic carbon, and pH but negatively correlated with silt and clay. Available Zn content in soil of different blocks ranged from 1.42 to 10.59 ppm with mean value of 4.38 ppm. Thus, Zn status in most of the blocks is sufficient and only 4.2% samples were deficient. Zn content increased with increase in silt and electrical conductivity of soil but it exhibited negatively correlation with clay.

Available Cu content was high in nutrient class and positively correlated with silt and electrical conductivity. All the soils in the district were sufficient in Cu status taking critical limit 0.6 ppm (Sakal et al. 1989). DTPA extractable Fe & Mn content in soil ranged from 25.88 to 91.50 ppm and 59.71 to 151.81 ppm with mean values of 46.44 & 101.84 ppm respectively. From the observed data, it was found that soils were high in nutrient class without any deficiency. It might be due to predominating upland red in Alfisol with high acidity. The available Fe content decreased significantly with increase in clay but showed non significant correlation with other nutrients. Mn content significantly decreased with increase in sand, organic C and pH of soil but increased with increase in silt content of soil.

It is concluded from the study that secondary and micro nutrients of soil are affected by soil physical properties. Clay content reduced significantly all the available secondary and micronutrient in soil probably due to its strong adsorption with these nutrients. This study was useful for planning to grow turmeric in appropriate soil to get high yield.

REFERENCES

1. Biswas, T.D. and Mukharjee, S.K. (1989). Soil fertility and fertilizer use. In : text book of Soil Science. Tata Mcgraw Hill Publication Co. Ltd., New Delhi, pp 193.

2. Chesnin, L. & Yien, C.H. (1951). Turbidimetric determination of available sulphur. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings , 15, 149-151.

3. Gupta, U.C. (1967) A simplified method to disseminate of hot water soluble boron in prodols. Soil Science 103, 224-229.

4. Jackson, M.L. (1973) Soil Chemical analysis, Prentice Hall of India Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi ,pp 498.

5. John, M.K., Chuah, H.H. and Nufelt, J.H. (1978). Application of improved azomethine method for determination of boron in soil and plants. Anal. Letter. 8;559-568.

6. Lindsay, W.L. and Norvell, W.A. (1978) Development of DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 42, 421-428.

7. Muh, G.P., Dutta, N.P., Sank Arasubramonly, H and Lily, V.K. (1965) Soil testing in India, 2nd edition US Agency for International Developmentat in India, Murut.

8. Piper, C.S. (1950) Soil and Plant Analysis. Hans Publishers, Bombay.

9. Sakal, R., Singh, A.P., Singh, B.P., Sinha, R.B. and Singh, S.P. (1985) Distribution of available micronutrient cations, in calcareous soil, as related to certain soil properties. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science 33, 672-675.


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Table 1. Physico-chemical properties and nutrient status of soil.

Soil characteristics Range Mean Percent deficiency Nutrient index Nutrient classpH 4.7-7.6 6.58 1.61 MediumEC (dsm-1) 0.024-0.787 0.16 1.01 LowOC (%) 0.112-2.646 1.08 4.2 2.65 HighSand (%) 34.4-54.8 46.2Silt (%) 17.8-26.0 23.0Clay (%) 27.2-32.2 30.8Available content (mg kg-1)S Trace – 48.44 18.98 26.7 2.25 HighB Trace – 3.663 0.82 54.2 1.75 MediumZn Trace – 14.52 4.38 4.2 2.85 HighCu 0.548-9.60 3.88 - 3.00 HighFe 7.64-132.16 46.44 - 3.00 HighMn 51.7-224.0 101.84 - 3.00 High

Table 2. Soil physical properties.

Block Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) OC (%) pH EC (dsm-1)G. Udayagiri 49.9 20.9 29.2 1.30 7.03 0.10Raikia 45.8 24.00 30.2 1.14 7.21 0.12Nuagaon 54.8 17.80 27.4 1.50 7.13 0.18Daringibadi 46.2 22.8 31.0 0.97 6.93 0.16Baliguda 47.5 21.9 30.6 1.56 6.97 0.13Tumudibandh 40.4 26.0 33.6 1.04 7.11 0.24Tikabali 47.8 24.0 28.2 1.03 6.66 0.18Chakapada 44.8 24.4 30.8 1.38 6.18 0.25Phulbani 42.8 23.3 32.9 0.68 5.65 0.09Phiringia 42.4 25.6 32.0 0.63 6.31 0.16Khajuripada 47.6 22.6 29.8 0.64 5.67 0.07Kotagada 39.4 26.0 34.6 1.06 6.06 0.18

Table 3. Soil properties in ginger & turmeric growing soils of Kandhamal.

BlockSecondary and micronutrient status (Mean of 10 samples of each block)

S (ppm) B (ppm) Cu (ppm) Zn (ppm) Fe (ppm) Mn (ppm)G. Udayagiri 16.04 0.87 3.57 4.03 50.67 84.93Raikia 24.77 1.04 4.15 4.28 28.92 91.54Nuagaon 20.11 1.73 2.95 3.87 53.78 81.18Daringibadi 16.43 1.17 2.49 2.96 59.39 59.71Baliguda 17.56 1.52 2.89 1.42 25.58 94.51Tumudibandh 16.03 0.99 3.49 4.80 36.97 77.70


377

Tikabali 15.56 0.25 5.49 7.01 91.50 114.38Chakapada 32.84 0.34 5.39 10.59 40.91 126.40Phulbani 20.06 0.51 3.37 3.95 45.26 117.10Phiringia 22.51 0.23 7.91 5.32 28.97 151.18Khajuripada 18.71 0.36 3.25 4.73 36.60 115.40Kotagada 7.15 0.79 1.69 1.61 58.77 108.03Mean 18.98 0.82 3.88 4.38 46.44 101.84

Table 4. Correlation coefficient between different variables (from ginger and turmeric growing soils from different blocks of Kandhamal).

S B Cu Zn Fe MnSand (%) 0.3086**

a = 1.76b = 0.37

0.449**a =-1.21b = 0.04

-0.05a= 4.64,b = - 0.016

-0.007a = 4.71b = -3.54

-0.009a = 47.88b = -0.03

-0.343**a=179.40b = -1.66

Silt (%) -0.066a = 23.04b = -0.17

-0.598**a = 3.77b = -0.13

0.317**a= -1.35b = 0.22

0.202*a= -0.326b = 0.209

-0.085a = 61.83b = -0.66

0.417**a=-1.45b = 4.44

Clay (%) 0.278a = 43.7b = -0.8

-0.207**a = 2.3,b = -0.05

-0.147a= 7.43b = - 0.11

-0.24*a = 12.98b = -0.27

-0.29**a = 122.88b = -2.48

0.166a=42.13b = 1.93

OC (%) 0.118a = 16.52b = 2.28

0.67**a = - 0.31b = 1.05

-0.284**a= 5.49b = - 1.48

-0.022a = 4.73b = -0.17

0.006a = 46.05b = 0.36

-0.439**a=138.92b = -34.41

pH -0.037a = 21.57b = -0.39

0.688**a = -3.09b = 0.59

-0.088a= 5.57b = - 0.26

-0.189a = 9.81b = -0.80

0.004a = 45.63b = 0.12

-0.679*a=295.44b = -29.44

EC 0.175a = 15.99b = 19.28

0.022a = 0.78b = 0.19

0.199*a= 2.97b = 5.94

0.467**a = 1.39b = 20.35

0.184a = 37.10b = 60.30

-0.026a=103.64b = -11.64

* Significant at 5% level, ** Significant at 1% level; R = 0.195-5% , 0.254-1%

S3-P36: Land Use System for Reducing Climatic Risk and Maximizing Food, Fodder and Fuel in Semi-arid Environment

J.S. Mann, S.C. Sharma and Roop Chand

Central Sheep and Wool Research InstituteAvikanagar, Rajasthan 30450, Grassland and Forage Agronomy

[email protected]

ABSTRACTAn experiment on various land use system, for reducing climatic risk and maximizing food, fodder and fuel in semi-arid conditions, was conducted at CSWRI Avikanagar (Rajasthan) in kharif 2008. The results reveal that the average dry fodder yield, grain yield and total biomass yield were significantly higher in three-tier agroforestry system in comparison to two-tier and single-tier. The highest biomass yield of the


378

system was recorded in three-tier system with sole bajra (66.01 q/ha.). Further, crops grown either sole or in combination with cenchrus in the ratio of 2:3 did not differ remarkably in terms of growth characters and yields.

INTRODUCTIONOwing to abnormalities in monsoon precipitation in terms of both spatial and temporal distribution in semi-arid areas of the country, drought conditions to be a frequent phenomenon. Out of the net sown area of 145.0 m ha, about 70% is reported to be vulnerable to climatic risk. Agroforestry system modifies microclimate (Huxley, 1983) and has potential for favourable interspecific interactions for increased and stabilized productivity. Incorporation of trees and bushes particularly of fodder value in agriculture fields through a systematic manner helps in modifying micro-climatic conditions in semi-arid areas, reducing drought risk and sustaining the productivity of associated crops (Mann et al, 2003). Keeping the above in view, an experiment has been carried out at Research Farm, CSWRI, Avikanagar on suitable land use system for reducing climatic risk and maximizing food, fodder and fuel in semi-arid conditions

MATERIALS AND METHODSCSWRI, Avikanagar. The soil of the experimental site was sandy loam in texture with low water holding capacity & organic carbon (0.39%) and medium fertility status with pH value 6.9. The experiment was carried out in split plot design with 3 replications. The treatments comprised of 3 land use system as main plot (open field as single tier, two tier i.e. fodder tree Ailanthus excelsa + grass/crop and three tier i.e. A. excelsa + fodder bush Dichrostachys nutans + grass/crop) and 6 associated crops/crop combinations as sub plot i.e. sole bajra, sole groundnut, sole moong, bajra : cenchrus, groundnut: cenchrus and moong : cenchrus (in 3:2 ratio). Density of ardu tree was 100 trees/ha in a configuration of 10m x 10 m in both the system i.e. two-tier and three-tier system. In three-tier system, fodder bush dichro was planted in between two-ardu trees with same density. A cenchrus grass strip 2 m wide at either side of tree rows was also raised along with crops as per the treatments. During the experimentation, plantation of ardu and dichro was 15 years old. Crops were sown on the onset of monsoon with recommended fertilization and spacing in all the land use systems. The growth observations and moisture status were recorded at periodic intervals at different stages and harvest of the crops and observations on lopped fodder yield of ardu and dichro were also made periodically during the experimentation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe results (Table 1) indicate that the average dry fodder yield, grain yield of different crops and total biomass yield of the system was significantly higher in three-tier agroforestry system in comparison to two-tier and open field condition (Single-tier). This was due to significantly higher moisture content recorded in three-tier system that might have minimized advection losses as wind velocity is reduced by tree component of agroforestry, which acts as wind break resulted into higher moisture content in three-tier agroforestry system (Gupta et al., 1997) and better utilization of natural resources like solar radiation for higher photosynthesis. Similar results were observed in case of DMA/plant, plant height and yields of cenchrus grass. Average dry matter accumulation per plant at 45 DAS did not significantly vary among different land use system; however, these characters were recorded higher in three-tier system. Various crop/crop ratios were significantly varied in terms of average dry matter accumulation per plant, plant height at 45 DAS, dry fodder yield, grain yield and biomass yield of the system. The highest biomass yield of the system (including dry fodder yield of cenchrus and lopped leaf from ardu tree) was recorded in three-tier system with sole bajra (66.01 q/ha.) Patidar et al. (2008) also reported higher green and dry


379

Tabl

e 1.

Pla

nt h

eigh

t, D

MA

/pla

nt, g

rain

& d

ry fo

dder

yie

lds,

biom

ass a

nd so

il m

oist

ure

cont

ent a

s infl

uenc

ed b

y la

nd u

se sy

stem

and

cro

p / c

rop

ratio

s.

Trea

tmen

tsD

MA

/pla

nt 4

5 D

AS

(g)

Plan

t Hei

ght

45 D

AS

(cm

)D

FY

(q/h

a)G

Y

(q/h

a)B

iom

ass

Syst

em (q

/ha)

Moi

stur

e co

nten

t (%

)

16-J

uly

16-A

ug16

-Sep

t16

-Oct

Lan

d us

e sy

stem

Sing

le-ti

er48

.14

(53.

27)

91.3

5 (9

2.81

)25

.17

(33.

39)

4.12

(0.6

86)

30.2

43.

005.

101.

851.

02

Two-

tier

51.5

3 (5

4.21

)94

.86

(95.

37)

27.1

5 (3

7.72

)4.

79 (0

.769

)33

.29

3.20

5.36

2.63

1.22

Thre

e-tie

r52

.34

(55.

87)

96.4

8 (9

4.44

)28

.43

(39.

17)

5.05

(0.7

99)

34.7

63.

916.

103.

351.

35

SEm

±1.

231

1.80

30.

4714

0.10

40.

430

0.17

30.

118

0.11

70.

051

CD

(0.0

5)N

SN

S1.

131

0.25

1.03

0.42

0.28

0.28

0.12

Cro

ps /

Cro

p ra

tio

Cen

chru

s : B

ajra

63.9

3 (5

4.71

)19

2.30

(94.

70)

54.9

3 (3

6.11

)9.

10 (0

.736

)53

.15

3.29

5.45

2.74

1.08

Cen

chru

s:G

roun

dnut

51.2

2 (5

3.97

)34

.00

(92.

37)

21.7

4 (3

7.17

)4.

30 (0

.761

)30

.79

3.72

5.99

2.37

1.31

Cen

chru

s : M

oong

35.1

3 (5

4.67

)54

.63

(95.

55)

4.48

(37.

00)

0.13

(0.7

58)

17.8

73.

225.

272.

741.

22

Sole

Baj

ra66

.83

191.

4454

.76

8.47

63.2

33.

225.

382.

881.

08

Sole

Gro

undn

ut50

.39

36.3

321

.42

5.78

27.2

03.

875.

982.

631.

28

Sole

Moo

ng36

.52

56.6

64.

180.

154.

332.

885.

042.

291.

21

SEm

±1.

740

2.55

00.

6667

0.14

80.

608

0.24

50.

167

0.16

60.

073

CD

(0.0

5)4.

186.

121.

600

0.35

1.46

0.59

0.40

0.40

0.17


380

fodder yields under different strip cropping with Cenchrus ciliaris compared to sole cropping. Further, crops grown either sole or in combination with cenchrus in the ratio of 2:3 did not differ remarkably in terms of reported characters and yields. Similarly cenchrus yields were also not differed considerably, when grown with different crops.

REFERENCES

1. Huxley, P.A. 1983. The role of trees in agroforestry. In: Plant Research and Agroforestry: Proceedings of a Consultative Meeting, 8-15 April 1981. International council for Research in Agroforestry. Nairobi, Kenya.

2. Mann, J.S.; Sharma, S.C. and Mehta, R.S. 2003. Suitable land use model for maximization of production on sandy loam soils. In: Human Impact on Desert Environment, Eds. Pratap Narain et al. Scientific Publisher (India) Jodhpur. Pp- 422-25

3. Gupta, J.P., Kar, A. and Faroda, A.S. 1997. Desertification in India: problems and possible solutions. Yojna, 41: 55-59 (cited in S.K. Dhyani, J.S. Samra, Ajit, A.K. Handa and Uma. 2007. Forestry to Support Increased Agricultural Production: Focus on Employment Generation and Rural Development. Agricultural Economics Research Review Vol. 20 July-December 2007 pp 190).

4. Patidar M., Mathur, B. K., Rajora, M. P. and Mathur, D. 2008. Effect of grass-legume strip cropping and fertility levels on yield and quality of fodder in silvipastoral system under hot arid condition. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science. 78(5): 394-398.

S3-P37: Effect of Climate on Economics of Fodder Crops (Stylosanthes hamata and Dinanath grass)

in Bastar District of Chhattisgarh

Praveen Kumar Verma, S.K. Nag, D.S. Thakur and S.K. Patil S.G. College of Agriculture & Research Station, Jagdalpur. IGKV (C.G) 494005

[email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACTPaddy is main livelihood system in bastar region. Occurance of drought is a major constraint in crop production. In this situation, fodder crops may help farmers in diversifying the farming. The present study was conducted in Jagdalpur block of Bastar district of Chhattisgarh under National Agricultural Innovative Project, component-3. A group of ten selected farmers having land acreage of 20 hectare from purposively selected villages namely Bhataguda and Turenar were considered for study purpose. The detailsed enquiry was done in the year 2009-2010. During the last decade, Bastar climate changed considerably. This may be one of the reasons of increased fodder crop production. The total cost of cultivation was estimated as Rs. 12095 per hectare for Stylo hamata grass and Rs. 13511 per hectare for dinanath grass. The average input-output ratio in stylo hamata and dinanath grasses came to 1:3.94 and 1:3.19 respectively.

INTRODUCTION The Bastar region in chhattisgarh situated in southern part, represents a unique blend of nature and people. More than 60 percent area is under forest and the trible community dominated in this bio- diverse zone. Paddy is main livelihood system in Bastar region having drought as a major constraint in crop production. In this situation, fodder crops may help the farmers in diversifying their farming. The tribal farmers who


381

are interested to go for fodder crops should be well aware with different type of information about this enterprise like what is the total cost of particular fodder crop?, What is the operational cost?, How much the gross and net returns they will get from this enterprise? If farmers have such valuable information, then they can allocate a manageable area under these crops and achieve a desirable benefit from this enterprise. In this sense, this study will help the farmers to make available all this information through which they will improve their socio-economic condition. Keeping in view the economic importance of fodder crops for Bastar tribes, the present investigation related to the cultivation of paddy crops was proposed under National Agricultural Innovative Project, component- 3 and was undertaken in Bastar district of Chhattisgarh.

METHODOLOGYThe present study was conducted in Jagdalpur block of Bastar district of Chhattisgarh. A group of ten selected farmers having land acreage of 20 hectare from selected villages namely Bhataguda and Turenar were considered for study. This study was an innovative work within the region for livelihood support of the tribal farmers. Primary data was collected from selected minor millets growers. Data was collected through personal interview method with the help of pre-tested questionnaires. The detailed enquiry was done in the year 2009-2010. To estimate the cost of cultivation of selected minor millets under different categories of farms, whole data was divided in to two major part i.e. variable cost and fixed cost. Variable cost included land preparation, cost of seed and sowing, fertilizer and manuring, intercultural, irrigation, plant protection materials, irrigation and harvesting etc. Fixed cost comprised of rental value paid by growers to occupy the river bed area. Different cost concept (cost A, cost B and cost C) analysis was made using these data to calculate the cost and returns of millets crops.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONEconomics of Stylo and Dinanath grass crops The economic analysis from pasture at selected 20 ha, co-operative joint farming system is exhibited in Table-1. The total cost of cultivation is estimated as Rs. 12095 per hectare for stylo hamata grass and Rs. 13511 per hectare for dinanath grass. Field preparation, Sowing, manure and fertilizers application and harvesting/grading were the most important operations in cultivation of these crops. It may be seen from the analysis that sowing/earthing operations occupied the highest percentage (about 50.84 and 58.84 per cent) of the total cost of production in case of stylo and dinanath grass respectively. Interest on working capital was worked out at the rate of 5 percent.

Yield value of output and cost of production per quintal The yield, value of output per hectare and cost of production per quintal of stylo and dinanath grass on the sample farms have been worked out in table 2. Results revealed that the average yield per hectare of stylo was 5.84 quintals of main product (seed) and 61.51 quintals as by-product and for dinanath grass its value was 4.50 quintals as main product (seed) and 53.50 quintals as by-product on the sample farms.

The cost of production per quintal, on an average, was worked out to Rs. 182.78 for main product and Rs.18.28 for by-product for stylo hamata grass and for dinanath grass, its value was Rs. 130.35 for main product and Rs.11.85 for by-product. The average value of output of stylo hamata and dinanath grasses per hectare came to Rs. 47653.00 and Rs. 43050.00 respectively.

Measures of farm profit The values of input cost, gross income and net income per hectare on the sample farms have been worked


382

out in table 3 and fig.1. It can be seen from the table that, on an average, the value of input cost, gross income and net income per hectare came to Rs. 12095.98, Rs. 47653.00 and 35557.02, respectively for the stylo hamata grass; and for dinanath grass its value was Rs. 13511.74, Rs. 43050.00 and Rs.29538.26, for input cost, gross income and net income per hectare respectively. The average input-output ratio in stylo hamata and dinanath grasses came to 1:3.94 and 1:3:19 respectively.

It was observed from study that in last decades there were no fodder crop production in the region and selected grasses were introduce only during the crop season of 2009. Climate of Bastar region considerably changed in last decade wich is one of the reasons behind bumper production of fodder crops in this district.

REFERENCES

1. Kumar, Sikander and Sandeep Kumar (2005). Resource Use Efficiency and Returns from Selected Foodgrain Crops of Himachal Pradesh: A Study of Low Hill Zone, The Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 85(339):549-568.

2. Patel. N.K (2007) Effect of Nitrogen levels on fodder crops oat (Evena sativa). M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis submitted at Department of Agronomy, IGKV, Raipur C.G.

3. Rao, G. Narasimha and R. Ramasubba Reddy and P.S.N. Reddy (1997). Foxmillet in Indian Agriculture, National Seminar on Small Millets- Current Research Trends and Future Priorities as Food Feed and in Processing for Value Addition Extend Summary (ICAR) and Tamil Nadu, Agricultural University, pp-3-4.

4. Seetharam, A.(1997). Finger Millet – Its Importance to Indian Agriculture, National Seminar on Small Millets- Current Research Trends and Future Priorities as Food Feed and in Processing for Value Addition Extend Summary (ICAR) and Tamil Nadu, Agricultural University, pp-1-2.

Table 1. Cost of cultivation of stylo hamata and dinanath grass crops on selected farms of group of farmers.

(Rs./ha)

S. No. ParticularsFarm Size

Stylo hamata Dinanath

1 Field preparation 1122 (9.28) 1122 (8.31)

2 Manure & Fertilizer 1821 (15.06) 1821 (13.48)

3 Sowing/Earthing 6150 (50.84) 7950 (58.84)

4 Bullock labour & Transportation 797 (6.59) 797 (5.90)

5 Harvesting/thrashing 1354 (11.20) 1261 (9.34)

6 Land revenue 10 (0.08) 10 (0.07)

7 Miscellaneous 195 (1.61) 156 (1.16)

8 Interest on working capital 644 (5.33) 392 (2.90)

Total Input cost 12095 (100) 13511 (100)

Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to the total.


