Important Bird Area Conservation Plan GREAT CAPTAINS ISLAND Greenwich, Connecticut Prepared for Audubon Connecticut by: Stephanie R. Schmidt and Katharine C. Parsons Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences P.O. Box 1770 81 Stage Point Road Manomet, Ma 02345 Third Draft- January 2009

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Acknowledgements This Plan was made possible by generous contributions from The Jeniam Foundation, Mead Witter Foundation and Emily McKay. Many thanks to all partners and stakeholders for their sincere interest in the island as well as their contributions and comments to this plan. Conservation plans work best when all stakeholders are involved and represented in the planning process. Special thanks to Audubon Greenwich and Audubon Connecticut for sharing their knowledge, insight, and passion regarding conservation of the wading birds at Great Captains Island and for working towards a healthier Long Island Sound. Thanks to Denise Savageau, Town of Greenwich Conservation Commission, for her concern about this unique colony and her work in trying to preserve this extraordinary wildlife treasure for the people of the Town of Greenwich. Thanks to the Town of Greenwich Parks and Recreation Department for their willingness to work on solutions. Thanks to Jenny Dickson and Julie Victoria at Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection for working hard to conserve all threatened species and their habitats in Connecticut. We appreciate the information and guidance shared by Milan Bull, Connecticut Audubon.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This Conservation Plan was created with the overarching goal to protect and promote the existing wading bird breeding colony on Great Captains Island. This 17 acre (7.0 hectares) island and designated Important Bird Area in southwestern Connecticut hosts one of the largest heron and egret colonies in southern New England. As a relatively undeveloped offshore island, it constitutes rare habitat in western Long Island Sound. The island is treasured by the community as a recreation area and for its historical lighthouse. Since the 1990s, it has been the nesting site of Great Egret (Ardea alba), Black-crowned Night-Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), and Snowy Egret (Egretta thula). In addition to these wading bird species, Great Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus) and Herring Gull (L. argentatus) also nest on the island. Other waterbird species have nested in smaller numbers and/or less regularly. While the island provides important nesting habitat, surrounding wetland areas in Connecticut and New York used for foraging are equally important to the continued sustainability of the birds. The Great Captains Island Conservation Plan identifies concerns and threats to the wading bird colony in Sections 5, 8 and 9. Conservation goals and actions are summarized in Appendix H. The recommended goals for the island are the following: 1. Incorporate suggested management actions within the Conservation Area to support an enduring and healthy breeding population of wading birds; 2. Foster open communication among partners in order to encourage best management practices that will support the wading bird colony as an integral goal among the island’s multiuse objectives; 3. Develop a robust education program that delivers to school children, visitors, partners, and elected officials information on the importance of this unique heronry and associated important foraging areas; 4. Improve the protection and ecological health of the foraging areas surrounding the colony; 5. Establish inventory, monitoring, and research programs to measure management impacts on the wading species, and to develop new information that more comprehensively describes the island’s biodiversity resources. The most immediate threats to these birds are 1) human disturbance in the colony and in nearby foraging areas, and 2) the potential risk of nest predation from avian and mammalian predators. Management actions that address these threats will provide the best chance for maintaining a viable breeding bird population on the island. Additional protection efforts, research and monitoring of key resources on the island and in foraging areas, as well as sustained outreach to the public, will help to ensure that this unique wading bird colony will remain a part of the natural legacy of the Town of Greenwich.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Title Page EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1 INTRODUCTION 5 2 IMPORTANT BIRD AREA PROGRAM 5 3 SITE BACKGROUND 7 3.1 Site’s historical usage 10

3.2 Importance of Great Captains Island as a colonial waterbird nesting site within southern New England 12

3.3 Status and prognosis of wading bird colony-sites within the region 15 3.4 Relationship with key foraging locations 18 4 NATURAL RESOURCES DOCUMENTATION 23 4.1 Site’s IBA criteria 23 4.2 Habitats on the Island 24 4.3 Abiotic and biotic resources on the island and at key foraging locations 24 4.3.1 Water features 24 4.3.2 Water quality 25 4.3.3 Geology 28 4.3.4 Soils characteristics 28 4.3.5 Topography 29 4.3.6 Land use/coverage 29 4.3.7 Vegetation communities and associations 36 4.3.8 Avian resources 38 4.3.9 Identification of non-avian, listed species 47 5 CONSERVATION CONCERNS OR THREATS 48 6 CONSERVATION STAKEHOLDERS 51 6.1 Stakeholder comments 53 7 CURRENT CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES 58 7.1 Island 58 7.2 Foraging areas 59 8 CONSERVATION GOALS 60

