National Examinations in Art

National Art Education Association

National Examinations in ArtAuthor(s): William BradleySource: Art Education, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Feb., 1980), pp. 20-24Published by: National Art Education AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3192444 .

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National Examinations in Art William Bradley The concept of examinations as

they are currently practiced in various countries did not directly derive from art teaching practices or from a particular need by the art world to make assessments of their own students. Examinations in art were eventually deemed important following general concerns for normalizing instruction toward agreed-upon standards. These concerns were first di- rected toward general literacy in read- ing and writing and the growing rec- ognition that certain pedagogies seemed superior to others in instruct- ing increasingly diverse abilities.

When serious interest began in es- tablishing a way of identifying individuals capable of pursuing university studies, the form and content of general examinations had been set by academic areas concerned with the political and social interests of established governments such as those of England, the United States, and France. Of these three, only England and the United States could be said to have remained resolved in their social interest in art instruction for more than 75 years.

Some countries, such as Germany and Denmark, have never established national examinations in art at the pre-college level. Until recently the United States had also avoided any concerted effort at nationally standardized art instruction.

Such reservations against examinations which systematically remove local control over curricula are not uncommon, even in countries where such examinations have a long history. These reservations continue to be centered in the art education world itself, despite external educational pressure to fall into the more accept- able and general pattern of the examined pedagogy.

I shall attempt to briefly describe national examinations as they currently exist in several countries and then to discuss specific examples of the differing emphases exhibited in the references contained herein.

Internal vs. External Assessment In England, recent moves have occurred which account for a general

disenchantment with remote or external standards for local teachers. In 1975, the Schools Council commis- sioned a group to critically study the established General Certificate of Education examinations with a rubric to recommend change. Based in New- castle upon Tyne and headed by Eddie Price of the Birmingham Polytechnic, the Art Group found one of the chief inadequacies of the En- glish examination system was that there were too many exclusions of tal- ent as it stood in relation to a diversity of emphases in the contemporary art world. That is, the examinations at the Ordinary ("O") level and the Ad- vanced ("A") level should balance between the theoretical and the practical. It was felt that there were several disadvantages to an emphasis either way. One of these disadvantages is particularly striking.

The disadvantage of an exclusively theoretical course would be-(iii) . . . (iv). It would exclude from the course con- crete exploration essential to the fulfillment and reinforcement of theoretical study. (Schools Council, p. 10)

This assertion would suggest that a shift (or at least an acknowledgement) toward internal evaluation is essential.

It should be noted with equal attention, however, that the same study group in England made a separate but equal assertion regarding the relation- ship of external to internal interpreta- tion of a pupil's progress:

It is considered that candidates in Art should be assessed internally with external moderation. This has the advantage of combining unbiased objectivity with a close knowledge of the individual circum- stances of the candidate. (Schools Coun- cil, p. 1)

Although this localization could be seen as an extension of a much earlier English decision to move in this direction, the Study Groups' report pro- poses a more radical attempt to bring to local school systems a share in the ultimate evaluation of their own pupils.

In Nigeria, localization of criteria is socially a necessity, for there are regional considerations which have developed over a long history of occupa- tion by various local and foreign powers. For example, the Islam region of Nigeria will not permit representation in art-making. There are, therefore, no examples within that region that would correspond to figural or natural-life studies. It is forbidden. But the Yoruba not only produce figural sculpture and other designs, they insist upon a tradition within art instruction to insure perpetuity. Other areas work almost exclusively with ceramics.

It is my view that no national assessment has occurred in countries such as France and Germany because of a longer history of a breach between theory and practice in those countries. In the United States sporadic moves have only been regional.

There are some apparent advan- tages to external evaluations as ex- pressed in Allison's paper regarding English examination practices.

The emphatic wish of the majority of art teachers not to be solely responsible for assessing their pupils' work is also based upon the belief that to actually act as the "assessor" may spoil the personal relationships which they, albeit temporarily, feel they develop with their pupils. Many feel more comfortable that the "good" or "bad" news regarding assessment should come from "anonymous authority." (Alli- son p. 75)

It has also been my experience that a general departmental assessment of a student's progress is considered less onerous than a personal rejection, although I have never subscribed to this view. There is usually a lesser reac- tion to a panel of judges than to the judgment of a single person, regard- less of his prestige. But this practice removes itself from the very issue that many art educators feel important: that the apprenticeship of a pupil is superior to his status as a pupil.

Another real advantage in external evaluation is the elimination or the diminishing of attention to trivial and

Art Education February 1980 20



uninspiring activity by poorly edu- cated teachers. People untrained in art thinking and in productive ways of knowing the world are often placed in classrooms for strictly economic con- venience. They often rely upon notions detrimental to art learning and are responsible for promoting a view of art process as idle time-consuming activity (e.g., the prepared kits; the imitative seasonal displays; and the subservience of manual activity to the service of social studies). External evaluation affords one way in which to insure some aspects of authentic art learning not found in these situations.