383

Table 2. Per hectare yield, value of output and cost of production per quintal. (Rs./ha)

S. No. ParticularsFarm Size

Stylo hamata Dinanath1 Input cost (Rs.) 12095 135112 Production (Qtl) 67 58

a. Main product (seed) 5 4b. By-product 61 53

3 Value of production (Rs.)a. Main product 29200 27000b. By-product 18453 16050Total value of production (Rs.) 47653 43050

4 Cost of production (Rs./qtl) 201 142a. Main product 182 130b. By-product 18 11

Table 3. Cost and return of grasses on the sample farms (Rs./ha)

S.No. ParticularsGrasses

Stylo hamata Dinanath1 Input cost 12095 135112 Output value 47653 430503 Net income 35557 295384 Input-Output ratio 1:3.94 1:3.19

• Stylo grass seed @ Rs.50.00 per kilogram and Dinanath grass @ Rs. 60.00 per kilogram.• By produce of Stylo grass @ Rs. 3.00 per kilogram and dinanath grasses @ Rs. 2.00 per kilogram.

Fig. 1. Cost and return of grasses on the sample farms

Economic of Stylo grass

Input cost,

12095.98,

13%

Output

value,

47653.00,

50%

Net income,

35557.02,

37%

Input cost

Output value

Net income

Economics of Dennanath grass

Input cost, 13511.74, 16%

Output value, 43050.00,

50%

Net income, 29538.26,

34%Input cost

Output value

Net income


384

S3-P38: Identification of physiologically efficient genotypes of Jatropha under elevated CO2

N. Sunil1, M. Vanaja2, Vinod Kumar1, Jainender2, J. Ashok Kumar3, P. Raghu Ram Reddy2 and K.S. Varaprasad1

1National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Regional Station, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad2Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santhoshnagar, Hyderabad

3ICAR Research Complex, Goa

ABSTRACTAn all India Jatropha curcas L. germplasm collection consisting of 20 genotypes were grown in pot culture conditions and exposed to two levels of CO2 (ambient control-370 ppm) and elevated CO2 (700 ppm) in Open Top Chambers (OTC). Four physiological traits viz., net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate and temperature difference (ΔT) were studied in this germplasm. The results indicated that stomatal conductance responds maximum under elevated CO2 followed by temperature difference, net photosynthetic rate and transpiration rate. The Analysis of Variance showed significant variability among the genotypes for stomatal conductance and Δ T while the environment difference (CO2 levels) were significant for all characters studied with G x E being significant only for stomatal conductance. Correlation among the physiological traits showed significant values among all the traits studied. However, the correlation between stomatal conductance and transpiration rate was highest (0.9) followed by net photosynthesis and transpiration rate (0.77) and photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance (0.72). The most desirable genotype appears to be Local for the four physiological traits as photosynthetic rate and ΔT increased and stomatal conductance and transpiration rate decreased. Genotype, ‘IC 544679’ was found to have higher values under elevated CO2 for all the four physiological traits studied.

Jatropha curcas L. has been identified as biodiesel crop suitable for varied edaphic and eco-geographic conditions because of its wide adaptability including waste lands and moisture limiting soils. In an environment leading to climate change, with an intention to identify accessions that perform under changed environmental conditions viz. high moisture or moisture stress, twenty accessions of Jatropha were studied for their performance under elevated CO2 in Open top chamber (OTC). In the present study the response of the accessions to elevated CO2 conditions (700ppm) was evaluated in order to identify accessions that respond better to elevated CO2 levels.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThree replicates of each of the 20 accessions of Jatropha seedlings were maintained at ambient control (370 ppm) and elevated CO2 (700 ppm). Response of the accessions to physiological traits were studied after 60 days of exposure to elevated CO2 and compared with ambient control. The observations on physiological parameters viz. photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate and temperature difference (Δ temperature) were analyzed by two-way ANOVA.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThere was significant difference between the accessions for stomatal conductance, transpiration rate and temperature difference. Between the two environments significant difference was observed for photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate and temperature difference and in the genotype x environment interaction, significant difference was observed only in stomatal conductance (Table 1). The maximum


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photosynthetic rate was observed in ‘IC 565048’ (48.8 µmol /m2/s) under ambient controlled conditions and the maximum recorded under elevated conditions was in genotype ‘IC 544678’ (41.3 µmol /m2/s) (Table 4). However, there was no significant difference in the GX E interaction. The minimum value recorded under elevated conditions was 0.03 m2/sec (IC 565039) and the maximum value was 1.8 m2/sec in ‘IC 544678’. The maximum decline was recorded in ‘IC 565039’ (-97%) under elevated CO2 conditions over the ambient control and the minimum decline was in ‘IC 537916’ (-20%) (Figure 1). The minimum value recorded under elevated conditions was 0.59 mmol/m2/sec (IC 565039) and the maximum was 11.7 mmol/m2/sec in ‘IC544678’ (Table 4). The temperature difference between air and leaf showed an increase under elevated conditions. The maximum increase was in the accession ‘IC 544685’.

Most of the accessions responded to elevated CO2 with a slight decrease in photosynthetic rate due to acclimatigaon, decrease in stomatal conductance, transpiration and an increase in leaf temperature. The stomatal conductance recorded a significant decline in the genotypes under the elevated CO2 condition over the ambient control. The most desirable genotype under moisture stress appears to be ‘Local’ for the four physiological traits as photosynthetic rate and ΔT increased and stomatal conductance and transpiration rate decreased. Genotype, ‘IC 544679’ was found to have high values under elevated CO2 for all the four physiological traits studied which may perform better under non moisture stress environment.

Fig. 1. Stomatal conductance as influenced by elevated CO2 among the accessions

Table 1: ANOVA for various physiological traits at 60 DAE for genotypes under Control (370 ppm) elevated CO2 (700ppm) environments.

Source DF Photosynthetic rate (µmol/m2/sec)

Stomatal Conduc-tance (m2/sec)

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Temperature difference (˚C)

Replications 2 2.0 2.1 44.0 1.1Genotypes 19 31.6 1.4 * 22.3 0.7**Environment (CO2 levels) 1 329.3** 14.5* 894.0* 12.2**

Genotypes X Environment 19 20.5 0.9* 20.2 0.6

Error 78 25.2 0.8 19.0 0.4

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S3-P39: Effect of Residue Management and Tillage on Soil Moisture and Crop Yield of Maize under Rainfed Conditions

B. Sanjeeva Reddy and Ravikant V. AdakeCentral Research Institue for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnager, Hyderabad-500 059

[email protected]

ABSTRACTTraditionally, India has been under low chemical input agriculture, in which lot of agricultural by-products and variety of crop residues were recycled to crop lands through animal sheds. However, dwindling common grazing lands, introduction of high input demanding hybrid food and commercial crops, existing extension programmes made it input intensive agriculture, since two decades. As a result, the organic matter recycling back to farm lands is decreasing in Indian soils. Soil organic matter plays an important role in improving the majority of soil physical, chemical and biological properties and availability of plant nutrients. In recent times, crop residues like maize, castor and cotton are being wasted by throwing on field bunds and by way of burning.

In order to recycle back the crop residue, a tractor front mounted residue slasher - spreader was designed and developed. The maize residue was slashed and spread on surface using this unique design of slasher, and tillage treatments were imposed. The highest residue cover of 95% was observed in residue slasher-spread – No till plots after two weeks of slasher operation. The research findings showed that, amount of un-decomposed crop residue remained on soil surface was significantly different under different treatments immediately after planting operation. The residue spread and disc harrowed plots showed significant improvement in moisture in top 15 cm surface soil during crop growth period. The maize grain and dry biomass yields were also significantly influenced by the treatments.

INTRODUCTIONIndian farmers used to grow variety of crops from centuries under different agro-ecological zones, either as sole, inter or mixed crop. Owing to more emphasis on field crops and less attention on fodder crops, farmers used to feed the small and large ruminants with cobs of unfilled grain, pigeonpea pod hulls and leaves, threshed sorghum ear heads, dried and stored horse gram, cowpea and sunhemp stalk as supplemental feed in absence of green fodders. Application of the leftover feed or fodder materials from livestock feed-lots mixed with cattle dung and urine in raw form or after composting (partially treated) to the soil is well known practice. In addition to the above mentioned crops by-products, other wastes like green gram and black gram hulls, castor and groundnut shells, sunflower heads and maize cobs husk also used to be recycled to agricultural lands. This became a generally accepted practice for the entire farming community over a period of time. This practice continued to add tones of organic materials to agricultural lands besides crop litter, which in turn met the nutrients requirements of crops besides sustaining the fertility of the soil over a long period of time.

In face with the modernization and to meet the growing population food requirements, hybrid crops and chemical fertilizers have been evolved. Since, the chemical fertilizers are handy and easy to apply, the farming community slowly neglected the importance of crop residue recycling to farm yard manure and its soil application. Dwindling individual and community grazing lands, spread of commercial crops, agricultural mechanization and increased agricultural labour wages further restricted crop residue recycling


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to composting and soil application. The discontinuity of addition of crop residue directly or indirectly through composting have severely affected the soil fertility status in rainfed agriculture. As such, in existing situations and constraints, crop residue recycling to crop lands in the form of compost is not a feasible option. However, in rainfed areas many of the farmers are resorting to throw residues like maize straw, threshed cobs, castor and sunflower stalk on farm bunds and blackgram, greengram, horsegram vines and threshed sorghum ear heads on roads. Instead of wasting these material attended, if managed to recycle, atleast some of these materials can be recycled back directly by using suitable machinery and practices. The potential benefits from in situ crop residue management are :

• Reduces soil erosion by interception of rainwater run-off during off season in rainfed areas where root biomass interception is negligible.

• Conservation of soil moisture for crop use and improved crop yields.

• Organic matter addition improves soil surface properties and enhances biological activity in soil micro-environment of rainfed farming.

Hence, a research programme was initiated to develop a crop straw slashing machine in conjunction with low till practice at Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad to effectively utilize the maize stover in-situ under different tillage conditions and study its effect on soil properties and crop yields.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe tractor front mounted slasher functional components include a speed reduction gear box, speed transmission system and four rotating shafts with slashing blades and chains. The prototype crop residue slasher was valuated in field conditions for in-situ management of maize stover under rainfed conditions. The treatments include farmer’s practice (Conventional Tillage), residue slashing, spreading + Disc harrow twice, residue slashing, spreading + No till, Maize stubbles + No till. The mean dry biomass left on the field to initiate the experiment was 3100 kg ha-1 for residue spreading + Disc harrow twice and Residue spreading + No till plots and 2160 kg ha-1 for stubbles + No till plot. In the subsequent years quantity of dry maize straw slashed and spread using the equipment ranged from 2500 to 3400 kg ha-1. The maize crop was planted using a tractor drawn low till planter at row to row spacing of 45cm in the treatments imposed plots. The parameters studied were soil properties viz., coverage of residue on soil surface at planting, soil resistance, soil moisture content, earth warm activity and crop response viz., root volume, straw and grain yield.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe tractor front mounted machine slashed and spread the maize stover to one third of its original height and no entangling of crop residue was observed in shallow Alfisol soils. The slashing blade and chain speed was around 220 rpm at full throttle of second gear of the tractor. The spread of the slashed material was uniform throughout the field plot. Results after the end of the second year of experiment indicated that, even though the stover slashed and spread under different treatments was not significant, residue left on the surface of field plots immediately after planting of crop was significantly different due to tillage treatmental effect. The residue present on the surface of the soil was highest under residue slashed, spread + No till treatment (32% on weight and 17% surface cover basis) immediately after planting of the maize crop. The same was 18.4 and 8.2% and 14.4 and 2.8% respectively in stubbles + NT and residue slashed, spread + twice disc harrowed treatments. The moisture content in top 15 cm soil depth was significantly higher in residue spread + disc harrowed plot when compared with other treatments when rainfall quantity was


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within the range of 20 to 35 mm or 15 mm followed by subsequent 3-4 rainy days of about 10 mm each. The grain and biomass yields were significantly different under different treatments in kharif, 2009 cropping season. Highest dry biomass and grain yields of 3340 and 921 kg ha-1 were recorded under residue spread + disc harrowed plot followed by residue spread - No till plot (2481 and 800 kg ha-1). Lowest yields were reported under conventional practices.

REFERENCES

1. Hula, J., Sindelar, R and P. Kovaricek, 2005. Operational effects of implements on crop residues in soil tillage operations. Research Agricultural Engineering, 51(4):119-124

2. Keline, R., 2000. Estimating crop residue cover for soil erosion control. Soil Fact Sheet, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, British Columbia, Canada. Pp. 1-4.

3. Mandal, U.K., Rao, K.V., Mishra, P.K., Vittal, K.P.R., Sharma, K.L., Narsimlu, B. and Venkanna, K., 2005. Soil infiltration, runoff and sediment yield from a shallow soil with varied stone cover and intensity of rain. European Journal of Soil Science, 56: 435-443.

S3-P40: Preliminary Studies on Conversion of Maize Stalks into Biochar for Terrestrial Sequestration of Carbon in Rainfed Agriculture

G. Venkatesh, G.R. Korwar, B. Venkateswarlu, K.A. Gopinath B. Sanjeeva Reddy,Uttam Kumar Mandal, Ch. Srinivasarao and Minakshi T. Grover

Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, [email protected]

ABSTRACTA study was conducted at Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad to study the conversion efficiency of maize stalks into biochar at different loading rates and partial combustion time by using a low cost technique. Maize stalks were loaded in the modified oil drum of 200 L capacity (charring kiln) at five different quantities viz. 6.7, 8.2, 8.7, 9.7 and 10 kg and were subjected to three different periods of partial combustion viz. 13, 15 and 16 minutes. The highest conversion efficiency of 29.3% was obtained at a loading rate of 8.2 kg and a partial combustion time of 15 minutes. Biochar yield decreased with increase in time of partial combustion.

INTRODUCTIONClimate change is one of the most important challenges facing the modern world. There is a large imbalance between carbon release to the atmosphere and carbon uptake by other compartments that leads to a continued increase in atmospheric CO2 equivalent to a rate of 4.1 x 109 tons of carbon per year (IPCC, 2007). One approach to sequester carbon in terrestrial ecosystems is through the application of biomass-derived black C (“biochar”) to soil especially in agricultural land, which helps in offsetting the increasing CO2 concentration in atmosphere and also acts as organic fertilizer (Steinbeiss et al., 2009). UNFCCC (2009) has also mentioned in the climate change mitigation strategy text that use of biochar in agriculture is one of the cheapest way to mitigate climate change. This has lead to a resurgence of interest in the use of biochar for enhancing soil health, organic agriculture, and sequestering carbon (Lehmann and Joseph, 2009).


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In agricultural systems, crop residues are produced in significant amounts and are usually handled as liability because of management problems. These agricultural residues can be used to produce biochar and applied to agricultural soil to sequester C and also to improve the production potential of crops. On conversion by partial combustion, residues get carbonized to highly stable carbon compound known as biochar. It leads to sequestration of about 35 – 40% of the initial carbon compared to the low amounts retained after burning (3%) and biological decomposition (less than 10-20% after 5-10 years) (Baldock and Smernik, 2002). With mean residence time in excess of 1000 years (Lehmann and Joseph, 2009), there is possibility of greater net GHG reduction benefit when biochar is sequestered in soil, rather than crop residues being burnt (Gaunt and Lehmann, 2008). Its application to soil could directly contribute to local sustainable development, by enhancing soil organic carbon, improving nutrient retention, and increasing crop yields (Lehmann et al., 2006). Thus, producing biochar from agricultural residues and its utilization as a soil amendment appears one promising method of achieving greater levels of certainty for carbon sequestration in soil and enhanced crop productivity in conventional rainfed agricultural production systems.

However, studies on biochar production and its utilization as a soil amendment are at a nascent stage in India. With this in view, a study is in progress at Central Research Institute for Dryland agriculture, Hyderabad on utilization of different crop residues for production of biochar and its subsequent use in rainfed agriculture. The objective of this preliminary study was to study the conversion efficiency of maize stalks into biochar at different loading rates and partial combustion time by using a low cost technique.

MATERIALS AND METHODSMaking of oil drum kilnA cylindrical metal oil drum (200 L capacity) with both sides intact was procured from local market and was modified for use as charring kiln. A square shaped hole of 16 cm x 16 cm was made on the centre of top side of the drum for loading the crop residues. On the opposite side (bottom) of the oil drum, a total of 36 holes each measuring 4 cm2 were made in concentric circles with a 5 cm2 hole at the center covering 20% of the total surface area of the bottom portion of the oil drum to facilitate uniform circulation of air from below.

A view of bottom side of the charring kiln


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After making sufficient modifications, inner sides of the charring kiln were cleaned by burning some waste jute bags so as to make free from residual hydrocarbon. Another metal sheet measuring 20 cm x 20 cm was made ready to cover the top square hole at the end of burning process in order to stop the circulation of air. Sufficient amount of clay soil was collected for sealing purpose.

Processing of maize stalkMaize stalk was collected from Guengal Research Farm of the Institute. Leaves were removed before chopping of the maize stalks. Chopped stalks were air-dried for about 20 days.

Loading the charring kilnBefore loading the modified kiln with the maize stalks, initial weight of the charring kiln was recorded using platform balance. The dried maize stalks were loaded through top square hole, by holding a big wooden stick of 5-8 cm diameter at the center of the kiln to create a central vent. While loading, few stalks were smeared with diesel and placed at the bottom to aid initial ignition. Maize stalks were loaded in the kiln at five different quantities viz. 6.7, 8.2, 8.7, 9.7 and 10 kg. After filling the maize stalks, the wooden stick was carefully removed leaving a central vent in the drum. Weight of the loaded kiln was recorded using platform balance.

Firing and sealing of the charring kilnBefore initiating the burning process, the loaded kiln was placed on three stones (about 15 cm height) to facilitate air flow through the holes at the bottom. The stalks were ignited through the bottom holes. After the reduction in thickness of smoke, the metal sheet was placed partially on the top hole of the kiln to slow down the flow of air into the drum. This was to reduce the flow of oxygen so that the stalks were not burnt to ashes. Whenever the amount of smoke increased, the cover was opened to allow more air flow. The maize stalks were subjected to three different periods of partial combustion viz. 13, 15 and 16 minutes. The kiln was allowed to burn until the fire became clear and produced a very thin blue smoke. At this stage, the kiln was ready to be sealed with clay. The metal sheet was placed over the top hole. Later, the kiln was transferred to a leveled surface. Clay was used to seal the bottom edges of the drum and also along the edges of the metal sheet used for covering the top hole. It was ensured that no smoke was escaping from the drum. The drum was left for cooling. After cooling, the sealed clay was removed and the biochar was taken out from the kiln and weighed.

The conversion efficiency was calculated as follows:(Dry weight of biochar X 100)/dry weight of maize stalk

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe initial weight of the modified oil drum (charring kiln) was 18.8 Kg. The average length and girth of the chopped maize stalks were 15.93 cm and 5.8 cm, respectively and the moisture content after air drying for 20 days was 14%.

The results reveal that at a loading rate of 6.7 kg and partial combustion time of 13 minutes, about 50% of maize stalks remained un-burnt. Upon extending the partial combustion time to 15 minutes, the conversion rate was 29.3 and 23.7% for stalks weighing 8.2 and 9.7 kg, respectively. At a partial combustion time of 16 minutes, the conversion rate was 27.6, 23.7 and 23.0% for loading rates of 8.7, 9.7 and 10.0 kg maize stalk, respectively.


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The preliminary results of the study indicate that a partial combustion time of 15 minutes was found optimum for production of biochar from chopped maize stalks. It was also found that the biochar conversion efficiency did not differ significantly due to different loading rates of maize stalks (8.7-10.0 kg/kiln).

Biochar of maize stalks

However, the highest conversion efficiency was obtained at a loading rate of 8.2 kg and a partial combustion time of 15 minutes. Biochar yield decreased with increase in time of partial combustion. This may be due increased exposure to oxygen supply which might have contributed to volatilization of carbon.

REFERENCES1. Baldock, J.A., Smernik, R.J., 2002. Chemical composition and bioavailability of thermally altered Pinus resinosa

(Red pine) wood. Organic Geochemistry. 33, 1093 -1109.

2. Gaunt, J., Lehmann, J., 2008. Energy balance and emissions associated with biochar sequestration and pyrolysis bioenergy production. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 4152 - 4158.

3. IPCC.2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Summary for Policy Makers.

4. Lehmann, J., Gaunt, J., Rondon, M., 2006. Biochar sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems. Mit. Adapt. Strat. Glob. Change 11, 403 - 427.

5. Lehmann, J., Joseph, S. (Eds.), 2009. Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology. Earthscan Ltd, London, UK.

6. Steinbeiss, G. Gleixner, M. Antonietti. 2009. Effect of biochar amendment on soil carbon balance and soil microbial activity Soil Biology & Biochemistry xxx1–10. In Press.

7. UNFCCC, 2009. Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action Under the Convention: Negotiating Text. FCCC/AWGLCA/2009/8.


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S3-P41: Scope of Biodiesel in Mitigation of Climate Change in Andhra Pradesh

G. Rajeswar Rao, I. Srinivas, Atul Dange and P. SrikalaCentral Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad

INTRODUCTION

Our lives are linked to weather and climate, and to energy use. Our search for and use of fossil fuels primarily coal and oil could warm the atmosphere enough to contribute to ever more destructive floods, serious and sustained droughts, and relentless snowfalls. One way to slow these trends is to increase energy efficiency and develop and use clean, sustainable energy sources. Biofuels such as biodiesel contribute little or no CO2 to the buildup of greenhouse gas emissions. Similarly biodiesel can be mixed with petrodiesel in 20% (B10) without modification of engines. Converting biomass feedstocks to biofuels is an environmentally friendly process. So is using biofuels for transportation. When we use biofuels instead of gasoline/petrodiesel, we help reduce atmospheric CO2 in three ways: avoid the emissions associated with gasoline; (2)allow the CO2 content of the fossil fuels to remain in storage; and (3) provide a mechanism for CO2 absorption by growing new biomass for fuels. Because of its compatibility with the natural carbon cycle, biodiesel offer the most beneficial alternative for reducing greenhouse gases from the transportation sector. The Indian approach to biodiesel is somewhat different to the current international approaches which could lead to conflict with food security. It is based solely on non-food feedstocks to be raised on degraded or wastelands that are not suited to agriculture, thus avoiding a possible conflict of fuel vs. food security.

METHODOLOGY

Use of Biodiesel in Farm implements sector for mitigation of climate changeAs the biodiesel emits less Carbon oxide when compared to the petrodiesel , the utility of it is to be encouraged in a Integrated way by mixing the waste land development programme with Biofuel programmes by individual state governments. This paper discusses the possibilities of using the biodiesel in Farm machinery sector of Andhra Pradesh in India by producing it at decentralized oil expelling and biodiesel production units.

Development of decentralized Biodiesel processing units for employment generation To prepare biodiesel, the oil is expelled from the seeds through the process of solvent extraction, enzymatic extraction, etc. If the seeds are processed at rural level in a decentralized way by oil extraction at small scale level, it will reduce the processing cost compared to the biodiesel manufactured at a large scale Industry. In other words, Biofuel processing needs to be shifted to small scale/medium scale industry at rural level. This in-situ extraction process brings together the energy source and energy consumer reducing unnecessary transport of fuel. In addition to that the nutrition rich cake meal which is a waste product at Industry will be a biofertilizer source to the rural farms if extraction is done at village level.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

It is estimated that around 120000 tractors for hauling and agricultural purpose and 170000 oil engines for water lifting are working in Andhrpradesh in which if 20% of biodiesel is introduced will reduce 17970 tonnes of CO2 emissions. For this, we need to produce 68480 tonnes of biodiesel for which 2 lakh ha plantation of Jatropha or 2.7 lakh ha plantation of Pongamia is to be encouraged. Since Andhrapradesh consists of 47 lakh ha. of waste land, around 5% of it can be diverted for long term basis. By growing so, the plantation can also aobsorb around 2 lakh tones of carbon from the atmosphere which is an additional benefit to claim under carbon trading. Hence the long term planning for incorporation of Biodiesel plantation in mitigation of climate change under National befoul programme is highly essential at this present climate change era. REFERENCES

1. Planning Commission. Draft report of the expert committee on integrated energy policy. New Delhi: Planning Commission, Government of India, http:// planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/intengpol.pdf; 2005.

2. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). New Delhi: Government of India, http://mnes.nic.in/; 2007.

Session - IV

Impact, Adaptation and Mitigation Strategiesin Livestock and Fisheries




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S4-O1: Strategies to Mitigate the Effect of Slaughterhouse Effluents on Climate Change

S.Vaithiyanathan and N. KondaiahNational Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad

[email protected]

ABSTRACTThere are about 3,600 licensed slaughter houses in India. These are primary meat production units and are administered by local authorities. When a meat animal is slaughtered to collect meat, it also produces waste which damages the environment, if it is not properly handled, utilized and disposed. Meat industry waste comprise lairge waste (dung and urine), slaughterhouse waste (blood, meat scrap, paunch (rumen) and intestinal contents and by-products processing waste (rendering plant and casings processing waste). Average solid waste generation is about 27.5% and 17% of the animal live weight respectively from large ruminants and small ruminants. Similarly, waste in the form of gas is also generated and emitted from ruminants. India is one of the major methane emitting country (10.65 Tg from enteric fermentation and 9% or 1.09 Tg from manure) mainly from livestock of 485 million which is the largest in the world. Besides, a sudden spurt of methane and carbon dioxide from rumen and intestinal content is also released into the atmosphere during slaughtering of ruminants. The estimated annual methane from rumen of the slaughtered cattle and sheep are 0.05 and 0.008 Gg respectively. This methane emission needs to be recovered through clean development mechanisms for beneficial use. Strategies for reduction of methane emission from the slaughterhouse waste are discussed.

INTRODUCTIONIndia is blessed with a major share of the global population of livestock comprising of 175 million cattle, 99 million buffaloes, 65 million sheep, 126 million goats, 14 million pigs and 621 million poultry (FAOSTAT 2009). Livestock sector provides livelihood to rural people, and contributes enormous amount of draught power and biomass towards food security. Livestock provides us meat either as primary produce or secondary produce for human consumption. Meat is a highly nutritious and versatile food and demand for meat is ever increasing with increase in population and awareness about nutrition. India is the 5th largest exporter of bovine meat in the world. Indian buffalo meat exports have the potential to grow significantly. However, we are facing problems of unhygienic production of meat, contamination, poor infrastructure of abattoirs, unscientific processing, and absence of cold chain, poor packaging and inadequate meat safety management systems. India produced 6.8 mt of meat in 2008 (FAOSTAT 2009). In India livestock sector contributed an export earning of Rs. 5783 crores through 1.56 mt of meat and meat products (2008-09) (APEDA 2009). There are about 3,600 licensed slaughter houses in India. These are primary meat processing houses and are administered by local authorities. Most of them are outdated and use primitive technologies for the production of meat. There are very few modern facilities for the integrated slaughter and processing of meat. In addition to this, a large proportion of meat production is slaughtered in houses or small unlicensed establishments. When a meat animal is slaughtered to collect meat, it also produces waste which damages the environment, if it is not properly handled. Besides, green house gases (GHG) are also produced from slaughtered animals until the biochemical process is completed stopped in the tissue/organs. Major GHG produced from ruminants are methane, carbon-dioxide and nitrous oxide either from the enteric fermentation or from the animal’s metabolic reactions. Methane is one of the largest amounts of GHG emitted by the ruminants as a result of anaerobic digestion of carbohydrates in the rumen (i.e. enteric


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CH4 production). It is estimated that ruminants contribute about 18% of the global GHG emissions, and as much as 37% of anthropogenic methane, mostly from enteric fermentation by ruminants. Methane emissions from livestock have two components: emission from ‘enteric fermentation’ and ‘manure management’ and these two emissions have been taken into account for the purpose of calculating the inventories. However, methane, carbon-dioxide and nitrous oxide emission from slaughtered animals inside the slaughterhouses are neglected and have not been taken into account. The amount of GHG emitted from slaughtered animals may be small yet it will have some influence on the total inventory of GHG of a country. In an attempt to calculate the GHG from slaughtered animals in slaughterhouses, we made a beginning only with methane emitted from cattle and sheep slaughtered in slaughterhouse. We have made an attempt to take up some strategies to mitigate the effect of slaughterhouse effluents on climate change.

MATERIALS AND METHODSData on cattle and sheep slaughtered in India were collected from FAOSTAT 2009 from their website http://faostat.fao.org/. Methane production level in a 24 hour cycle by cattle and sheep were adopted from Whitelaw et al. (1984) and Lockyer and Champion (2001) respectively. Methane production from cattle in a 24 hour period varied from 5 to 9 L/h and in sheep it varied from 0.5 to 1.6 L/h. In cattle methane production in morning hours which is the time for normal slaughter period was 6 L/h and in sheep it was 0.6 L/h. These two values were considered for the calculation in this preliminary study, though the approach may not be a precise one.

RESULTS Meat industry waste comprise large waste (dung and urine), slaughterhouse waste (blood, meat scrap, paunch (rumen) and intestinal contents and by-products processing waste (rendering plant and casings processing waste). Average solid waste generation is about 27.5% and 17% of the animal live weight respectively from large ruminants and small ruminants. According to FAO (2009) estimate 19 million sheep, 54 million goat, 10 million buffalo and 12 million cattle are being slaughtered in India and the likely solid waste generated from these slaughtered animals are Sheep 96.9 MT, Goat 276.9 MT, Buffalo 1492.8 MT and Cattle 1711.8 MT. It is observed that there is no organised system for disposal of solid wastes in most of the slaughter houses. The entire solid waste is collected and disposed of as land fill. In few slaughter houses, dung and rumen digesta are collected separately for composting. Similarly, waste in the form of gas is also generated from slaughtering of ruminants. India is one of the major methane emitting country mainly from livestock of 485 million which is the largest in the world. Ruminants derive their energy mainly through microbial fermentation of carbohydrates. This microbial fermentation process, referred to as ‘enteric fermentation’, produces methane as a byproduct, which is released mainly through eructation and normal respiration. Methane is also produced during anaerobic decomposition of livestock manure by anaerobic and facultative bacteria. Currently, India possesses the world’s largest livestock population of 485 million, which accounts for 13% of the global livestock population. This country emits methane at annual rate of 11.75Tg with ~91% or 10.65 Tg from enteric fermentation and 9% or 1.09 Tg from manure (Chhabra et al. 2009). Cattle and buffalo are the major source of methane emission (10.9 Tg) compared to 0.86 Tg emission from other livestock. The estimated methane emission was 74g/d in cattle, 119g/d in buffalo, 12g/d in goat, 10g/d in sheep.


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The enteric form of methane is released into the atmosphere and cannot be utilized for any purpose rather it is creating havoc in the environment. Besides, a sudden spurt of methane and carbon dioxide from rumen and intestinal content is also released into the atmosphere during slaughtering of ruminants. In India out of the total livestock, some meat animals are slaughtered for meat production for own consumption and export to foreign countries. Every year around 12 million sheep and 17 million cattle are being slaughtered (Fig 1). Methane emitted is calculated from slaughtered animals by taking into account the methane production level in the early morning hours. The calculated annual average methane emitted from slaughtered sheep was 0.007 Gg and for cattle it was 0.053 Gg (Fig 2.). The combined methane emitted was calculated at average of 0.061 Gg. Methane emitted as a sudden spurt after removal of rumen from carcass and subsequent cut opening of rumen is released into the atmosphere. The total enteric methane produced by living animals in India was 10.75Tg (Chhabra et al. 2009).

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The amount of methane emitted from slaughtered animals from rumen is negligible but still may have some impact on the climate. The methane can trap 21 times the amount of heat trapped by carbon-dioxide. Therefore, GHG emitted from rumen & intestinal contents and urinary excretion in slaughterhouse operations also needs to be taken into account.

Fig. 1. Meat animals (Cattle and Sheep) slaughtered in India

Fig. 2. Methan emission from slaughtered animals (Cattle and Sheep)


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Reduction of GHG emission from slaughterhouse operations can be minimised by way of proper collection i.e. in closed chambers to harness for future usage and then utilized for useful purposes through dumping inside the biogas plant.

Therefore, a need has arisen to develop the skill to determine the emission from slaughtered animals as well as from rumen content waste from slaughterhouse. The estimation of methane emission from slaughtered animals and methane capture from slaughterhouse waste will help us in reducing damages to climate change as well as in acquiring carbon credits to trade in the carbon markets.

REFERENCES

1. APEDA. 2009. http://apeda.com/apedawebsite/

2. Chhabra, A., Manjunath, K.R., Panigraphy, S. and Parihar, J.S. 2009. Spatial pattern of methane emissions from Indian livestock. Current Science. 96, 683-0688.

3. FAOSTAT 2009. http://faostat.fao.org/

4. Lockyer, D.R. and Champion, R.A. 2001. Methane production by sheep in relation to temporal changes in grazing behaviour. Agriculture ecosystems and environment. 86, 2237-246.

5. Whitelaw, F.G., edie,J.M., Bruce, L.A. and Shand, W.J. 1984. Methane formation in faunated and cciliate-free cattle and its relationship with rumen volatile fatty acid proportions. British Journal of Nutrition. 52, 261-275.

S4-O2: Building Resilience of Rainfed Production Systems to Climate Change: Livestock Water Productivity Perspectives

Amare Haileslassie1, Michael Blummel1, Madar Samad3, Floriane Clement3, Katrien Descheemacker 23 and Anandan Samireddypalle2

1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)-ICRISAT, Patancheru, Hyderabad 5023243 International Water Management Institute (IWMI)-ICRISAT

23International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)-Addis Ababa / International Water Management Institute (IWMI)-Addis Ababa

Amare Haileslassie (author for correspondence)Patancheru, Hyderabad [email protected]

ABSTRACTThe per capita water availability in the Indo-Gangetic basin is projected to be reduced to a level typical for water-stressed areas. This increases the vulnerability of agricultural systems to climate change induced shock. The objectives of this study were to understand the spatial dynamics of water requirements for livestock feed production, resulting Livestock Water Productivity (LWP) and their implications for systems adoption to climate change. LWP is defined as the as a ratio of livestock’s beneficial outputs (e.g. in physical, financial or energy terms) and services to the water depleted in producing feed for livestock. We compared two districts representing typical crop-livestock mixed systems of irrigated (Hisar) and rainfed agriculture (Bankura). Data on livestock, land use and climate were collected from the study districts (1992-2003). Our results showed a lower LWP value for rainfed systems compared with the irrigated system. This can be accounted for by lower productivity of livestock and their feed, whereby the latter induced higher


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water requirements per unit of livestock products. Improving feed productivity, feed quality and livestock management will help to build rainfed systems’ resilience to climate change.

INTRODUCTIONFarmers’ reaction to increasing demand for agricultural products and attendant natural resources (e.g. land and water) in the Indo-Gangetic Basin shows different degrees of intensification: increasing from south-east (e.g. West Bengal, Bankura) to north-west (e.g. Haryana, Hisar). The north-west part has benefited from Indian’s green revolution: a massive agricultural expansion fueled, largely, by the increased use of irrigation. Contrastingly, in the south-eastern part of the basin crop production is mainly rainfed and increase in yield was mainly achieved from area expansion. Livestock are managed on degraded communal grazing land and mainly provide draught power. Due to low land and labor productivity, poverty is concentrated in this rainfed regions (Erenstein and Thorpe, 2009).

Today, both rainfed and irrigation systems suffer from severe water shortage. The per capita water availability, projected for 2025, will be less than 1,700 m-3: which is considered as the cut-off point where water-stress begins. This implies that a small rise in temperature and reduction in rainfall could tip the balance and leading to severe water shortages. The question is how to build system’s resiliencies to these changes what will be the role of different system components such as livestock? Livestock largely contribute to the livelihood of farmers but at the same time require large volume of water to produce their feed. This study presents a spatial dynamics of water requirements for feed production, attendant Livestock Water Productivity (LWP) and implications for adoption of systems’ to climate change.

MATERIALS AND METHODSA multi-stage sampling approach was used to select the study areas in Indo-Gangetic Basin: firstly states representing typical mixed systems were identified (Haryana and West Bengal). Secondly, within these districts with homogeneous system were selected: Hisar in Haryana for irrigated system, and Bankura in the West Bengal for rainfed system.

In calculating LWP: data on value livestock benefits (physical or financial), land use and climate (1992-2003) were required. To estimate the livestock benefits we followed two steps: initially we established the livestock herd structures by breed and age group. Then we associated livestock productivity (e.g. milk, manure) and activity (e.g. draught) data to these herd structures. Ramachandra et al., (2007) reported quantity and diet composition of livestock feed in the study areas. These data sets were converted to metabolizable energy (ME, in MJ kg-1) and energy productivity (MJ ha-1 Yr-1). Total energy requirements of the livestock were calculated and converted to equivalent land requirement for livestock feed. The water lost through evapotranspiration (ET) in the process of feed production, was considered as the water input to livestock feed production. We used the products of Kc (crop constant) and ET0 (reference evapotranspiration) to calculate the ET in mm day-1 and coupled this with the land. Finally we combined all the data sets and calculated LWP as the ratio of beneficial outputs of livestock to water depleted in producing their feed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONLivestock Water Productivity: Indicator of systems coping ability with climate change LWP value in the rainfed system was two fold less than the irrigated system. Differences in climate and degree of agricultural intensification and resultant differences in animal and crop productivity accounts for the variation. Our estimate of milk water productivity was in agreement with Singh et al. (2004) who


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reported dairy LWP for Gujarat (India). According to these authors dairy farming is highly water-intensive. They showed that in Gujarat 1,900-4,600 liters of water per liter of milk is used: which is much higher than the average 2,749 liters at the country level for India and the global average of 874 liters. The average values from our finding fall within this reported range (800– 5000 liters) and variation across spatial scales and breeds was remarkable. The highest volume of water requirement per liter of milk produced was estimated for the indigenous cows in the rainfed system. Between 1992 and 2003, LWP value does not show a dramatic gain, in contrast to the irrigation system, for rainfed systems: mainly because of insignificant increase in productivity of feed and decline in animal productivity. This is worrisome in times of increasing concern over water scarcity and rainfall uncertainty. Given that the present circumstance prevails, it will be a challenge for farmers in rainfed system to cope with the impacts of climate change. However, the large yield gap in rainfed system suggests that there is much (~50%) to gain in LWP by improving crop productivity.

Feed water productivity: implications for systems’ resilience to climate change LWP is strongly linked to feed sourcing in two ways: firstly adequate and quality feed supply (determines livestock productivity) and secondly the way feed is produced affects sustainable use of water. Similar to the nation wide feed assessment synthesized by Parthasarathy et al. (2007), our findings suggests a strongly negative ME balance for the rainfed system and surplus for the irrigated system.

The most striking features of our findings were the strong variability of feed water productivity among feed sources and rainfed and irrigation systems. Overall the lowest feed water productivity values were observed for the rainfed system. Among the groups of the different feed ingredients concentrates showed the highest feed water productivity values (Kg m-3) followed by crop residues. The point is, however, what does higher feed water productivity implies to rainfed system resiliencies and adoption to climate change. A successful increase in water productivity can limit the need for further expansion of agriculture to lands that might provide other desirable ecosystem services, such as wetlands, forests, and grasslands. It means also better income and better buffer against income fluctuation due to climate variability.

REFERENCES1. Erenstein, O., Thorpe, W., 2009: Crop–livestock interactions along agro-ecological gradients: a meso-level

analysis in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, India. Environ Dev Sustain DOI 10.1007/s10668-009-9218-z

2. Ramachandra K.S. Taneja V.K., Sampath K.T Anandan S. and Angadi U.B., 2007 Livestock feed resources in different agroecosystems of India: Availability requirement and their management. National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore India. 100pp

3. Singh, O. P., 2004. Water productivity of milk production in North Gujarat, Western India, in Proceedings of the 2nd Asia Pacific Association of Hydrology and Water Resources (APHW) Conference, Vol. 1 pp. 442–449.


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S4-O3: Climate Change: Innovative Livelihood Support Interventions in Rainfed Regions

Sreenath Dixit and B. VenkateswarluCentral Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad

[email protected]

ABSTRACTThis paper attempts to share the learnings of an action research project aimed at improving the livelihoods of rural poor in eight backward districts of Andhra Pradesh. The project has adopted an on-farm participatory mode concentrating mainly on improving farming systems productivity and addressing institutional support. It puts forth the argument that given an enabling environment, productivity enhancing technologies can be upscaled effectively. Moreover, such efforts can have far reaching impact on building the community capacity to cope with the consequences of climate change.

INTRODUCTIONSome of the most significant impacts of climate change will be felt among the rural populations of semi-arid India. Their vulnerability to climate change comes both from being predominantly located in the fragile agro-ecosystem and from various socio-economic, demographic and policy trends limiting their capacity to adapt to changing climate. Majority of the livelihoods in this region depend on subsistence farming which according to Barnett (1997) is farming and associated activities which together form a livelihoods strategy where the main output is consumed directly, where there are few if any purchased inputs and where only a minor proportion of output is marketed. Associated livelihoods such as those of pastoralists, livestock keepers, fishermen and artisans will also suffer varying degrees of impact due to climate change.

Climate change is essentially increasing production risks in many farming systems and reducing the ability of farmers and rural communities to manage these risks on their own. Agriculture is particularly vulnerable to climate change, especially rainfed agriculture. Agriculture being vital for current and future food security of the country, draws maximum concern from various corners in the context of climate change. Decreasing trends of annual precipitation, increase in temperatures coupled with change in rainfall patterns are increasing the vulnerability of crops and consequently decreasing their productivity potential particularly in rainfed areas. Water resources which already scarce in these areas are more sensitive to climate change. The recent droughts have caused sharp declines in water table and dried up several open and tube wells in the absence of appropriate rainwater harvesting measures. Such droughts are not only degrading the already fragile ecosystem but also posing severe threat to the livelihoods of the people associated with rainfed production system. Climate change is likely to exacerbate current environmental problems, increase land degradation and reduce food production resulting in increased rural poverty and distress migration.

The scenario is daunting and posing a formidable challenge to agricultural scientists and development professionals. These challenges need to be dealt with innovative adaptive mechanisms in terms of both technology applications and developing peoples’ capacity. The paper discusses the learnings and experiences of applying innovative technology and institutional innovations to help vulnerable rural communities cope with climate change effects.


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METHODOLOGY

The study adopted a participatory on-farm action research with focus on natural resource management combined with good agricultural and livestock management practices. Being typical of any action research project, the outcomes of the project are subjected to concurrent evaluation and documentation. The paper per se blends documented contemporary experiences in similar settings and learnings from the project to argue its case.

REFERENCES1. Barnett, A. 1997. AIDS Briefs: Subsistence Agriculture, (USAID Health and Human Resources Analysis and

Research for Africa Project).

2. Morton, J.F. 2007. The impact of climate change on smallholder and subsistence agriculture. PNAS. 104 (50): 19680– 85.

3. Thomas, D.S.G. and Twyman C. 2005. Equity and justice in climate change adaptation amongst natural-resource-dependent societies. Global Environmental Change 15:115–124.

4. World Bank. 2009. World Development Report 2010. Washington, DC: World Bank.

S4-O4: Effects of increased Ambient Temperature on Poultry Mortality and Egg Production

M.R. Reddy, S.V. Rama Rao, U. Rajkumar, M. Shanmugam, K. Radhika and G. Jagadeswar Rao

Project Directorate on Poultry, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030

ABSTRACTClimate change, particularly increased temperature is likely to have a significant effect on the production and survivability in poultry flocks. In the present study the effect of increased temperature on the mortality and egg production in organized primary breeding farms was assessed. The total mortality was found to be significantly high during March to June with mortality rates ranging from 7 to10.7%. The mortality due to heat stress was observed when the ambient temperature was 32ºC and above. The highest heat stress losses were observed during April, May and June (19.3, 21 and 25.2%, respectively, of total mortality). In primary broiler breeders, the egg production losses were 3-5% less than the standard figures during summer months. These results indicate that the heat stress caused by high environmental temperature results in significant economic losses due to high mortality and reduced egg production.