The issue of the marriage between external or remote examination of progress, and local, more intimate involvement in examination criteria is similar to the humanistic interest in subjective, individually based dis- covery as opposed to a social necessity enervated by social survival itself.

Examinations and Curricula It is reasonably clear that to establish any assessment is to produce a curriculum to accommodate it. There are issues raised around this fact which merit some discussion. And these issues are not peculiar to art. In fact, it is common to hear the accusation that pupils are being trained to score well on examinations. But a careful look into non-national examination countries provides only a slight clue toward a national intent. For even without national examinations, a national ethos prevails. I give, here, a Chinese example.

At the New Asia College of the University of Hong Kong, the entrance examinations demonstrate a national intent. While it is clear that little attention is apparently given to the expressive qualities of a pupil's work, considerable attention is given to an understanding of the history of the culture itself. In this way there is a clear national policy of educational intent without the necessity of a national examination.

One might suspect that in other countries (West Germany, Japan, Brazil, and Denmark) where no national examinations exist, the rubric for art education is similarly dissemi- nated.

In England, a case has been made by art educators themselves, for the value of a national curriculum. The Schools Council research groups were clearly in favor of a continuance of

"It is Reasonably Clear That to Establish Any Assessment is to Produce a Curriculum to Accommodate It. There Are Issues Raised Around This Fact Which Merit Some Discussion."

their national system under certain specified conditions (as, for example, the triadic distribution of areas: Theoretical, Complimentary, and Practical), wherein external examin- ers would join in with the local faculty to determine the rightness of criteria. Although the promotions of this report are post-secondary in nature, the endorsement is favorable to national assessment and curriculum development.

In Allison's paper, the connection seems clear:

External examinations, whatever their shortcomings, do have an important and influential effect on what goes on in schools throughout the whole of formal general education, particularly when teachers in schools are involved in their development. Despite this involvement at the interface of educational endeavor, however, teachers alone cannot provide the perspective from which meaningful curricula can be developed and realiza- tion of this will bring about the most positive developments in English art and design education. (Allison, p. 76)

Curriculum development in the United States is often linked to only the potential of national assessment. The aesthetic education movement of the Central Midwest Regional Labora- tory at St. Louis (CEMREL) attempted to specify what was to be learned in the art classroom (particularly the primary grades) and to bring to an assessable level the learnings produced. The results of this effort are still highly controversial and are not widely used.

The United States, however, has turned its contemporary educational thinking to servicing its national goals. This attitude is best found in the organization called National Assess- ment. This organization did not begin with art; it encompassed it. It was felt

that it would be possible to identify the art values of the country and to provide a means to assure that these values were phrased in a way which would insure perpetuity; certain his- torical elements were to be accommo- dated and linked to a notion of what young children should learn. The rec- ommendations of this organization were intended to affect the national goals. It was clear that relationships between these notions of history would be inculcated into a social order by requiring pupils to identify relationships with their culture. It is also suggested that certain process skills would be introduced to insure the social and cultural intent. So the curriculum proposed was to be in service of these goals. Unfortunately, the more intercultural aspects of assessment have not been adequately at- tended to, although an effort in this direction can be found in the Ad- vanced Placement Course on Art.

Perhaps it is possible to see a more direct attempt at national standards for art instruction in the United States by referring to the College Entrance Examination Board (Advanced Placement Course for Art; College Board, 1978). Here we find an attempt at standardizing curriculum through the use of examination (called "evaluation" in studio art, a disappointing term).

In this program certain centers are designated as examination locations. In art, the examination-evaluation is partially objective; partially semi- objective (such as an essay), and partially practical, consisting of a presen- tation of work completed. It should be noted, however, that these Advanced Placement Courses in Art are not ef- fectively national as of 1980. The question continues as to whether such an assessment should come to be. For on the one side there is an interest in external examination, while on the other side there is a continual demand that accountability be reserved for regional and local authorities. It is clear that the arts are vulnerable on this score and particularly since a general accountability is being leveled by tax- payers. Yet, as Margaret Mead once told me, "The only reason the arts have survived in America is because they have never been funded." The question arises as to whether or not a national accountability in the arts would be positive. Would the estab- lishment of a national curriculum help




or hinder the delicate life of art in the United States, or China, or West Germany?

Some Differing Emphases Several "culture specific" emphases are identifiable within the national examinations currently used in the world today. And the almost dichotomous move toward and away from centralization of criteria is of interest in certain of the programs to fol- low. A look at some of these examination criteria will bring these conflict- ing moves into better focus.