INTRODUCTIONPoultry is an integral component of Indian Agriculture. Production of poultry meat is 2.2 million tonnes and eggs is 2.6 million tonnes providing a per capita availability of 1.6 kg meat and 1.8 kg eggs per annum. The average egg production in layers and growth rate in broilers have increased tremendously over last 50 years. At such a stage of evolution designed for high production, the birds are maintained in a very sensitive balance between inputs and outputs, which is very likely to be disturbed by alterations in intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Climate change is one of the factors that are likely to affect the Indian poultry production and health in future. Climate change is likely to increase the vulnerability of the poultry industry


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sector to both biophysical and economic stresses. In particular, an increased temperature is likely to have a significant effect on the production and survivability in poultry flocks. Chickens are susceptible to heat stress because of their high metabolic heat production, little heat dissipation by convection and radiation (due to feather coat), lack of sweat glands and their respiratory water evaporation rate is not high enough to maintain normothermia at high ambient temperature. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of increased temperature on the mortality and egg production in organized primary breeding farms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Primary chicken populations maintained at Project Directorate on Poultry were formed subject of present study. All the dead birds during 2004-08 were subjected to necropsy examination and cause of death was recorded. Number of deaths due to heat stress was determined. Based on the daily total population and daily total mortality and mortality due to heat stress, the monthly averages were determined. The average monthly ambient temperature during the study period was calculated based on the data obtained from ARI, Hyderabad. Egg production data from a commercial broiler breeding farm situated near Hyderabad was obtained and compared with the standard egg production in relation to ambient temperature.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIn the present study, the effect of temperature on mortality and egg production were investigated. Results on the effect of temperature on total mortality and deaths due to heat stress are presented in the Table 1. The average total mortality was significantly high during March to June where the maximum temperatures were above 32°C. Mortality due to heat stress was observed from February to August with (1-25.2%) and the mortality figures were 10-25.2% during March to July where the ambient temperatures were above 34°C. Table 1: Monthly total mortality and deaths due to heat stress in chicken in an organized primary

breeding farm.

Month Max temp (°C) Total birds

Total Mortality Mortality due to Heat stress

No. % No. %

January 28 71092 3626 5.1 0 0

February 32 71545 5258 7.3 127 2.4

March 35 70292 6172 8.8 730 11.8

April 38 65196 6999 10.7 1764 25.2

May 39 77811 5660 7.3 1187 21

June 34 72382 5058 7.0 978 19.3

July 31 71293 3724 5.2 372 10

August 30 71610 2632 3.7 29 1

September 31 80062 2250 2.8 0 0

October 31 84687 2450 2.9 0 0

November 28 92595 3346 3.6 0 0

December 28 95302 3691 3.9 0 0

Total 923867 50866 5.5 5187 10.2


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High environmental temperature is one of the most serious factors affecting the production performance of broiler and layer chickens. Large economic losses occur because of decreased production and mortality. Poultry are naturally homoeothermic and thus, they try to maintain a constant core body temperature. Normally body temperature of an adult chicken is in the range of 41 to 42°C. The thermoneutral zone or zone of comfort of chickens is 19-25°C and within this zone birds maintain constant body temperature. As environmental temperature increases, the thermal equation is disturbed and birds tend to correct the equation by dissipating heat through non-evaporative cooling. When environmental temperature equals to the body temperature of birds, non-evaporative heat loss mechanism fails and that can be lost by the evaporation of moisture from the respiratory tract through increased respiration (panting). In fact, evaporative heat losses assumes increasing importance at high temperatures (above 25°C), when sensible heat loss mechanisms (conduction, convection and radiation) fail to dissipate heat. Henken et al. (1988) exposed chicks to various temperatures between 28.3 and 42°C, mortality occurred only at above 38.8°C., starting 16, 12, 4 and 24 hours after exposure to 38.8, 40, 41.2 and 42°C respectively. Total mortality found to be 14.5, 53.5, 73.2 and 84.6%, respectively. Squibb and Wogan (1960) reported that at temperatures 38°C, thermotolerance in birds failed and marked mortality occurred. They also concluded that ambient temperature seemed to be a more important determinant of thermal stress than other weather parameters when spontaneous occurrence of thermal death in poultry was considered as the criterion. Dai et al (2009) observed 6.25% mortality due to heat stress at environmental temperature 34°C. Heat stress causes respiratory alkalosis leading to an excess of blood by carbonate, which is eliminated through urine, pulling other ions such as Na, Ca, Mg and K (Molero, 2007). The disturbances of the blood acid base balance through hyperventilation results in respiratory alkalosis and suppress the growth of broiler chicken.

In laying broiler breeder hens the egg production was 3-5% lower than that breed standard during summer months where the ambient temperature were above 34°C. (Figure-1) During heat stress, reductions in CO2 interfere with the cell forming reaction in the cell gland, resulting in reduced cell quality. Heat stress reduces the reproductive performance of laying hence by interrupting egg production and negatively affects the eggshell quality. The respiratory alkalosis limits the amount of CO2 available for eggshell formation. (Mongin, 1968).

Figure 1. Egg production curve of a broiler breeding flock showing actual and standard curves

In conclusion, the results of present study indicate that the heat stress caused by high environmental temperature results in significant economic loss due to high mortality and reduced egg production. Further detailed studies are required to assess the impact of heat stress in relation to climate change on growth, immune competence, and feed efficiency in meat and egg type chickens.

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REFERENCES 1. Dai, N.V., Bessei, W. and Quang, N. H (2009). The affect of sodium chloride and potassium chloride

supplementation in drinking water on performance of broilers under tropical summer conditions. Arch.geflugelk. 73: S41-48.

2. Franco-Jimenez, D. J., Scheideler, S. E., Kittok, R. J., Brown-Brandl, T. M., Robeson, L. R., Taira, H., and Beck, M. M., (2007). Differential affects heat stress in 3 strains of laying hens. Journal of applied poultry research. 16: 628-634.

3. Henken, A.M., van der Hel, W. And Smiths, C.J. (1988). Heat tolerance of day old chickens. Proceedings of the VIth International Congress on Animal Hygiene. Sweden. Vol II: 570-574.

4. Mongin, P (1968) Role of acid base balance in the physiology of eggshell formation. World’s poultry science Journal. 24:200-230.

5. Molero, C. (2007). Nutritional solutions to heat stress. International poultry production. 15: 27-29.

6. Squibb, R.L. and Wogan, G.N. (1960). Ambient environmental conditions associated with reported spontaneous occurrence of thermal death in poultry. Worlds Poultry Science Journal. 16:126-137.

S4-O5: Interrelationship between Methane and Milk Production in Buffaloes

R.C. Upadhyay, Ashutosh, S.V. Singh and Rita RaniNational Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001

ABSTRACTLivestock rearing produce considerable quantities of methane. Contribution of both large and small ruminants to methane is higher due to enteric fermentation activity in rumen and manure management. As per the India’s initial national communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2004), the methane produced by enteric fermentation was 8,972Gg and manure management of livestock species produced 946Gg methane and 1.0 Gg Nitrous oxide in the year 1994. Animal wastes 3 -8 % of gross feed energy in methane. About 80-85 % of methane produced in rumen appears in expired air and varies 0.01-0.2% of total expired air, however eructation increase the methane level.

Different techniques are in use for monitoring methane emission form livestock. Open circuit system has been extensively used in animal calorimetric measurements and practiced for monitoring changes in oxygen, carbondioxide and methane. The system is in use at NDRI, Karnal to refine the values of methane conversion rates, methane emission from cattle and buffaloes. The open circuit system consists of a multistage centrifugal pump driven by an induction motor. In the open circuit system the flow rate of air is chosen so that the concentration of methane remains less than 0.2% in the air either distal to animal or in expired air. The flow rate of air is monitored either on rotameter or using a velometer. A sample of expired air/exhausted air was dried out and passed for monitoring of gases (Analytical Development Corporation, England). The change in gas concentration in the airflow was measured during the day or any specific period in relation to time of feeding. The methane emission was calculated as the product of the flow rate, the time and the average methane concentration. To check precision of methane emission periodically,


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S4-O6: Farmers’ Cropping Strategy under adverse Climatic Conditions: A Case of Small Ruminant Based Farming System

Shalander Kumar, K. Kareemulla, C.A. Ramarao and B.M.K. RajuCentral Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad – 500059

ABSTRACTFarmers’ coping strategy under water scarcity and changing resource situations in arid Rajasthan has been analyzed. The study uses primary data collected from randomly selected 60 goats-keeping households and 25 farm households without goats for the year 2004-2005 from Nagaur district in arid Rajasthan. In response to the emerging resource and environmental conditions, goat farmers utilized the potential synergy of linkages among different components of the farming system. The innovative idea of farmers of keeping part of their land fallow for grazing their goats and sheep during the lean season needs to be used as an opportunity to encourage the farmers to develop this fallow land as pasture with recommended legume and non-legume grasses.

INTRODUCTIONAgriculture and livestock production in arid Rajasthan remain severely affected by frequent droughts. Inadequate rainfall, extreme temperature, poor quality of land and ground water further restrict the crop and livestock choice of farmers in the region. Faced with low productivity and high uncertainty in crop production, rural people are depended for their livelihood heavily on common property resources (CPRs) based livestock rearing particularly small ruminants (Pasha, 1991). Due to continuous depletion of common grazing resources, the traditional goat farmers in arid Rajasthan are either forced to reduce the size of their goat flocks or adopt transhumance system of goat production. The livelihood security of these rural households of rain-fed arid Rajasthan, thus, is under threat. There is need to evolve sustainable farming systems for such water scarce situations exploiting the potential synergy among different components of the farming system. A number of farmers in highly water scarce rain-fed area of Rajasthan, where transhumance system is common, have alternatively evolved a goat based integrated farming system as a means of sustainable livelihoods. This paper therefore analyzes a case of goat based integrated farming

the air was also drawn through a facemask worn by animal while standing or through closed chamber. In routine practice the expired gas of animals is also collected in Douglas bag, volume measurements are made prior to monitor of oxygen, Carbon dioxide and methane. The periodic checks on accuracy of the system are also performed on the basis of recovery of methane gas after release of known quantity of methane in the chamber.

The methane emissions of Murrah lactating buffaloes were estimated and the interrelationship of methane with milk production was worked out. The results revealed that the milk yield limitedly influence methane emission in Murrah buffaloes. For an increase of the milk yield from 3,500 to 5,000 kg FCM/buffalo/year a reduction of methane emission of nearly 1- 2 g kg-1 FCM-1 was observed. The methane emissions were 15.0 to 20 g CH4/kg.FCM from enteric fermentation in buffaloes. In the present study no significant effect of buffalo milk production with enteric methane emission could be established, however methane emission per liter of produced milk decreased with increase in milk.


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system adopted by farmers as a coping strategy under limited water and changing resource situations in arid region of Rajasthan.

DATA AND METHODOLOGYThe study was conducted in Nagaur district of arid Rajasthan with most of its area as rain-fed. It also represents the home tract of ‘Sirohi’ breed of goat, which is one of the most important and widely adopted goat breeds of India. The temperature in the study area reaches as low as 0 °C in winters and as high as 48 °C in summer. The average amount of annual rainfall is 360 mm. There were two types of farm households, one who were in majority (75%), own and operate only rain-fed lands; and second, those farms that have limited access to assured irrigation for part of their land only in Rabi season. The cropping intensity was around 150 per cent on farms having access to irrigation and 100 per cent for the rest. Kachaulia and Devari villages of Safer block of Nagaur district was purposively selected to study the goat based sustainable farming system evolved by the farmers. Using random sampling a sample of 60 goats-keeping households and 25 farm households without goats was selected. The sample size of 85 households formed 50 percent of the total number of households in the selected villages. The selected households were post-stratified into three farming system groups, namely I–Goat based rain-fed farms, II–Goat based partially irrigated farms having limited access to irrigation in Rabi season and III–Crop based rain-fed farms. The primary data were collected for the year 2004-2005 through personal interview method. To quantify linkages amongst the various components of farming system, the static input-output model was used.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThree farming systems namely I–Rain-fed goat based farming system, II–Partially irrigated goat based farming system and III–Rain-fed crop based farming system were delineated based on the type of activity mix and access and type of source of water for agriculture. Only 26 percent of the total cultivated area of the selected villages had access to assured irrigation in Rabi season. The productivity of common grazing lands in Rajasthan has become low through out the year due to heavy grazing pressure and lack of efforts for their regeneration (Jodha, 1990). The access to grazing resources further reduced in rainy season as it was the main cropping season with almost no current fallow land available for grazing. However the farmers under rain-fed goat based farming system strategically planned their crop rotations and kept part of their land fallow even in the main cropping season of Kharif (Table 1). Since farmers firmly believed that goat and sheep can be reared successfully only under extensive system with grazing as the major component of feeding. Hence, contrary to the normal practice in Rajasthan, they kept 20 to 50 percent of their farm land fallow in Kharif season and 0 to 100 percent in Rabi season to be used as pasture for grazing their animals in goat based farming systems (Table 2).

Table 1. Area under different crop rotations in goat based farming systems.

Sl.No.

Crop rotation ( for 2 years) % of total cultivated area

Cropping intensityKharif Rabi Kharif Rabi

With access to limited irrigation

1 Bajra Mustard Fallow Wheat 28 150

2 Fodder Mustard Fallow Wheat 22 150

3 Fallow Wheat/ Barley Bajra/ Moth Mustard 34 150

4 Fallow Lucerne/ Onion Fodder Wheat 16 150


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Rain fed farming

1 Bajra/sesame Fallow Moth bean/

Mung Fallow 40 100

2 Moth bean Fallow Bajra/ Gwar Fallow 40 100

3 Fallow Fallow Bajra Fallow 20 50

Table 2. Use of own current fallow land.

Sl. No. Type of Land Season % area kept fallow for grazing Type of grazing

1 Irrigated landKharif 50 Controlled access

Rabi 0 -

2 Rain fed landKharif 20 Controlled access

Rabi 100 Open access

In response to the emerging resource and environmental conditions, goat farmers utilized the potential synergy of linkages among different components of the farming system. On rain-fed farms, the maximum area in kharif season was occupied by crops, but farmers kept about 20 percent of their land fallow for grazing the animals. Farmers sold most of their unproductive animals and surplus kids in the months of May and June for restricting their flocks due to lack of grazing resources. They maintained only adult males and pregnant goats/sheep during the rainy season and reared them under semi-intensive system. The animals for rest of the period of the year from October to June were grazed on owned fallow land and open access grazing land. After harvesting of kharif crops, total rain-fed area was left fallow during Rabi and summer season and was used as open access for grazing. The kidding of goats and sheep in September-October led to again increase in flock size. This strategy helped farmers in generating additional income and employment from goats, maintain soil fertility of the land for sustainable crop production. In this way farmers raised the crops for food and earned cash income from sale of surplus live goat and sheep, and milk, besides manure for nutritional balance of soil. On the other hand, the farmers having access to assured irrigation for Rabi crop, kept half of their land as fallow in kharif season for grazing their goats, but sown crops in whole farm during the Rabi season. During winter, goats of these farmers were fed on common feed resources and open access private fallow lands of rain-fed farmers and purchased fodder and tree leaves. The farmers having access to irrigation during Rabi season had added advantage of grazing their goats on current fallow land of other farmers (rain-fed) without any reciprocity. It was an innovative idea of farmers to keep part of their land fallow during Kharif season for grazing their small ruminants. But the productivity of the farming system would be much higher if the current fallow land was developed as pasture with recommended legume and non-legume grasses and used for grazing.

The magnitude of linkage coefficients demonstrates that the forward linkages (crop, CPRs and fallow lands to livestock) as well as backward linkages (livestock to crops and CPRs) were quite robust under the goat based farming systems. Stronger linkages among different components of the farming system enhanced the sustainability and economic viability of the system. The forward linkages were however stronger as compared to backward linkages. The livestock to crop linkages were observed to be generally weak which could be due to low cropping intensity and massive substitution of manure by chemical fertilizers and bullocks by tractors.


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Goat rearing contributed the major share of the total farm income in both the goat based farming systems and provided livelihood security to the farm family giving a net annual income of Rs. 1,539 to Rs. 1,654 per goat. Its share in the household’s total income was 35 to 37 percent and contribution in the total farm income was 41 to 43 percent. Per hectare net returns of rain-fed goat based farming system were 60 percent higher than the crop based farming system. That indicates the better economic viability and sustainability of goat based farming system in arid Rajasthan. The net returns per man-day from goat rearing were not significantly different under both the farming systems viz. rainfed and partially irrigated.

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that the goat based farming systems evolved by the farmers in arid Rajasthan were not only economically viable but also sustainable. Diversification and strengthened linkages among different components of the farming system had a synergistic effect on functioning of the entire farming system and resulted in higher income. However, the farmers would be able to generate more income, if the existing goat production is finely tuned with the modern goat rearing practices. The innovative idea of farmers of keeping part of their land fallow for grazing their goats and sheep during the lean season needs to be used as an opportunity to encourage the farmers to develop this fallow land as pasture with recommended legume and non-legume grasses. Moreover, provision of market information, enhancing competition in milk and live animal market through organized efforts, access to improved technologies, critical inputs like vaccines, improved fodder seeds, and easy institutional finance were identified to be crucial for strengthening the goat based farming systems in the area. This model could be used for replication for the farmers of other similar arid regions.

REFERENCES

1. Jodha, N.S. 1990. Rural Common Property Resources: Contribution and Crisis. Foundation day lecture, Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development, New Delhi.

2. Pasha, A.S. 1991. Sustainability and viability of small and marginal farmers: animal husbandry and common property resources. Economic and Political Weekly, 26 (13): A27-A30.


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S4-P1: Integrated Rice-Duck-Fish Farming System in Lowland for Coping with Drought and Increased Income in Chattisgarh

D.S. Thakur, S.K. Patil, D. Khalkho and R.L. SharmaAll India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland Agriculture,

S.G. College of Agriculture & Research Station, IGKV, Kumhrawand, Jagdalpur (C.G.) - [email protected]

ABSTRACTStudy was undertaken at Village Turangur, Pirmeta & Lalaguda (Block Bastanar); Turenar, Kalcha & Bhataguda (Block Jagdalpur); Bolbola & Jadebendri (Block Kondagaon); and village Tahakapal, Guniapal & Tandpal (Block Tokapal) in 40 acres area in Bastar district for integration of rice-duck-fish farming systemsthe DPAP watersheds, IWDP, NREGP for water resource creation, whereas duck-fish farming through National Agriculture Innovation Project by College of Agriculture & Research Station, Jagdalpur have been implemented. Integrated rice-duck-fish farming system in lowland rice fields increased net income and also improved nutritional security to tribal farming even in drought year.

INTRODUCTION The region of Bastar in Chhattisgarh situated in southern part represents a unique blend of nature and people. More then 60 percent area is under forest and the tribal community dominated in this bio-diverse zone. Paddy is main livelihood system in Bastar region having drought as a major constraint. The region has only 2.5% double cropped area whereas the rainfall is quite high (1200-1400 mm) with excellent potential of water harvesting (550-650 mm surplus). The harvesting of water is attempted through several government schemes (DPAP, IWDP, NREGP) with limited successes. Existing practice is either no utilization of harvested water in ponds or very limited fish culture. The fish culture is not adopted by farmers as they cannot afford fish feed.

METHODOLOGYThe present study was undertaken at Village Turangur, Pirmeta & Lalaguda (Block Bastanar); Turenar, Kalcha & Bhataguda (Block Jagdalpur); Bolbola & Jadebendri (Block Kondagaon); and village Tahakapal, Guniapal & Tandpal (Block Tokapal) in 40 acres of district Bastar in Chhattisgarh. Primary data was collected from selected minor millets growers. Data was collected through personal interview method with the help of pre-tested questionnaires. The details enquiry was done in the year 2008-2009.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION TechnologyIn lowland rice fields, small farm ponds (30*30m) were dug as per farmer’s preference. The rice fields were modified by digging a trench (length as per field condition, width 2m and depth 1m) at bottom side of the field. Small ditch (3m dia and 1m depth) is also provided connected to trench. The duck and fish culture is introduced in farm pond as well as in rice fields. The ducks @ 350/ha (in 9:1 female: male ratio) and fish fingerlings were introduced in farm pond and rice fields. The soil from trench and ditch is used by farmer for field leveling / bund repair. Vegetables to compensate the loss of rice yield due to trenches and ditch.


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PerformanceAdoption of this technology in low land rice fields benefited to the rice crop due to conservation and efficient utilization of water available in farm ponds as well as in trenches in drought year of this 2009 kharif. This also helped in booking up of integrated duck-fish farming in many low land rice fields.

Impact and Up scalingThis technology is suitable for low land rice farming situation which is about 20% of cultivated area in Bastar (150000 -175000 ha). If this technology is up-scaled even to 5% of lowland rice area it is likely to have very large impact on net income and food and nutritional security of tribal farmers.

Recommended domainBastar, Narayanpur, Dantewada, Bijapur and Kanker districts of Chhattisgarh. It can be excellent model for NREGP.

REFERENCES1. Bhuiyen, S.I. and R.S. Ziegler. (1994). On-farm rainwater storage and conservation system for drought alleviation:

issues and challenges, in S.I. Bhuiyan (ed), On-farm Reservoir Systems for Rainfed Ricelands, IRRI, Los Banos.

2. Garrity, D. P. (1992). On-Farm research methods in the uplands: selecting an experimental approach in Rice Farming Systems Technical Exchange 2(3), Asian Rice Farming Systems Network (IRRI) and Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute (UPLB).

S4-P2: Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies for Rainfed Crops and Fodder Production Systems in Namakkal District, Tamilnadu

S. Alagudurai, C. Sharmila Bharathi, M. Daisy, S. Shanthi Priya, A. Natarajan1 and B. Mohan

Krishi Vigyan Kendra,TamilNadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences UniversityVeterinary College and Research Institute Campus, Namakkal -637 002

1Associate Professor & Technical Officer, Agromet Advisory Services, AFAQCL, VC & RI, Campus, Namakkal-2

ABSTRACTKrishi Vigyan Kendra, Namakkal is a knowledge centre for imparting skill oriented training programmes to farmers and extension functionaries pararelly propagating new technologies in Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries, based on cropping seasons and rainfall availability of this district. It is located in 11 09’ 42.1” Latitude, 78 09’ 26.7” Longitude, and at an Altitude of 192 m MSL. Over the last twenty –five years the annual mean rain fall was 906 mm at VC &RI, Namakkal. Rain fall distribution was erratic, occurrence of long dry spells and early withdrawal of monsoon often resulted in low and unstable crop yields. Under these circumstances Krishi Vigyan Kendra initiated biweekly agromet advisory bulletins through local seven newspapers since June 2008 and so far 170 bulletins have been given during 2008 and 2009. The Rainfall Pattern for the last two years are as following.


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Rainfall Season Predicted Rainfall (in mm)

Actual Rainfall (in mm)

Percentage of actual rainfall recorded

compared to prediction

SWM (June 08 to Sep 08) 314.5 371 117.96

NWM (Oct 08 to Dec 08) 349 367 105.16

Winter ( Jan 09 to Feb 09) 4 1 25.00

Summer (Mar 09 to May 09) 188 65 34.50

SWM (June 09 to Sep 09) 237 272 114.77

NWM (Oct 09 to Dec 09) 230 213 92.61

Advisory bulletins given for pulses

Advisory bulletins given for Groundnut Impact of prediction with farmers feed back

17 9

Groundnut growing farmers - 50% water saving was due to rainfall prediction (only two irrigations were given).

Fodder crop growing farmers – 60% of water saving and only 8 irrigations were given.

In paddy mat nursery, germination percentage was low (30%) due to heavy rain pour during NEM.

Rainfed green gram yields at Namakkal district was recorded up to 300 kg/acre.

In the above situation farmers are advised to go for cultivating new improved drought tolerant varieties, implementing micro irrigation systems and moisture conservation techniques, and introducing new fodder varieties as a major component for livestock farming. Based on the above rainfall pattern demonstration and distribution of drought tolerant varieties such as VRI -7, TMV -13 in Groundnuts, VBN -4, 5 in Black Gram and VBN -2, Co- 7 in green gram has benefited small and marginal farmers. Farmers were advised through advisory bulletins to cultivate drought tolerant varieties with seed treatment, foliar spray of 2% DAP for flowering and 1% KCl to overcome drought, incidence of pest & diseases and control measures. Farmers were trained to grow fodder trees like Subabul, Glyrecidia, Erythirina and Sesbania to meet the green fodder requirement during summer. Propagating soil and water conservation technologies like mulching, intercropping, and cover cropping, composting techniques have also been periodically advised.


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S4-P3: Spatial Distribution of Enteric Methane Emissions from Ruminant Livestock in Andhra Pradesh

D.B.V. Ramana, A. Vijaya Kumar, D. Sudheer and B.M.K. RajuCentral Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad-500 059

ABSTRACTRuminant livestock (cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat) is the major anthropogenic source of methane emission from agriculture. Methane represents a loss of energy to the animal and also an important green house gas that significantly contributes to global warming. District wise methane emission from enteric fermentation of different ruminant livestock categories in Andhra Pradesh was estimated using dry matter intake approach. The estimated total enteric methane emission was 0.81Tg. Buffaloes alone contributing 57.4% of total enteric methane emission followed by indigenous cattle (27.0%), sheep (8.7%), crossbred cattle (3.9%) and goat (3.0%). Total enteric methane emission was highest in Prakasham (0.054 Tg) district and lowest in Hyderabad (0.002Tg). However, emission density (kg/km2) was highest in Hyderabad (9.82) and lowest in Cuddapah (1.83) district compared to average of the state (2.96). The ruminant livestock in five rainfed districts (Adilabad, Anantapur, Kurnool, Mahaboobnagar and Ranga Reddy) of the state contribute a quarter of the total emissions. Studies in developing the inventory in methane emissions at block/village level and mitigating the same through research, institutional and policy support are explored.

INTRODUCTIONRuminants depend on microorganisms to digest plant cell wall polysaccharides present in coarse crop residues into energy sources. However, microbial digestion in the rumen also results in waste products, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) and approximately 6% of dietary gross intake energy is lost to the atmosphere as CH4 (Holter and Young, 1992; DeRamus et al., 2003). Methane contributes to climate change and global worming (Johnson and Johnson, 1995) by trapping outgoing terrestrial infrared radiation 20 times more effectively than CO2, which leads to increased surface temperatures and it indirectly affects atmospheric oxidation reactions that produce CO2. Livestock contributes about 18% of the GHC emissions, and as much as 37% of anthropogenic methane, mostly from enteric fermentation (Chhabra et al. 2009). In India, the major (59%) GHG emissions from the agriculture sector are from enteric fermentation (Singhal et al. 2005). Various attempts have been made earlier to estimate the enteric methane emissions from Indian livestock. The current study is an attempt to estimate the total methane emission from different categories of animals in 23 districts of Andhra Pradesh using data from published reports on actual measurement of methane emission from feed intake.

MATERIALS AND METHODSData on livestock census, 2003 (DAHD) was used in this study. Only 70% of the total population of young animals of cattle and buffaloes (in the age group of 0–1 year) has been considered for methane emission. The livestock are grouped in different categories depending upon their sex, age, type and productivity. Cattle and buffalo have been categorized into dairy and non-dairy. Cattle are further categorized into crossbred and indigenous. Body weights have been taken from published reports. Total DMI by each subcategory is worked out as percentage of body weight based on literature survey. Feed intake in terms of kg DMI/100 kg livestock body weight/day is estimated. Methane emission has been calculated taking into account methane conversion factor in g CH4/kg DMI from published reports and dry matter intake of animals (Singhal et al. 2005; Swamy and Bhattacharya, 2006).


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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAndhra Pradesh possesses 47.2 million ruminant livestock (2003 census) with a high degree of diversity in its composition (Table 1). Among the ruminant livestock categories, sheep dominate with 44.5% followed by buffaloes (22.5%), cattle (19.7%) and goat (13.3%). The estimated total enteric methane emission was 0.81Tg. Buffaloes alone contributing 57.4% of total enteric methane emissions followed by indigenous cattle (27.0%), sheep (8.7%), crossbred cattle (3.9%) and goat (3.0%). Among the buffaloes, milch animals are contributing maximum (62.65%) enteric methane emissions followed by dry animals (17.0%) and heifers (10.27%), where as draught animals (49.77%) are contributing maximum in cattle category. District level spatial distribution of total enteric methane emission (Tg) estimated (Table 2). Total enteric methane emission was highest in Prakasham (0.054 Tg) district and lowest in Hyderabad (0.002Tg). Buffaloes (0.045 Tg) and sheep (0.004 Tg) are contributing to 91.02% of emissions in Prakasham. Guntur, Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Anantapur, Warangal and Krishna are in the high category with total enteric methane emissions above 0.04 Tg, followed by moderate emissions (0.03-0.04 Tg) in Karimnagar, Khammam, Adilabad, Kurnool, Nellore, Vishakapatnam, Chittore, Medak and East Godavari district. Vijayanagaram, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy, Srikakkulam, Cuddapah and west Godavari are in low emission category (below 0.03 Tg) Estimates indicate maximum emissions are contributed by indigenous cattle, crossbred animals, small ruminants in Adilabad (57.13%), Chittore (41.6%) and Mahaboobnagar (27.53%) districts, respectively due to respective population in highest number. However, emission density (kg/km2) was highest in Hyderabad (9.82) and lowest in Cuddapah (1.83) district compared to average of the state (2.96). The ruminant livestock in five rainfed districts (Adilabad, Anantapur, Kurnool, Mahaboobnagar and Ranga Reddy) of the state contribute a quarter of the total emissions (0.20 Tg). This is because of dependence of ruminant livestock on coarse crop residues available in those areas. Studies in developing the inventory in methane emissions at block/village level and mitigating the same through research, institutional and policy support are explored.

REFERENCES1. Chhabra, A., Manjunath, KR, Sushma Panigrahy and Parihar, J.S. 2009. Spatrial pattern of methane emissions

from Indian livestock. Current Science, 96: 683-689.

2. DAHD, 2003. Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, 17th Livestock census of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.

3. Deramus, h.a., Clement, T.C., Giampola, D.D., Dickison, P.C. 2003. Methane emissions of beef cattle on forages: efficiency of grazing management systems. Journal of Environment Quality, 32: 269-277

4. Holter, J.B. and Young, A.J. 1992. Methane production in dry and lactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science, 75: 2165-2175

5. Johnson, K.A. and Johnson, D.E. 1995. Methane emissions from cattle. Journal of Animal Science, 73: 2483-2492

6. Singhal, K.K., Mohini, M., Jha, A.K. and Gupta, P.K. 2005. Methane emission estimates from enteric fermentation in Indian livestock: dry matter intake approach. Current Science, 88:119-127.

7. Swamy, M. and Bhattacharya, S. 2006. Budgeting anthropogenic greenhouse gas emission from Indian livestock using country –specific emission coefficients. Current Science, 91: 1340-1353.


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Table 1. District-wise livestock population and methane emission density (kg/km2) in Andhra Pradesh.

District

Indigenous cattle

Crossbred cattle Buffaloes Sheep Goat Total

LivestockMethane

Population Emission density

Adilabad 862059 3053 301014 581268 328797 2076191 2.38Anatapur 650264 45120 410604 1897450 503275 3506713 3.40Chittore 352299 483211 141448 958872 247413 2183243 2.51Eat Godavari 204347 43594 514624 118376 137668 1018609 2.67Guntur 101257 4164 961037 765084 180134 2011676 3.33Hyderabad 1704 2653 31400 240 11841 47838 3.27Cuddapah 152797 6493 447169 970412 371208 1948079 3.29Karimnagar 450599 17174 441361 1626083 317379 2852596 3.20Khammam 570261 1039 565810 323723 291501 1752334 3.38Krishna 93622 8680 849263 421259 136045 1508869 9.82Kurnool 424916 4393 458913 1146253 386974 2421449 2.42Mahaboobnagar 698421 32493 356269 3336335 509341 4932859 2.18Medak 405191 16661 367350 973573 369945 2132720 1.83Nalgonda 521912 11593 592271 1821782 404137 3351695 2.15Nellore 152343 3998 634401 781987 182692 1755421 4.66Nizamabad 310463 5326 333989 773309 235715 1658802 2.82Prakasham 117825 1512 1029356 1146502 294830 2590025 4.30Ranga Reddy 282238 22354 272342 641540 318646 1537120 2.65Srikakulum 487053 207552 156764 498060 185493 1534922 3.05Visakhapatnam 328288 56456 483798 207929 225502 1301973 4.80Vijayanagaram 308068 91983 253180 510942 197350 1361523 3.08Warangal 563888 14123 486779 1328543 327611 2720944 3.79West Godavari 153245 23776 540746 166001 113431 997199 3.78Andhra Pradesh 8193060 1107401 10629888 20995523 6276928 47202800 2.96

Table 2. Livestock categorywise and district-wise estimates of enteric methane emissions (Tg) in Andhra Pradesh.

DistrictIndigenous

cattleCrossbred

cattle Buffaloes Sheep Goat Total Livestock

Enteric methane emissions (Tg)Adilabad 0.02171 0.00009 0.01326 0.00193 0.00129 0.038Anatapur 0.01793 0.00128 0.01879 0.00632 0.00201 0.046Chittore 0.00898 0.01373 0.00628 0.00315 0.00096 0.033Eat Godavari 0.00521 0.00124 0.02312 0.00038 0.00052 0.030Guntur 0.00283 0.00012 0.04269 0.00259 0.00072 0.049


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Hyderabad 0.00004 0.00008 0.00196 0.00000 0.00005 0.002Cuddapah 0.00427 0.00018 0.01888 0.00322 0.00147 0.028Karimnagar 0.01331 0.00049 0.01959 0.00557 0.00121 0.040Khammam 0.01459 0.00003 0.02350 0.00106 0.00112 0.040Krishna 0.00247 0.00025 0.03601 0.00142 0.00053 0.041Kurnool 0.01181 0.00012 0.02057 0.00388 0.00158 0.038Mahaboobnagar 0.01921 0.00092 0.01564 0.01146 0.00203 0.049Medak 0.01106 0.00047 0.01593 0.00331 0.00149 0.032Nalgonda 0.01351 0.00033 0.02506 0.00611 0.00155 0.047Nellore 0.00389 0.00011 0.02731 0.00266 0.00073 0.035Nizamabad 0.00851 0.00015 0.01400 0.00255 0.00094 0.026Prakasham 0.00336 0.00004 0.04524 0.00391 0.00117 0.054Ranga Reddy 0.00784 0.00064 0.01206 0.00217 0.00124 0.024Srikakulum 0.01243 0.00590 0.00738 0.00160 0.00071 0.028Visakhapatnam 0.00885 0.00160 0.02247 0.00065 0.00085 0.034Vijayanagaram 0.00809 0.00261 0.01163 0.00169 0.00075 0.025Warangal 0.01546 0.00040 0.02188 0.00442 0.00126 0.043West Godavari 0.00393 0.00068 0.02368 0.00054 0.00043 0.029Andhra Pradesh 0.21928 0.03146 0.46696 0.07058 0.02459 0.813

S4-P4: Effect of Elevated Co2 Level on Biomass Yield, Quality and In Vitro Digestibility of Groundnut Haulms

D.B.V. Ramana and M. VanajaCentral Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad-500 059

[email protected]

ABSTRACTGroundnut (Arachis hypogia) crop grown in three open top chambers (OTCs) with 3 levels of CO2 (700ppm, 550ppm, ambient level) was evaluated during Kharif 2007. The effect of elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) on the total biomass yield, haulms yield and nutrients concentration, in vitro degradability of nutrients (dry matter and organic matter) of haulms produced were compared. The total biomass yield and groundnut haulms yield were significantly higher (P<0.01) in 700ppm CO2 level followed by, 550ppm and ambient control fields. The crude protein content of groundnut haulms was (P<0.05) higher under ambient conditions, where as lower under elevated CO2 levels. Organic matter and ether extract contents were comparable among the treatments, however higher crude fibre and nitrogen free extract (NFE) contents were observed with elevated CO2. Similarly neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) contents were also increased with increase in CO2 level. The in vitro dry matter degradability (IVDMD) and organic matter degradability (IVOMD) of groundnut haulms produced under elevated CO2 was slightly lower compared to ambient conditions.


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INTRODUCTIONThe current ambient level of atmospheric CO2 (about 370ppm) is a limiting factor for maximum photosynthesis (Tolbert and Zelitch, 1983) especially in C3 plants like groundnut. Increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration has been shown to increase growth and development of grain and fodder producing crops (Morgan, 2001). However, the response of plants to elevated CO2 differs from one species to another due to alteration of C/N ratio. Most reports indicate that elevated CO2 decreases nitrogen concentration (Rogers, 1994), increased accumulation of nonstructural carbohydrates (Heagle et al., 2002), increased fibre concentration (Owensby, 1996) and decreased in vitro digestibility of forage (Morgan et al., 2004). Hence, in this study an attempt was made to document the effects of elevated CO2 level on total biomass yield, haulms yield and nutrients concentration, in vitro degradability of nutrients (dry matter and organic matter) of groundnut haulms.

MATERIAL AND METHODSGroundnut (Arachis hypogia, cv. JL 24) was grown in alfisols inside the open top chambers with 3 CO2 levels (700ppm, 550ppm, ambient level). Pure CO2 gas used for increasing the CO2 level by injecting into the chamber through a regulator and circulating pump. The flow of CO2 – air mixture was adjusted with help of a flow meter to get the target concentration of CO2 (550/700 ppm) above the plant canopy level inside the OTC. Similar OTC was used as ambient control (ambient CO2) wherein free air was injected inside instead of CO2-air mixture. Two OTCs were maintained for each level of CO2 and crop was raised in four 1 m X 1 m plots. The groundnut crop was harvested at 110 day and haulms were collected. The groundnut haulms were initially air dried and then oven dried at 60 ± 5°C. Dried samples were ground to pas a 2 mm sieve in a Wiley Mill. They were analyzed for organic matter (OM) and crude protein (CP) (AOAC, 1995) and cell wall constituents (Van Soest et al., 1991). In vitro digestibility of dry matter and organic matter was analyzed (Tilley and Terry, 1963). Statistical analysis of the data was done following the methods of analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Panse and Sukhatme, 1967).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONExposure to elevated CO2 increased the growth of groundnut plants and resulted in increased groundnut haulms production (Table 1). This increase in growth is because of the portioning of greater amounts of assimilated carbon towards growing organs (Pal et al., 2004). An increase in biomass due to increase in the number of branches/leaves has been reported (Sasek and Strain, 1991) under elevated CO2. Crude protein (CP) content in groundnut haulms declined in elevated CO2 grown plants as compared with ambient control. This is due to the oxidation of photosynthetic intermediates generates reductants for nitrate assimilation (Plaut and Littan, 1974) and altered nitrogen metabolism. A reduction of 0.8 - 4.8% CP was observed (Table 2). However, the total CP increased (36.3-163.9%) when expressed on a unit land area basis (Pal et al., 2004). Crude fibre (CF) and fibre fractions (NDF and ADF) were also increased with increase in CO2 level. The IVDMD and IVOMD of groundnut haulms (Table 3) were decreased (0.8-1.4 and 1.1-1.5%, respectively) with increase in CO2 level and this would be due to changes in foliage chemistry as a result of increased concentration of secondary compounds (Booker et al. 2005). Some experiments have shown very little change in digestibility (Lilley et al. 2001), while others (Owensby et al. 1996) have shown a pronounced decrease in digestibility when foliage was exposed to higher CO2 concentrations (>700 ppm) and over longer periods (Mutifering et al. 2006). The study indicating that elevated CO2 would influence growth and foliage chemistry thus results in quantitative and qualitative changes in biomass depending on the CO2 concentration level, period of exposure and species of plant.


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REFERENCES

1. AOAC, 1995. Animal feeds. Official Methods of Analysis, 16th ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Virginia, USA, pp. 1-18.

2. Booker, F.L., Prior, S.A., Torbert, H.A., Fiscus, E.L., Purley, W.A. and Hu, S. 2005. Decomposition of soybean grown under elevated concentrations of CO2 and O3. Global Change Biology, 11: 685–698

3. Heagle, A.S., Burns, J.C., Fisher, D.S. and Miller, J.E. 2002. Effects of carbon dioxide enrichment on leaf chemistry and reproduction by twospotted spider mites (Acari: Tetranychidae) on white clover. Environmental Entomology, 31: 594–601

4. Lilley, J.M., Bolger, T.P., Peoples, M.B. and Gifford, R.M. 2001. Nutritive value and the nitrogen dynamics of Trifolium subterraneum and Phalaris aquatica under warmer, high-CO2 conditions. New Phytologist, 150: 385–395

5. Morgan, J.A., Mosier, A.R., Milchunas, D.G., LeCain, D.R., Nelson, J.A. and Parton, W.J. 2004. CO2 enhances productivity, alters species composition, and reduces digestibility of shortgrass steppe vegetation. Ecological Applications, 14: 208–219

6. Morgan, J.A., Skinner, R.H. and Hanson, J.D. 2001. Nitrogen and CO2 affect regrowth and biomass partitioning differently in forage of three functional groups. Crop Science, 41: 78–86.

7. Mutifering, R.B., Chappelka, A.H., Lin, J.C., Karnosky, D.F and Somers, G.L. 2006. Chemical composition and digestibility of Trifolium exposed to elevated ozone and carbon dioxide in a free-air (FACE) fumigation system. Functional Ecology, 20: 269–275

8. Owensby, C.E., Cochran, R.C. and Auen, L.A. 1996. Effects of elevated carbon dioxide on forage quality for ruminants. Carbon Dioxide, Populations, and Communities (eds C. Koerner & F. Bazzaz), Physiologic Ecology Series. Academic Press, London. pp. 363–371.

9. Pal, M., Karthikeyapandian, V., Vanita Jain, Srivastava, A.C., Anupam Raj, Sengupta, U.K. 2004. Biomass production and nutritional levels of berseem (Trifolium alexandrium) grown under elevated CO2. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 101: 31–38

10. Panse, V.G., Sukhatme, P.T., 1967. Statistical Methods for Agricultural Workers. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.

11. Plaut, Z. and Littan, A., 1974. Interaction between photosynthetic CO2 fixation products and nitrate reduction in spinach and wheat leaves. In: Avron, M. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Phtotosynthesis. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 1507–1516

12. Rogers, H.H., Runion, G.B. and Krupa, S.V. 1994. Plant responses to atmospheric CO2 enrichment with emphasis on roots and the rhizosphere. Environmental Pollution, 83:155–189

13. Sasek, T.W. and Strain, B.R. 1991. Effect of CO2 enrichment on the growth and morphology of a native and introduced honey suckle vine. American Journal of Botany, 78: 69–75.

14. Tilley, J.M.A. and Terry, R.A. 1963. A two-stage technique for in vitro digestion of forage crops. Journal of the British Grassland Society, 18: 401–411.

15. Tolbert, N.E. and Zelitch, I. 1983. Carbon metabolism. In: Lemon, E.R. (Ed.), CO2 and Plants: The Response of Plant to Rising Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. Westview Press, Boulder, pp. 21–64.

16. Van Soest, P.J., Robertson, J.B., Lewis, B.A. 1991. Methods for dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre and non-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science, 74: 3583-3597.


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Table 1. Biomass and groundnut haulms yield (g /plant) under different CO2 levels.

Treatments Total Biomass Yield Groundnut haulms yield

Ambient Control 8.31 2.33

550ppm CO2 9.69 3.20

700 ppm CO2 13.11 6.46

Table 2. Nutrient constituents’ concentration in groundnut haulms under different CO2 levels.