1. Nigeria The West African Examinations Council was developed under British colonial conditions and as such fol- lowed many of the general English patterns of content. However, the 1970 West African School Certificate and the General Certificate of Educa- tion (GCE) examinations clearly demonstrate an attempt to link both content and process with cultural considerations. Examples of problems pre- sented in a University of London Exam utilized in Nigeria, and in the West African Examinations Council demonstrate these considerations.

A. University of London (GCE Ordinary (level)) Art 25:020 January, 1975. Main paper 3 -"Drawing and Painting from a Theme" Six hours. Please feel free to interpret ONE of these themes in any way you wish.

a. This house has been far out at sea all night.

The woods cracking through darkness, the booming hills.

Winds stampeding the fields under the window

Floundering black astride and blinding wet

Till day rose; then under an orange sky The hills and new places, and wind Blade light, luminous black and

emerald, Flexing like the lens of a mad eye

From "Wind" Ted Hughes

b. fruit pickers c. ramps and steps d. urban clearway: night e. warm reds, cool blues f. boatyard

The nature of choices of themes seems linked to the experiences of the

pupils under consideration. "Ramps and Steps" and "Urban Clearway" are particularly related to the likeli- hood of having encountered these urban scenes within the normal course of living in such a technological soci- ety. (Perhaps not in rural England). These set examinations, although still used in West Africa, have been al- tered to accommodate the nature of life in that country.

W.A.S.C./GCE 1970 (West African Ver- sion.) Art 3 hours Original Imaginative Composition in Color You are required to make an original composition based on one of the subjects given overleaf below (sic). In making your choice you should consider which subject is best suited to your style of work . . .

"(1) (2) ... (3) It is very easy to know Yekinis' pay day. He comes home in the evening unusually gay and loud. He im- mediately summons his friends-Jide, Sunmola and Monsuru-with whom he sits outside on the pavement chatting loudly, singing and drinking palm wine (or the local wine) well into the night.

While the London-based examination with cultural embellishments persists in much of Africa once held by the British, promising third-world at- tempts at curriculum reform are underway which will surely influence the general character of them. If a general culture-specific intent in curriculum in Nigeria could be spoken of, it would be related to the govern- mental attempt to develop a work force (F. Ekeada, 1977). This, however, is still in the future, as the cur- rent examination structure continues to reflect its colonial base.

2. Hong Kong No national examinations as such, exist in Hong Kong. But I include the New Asia College of the University of Hong Kong because its matriculation requirements are, in effect, ways in which the training toward particular goals is accomplished at the pre- university level.

The central thrust of the matriculation examination at The New College of Asia is to identify individuals rounded in several aspects of art. Any student entering the university must pass an examination in five areas out of thirteen, and these include com- petencies in both Chinese and English

languages; histories of both West and East.

The Hong Kong example is unique in its attempt to include East-West considerations of history and practice, and, although it could be said that it only reflects the East-West nature of its culture, its example is exemplary at a time when international understanding is of such strong interest and urgency.

Although the Hong Kong example is not truly a national examination, it is sufficiently tied to national interests to warrant its mention here.

Typical of a concern toward intercultural understanding is the attempt to understand the oriental influences among such painters as Delacroix, Monet, Manet, and Fantin LaTour. Thus by school-leaving age, the Hong Kong pupil is well-versed in Western as well as Eastern art history and appreciation. This situation is unusual among the examinations reviewed for this analysis.

3. England England has had a history of National Examination which extends further than most other countries. The rela- tionship of the Ordinary ("O" level) examinations in Art and the Advanced ("A") level examinations in Art to the broader program of English examination is intricate and often difficult for a foreigner to grasp. It has grown in a fashion which has not always been systematic, but it continues to repre- sent a belief that external examination of programs is necessary to insure quality. Some of the more recent thinking on National Examinations in England and Wales is innovative and interesting.

In 1964 School Council's 18+ Re- search Programme, eventually, through the Syllabus Steering Group, attempted to provide two levels which could lead to a replacement of the older "A" level examination. This was an attempt to provide an art education both for pupils who intended no further art study ("N" level) and for those who intended further study ("F" level). The thinking which went into making the distinction provided an expanded concept of art syllabus content.

One innovative dimension of the new examination proposals is the in- clusion of an area referred to as Criti- cal and Analytical Studies, which evolved from the more specific con- cepts of design, environment, and




visual education. The mode by which such an educa-

tion would take place was also innovative. That is, through a modular structure, it would be possible to integrate various areas of art and design and possibly integrate them with other subject areas. Analysis and Criticism would become legitimate content for this new modular approach.

There is agreement in England that examinations and the curricula which support them or are influenced by them should be developed only with teacher participation. But further, the Examination Boards expect to hold to themselves the final judgments regarding individual teacher proposals.

The Netherlands (Experiment & Eind Examens) Since 1968, officials in the Nether- lands have been conducting experimental National Examinations as a means by which to assess the four components of art education: Draw- ing, Music, Arts and Crafts (handi- crafts), and Arts and Crafts (textiles). Music, Drawing, and Arts and Crafts were established as compulsory subjects in the Netherlands in 1968. Music is considered a component of art education.