Treatments OM CP CF EE NFE NDF ADF Total Ash

Ambient Control

87.19 ± 0.01

9.11 ± 0.01

27.32 ± 0.01

3.23 ± 0.01

46.98 ± 0.30

51.60 ± 0.09

42.50 ± 0.07

12.81 ± 0.01

550ppm CO287.40 ±

0.019.04 ± 0.02

27.76 ± 0.01

3.21 ± 0.01

48.04 ± 0.22

51.05 ± 0.11

42.04 ± 0.07

11.95 ± 0.22

700 ppm CO287.91 ±

0.018.67 ± 0.02

27.92 ± 0.02

3.20 ± 0.01

48.12 ± 0.24

59.69 ± 0.14

54.95 ± 0.04

12.09 ± 0.12

Table 3. In vitro digestibility of dry matter (IVDMD) and organic matter (IVOMD).

Treatments IVDMD IVOMD

Ambient Control 63.64 ± 0.11 60.94 ± 0.02

550ppm CO2 63.12 ± 0.03 60.24 ± 0.03

700 ppm CO2 62.76 ± 0.09 60.02 ± 0.03

S4-P5: Climate Change Impacts on Rainfed Livestock Farming in India

S.P.S. Somvanshi, Ashutosh, S.V. Singh, Syma Ashraf, Anil Kumar, Rita Rani and R.C. Upadhayay

Dairy Cattle Physiology Division, NDRI, Karnal – 132 001

ABSTRACTIn India rainfed area is about 68% of total net sown area of 136.8 m ha of the total sown rainfed area, 48 percent is under food crops production and rest 62 percent is under non-food crops. Livestock plays an important role in the sustainability of poor people of rainfed areas. As the inherent risks are involved in the crop farming due to uncertainty of rainfall and occurrence of recurrent droughts in these areas, livestock make a significant contribution to food production through the provision of high biological valued animal protein; Livestock indirectly also supports crop production through draught power and manure; and finally, Income for the rural people through the sale of milk, meat, manure, wool and energy in the form of draught power. The ambient temperatures is showing decreasing trends in almost all the northern parts of the country (north of 23°N) and rising trends in the southern parts (south of 23°N). Whereas surface air


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temperature is increasing at the rate of 0.21ºC per 100 years. Trends in Tmax-Tmin show increase by 0.4ºC and 0.1ºC per 100 years. According to climate projections, onwards 2041-2080 average surface temperature raised by 2- 4°C, marginal changes in monsoon months and large changes during non-monsoon months. According to these projections, rainy days are likely to decrease by more than 15 days and intensity of rains increased by 1-4 mm/day. Also the frequency and intensity of cyclonic storms will also Increase. Impact of climate change is generally negative on livestock. Heat stress has a variety of detrimental effects on milk production and reproduction and their fertility in livestock. Pastures and fodder crops are vulnerable to the climate variability, particularly increased variability of precipitation; seasonal water availability and chronically low soil-nutrient availability, which appear to be the most limiting factors for the fodder crops in the country. Livestock distribution and productivity could be indirectly influenced by the changes in the distribution of climate variability-induced livestock diseases in country. Inherent climatic variability makes adaptation unavoidable. Adaptation depends on the cost of adaptive measures, existence of appropriate institutions, access to technology, and biophysical constraints like land and water resource availability, soil characteristics, genetic diversity, topography to assess carefully the impact of future climate change on the managed and unmanaged ecosystems. Important strategies in coping with the climate change includes soil and water conservation; better runoff management; improved rainwater harvesting; improved management of irrigation systems; and recycling wastewater. Changes on grazing availability and conditions, especially in semi-arid areas are some of the important aspects that sequence adequate attention. Improvement of nutrition and genetics in ruminant livestock, storage and capture technologies for manure, and conversions of emissions into biogas, ensured and efficient use of fertilizers are likely to help in reduce GHG emissions.

Session - V

Social and Economic Impacts,Risk Management and Policy Issues




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S5-O1: Key Drivers for Successful Adoption of Rainfall Insurance by Farmers and Assessment of Changes in Rainfall Pattern for Identifying the Need for Improvements in Pricing of Rainfall Risks: A Case of Gujarat

Natu Macwana and Raghvendra SinghSajjata Sangh, Gujarat.

ABSTRACTAgriculture is a risky means of livelihood and those involved in it are exposed to multiple risks. Climatic factors like precipitation and temperature contribute significantly to variations in yield and prices leading to instability in income from agriculture in India where more than half of the net-sown area is rainfed. Even irrigated areas are influenced by the distribution over time and space of weather parameters like rainfall. Most traditional risk management systems are inefficient and informal risk management strategies fail to protect the households in the eventuality of covariate adverse shocks like crop failure on account of adverse monsoon (deficit or excess rainfall over the season). These shocks are further magnified in rural areas where financial markets are incomplete and the imperfect land, labour and credit markets are inter-locked.

INDTRODUCTIONAfter conducting a trial of rainfall insurance relatively early in 2006, it was only during the Kharif, 2009 season that Sajjata Sangh helped its partner NGOs achieve a spectacular leap in farmer enrollment under rainfall insurance. This paper looks at the salient aspects of the approach followed by Sajjata Sangh to give boost to its weather insurance programme. The insights from the rainfall insurance initiative of Sajjata Sangh during Kharif, 2009 can be instrumental in guiding organizations and policy-makers for improving the risk management capacities of rainfed farmers through weather insurance. The rainfall insurance product development exercise with Sajjata Sangh for Kharif, 2009 revealed a marked change in the rainfall pattern of Gujarat when basic rainfall parameters for the 6 years (2003-2008) were compared with those for the preceding 10-14 years. Insurers in India have been employing historical burn analysis (HBA) as the preferred approach for pricing weather risks. HBA involves taking historical values of the index, which may be based on raw, cleaned, and possibly detrended weather data, and applying the contract in question to these index values. The flip side of the simplicity of HBA is that it can induce distortions in premiums of weather-based crop insurance products, if significant changes in weather pattern have taken place over the years for which historical values of weather index are computed. A detailed investigation of rainfall data of Gujarat for 15-20 years has been undertaken to assess and validate the changes in rainfall pattern of Gujarat. This investigation may provide a pertinent case for reviewing the HBA method of rate making and identifying plausible improvisations to accommodate the evolving rainfall patterns in general, and rainfall patterns of Gujarat in particular. Premiums for rainfall insurance that account for changes in rainfall patterns can help in fixing the price-value relationship for customers (mainly farmers) and risk-return relationship for insurers. Gujarat the impressive growth of agriculture in Gujarat has been concomitant with an apparent change in the rainfall pattern of the last 7 years (2003-09). During the same period, Weather-based Crop Insurance has also been able to emerge as a potent tool in India to protect incomes of farmers against an uncontrollable and high impact factor like weather. This paper originates from our observations in early 2009 while working on


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the development of rainfall insurance contracts for many locations across Gujarat. This exercise was part of a larger initiative under which farmers associated with NGO members of Sajjata Sangh were to be provided protection against rainfall risks during the Kharif 2009 season.

METHODOLOGYThe criticality of weather data to this paper necessitated intensive usage and analysis of secondary data. The identification of locations for statistical analysis of rainfall variables was based on non-probabilistic multi-stage sampling. In the first stage, six zones were selected out of the eight agroclimatic zones defined by the Government of Gujarat. The two zones with the highest and the lowest average annual rainfall were dropped. In the second stage, three talukas were selected from each of these six agroclimatic zones based on the availability of a long series of daily rainfall data. In the third and final stage, the key statistical parameters of rainfall (cumulative seasonal rainfall, monthly rainfalls, number of rainy days, days of heavy rainfall incidence etc.) of the eighteen selected talukas from the six agroclimatic zones of Gujarat were assessed for difference in rainfall pattern through Two-Sample Test of Means and ANOVA.

RESULTSThe analysis of total seasonal rainfall (rainfall from 1st June to 31st October) for nine talukas across three agroclimatic zones of Gujarat revealed significant differences in case of six talukas for the two historical time periods. The reference time periods for assessing changes in rainfall pattern were 1991 to 2002 (period 1) and 2003 to 2008 (period 2).

REFERENCES1. Hellmuth M.E., Osgood D.E., Hess U., Moorhead A. and Bhojwani H. (eds) 2009. Index insurance and climate

risk: Prospects for development and disaster management. Climate and Society No. 2. IRI, Columbia University, New York, USA.

2. World Bank 2005. Managing Agricultural Production Risk – Innovations in Developing Countries. World Bank, Washington, DC.

S5-O2: Area-Specific Weather Forecasts, Dissemination, and Farmers’ Timely Adoption – Now a Reality

H. Venkatesh1, G.G.S.N. Rao2, S.N. Kulkarni1 and V.U.M. Rao2

1University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad 2Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad

[email protected]

ABSTRACTThe farmer is in need of a weather forecast that caters to his day to day field applications. Presently the forecasts are made available to him through mass media at district level on Tuesdays and Fridays for next five days. Such advice can be put to use by the farmer only on the next day, i.e., twenty four hours after the first issue of the forecast by the India Meteorological Department (IMD). In addition to this, many other limitations have been noticed while adopting these forecasts. To overcome these, it was found necessary to


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develop location specific forecasts – say, at Taluka or District level – and provide the same to the farmers immediately – i.e., morning, evening or night – and/or as and when the farmer requests. The present day information and communication technology which is available at low cost is a boon in this context. This paper provides methods for basic interpretation of meteorological charts and satellite imageries, and dissemination of the forecast to the farmers, as a successful extension activity for agrometeorologists.

INTRODUCTIONInarguably, weather forecasting is the most beneficial scientific task in India; yet it is the most challenging one, and the limitations are visible in spite of great strides in understanding the atmospheric phenomena. On the other hand, the frequency of adverse meteorological situations is already on the increase and is expected to shoot up as indicated by the proposals of climate change scenarios. This thrusts a greater challenge for the forecaster.

Accuracy of weather forecasts decreases with increase in time domain, i.e., the short range forecasts are more accurate than the medium range forecasts. Short range forecasts are issued for larger spatial domain (Meteorological sub-divisiton) which makes it less usable. Even though medium range forecasts are issued for smaller spatial domains (district), many times the forecasts need updating within the five-day period due to changes in occurrence/movement of weather systems. The utility of even short range forecasts at smaller spatial domain would be limited as the lead time available for the farmer to act would be insufficient. Due to these limitations and contradictions in time and space domain, neither of these forecasts could be efficiently made use of in agriculture. Our present attempts show that it is possible not only to provide area-specific short range forecasts, but also get them to the palm of the farmer with all the lead time possible, for immediate adoption. These attempts are being made in Bijapur and Bagalkot districts of Karnataka as part of AICRP on Agrometeorology, and extended to other districts namely, Belgaum and Koppal. Some times, when in need of a forecast urgently for their field operations, the farmers contact the Agromet Field Units (AMFUs), which are ill-equipped to provide any information in addition to that provided by the IMD on Tuesdays and Fridays.

However, if these AMFUs are manned by experts who can infer synoptic charts and satellite imageries, it would be possible to provide location specific weather updates to the farmers, through mobile phones, who can make immediate use of the same without any time lag. Such forecasts of cloudiness and rainfall will be highly beneficial to the farmers to take up or refrain from spray, harvesting etc. Here we provide a simple procedure to generate short range forecast and its immediate dissemination to the end user. Examples of a few beneficiaries are also provided to indicate the efficacy of the system.

METHODOLOGYThe data and images from the websites www.sat.dundee.ac.uk and www.imd.gov.in were liberally made use of for generation of the forecasts. Analysis of the meteorological charts – particularly the mean sea level pressure and 925 hpa streamline maps – was made for 12-hourly temporal dynamics in sea level pressure and wind flow patterns. With this background, the outputs of satellite imageries that provide cloud pictures at 6-hourly interval are analyzed on temporal domain for the cloud movement and density changes to draw area specific inferences.


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Some of the criteria analysed are: Track of a depression/cyclone, and changes in its direction like recurving, convective activity within the system, position of the monsoon trough, its inclination, presence of cyclone in the vicinity that imbalances the monsoon trough effect etc. Interpretations are made and weather forecasts in terms of occurrence or otherwise of rainfall and cloudiness are developed. RESULTSForecasts were provided to farmers on 1) Specific area cloudiness, rainfall, dry spell in the next two days, 2) Presence and movement of depression /cyclone and its possible influence on the area, 3) Approximate time (Morning/afternoon - evening/night) of occurrence of rainfall during the day and 4) Wind direction, temperature and relative humidity in winter. Forecasts were earlier provided to farmers upon enquiry over phone. Now, the latest innovation of SMS messages technology through internet is used to send the real time weather forecast to the farmer. This facilitates the farmer to utilize the forecast with maximum lead time. The farmers who adopted pro-active measures based on our forecasts have been benefited in the following terms – saving of spray, spray before attack of disease, timely harvesting of field crops, saving the grape crop for next season, protection to grapes at the time of raisin making. The benefits range from a few hundred rupees per quintal of produce to a few thousand rupees per acre depending on the crop and situation. A few examples are given below.

Farmer & Village Forecastprovided

Forecastused for Benefits / savings

Mr. Shivaji Dege,Aheri (2007)

No rainfall in next 3-4 days

Spraying was deferred

Saved one spray costing Rs.4000/- per acre.

Devanayak,Honawad (2008)

Rainfall expected within 24 hr

Immediate spraying for disease

Saved losses to the extent of Rs, 60,000/- per acre. Others who had no F/c failed here.

ShivalingappaMarebaddi,Mugalkhod (2009)

Chances of rainfall aftertwo days

ImmediateHarvest ofsoybean

Got Rs. 1900/- per quintal against 1400/- of others who harvested after rainfall event

Mahalingappa Neze, Nidoni (2009)

Rainfall in evening/ night

Sprayed only in morning hours

Protected crop for next year in early pruned grapeSaved the late pruned grape berries

Krishnappa,Shivanagi (2009) Routine forecasting Sowing, harvesting,

spraying

The good forecasts helped him and his co-farmers in timely management without tension of the coming weather

The number of such contact farmers has risen from one person in 2003 to 2005; five in 2006, twenty in 2007; fifty in 2008 to about one hundred and fifty in 2009. Each contact farmer passed on the forecast information to his friends and neighbours, and they were also benefited. This can be considered as the sole indicator of the benefits that can be accrued by area-specific forecasts and their dissemination techniques.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe authors are thankful to Dr. B. Venkateswarlu, Director, CRIDA, Hyderabad for his encouragement in pursuing this activity.


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S5-O3: Adaptability of Indian Agriculture to Climate Change: NABARD’s Initiatives for Sustainable Agricultural Development

E.V. Murray and K.C. BadatyaNational Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD),

Andhra Pradesh Regional Office, [email protected]

ABSTRACTClimatic changes in the form of rising temperature and erratic rainfall leads to frequent droughts and floods resulting in variability in agricultural production. Dominance of rainfed agriculture and with no ample success on research on rainfed farming accentuated the problems of instability and variability of agricultural output in India. The multi dimensional impact of climate change has further aggravated the problems in the form of threat to crop production and food security. Government has initiated several social sector/development schemes emphasizing livelihood security, welfare of the weaker sections, and rural infrastructure as adaptation related activities to climatic variability as a result of which India’s expenditure on adaptation as a percentage of GDP increased from 0.9 per cent in 2004-05 to 2.2 per cent in 2006-07. Government’s ‘National Action Plan on Climate Change’ (NAPCC), which focuses attention on eight priority National Missions gives a roadmap for supporting adaptable/ sustainable agriculture. NABARD‘s adaptation strategies to climate change emphasizes on NRM “enhancing livelihoods and quality of life of the rural community through improved resource conditions”. Since inception, NABARD has done pioneering and innovative work in NRM sector through its programs like Watershed development, WADI program under Tribal Development Fund, Rural Habitat Programs, Environment Promotional Assistance, RIF and FIPF, etc. NABARD has also experimented with Farmers Club (FCs), JLGs, SHGs as means of peoples’ participation in management and development of NRM sector. Considering NABARD’s role in NRM sector, in future, NABARD would be in a position to play a pivotal role through rural financial institutions to achieve the mission as envisaged in NAPCC.

INTRODUCTIONIndian agriculture is affected by climatic changes (CC) in terms of erratic rainfall leading to frequent droughts and floods resulting in variability in agricultural production. Although the production of foodgrains increased more than four fold from 50.8 million tones in 1950-51 to 230.7 million tonnes in 2007-08, it has witnessed a slow and unsteady growth since independence, attributing itself to adverse conditions, especially erratic rainfalls and droughts. Eexcessive use of irrigation water, chemical fertilisers and pesticides resulted in water logging, salinity and lowering of groundwater table in certain areas, leading to loss in soil fertility/ productivity and affecting the incomes and health of the rural people. Added to this, global warming and climate change have had adverse impact on production and productivity of agricultural crops. Government has initiated several social sector/ development schemes, as adaptation related activities to climatic variability and also released ‘National Action Plan on Climate Change’ (NAPCC). India’s expenditure on adaptation as a percentage of GDP increased from 0.9 per cent in 2004-05 to 2.2 percent in 2006-07. Since its establishment in 1982, NABARD, as an apex institution committed itself to ‘promote equitable and sustainable agriculture’ within the country. This paper attempts to assess the variability of Indian Agriculture and NABARD’s initiatives for adaptation to CC in promoting sustainable agriculture through management of natural resources with people’s participation.


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METHODOLOGYThe paper endeavors to address two basic objectives. First, to recapitulate the extent and impact of climate change and the variability in agricultural production due to erratic rainfall and droughts; second to assess NABARD’s adaptation strategies for mitigating the impact of climate change with evaluation of two of its flagship adaptation programmes, i.e., watershed development and micro irrigation initiatives, taken up under WDF and RIDF. Data from Economic Surveys, CMIE, NABARD’s Annual Reports was put to use for addressing the objectives. Impact assessment of watershed and micro irrigation projects was carried out through primary data collected from four watersheds (194 beneficiaries) in Chittoor and Cuddapah district and 174 sample micro irrigation farmers from three districts, i.e., Mahabubnagar, Ananthapur and Ranga Reddy. The ‘pre and post situation analysis’ (comparative static analysis) was used to find out the net impact of the investment on both watershed and micro irrigation projects. The mathematical relation studied to calculate water saving is Q = (75 x e x HP)/ (w x H) and SWRs = Q x 3600 x N x PH, where, SWRs -Seasonal water requirement (m3), Q-Discharge of the pump (m3/ Sec), PH-Average pumping hours per Irrigation, N-Number of irrigation per season, e-Efficiency of Pump, HP-Horse Power of the Pump, w-Specific weight of the water (1000 kg/m3) and H-Total operating head (m).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSVariability in Agricultural ProductionWhile during 1949-50 to 1964-65, the growth in area contributed to the growth in crop production, during 1965-66 to 1979-80 and 1979-80 to 1989-90, growth in yield resulted in increased foodgrains output. Two major negative features of agricultural growth are (i) instability in year-to-year production and (ii) inter regional and inter crop disparities in production performance. During the last 5 decades, there were 12 major drought years with wide spread failure of rainfall leading to large-scale decline in foodgrains production. The foodgrains output during the drought years as compared to the foodgrains output in the immediately preceding years showed that Indian agriculture is still subject to a considerable degree of instability as area expansion had become a relatively declining component of growth and yield as a source of growth and variability in agricultural production has increased significantly (Badatya 2005). The multi dimensional impact of climate change has further aggravated the problems in the form of threat to crop production and consequently food security (Mitra 2009).

Adaptation to Climate Change: NABARD’s InitiativesNABARD‘s adaptation strategies to climate change emphasizes on natural resource management (NRM) “enhancing livelihoods and quality of life of the rural community through improved resource conditions”. Since inception, NABARD has done pioneering/innovative work in NRM through its programs like Watershed development, WADI program for tribal development, infrastructure development under RIDF, Rural Habitat Programs, Environment Promotional Assistance, Rural Innovation Fund and Farm Innovation and Promotion Fund (FIPF) etc. NABARD has experimented with Farmers Club (FCs), as means of peoples’ participation in development (NABARD 2009). Micro finance through SHGs has become a powerful tool for fighting poverty and growth of microenterprises (Karmakar 2008, Badatya 2006).

Impact Assessment of Watershed and Micro Irrigation Projects(a) Watershed ProjectsThe impact assessment of watershed projects supported under Watershed Development Fund (WDF) in Andhra Pradesh revealed that various structures created under watershed programme benefited the


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surrounding areas to enhance soil moisture and recharging of wells, tanks, etc. as a result of which the irrigation coverage increased by about 39.6 per cent in the post watershed (PoW) period. The cultivable area increased in the PoW period during kharif (9.9%), rabi (48.8%) and summer (30.8%) seasons. There is also reduction in distress migration from the villages surrounding the watershed areas because of improved agricultural production and farm diversity. It declined by 119 per cent in the PoW period.

(b) Micro Irrigation ProjectsSimilarly, impact assessment of micro irrigation systems supported under Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF) in A.P. revealed that seasonal water requirement (SWR) for sweet orange, guava, groundnut and vegetables came down by 41, 57, 26 and 16 percent, respectively in the post micro irrigation period. There was an increase in land use which had gone up by 23.4 per cent in the post MIS period. The irrigated area of sample farmers increased from 191.05 ha. in the pre MIS to 311.74 ha. in the post MIS. Shift in the cropping pattern from field crops like, jawar, bajra, paddy to different horticultural crops like, banana, grapes, pomegranate, floriculture and fig was also observed in the post MIS period. The change in the cropped area was highest in the case of mango (615%), followed by Sapota (590%), papaya (204%), etc.

REFERENCES

1. Badatya, K.C. 2005. “Managing Risks of Drought in Indian Agriculture: Role of Credit Institutions” Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol.18 (Conference No.), pp 19-34.

2. Badatya, K.C., Wadavi, B.B. & Ananthi S. 2006. “Microfinance for Microenterprises: An Impact Evaluation of SHGs”, Evaluation Study Series No. 17, NABARD, AP Regional Office, Hyderabad

3. Govt. of India. 2009. “Economic Survey 2008-09, Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance,

4. Karmakar, K.G. 2007. “Trends in Agricultural Finance”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 62, September-December, No.4.