The examinations called Mavo, Havo, and Vwo are occupationally oriented. For instance, the Mavo examination given to pupils between the ages of 12 and 16 has the lowest academic standards and prepares pupils for entrance into intermediate vocational training programs; the Havo examination, while offered to the same age group (up to 17), prepares for higher vocational training including colleges of education. The third examination, Vwo, offered between 12 and 18 years of age, prepares for university entrance. University entrance is closed to those who have not successfully completed this Vwo examination.

The examinations are both theoretical and practical. For Drawing, Hand- icrafts, and Textiles, the theoretical component tests appreciation as well as the history of art and civilization. While the Mavo exam is primarily on 19th and 20th century movements in Art, Handicraft and Textile (including Industrial Design), the Havo exam includes the addition of a longer history beginning with the Romanesque period. The Vwo examination extends this history to Ancient Art and Art prior to 1000 A.D.

Assessment of these examinations is based upon the use of model- answers as guidelines. The theoretical component of the examinations is considered "national" in that it is standardized throughout the Nether- lands.

The practical component of the Netherland exams is referred to as the "school-exam" (this is generally the case) where the actual work produced by pupils is assessed in one of three ways: 1) assessment of work over a certain period (2 or 3 months), 2) assessment of work produced during a specific pre-arranged test period, or 3) a combination of these. The actual organization and assessment of this "school exam" is entrusted to the schools, thus achieving regional and local variety.

Since the examination structure in the Netherlands is both new and experimental, it is expected that it will develop and change. To date, the school-leaving examination did not include Art Education. It is projected that this examination will expand to include Music, Drawing, and Arts and Crafts in the near future. It should be noted that the actual examination brochures are visually exciting in full color, and the spread of content is clearly evident in them.

In summary, interest in external evaluation along standardized con- cepts appears to be increasing in several countries. And the nature of these examinations seems to reflect new world concerns for heritage, ecology, the interrelationship of the arts, and connections with other subject areas.

It is equally interesting to find that moves toward developing National Examinations are often concerned about preserving regional and local influences and providing a general arts education for pupils who will not enter further education in the arts.

Until a clear focus on national and/or international criteria related to the agreed-upon functions and pur- purposes of art in education is accomplished, art programs will remain vulnerable. The structure and content of National Examinations are, therefore, crucial considerations toward this end.

William Bradley is associate professor of art education, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania.

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(Note: This is a shortened version of a larger report based upon an analysis of material from 20 countries. The larger report is available from the author at cost.)

References

Advanced Placement Courses De- scription, College Entrance Examina- tion Board, Princeton, N.J.: 1978.

Allison, B. "Problems and Recent Developments for Art-Design Exami- nation in England," Art Education, NAEA, December 1977.

Guus Broeders, "Experimental Examinations in Art Education by the Netherlands," unpublished informa- tional article, Utrecht, 1977, p. 9.

Matriculation Regulations, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong: 1977, p. 217.

Schools Council 18+ Research Pro- gramme Studies Based on the N and F Proposals, (Fine Arts) November, 1976a, p. 10.

Schools Council 18+ Research Pro- gramme Studies Based on the N and F

Proposals, (Crafts) November, 1976b, p. 8.

Schools Council 18+ Research Pro- gramme Studies Based on the N and F Proposals, (Art Syllabus) November, 1976c, p. 8.

Schools Council 18+ Research Pro- gramme Studies Based on the N and F Proposals, (Critical and Analytical Studies) November, 1976d, p. 9.

University of London, General Cer- tificate of Education Examination, 020/021, Art, Ordinary level, January 1975, p. 29.

West African Examinations Coun- cil, Schools Certificate and G.C.E. Exams, November 1970, p. 14.

The following persons also provided information for this study for which I am grateful:

J. H. Bolling, Den Haag, The Netherlands -Correspondent

Maarten Tamsma, Haarlen, The Netherlands -Correspondent

Paal, Akos, Budapest, Hungary -Correspondent

Aimee Humbert, Sevres, France -Correspondent

Thorulf Lofstedt, Gotland -Correspondent

Felix Ekeada, Owerri, Nigeria -Correspondent

Liu, Kuo-sung, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong- Correspondent

Bodil Hagested, Hvals, Denmark -Correspondent

Paz Amselem, Madrid, Spain -Correspondent

Victor Reyes, Nextilla, Mexico -Correspondent

Renee Simas, Brazilla, Brazil-Correspondent

Max Klager, Heidelberg, West Germany -Correspondent

Boris Lichaczila, Moscow, U.S.S.R. -Correspondent

Eddie Price, Birmingham, England-Correspondent

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National Examinations in Art