5. Mitra, S.K. 2009. “Climate Change and Agriculture”, Key Note Address at Consultative Meet on Impact of Climate change on Agriculture & Farmers Adaptations, organized by WWF, West Bengal and Natural Resource Management Center (NRMC), 13 October,

6. NABARD 2009. “Annual Report 2008-09, NABARD, Mumbai.

S5-O4: Making Index-based Rainfall Insurance Work for RainfedAgricultural Households: Lessons from a Field Experiment in India

Sarthak GauravIndira Gandhi Institute for Development Research, Mumbai.; [email protected]

ABSTRACTThis paper attempts at improving our understanding of the determinants of adoption of index-based rainfall insurance which is designed to protect the crop incomes of rainfed farmers from covariate rainfall shocks. Using a randomized experiment aimed at investigating the impact of financial literacy and insurance education on the take up of a financial innovation like rainfall insurance the variations in adoption of the market-based risk instrument is examined. The level of adoption is low, the differences between the


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treatment group and the comparison group are statistically significant and village wide variations in adoption are drastic. Controlling for observed variables from survey data and analysis of daily rainfall data during the coverage period, we arrive at a better explanation of the patterns in adoption and identify key barriers to the diffusion of this promising innovation.

INTRODUCTIONRainfed agriculture is an extremely risky economic activity due to its critical dependence on weather conditions and rainfall risk can be considered as the single most important weather related risk factor that aggravates the vulnerability of the preponderant rainfed farming households in India. With low investment potential and poor coping ability these households are at the greatest risk of falling into debt and poverty traps in the eventuality of adverse weather shocks. Given the multiple risks embedded in the livelihood of these vulnerable communities, the stimuli and corresponding response to stimuli is of immense significance. Most traditional risk management systems are sub-optimal and informal risk management strategies are inefficient as they fail to protect the households in the eventuality of covariate adverse shocks and catastrophic idiosyncratic shocks. The vulnerability of resource poor farmers and landless agricultural labourers is aggravated by the multitude of uninsured risks in conditions where the full-insurance opportunities are absent. Traditional coping mechanisms and adaptation strategies like drought proofing by mixed cropping, changing varieties, crops and sowing time, matching crop phenology with weather and water availability and diversifying income sources are not always efficient and effective against aggregate climatic shocks and disasters. Climatic shocks amplify in rural areas where financial markets are incomplete and the imperfect land, labour and credit markets are inter-locked. These preconditions dictate the need for formal insurance for rainfed farming.

The idea of crop insurance which emerged in India during the early part of the twentieth century was fiercely debated post-independence (Hazell et al 1986) and significantly operational only in the nineties (Mishra 1996, Skees et al 1999). It is still evolving in terms of scope, spread and structure. There are huge coverage gaps in terms of farmers benefitted and crops being covered under the state-sponsored and heavily subsidized National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS), a multi-peril, area based crop insurance scheme that is mandatory for loanee farmers. Gross regional disparities in terms of farmers covered, premium collected, claims reported and claims settled. The alternative indexbased weather insurance products (microinsurance products) that were developed to overcome the defects in the traditional crop insurance schemes could address the problems of moral hazard, adverse selection, high administrative costs, inadequate indemnification levels and large units of insurance. In addition, it brought in a paradigm shift by reducing the high turnaround times and poor servicing and claims management of the traditional crop insurance products (Manuamorn 2007). These index-based products are contingent claims contracts for which payouts are determined by an objective weather parameter (such as rainfall, temperature, or soil moisture) that is highly correlated with farm level yields or revenue outcomes. The weather parameters can be used as a good proxy for the actual losses incurred by farmers. The underlying index used for an index insurance product must be correlated with yield or revenue outcomes for farms across a large geographic area. In addition, the index must satisfy a number of additional properties that affect the degree of confidence or trust that market participants have that the index is believable, reliable, and has low measurement errors. These protect the farmers against covariate weather shocks and not idiosyncratic household specific weather risks. In spite of the drastic improvements over the existing schemes, rainfall insurance products have to deal with the issues of relatively higher premium rates of around 10-12 percent compared to the highly subsidized (around 75 percent) crop insurance schemes. Today the coverage of these customized products is only a fraction of the already low current coverage levels of crop-insurance in spite of the financial innovation being


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around for over six years now). Adaptive capacities of farming households are also heterogeneous leading to differential responses to exogenous environmental shocks. Hence, understanding agricultural production risks due to climatic factors and how farming households manage them is integral to our understanding of the human development consequences of adverse climatic events. This calls for an in-depth understanding of the barriers to adoption of formal risk management techniques by rainfed agricultural households, more so, at a time when the uncertainties around the direction and impact of climate change on agriculture is set to be a major concern for the livelihoods of the exposed communities who already lead a precarious existence in their survival against the adversity that nature throws them into. Thus, it is imperative to design and implement appropriate insurance programmes that protect the crop incomes of rainfed agricultural households. The real need and challenge in managing weather risk in Indian agriculture hinges around making it work for these low-income farm households in a sustainable and scalable manner. This paper attempts at explaining what works and what does not work in the context of rainfall insurance for resource poor rainfed farmers in India.

METHODOLOGYAnalysis of daily rainfall data during the policy period and the observed pay out data at the end of the season has been conducted to understand the discrepancy between realized rainfall conditions and pay outs extended. The product design has been assessed against actual rainfall conditions experienced during the season and feedback from farmers. A randomized field experiment involving 600 farmers in the study villages to explore the impact of financial literacy training on adoption of rainfall insurance is being evaluated and the results from the field studies, focus group discussions and cross-sectional survey seeking information on socio-economic, agronomic, demographic factors, financial literacy levels, rainfall experience and risk perceptions and attitudes provides a deeper understanding of aspects of adoption and functionality of instruments like rainfall insurance as a viable option for resource poor rainfed farmers.

RESULTSThe adoption of rainfall insurance has been low, the differences between the treatment group and the comparison group are statistically significant and village wide variations are drastic. Controlling for observed variables from the survey data, we arrive at a better explanation of the patterns in adoption. An important finding is that the pay out performance has been poor and this can be accounted to the poor calibration between realized farm outcomes and rainfall conditions in the study villages. Basis risk emerges as a prominent barrier to the adoption of this costly product and significant product design improvements along with public investment in weather infrastructure are imperative to reduce the premium and sustain the adoption rates in times ahead.

REFERENCES1. Hazell, P., C. Pomareda and A. Valdés (eds.) (1986), Crop Insurance for Agricultural Development: Issues and

Experience, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London

2. Manuamorn, O. (2007) “Scaling-up Microinsurance: The Case of Weather Insurance for Smallholders in India”. ARD. DP 36, The World Bank. Washington D.C.

3. Mishra, P.K. (1996) Agricultural Risk, Insurance and Income: A Study of the Impact and Design of India’s Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme. Brookfield: Avebury Press.

4. Skees, J.R.; Hazell P.B.R. and M. Miranda (1999) New Approaches to Public/Private Crop-Yield Insurance. EPTD Discussion Paper No. 55. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington D.C.


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S5-O5: Climate Change: Perception and Adaptation Strategies of Farmers in Rainfed Farming Systems of Tamil Nadu

K. Palanisami, C.R. Ranganathan, S. Senthilnathan and GovindarajanTamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641 003, Tamil Nadu

[email protected]

ABSTRACTRain-fed agriculture is more susceptible to climate change because its climate inputs, viz., rainfall and temperature are very sensitive to climate change. In Tamil Nadu, more than 48 per cent of gross sown area is under rain-fed farming and hence understanding of adaptation strategies followed by farmers in these areas assumes special importance. This will help in framing adaptation policy options at regional levels and to formulate crop-insurance policies to overcome risk in agriculture. The present paper is an attempt to study various adaptation strategies currently followed by farmers in these regions of Tamil Nadu. The study included a sample of 180 farmers with 45 farmers in each of the four agro climatic zones of Tamil Nadu, viz., North Eastern, North Western, Western and Southern Zones. To elicit their perceptions of climate change, farmers were requested to choose one or more among the three options, namely, i) change in rainfall pattern or frequency ii) change in temperature and iii)decrease in ground water availability. For each option chosen by them, the farmers were requested to indicate the adaptation strategies followed by them from a list of 10 strategies. The study found that reduction in number of irrigations, change in cropping pattern and advancement or delaying of cropping seasons are the strategies followed by majority of farmers who perceive that climate change is caused by change in rainfall pattern. From those farmers who perceive climate change as change in temperature, a majority of them follow advancement or delaying of cropping seasons, change in cropping pattern and growing rain-fed crops. Also a majority of those who perceive climate change as decrease in ground water availability, follow change in cropping pattern, reduce the number of irrigations and grow rain-fed crops. The statistical analysis of data revealed that farmers’ perception on climate change depends on the agro climatic zones to which they belong while it is independent of their farm holdings.

S5-O6: Farmers’ Perceptions on Climate Change and its Impact onAgriculture in Malwa Plateau of Madhya Pradesh

M.P. Jain, S.K. Choudhary, R.S. Nema, Indu Swarup and M. PatidarAll India coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, College of Agriculture, Indore

[email protected]

ABSTRACTEighty-one farmers of Indore and Dhar districts covering 9 villages, having 10-60 years experience in the field of agriculture constitute the representative group of the farmers of the zone. The prevailing cropping systems in the zone were Soybean – chickpea (57% farmers) and Soybean - wheat (43% farmers). The representative group of farmers from the zone were interviewed based on questionnaire on 16th October 2008 in a Farmers’ awareness programme on climate change organized on the occasion of the World food day by All India coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, Indore centre at College of Agriculture,


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Indore. The questionnaire was prepared to know the farmers’ perception on climate change, its impact on agriculture and their preference for adaptation measures to mitigate its adverse effects in Malwa agro-climatic zone of Madhya Pradesh. Most of the farmers were of the opinion that atmospheric temperature played important role and was followed by rainfall pattern in the zone that affects crop production. 95% of the responded farmers expressed their views that monsoon pattern is changing with extended monsoon period (59% of responded farmers), extended breaks in monsoon (35% of responded farmers) and prolonged dry spell (33% of responded farmers) which brought change in cropping pattern of the zone. The crop growth was also adversely affected by change in monsoon pattern (31% of responded farmers). Maximum percentage of the farmers prefer to adapt ground water recharging measures (56% of responded farmers), improved irrigation system (51% of responded farmers) and pond water harvesting technologies (48 of responded farmers) respectively in order to cope up with drought situations. Out of 7- options of criteria in prioritizing choosing the adaptation options, farmers of the view that the proposed drought mitigation measures should be simple (69% of responded farmers), cost effective(28% of responded farmers), reliable (14% of responded farmers) and location specific (43% of responded farmers). The farmers used electronic (like television and Aakashwani) and print media (national and local dailies) for gaining agricultural information in respect of forecasting on climatic factors, occurrence of diseases and insects pests epidemic along with the operational remedies to overcome the situations and minimize its adverse effects on crops.

INTRODUCTIONClimate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather over periods of time that range from decades to millions of years. It can be a change in the average weather or a change in the distribution of weather events around an average. In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, climate change usually refers to changes in modern climate. It may be qualified as anthropogenic climate change, more generally known as global warming. Factors that can shape climate are climate forcing. These include such processes as variations in solar radiation, deviations in the Earth’s orbit, mountain-building and continental drift, and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. Therefore, the climate system can take centuries or longer to fully respond to new external forcing. Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) between the start and the end of the 20th century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century was caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases resulting from human activity such as fossil fuel burning and deforestation. The IPCC also concludes that variations in natural phenomena such as solar radiation and volcanism produced most of the warming from pre-industrial times to 1950 and had a small cooling effect afterward. India is experiencing reduced number of rainy days more extreme events of temperatures and rainfall. These extreme events caused droughts, floods, heat wave and cold wave in the region, which affecting agriculture adversely. Rainfed agriculture is the life of small and marginal farmers of the region. Rainfed agriculture faces challenges with regards to droughts, land degradation, low investment capability etc. The changing climate further exaggerated risks and uncertainties. The farmers have traditional knowledge to combat with the climate change. Thus, the present study was planned to evolve the strategies by combining farmers’ traditional knowledge, their past experiences in rainfed agriculture in scientific manner to manage the risk and protect livelihoods of small and marginal farmers of the zone.

METHODOLOGYThe present study was planned with the objective to discuss the effects of changing climate on Agriculture and frame out the strategies to minimize the risks and enhance the crop production under rainfed and


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aberrant weather conditions. One day “Farmer’s Awareness Programme on Climate Change” was organized on the occasion of the World Food Day on 16th October 2008 at Auditorium hall, College of Agriculture, Indore. Besides others, eighty-one farmers from eleven villages of Indore and Dhar districts of Malwa Agro-climatic Zone of Madhya Pradesh have attended the programme. A questionnaire was developed and was duly filled by interviewing with farmers who have attended the programme, to have the farmer’s views in these regards. Eighty-one farmers, having 10-60 years experience in the field of Agriculture, constitute the representative group of farmers of the zone were interviewed for the compliance of the study to have the ideas for coping up the adverse effects of changing climatic factors through the combination of farmer’s past experiences in a scientific way.

The questionnaire consists of quarries such as, how do you perceive climate variability? What are the impacts of climate variability on agriculture? What are the adaptation measures/options you are following to cope with climate variability (in case of droughts)? List the important criteria in prioritizing choosing the adaptation options? Any other important issue related to climate adaptation; list any climatic variability indigenous/traditional adaptation measures already in vogue. The points the emerged out from the duly filled in questionnaires form were discussed in results.

RESULTSIt is obvious from the present study that the group of respondents was the representative group of the Malwa zone of Madhya Pradesh. The farmers’ opinion comes out from the day long discussion has been summarized as below;

Prevailing cropping patternSoybean – Chickpea (57% of responded farmers) and Soybean – Wheat (43% of responded farmers) depending upon the availability of water in tanks, open wells, tube wells etc.

Experience in the field of AgricultureThe group of farmers consist of about 51 per cent farmers having 11 to 30 years experience of agriculture, followed by, 31 to 50 years experience (41%). 0 to 10 years experience (6%) and 51 to 60 years experience (2%). This shows that the group being the true representative sample of farmers of the zone.

How do you perceive climate variability? In rainy season, the crop production is influenced mainly on vagaries of monsoon such as, early/timely/delayed out break of monsoon, extended dry spell during crop growth period and early/timely/delayed cessation of monsoon. In winter season, the crop production is mainly depends on the availability of moisture in soil profile, harvested rainwater in tanks, ground water recharged during rainy season.

The 100% farmers responded for change in monsoon pattern out of which 95% ranked it first and 5% of them ranked second in their priority. For extended monsoon period, in all 69% farmers have given their views, of which 4% ranked first, 59% ranked second and 6% ranked third. With regard to extended breaks in monsoon, 97% farmers responded and out of which 1% ranked first, 35% ranked second, 20% ranked third and 42% ranked fourth. For prolonged dry spell only 5% farmers responded and that to they have ranked it fourth only. For ITKs, in all 97% farmers gave response, out of which 1% ranked second, 74% ranked third and 22% ranked fourth for this aspect of climate variability.


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What are the impacts of climate variability on agriculture? The impacts of climatic variability were observed as change in cropping pattern, crop growth, crop productivity and diversification into livestock /other enterprises / working as labour / migrations etc. While discussion, 64% farmers ranked first, 10% ranked second, 2% ranked third and 24 % ranked forth for change in cropping pattern due to climate variability. Change in crop growth due to climate change, only 31% farmers ranked first, 6% ranked second, 5% ranked third and 58% ranked fourth for it. Change in crop yield due to climate variability, only 5% farmers ranked first, 41% ranked second, 53% ranked third and only 1% ranked fourth. With regard diversification into livestock / other enterprises / working as labour / migrations etc., 43% farmers ranked it second, 40% ranked third and 17% ranked fourth.

What are the adaptation measures/options you are following to cope with climate variability (in case of droughts)?Various adaptation measures to cope up with drought conditions of the zone were discussed and the farmer’s perception have been depicted in the table given below, which clearly indicated that over all 78% farmers responded for improved irrigation systems of which 51% ranked it second in their priority. In all 76% farmers have gave their opinion for increasing water availability from farm ponds of which, 48% farmers ranked it third in their preference. For ground water recharge measures 96% farmers responded. Out of which 56% farmers ranked it first in their preference list. For cultivation of drought resistant crops / varieties, only 46% farmers have given their opinion and 19% farmers ranked second for this aspect. Ensuring for timely supply of inputs, 37% farmers have given their opinion and out of which 22% farmers ranked this aspect second. 72% farmers responded for better crop management measures and out of which 49% farmers ranked it fourth for this aspect.

List the important criteria in prioritizing choosing the adaptation options? While, listing the criteria for choosing the adaptation options for copping up drought in the zone, 64% farmers ranked fourth for cost effectiveness, 69% farmers ranked first for simplicity, 10% farmers ranked third for responsiveness, 6% farmers ranked second for flexibility, 73% farmers ranked third for reliability of techniques of copping up the drought conditions.

Table 1. Priority for various components experienced due to climate change

ComponentsFarmers’ response (%) on merits basis

I II III IV

Climate variability

Change in monsoon pattern 95 05 00 00

Extended monsoon periods 04 59 06 00

Extended breaks in monsoon 01 35 20 42

Prolonged dry spell 00 00 00 05

ITKs 00 01 74 22

Impacts of climate variability

Change in cropping pattern 64 10 02 24

Crop growth 31 06 05 24

Yield 05 41 53 01


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Diversification into livestock /other enterprises / working as labour / migrations etc.

00 43 40 17

Adaptation measures/options

Improved irrigation systems 10 51 17 00

Increased water availability from farm ponds 23 05 48 00

Ground water recharge measures like percolation tanks / construction of water harvesting tanks etc.

56 04 09 27

Drought resistant crops / varieties 10 19 01 16

Ensuring timely supply of inputs 01 22 01 07

Better crop management 00 00 23 49

Criteria for adaptation of options

Cost effectiveness 26 06 00 64

Simplicity 69 30 01 00

Responsiveness 00 01 10 00

Flexibility 00 06 00 00

Reliability 00 14 73 04

Location specific 00 43 16 01

Other important issue related to climate adaptation:

• Most of the farmers were of the opinion that atmospheric temperature played an important role and was followed by rainfall pattern in the zone that affects crop production.

• The media used by farmers for gaining agricultural information are television and radio, newspapers etc.

• Farmers are in view of that climatic factors are responsible for infestation of insect pests and diseases instead of crop growth.

• Almost all farmers do not use of weather forecasting information for agricultural activities. The farmers are experiencing extreme temperatures (both day and night temperature), erratic distribution of rains, more number of events of high intensity of rains, frequent occurrence of prolong dry spell etc. during crop season in the zone.

• The main reasons for climate change are decrease in forest area by irrational cutting of trees, followed by, increase in pollutions (air, water and soil) and frequently receiving low annual rainfall in the region.

Farmers often discussed amongst themselves about the changing climate over years. Thus, at the end certain points come out from the interaction between scientists and farmers are as under:

• Summer being very hot, the maximum temperature reaches above 40oC. More heat waves, droughts and water shortage due to climate change.

• Distribution of rainfall is being erratic, the crops face dry spell at various stages, which causes reduction in crop productivity, quality of the produce and increases the infestation of insects’ pests and diseases.

• Change in climate in terms of precipitation patterns and evapo-transpiration will directly affect soil moisture status, surface runoff and groundwater recharge.


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• Very low temperature during night, occurrence of frost in winter causes adverse effects on crop growth and development of Rabi crop at its seedling stage and thereby reducing plant stand in the field.

• The temperature rises in the month of Feb/March and the crops suffer from moisture stress at the time of grain filling stage so that seed size, seed quality and productivity deteriorate.

• Small and marginal farmers with subsistence farming and with low risk coping capacity are likely to suffer the most.

• Under impending climate change scenario, it is imperative to identify and develop crop varieties tolerant to heat and moisture stresses.

• Some plant and animal species might face the problem of extinction due to climate change.

At the end of the day the farmers of the opinion that their priorities to mitigate aberrant climatic conditions, the techniques of storage, collection and judicious use of rain water, measures for conserving moisture in soil profile for long period and to develop high sustainable yielding crop and varieties under limited soil moisture conditions should be given due emphasis to combat the situations arises due to changing climate.

REFERENCES

1. Anonymous 2008. Detail report on Climate change. The report of “Farmer’s Awareness Programme on Climate Change”, AICRPDA, College of Agriculture, Indore.

S5-P1: Farmers’ Perceptions and Adaptation Measures towards Climate Change in Ananthapur District of Andhra Pradesh

K. Ravi Shankar, K. Nagasree, M.V. Padmanabhan and B. Venkateswarlu

Central Research Institute for Dryand Agriculture, Hyderabad – 500 059

ABSTRACTAgriculture’s vulnerability to climate change will put millions of people in developing countries at greater risk of poverty, hunger, and malnutrition. A new report from the International Food Policy Research Institute, quantifying the costs of agricultural adaptation to climate change, provides projections for decreased crop yields, higher food prices, and increased child malnutrition by 2050, as compared to a scenario without climate change. It estimates that an additional US $7-8 billion per year must be invested to increase agricultural productivity to prevent these adverse effects. With this background, this study unearths the different adaptation measures towards climate change adopted by farmers in Ananthapur district of Andhra Pradesh. Farmers recognize the climatic changes by the rise in temperatures, prolonged dry spells, changes in monsoon patterns, delayed and shorter rains, and traditional knowledge on weather forecasts failing. Insurance on crop loans is the major adjustment of farmers to climate change. Planting contingent crops like sorghum, horsegram, korra and vegetables, changing planting dates of groundnut, augmenting water availability through increasing storage capacity of reservoirs, constructing water-harvesting structures, and working as labour under NREGA programme, are the major adaptation measures followed by farmers in case of drought. Important criteria for farmers in choosing the adaptation measures are that they should be simple, easy and reliable. Appropriate policy options for facilitating adaptation to climate change are suggested.


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INTRODUCTIONClimate change causes temperature, wind and precipitation to vary, with profound effects on natural systems. These in turn have effects on the health, safety and livelihoods of people, especially poor people. Nowhere in the world are as many people affected by climate change as in Asia and the pacific (Asian Development Bank Report, 2009).

METHODOLOGYA sample of 60 farmers from Pampanur village, Atmakur mandal of Ananthapur district was selected randomly for the study. Data was collected using a pre-tested interview schedule from the farmers. The objective of the study was to identify farmers’ perceptions towards climate change along with their farm-level adaptation measures with a view to suggest appropriate research/policy issues which help in facilitating farmers’ adaptation to climate change.

RESULTSFrom table 1, it is clear that farmers in Anantapur see rise in temperatures followed by prolonged dry spells, change in monsoon patterns, delayed and shorter rains and ITKs for weather forecast failing are the major farmers’ perceptions in that order of magnitude as signals of climate change.

Table 1. Farmers’ perceptions regarding Climate Change in Ananthapur

S.No. Farmers’ Perception Frequency* % Rank1. Rise in temperatures 57 95 I2. Prolonged dry spells 52 87 II3. Change in monsoon patterns 48 80 III4. Delayed and shorter rains 45 75 IV5. ITKs for weather forecast failing 43 72 V

Adaptation is widely recognized as a vital component of any policy response to climate change. Studies show that without adaptation, climate change is generally detrimental to the agriculture sector; but with adaptation, vulnerability can largely be reduced (Easterling et al. 1993; Rosenzweig and Parry 1994; Smith 1996; Mendelsohn 1998; Reilly and Schimmelpfennig 1999; Smit and Skinner, 2002). In Asia, farmers have traditionally observed a number of practices to adapt to climate variability. For example intercropping, mixed cropping, agro-forestry, animal husbandry, and developing new seed varieties to cope with local climate. Various water use and conservation strategies include terracing, surface water and ground water irrigation and diversification in agriculture to deal with drought. Preserving indigenous knowledge that is relevant to community level responses, studies on coping strategies, and gender specific vulnerability assessments were highlighted as important elements to determine adaptation options (UNFCC, 2007).

It is clear from table 2, that buying insurance, planting contingency crops, changing planting dates of groundnut, augmenting water availability through improved storage, constructing water harvesting structures, improving drought forecasting and working as labour in that order of magnitude are the major adaptation measures followed by farmers towards climate change in Ananthapur. This finding is consistent with that of Swanson et. al. (2008) who reported that crop insurance was widely used by farmers in Foremost and Coaldale regions of Canada and the common feeling was that even though it might not provide sufficient returns for losses incurred it does offer some protection. It has allowed them to continue farming.


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Table 2. Farmers’ adaptation measures towards Climate Change in Ananthapur

S.No. Adaptation Measure Frequency* % Rank

1. Buy insurance 56 93 I

2. Plant contingency crops 55 92 II

3. Change in planting dates of groundnut 48 80 III

4. Increase water availability through improved storage 47 78 IV

5. Construct water harvesting structures 45 75 V

6. Improved drought forecasting 44 73 VI

7. Work as labour 43 72 VII

*Multiple responses

CONCLUSIONLack of resource rights and insufficient access to markets, finance, information, and technology are often greater determinants of vulnerability for the poor than climate change itself (Schipper 2007, Ribot 2009). Capacity-building at local, national and regional levels is vital to enabling developing countries like India to adapt to climate change. Education and training of stakeholders, including policy-level decision makers, are important catalysts for the success of assessing vulnerabilities and planning adaptation activities, as well as implementing adaptation plans. Enhanced funding is required for adaptation projects in developing countries and needs to be increased in national budgets as well as in multilateral funds. It is also important to ensure integration of climate change risks into national development policies. For example, in Cuba, hurricane and disaster risk reduction is taught in schools and training is carried out for the entire population every year (Cuba 2001). The different policy options include raising awareness about climate change and the appropriate adaptation methods, facilitating the availability of credit, investing in yield increasing technology packages to increase farm income, creating opportunities for off-farm employment, conducting research on use of new crop varieties and livestock species that are better suited to drier conditions, encouraging informal social networks, and investing in irrigation. Additional information about farmers’ awareness of climate change and current adaptation approaches would assist policymakers in their efforts to decrease the country’s vulnerability to the adverse impacts of climate change (Temesgen Deressa et. al., 2008). As national and international policy makers turn their attention to climate change adaptation, they should keep in mind that constructing an enabling environment that minimizes these vulnerabilities will be central to any meaningful and lasting increase in the adaptative capacity of the rural poor.

REFERENCES1. Asian Development Bank Report 2009. Understanding and Responding to Climate Change in Developing Asia,

Manila, Philippines.

2. Cuba. 2001. Initial National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

3. Easterling, W.E., P.R. Crosson, N.J. Rosenberg, M.S. McKenney, L.A. Katz, and K.M. Lemon 1993. Agricultural Impacts of and Responses to Climate Change in the Missouri-Iowa-Nebraska Region. Climatic Change, 24 (1-2): 23-62.


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4. Manish Bapna, Heather McGray, Gregory Mock, and Lauren Withey 2009. Enabling Adaptation: Priorities for Supporting the Rural Poor in a Changing Climate, WRI Issue Brief: 12

5. Mendelsohn, R. 1998. Climate-change damages. In Economics and Policy Issues in Climate Change, ed. W.D. Nordhaus. Resources for the Future: Washington, D.C.

6. Reilly, J., and D. Schimmelpfennig. 1999. Agricultural impact assessment, vulnerability and scope for adaptation. Climatic Change 43: 745-788.

7. Ribot, J. 2009. Vulnerabilities do not just come from the Sky: Toward Multi-scale Pro-poor Climate Policies and Governance. Forthcoming, Washington, DC: World Bank.

8. Rosenzweig, C, and M.L. Parry. 1994. Potential impact of climate-change on world food supply. Nature 367:133-138.

9. Schipper, L. 2007. Climate change Adaptation and Development: Exploring the Linkages. Norwich, UK: Tyndall Centre Working Paper No.107. Online at:http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/working_papers/twp107.pdf

10. Smit B., and M.W. Skinner. 2002. Adaptation Options in agriculture to climate change: A typology. Mitigation and Adaptation strategies for Global Change 7:85-114.

11. Smith, J.B. 1996. Using a decision matrix to assess climate change adaptation. In Adapting to climate change: An international Perspective, ed. J.B. Smith, N. Bhatti, G. Menzhulin, R. Benioff, M.I. Budyko, M. Campos, B.Jallow, and F.Rijsberman. New York: Springer.

12. Swanson, D., Henry David, V., Christa Rust, and Jennifer Medlock 2008. Understanding Adaptive Policy Mechanisms through Farm-Level Studies of Adaptation to Weather Events in Alberta, Canada. Published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development, Canada: pp.72.

13. Temesgen Deressa, R.M. Hassan, Tekie Alemu, Mahmud Yesuf, Claudia Ringler 2008. Analyzing the Determinants of Farmers’ Choice of Adaptation Methods and Perceptions of Climate Change in the Nile basin of Ethiopia. FPRI Discussion Paper No. 00798. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C.

14. UNFCC (2007) Climate Change: Impacts, Vulnerabilities, and Adaptation in Developing Countries: 64

S5-P2: Response and Evidences of Farmers to Climate Change :A Case Study of Southern Rajasthan

S.K. Sharma, S.N. Sodani, R.K. Sharma, A.K. Kothari, K.C. Laddha and M.L. Jat

Dryland Farming Research StationMaharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur, Arjia, Bhilwara (Raj.)

[email protected]

ABSTRACTParticipatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques were adopted to document the observed evidences and response of farmers of various issues of climate change at district and village level in Bhilwara district of Rajasthan. The study at village level identified acute shortage of water for drinking and irrigation at the time of need as the most serious problem adversely affecting the agricultural production and productivity in comparison to period before 1995.


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Most of the farmers (90%) identified rainfall as the most important factor for changing climate in the region followed by temperature. About 38% of farmers follow traditional knowledge for cultivation of crops and 46% follow scientific methods. About 30% farmers of district stress upon the change in sowing time and cropping pattern in response to frequent aberrant weather changes, planting of trees and harvesting of water were important measures focused by 62% farmers to combat the increasing incidence of drought.

INTRODUCTION Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences (Obioha, 2009). The suitability of the environment to provide all life support systems and materials for fulfilling all developmental aspirations of man and animal is dependent on the stability of the climate which is undergoing constant changes (Rosennzweig and Parry, 1994). In India, ‘on a region’ basis, meteorological stations of southern and western India show a rising trend of 1.06 and 0.360C/100 year, respectively. Selected locations in central and southern India indicated a shift in monthly rainfall pattern moving towards to latter part of the south-west monsoon season (Rao et al., 2009).

Analysis of climatic data of Bhilwara district of Rajasthan for 45 years (1960 to 2004) at tehsil level showed that frequency of disastrous drought increased by 2.4 times during 1990 to 2004 in comparison to year 1960 to 1990 (Kothari, 2006). This indicates that climate of Bhilwara district of Rajasthan is shifting from sub-humid to semi-arid conditions.

The performance of livestock farms, the turnover of processors, the use of chemicals and fertilizers as well as the demand for many food products also depend on the weather. Hence, agricultural production and greater parts of agribusiness are affected by weather parameters.

A small aberration like drought in these regions may affect lakhs of human beings, livestock and crops and thereby crippling the economy. In order to reduce the impact of these weather-based risks on agriculture some viable options such as mixed cropping and use of indigenous crop production technologies etc. have been practiced in the Rajasthan. Scientifically a number of technologies are available to combat the ill effects of aberrant weather. But these practices can be better integrated with options adopted by the farmers.

In this endeavour, two studies, comprising one at village level and another at district level were conducted to document the observed evidences and response of farmers on various issues of climate change at regional level.

METHODOLOGY Village identification and location The first study, PRA to study responses of farmers to climate change, was conducted in the village Kochariya selected under the Operational Research Project on Dryland Agriculture situated in Bhiwara district of Rajasthan. The population of village is 1295, majority of the villagers are farmers and has low economic status. Maize is the principal crop and 82% area of total cultivated area is rainfed.

Different PRA techniques viz., Venn Diagram, Time Line, Time Trend, Activities Schedule, Matrix Ranking, Mapping etc. were used to study socio-economic condition and status of climate change in the area. The information provided by the villagers was verified under focused group discussion and finally cross checked with help of Government Officials at Tehsil level.


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In second study, about 74 farmers practicing agriculture in different villages of district were called in a meeting on climate change on 16th October, 2008 using systematic random sampling. In order to evaluate the perception of the farmers on weather related aspects, a simple questionnaire was prepared in the local language and circulated among the farmers and answers were filled in by the investigator in a face-to-face situation with respondents. Correlation coefficient, frequency and percentage were used for making meaningful interpretation. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Response of farmers at village levelTrend analysis identifies the increasing or decreasing trends of important aspects. Nine parameters were evaluated, taking 1985 as the bench mark year. Rainfall and ground water level decreased in the past but recently started declining due to the over exploitation from the tubewells (Fig. 1). The surface water also showed more or less similar trend. The land holding size decreased between 1985 to 2005 because of increase in population. Similar was the case with cultivated land. A graph was copied from the original graph made by a group of farmers on the soil at village Kochariya. Interestingly, this group of farmers was particular to make a distinction between quantum of rain (i.e. no. of rainy days) and moisture in soil (Fig. 2). There was an increasing trend in clusterbean and decreasing trend in area of vegetables, wheat and moongbean. Use of tank silt for moisture conservation and soil health, biofencing, growing of grasses in field sides, of FYM of blue bulls for spray on crops are common ITKs prevalent in the village for many years. This indicates that farmers are well aware of changing rainfall and groundwater levels which is attributed to the change in climatic conditions. However, they were also changing the crops as well as production practices which can make their production more sustainable.

Response of farmers at district levelSocio-demographic characteristicsOut of 74 farmers interviewed, only one was adult female. Majority of farmers (79.74%) between in age group of 21-50 years. Only 1.35% farmers were less than 20 years age (Table 1) With respect to educational status, results revealed that majority of respondents (74.33%) had primary and middle education while 4.05% were literate. Majority of the farmers had annual gross income of Rs. upto 50,000 per household. Only 4.05% farmers had an annual income between Rs. 76,000 to 1,00,000 per household. More than two-third (45.95%) respondent were having land holding between 1-2 ha. More than 37.84% farmers were having an experience of more than 15 years in farming. Only 9% farmers had experience of less than 5 years in farming. The plausible reasons for low to average status of farming inspite of good education status might be lack of encouragement in farming due to frequent drought and financial problem.

Awareness about climate change A glance at Table 2 reveals that most of the farmers (90%) reported about declining number of forest trees and range land and frequent change in monsoon events as the important signal of changing climate in the region. About 33 per cent farmers told about declining number of sparrow birds and lady bird beetle in the field in last 15 to 20 years. About 30 per cent farmers reported a need for a change in sowing time, increasing emphasis on intercropping and crop shift from maize to pulses and sesame, yield loss in mustard and wheat due to sudden rise in temperature and long dry spell adversely affecting maize yield as the main experiences about the climate change reported by the farmers of the Bhilwara district in past 10 years.


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Strategies to mitigate climate change

Regarding measures required to mitigate climate change farmers (62%) were found to plant large number of trees and recharge the water harvesting structures in the region. About 20 per cent farmers reported to grow pulses and sesame in place of maize to avoid the risk of crop failure due to frequent aberrant weather situations. Only 18 per cent farmers reported for sound training and capacity building on different aspects of weather forecasting and rainfed technologies.

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of study objects (n=74).

Characteristics Number Percentages Mean S.D.

1. Age (years)

Upto 20 1 1.35

21-30 20 27.03 20.9 5.6

31-40 19 25.68 34.4 2.5

41-50 20 27.03 43.9 4.8

51 & above 14 18.92 55.8 5.1

2. Education

Illiterate 16 21.62

Literate 3 4.05

Primary 26 35.14 3.5 1.9

Middle & above 29 39.19 8.7 1.6

3. Family members

Upto 5 37 50.00 5.8

6-10 35 47.30 7.5

Above 10 2 2.70

4. Annual income (Rs./year)

Upto 50000 70 94.59 27460

51000-75000 1 1.35

76000-100000 3 4.05

Above 100000 0 0.00

5. Experience in farm (years)

Upto 5 years 9 12.16 3.1 1.9

6-10 years 12 16.22 7.8 1.8

11-15 years 25 33.78 13.7 4.0

Above 15 years 28 37.84 26.8 8.1

6. Size of holding (ha.)

< 1.0 7 9.46 0.7

1-2 34 45.95 1.6

2-5 23 31.08 2.8

5 & above 10 13.51 8.6


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Table 2. Knowledge of respondents (n=74) about changing climatic conditions.

Knowledge about changing climatic conditions Frequency Percentage

(a) Change in time of onset of monsoon 35 47.30

(b) High rains and high temperature 10 13.51

(c) Low rains and high temperature 13 17.57

(d) Early onset of monsoon with early withdrawal 9 12.16

(e) Increasing drought 9 12.16

(f) Traditional agriculture practices in present climatic condition 11 14.87

(g) Not aware 2 2.70

Table 3. Knowledge of respondents (n=74) about effect of climate change on agriculture.

Effects Frequency Percentage

(a) Increase in number of agriculture labourers due to frequent droughts 14 18.91

(b) Change in cropping pattern on farm 4 5.40

(c) Change in growth pattern and period of crops 10 13.51

(d) Reduction in crop yield 33 44.60

(e) Diversified activities other than crop production are increasing 5 6.75

(f) Not aware 2 2.70

Table 4. Knowledge regarding measures to mitigate effects of climate change (n=74).

Effects Frequency Percentage

(a) Adoption of groundwater recharge techniques 7 9.46

(b) Water harvesting by farm pond/nadi etc. 12 16.21

(c) Increasing water use efficiency by adopting improved methods of ir-rigation 11 16.87

(d) Selection of drought tolerant crops and varieties 33 44.60

(e) Timely agricultural operations and use of inputs 5 6.75

(f) Change in sowing date of crops as per current climatic situations 7 9.46

(g) More emphasis on techniques of contingent 10 13.51

(h) Not aware 4 5.40


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REFERENCES 1. Annual Report. 2008. All India Coordinated Operational Research Project on Dryland Agriculture, Dryland

Farming Research Station, Arjia, Bhilwara (Rajasthan).

2. Chattopadhyay, N. and Lal, B. 2007. Agrometeorological risk and coping strategies – Perspective for Indian subcontinent. In : Sivakumar MVK, Mohta R (Eds). Managing weather and climate risks in agriculture. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, pp. xx – xx.

3. Kothari, A.K. 2006. Drought characterization and its management in rainfed agro-ecosystem of Bhilwara district in Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis, College of Technology and Agriculture Engineering, MPUAT, Udaipur : page 194.

4. Obioha, E.E. 2009. Climate variability, environment change and food security nexus in Nigeria. J. Hum. Ecol. 26(2) : 107-121.

5. Rao, GGSN, Rao, VUM, Rao, AVMS, Venkateswarlu, B., Mishra, P.K. and Gogoi, A.K. 2009. Farmers awareness programme on climate change in India. AICRPAM Tech. Bul. No. 1/2009. AICRP on Agrometeorolgoy. Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, pp. 28.

6. Rosennzwieg, C. and Parry, K.L. 1994. Potential impact of climate change on world food supply, Nature, 367 : 133-138.

7. Sinha, S.K., Kulshreshtra, S.M., Purohi, A.N. and Singh, A.K. 1998. Climate change and perspective for agriculture. Base Paper, National Academy of Agricultural Sciences. pp 20.

Groundwater situation of village Kochariya

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S5-P3: Climate Change Mitigation Through Natural Resource Management - Role of NABARD

Ajaya Sahu, Sukanta K. Sahoo, N. Shankara Rao and P.P. Desai

NABARD, Karnataka RO, Bangalore, 560002

The climate change is going to badly affect the south-east Asian farmers as they are mostly resource poor with small and marginal holdings and more than 70 per cent of the cultivable area is under high-risk rainfed farming. India has 2.4 per cent of the world’s geographical area and yet supports about 16.7 per cent of world’s human population; its 0.5 per cent of world’s grazing land supports 18 per cent of the world’s cattle population; 69 and 25 per cent of India’s geographical area comes under dry land and desert respectively. Thus, there is an enormous load on the natural resources, which often leads to unscientific and unsustainable land use. Added to the climate change, deforestation, over cultivation, over-grazing, indiscriminate ground water mining, poor irrigation practices, etc. at the local level are gradually turning the available land resources into unproductive degraded land, thereby threatening food security and triggering socio-economic crisis, especially in poor areas.

The answer to the challenge could be to focus on: (a) providing a support system for a sound infrastructure base for farming, (b) increasing efficiency of input supply and (c) orienting farming system to the market, which could ensure sustainable exploitation of natural resources and at the same time making the farming activity an attractive proposition and resilient to climate change and demand-side load.

To this effect, we have different natural resource management programmes and extension services from Government and other developmental agencies on one hand and private investment on the other hand. The banking sector provides the much needed credit support towards this endeavour.

NABARD, as a developmental financial institute, has been doing pioneering and innovative work in NRM sector through its various projects/ programmes besides extending soft loan/ refinance support to the Government and banks. Its programmes have community participation as the nucleus, where community based organizations play a key role with technical and financial cooperation from NABARD and other national and international level agencies like GTZ and KfW.

Amongst the flagship programmes/ activities in the NRM sector that continue to work towards protecting the environment and mitigating the risk of/ impact from climate changes are: Watershed development under Indo-German Watershed Development Project (IGWDP), Watershed Development Fund (WDF), Adivasi Development projects in Maharashtra & Gujarat, WADI programme under Tribal Development Fund (TDF), watershed projects under Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF). NABARD also promotes research & development (R&D), creating awareness and adoption of technology on CDM (clean development mechanism) projects for a greener earth through funding support from R&D fund, Environment Promotional Assistance (EPA), Rural Innovation Fund (RIF), Farm Innovation & Promotion Fund (FIPF), etc. These activities aim towards effective exploitation of the diverse rural resources on a sustainable basis. The latest addition to this endeavour is the Umbrella Programme on Natural Resource Management (UPNRM), which could help the farmer to evolve into an agripreneur, where the farm activities could be taken up on a commercial scale with credit support. Establishing a ‘bio-carbon fund’ is also being contemplated to promote projects aimed at carbon sequestration and reducing carbon foot print.


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NABARD broadly aims at achieving the following objectives through its NRM programmes:

i. Conservation, safe exploitation and regeneration of natural resources for productive use;

ii. Creating more sinks for mitigating the impacts of global warming / climate change through tree based farming system and land use and land use change for forestry (LULUCF);

iii. Diversification and buffering of farming systems and improving its resilience to long-term climate change;

iv. Socio-economic empowerment of women and landless;

v. Capacity-building of community based organizations for efficient management of common property resources;

vi. Increasing awareness and adoption of renewable sources of energy;

vii. Creating sustainable livelihood, reducing migration and ensuring environment protection.

The successful participatory mode of NRM measures initiated by NABARD in its different programmes has led to its adoption by almost all the Government programmes in this field to varying degrees. The adoption of tree based farming system, land-capability-based cropping / afforestation, scientific cultivation/ water harvesting measures, integrated nutrient management/ organic farming, clean kitchen/ kitchen garden, improved cattle shed, aerobic decomposition of cattle dung, energy saving devices like smoke less chullah coupled with alternate livelihood opportunities, especially for landless, women and marginal farmers along with tailor made capacity building / ToT (transfer of technology) programmes have helped the target rural community in securing food/ livelihood security.

In the state of Karnataka, under watershed development & tribal development projects an area of about 3.00 lakh ha area are being treated which aims at supporting sustainable livelihood for small and marginal farmers (SF/MF) of the state, through enrichment of the natural resources, adoption of tree based farming systems and appropriate farm practices coupled with need based capacity building of the community. All these have triggered in ensuring drought proofing to a large extent, transform the SF/MF from sustenance farming to productive farming, stabilizing the farm income and improve the capacity of the farmers to mitigate the impacts of climate change on crop yield and income in a better way. This has been a small step towards carbon sequestration and environment protection, yet a big leap in terms of discovering the ability of the community to have higher adaptability to the impacts of climate change.

Documents

National Symposium on - CRIDA · S1-P11 Integrated Farming System – A Mitigation Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture in addressing the Climate Change Needs B.K. Ramachandrappa,