8.1 Management/conservation needs/goals consistent with island policies, goals, and functions 60

8.2 Policies and instruments that can be implemented on island and at key foraging locations to further conservation goals 61

8.2.1 Policy 61 8.2.2 Funding 62 9 ACTION PLAN 63 9.1 Management Actions 63 9.1.1 Human disturbance 63 9.1.2 Predator effects and monitoring 70 9.1.3 Nesting habitat 72 9.1.4 Foraging areas 74

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9.2 Research Actions 76 9.2.1. Research potential causes for the colony’s decline 76 9.2.2 Monitor island resources 77 9.2.3 Foraging area research 80 9.3 Communication Actions 83 9.3.1 Establish a bioregional approach to foraging area management 83 9.3.2 Other communications 83 9.4 Education Actions 83 9.4.1 Develop educational programs on and off the island 84 10 EVALUATION (Measure of success) 86 11 LITERATURE CITED 86 12 APPENDICIES 93 Appendix A – List of Bird Species 94 Appendix B – List of Other Fauna 96 Appendix C – List of Plant Species 97 Appendix D – List of Butterfly and Other Invertebrate Species 99

Appendix E – Natural History Information of Current Key Avian Species Occurring at the Site 103

Appendix F - Natural History Information of key desired additional avian species. 110

Appendix G – Sample Outreach Intern Job Description 116

Appendix H – Conservation Goals, Concerns/Threats and Recommendations 117

Table Title Page 1 Great Captains Island IBA criteria. 23

2 Proportion of land cover types in the western and eastern sections of Great Captains Island 31

3 The proportion of land-cover types within 1.9, 6.2, and 15.5 miles (3, 10, and 25 kilometers) of Great Captains Island. 34

4 The species and status of birds of IBA importance observed at Great Captains Island from 2000 to 2002 38

5 Wading bird numbers on Great Captain Island from Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection (CTDEP) censuses and Audubon Connecticut study population census numbers

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6 Great Captains Island stakeholders, contact person, role and/or use of the island, associated foraging areas, and educational programs/interests.

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Figure Title Page 1 Great Captains Island and surrounding area 8 2 Structures and land features on Great Captains Island 9

3 Distribution of nesting wading birds in southern New England, 1960-2005. 12

4 Wading bird species nesting at Great Captains Island, 1986-2004 13

5 Duration and peak of wading bird nesting at Connecticut colony-sites, 1960-2005. 14

6 Distribution of nesting wading birds in coastal Connecticut, 1960-2005. 15

7a & 7b Relationship between island size and distance to mainland to wading bird use (abundance and duration) of colony-sites in coastal Connecticut.

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8 Wading bird species nesting in coastal Connecticut colonies, 1960-2005. 17

9 Flight-line analyses of all herons and egrets observed flying to and from Great Captains Island in 2002. 20

10 Land cover on Great Captains Island. 32 11 Land cover within a 6.2 miles circle of Great Captains Island 35

12 Great Egret and Black-crowned Night-Heron nesting area on eastern side of conservation area. 40

13 Closer view of eastern nesting area. 41

14 Second area of Great Egret and Black-crowned Night-Heron nesting on south side of tidal wetland and west of lighthouse. 41

15 Looking east at second Great Egret and Black-crowned Night-Heron nesting area from along the mouth of the tidal wetland. 42

16 Snowy Egret nesting area in Phragmites on south side of conservation area near mouth of tidal wetland. 42

17 Herring and Great Black-backed Gull nesting area adjacent to heron and egret nesting west of the lighthouse. 43

18 Town signs placed at beginning of dirt road into conservation area. 59

19a Great Captains Island conservation area with current structures delineated. 67

19b Great Captains Island conservation area with barrier fences and approximate area for wading bird nesting habitat improvement delineated.

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20 Proposed region for nesting habitat restoration. 73

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1 INTRODUCTION Great Captains Island is located in Greenwich, Connecticut, within Long Island Sound. The island was recognized by Audubon Connecticut (National Audubon) as an Important Bird Area in 2002, mainly due to its use as a breeding site by colonially-nesting wading birds, and due to its uniqueness as an undeveloped offshore island. In addition to being one of the largest colonies of nesting Great Egret (Ardea alba), Black-crowned Night-Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), and Snowy Egret (Egretta thula) in Connecticut, the island is an important refuge for migrating songbirds and shorebirds. This Conservation Plan, a critical component in the Important Bird Area program, was prepared to describe the site’s unique characteristics as well as the concerns and objectives of numerous partners and stakeholders. The plan was developed in collaboration with agencies, organizations, and individuals directly involved in the management of the site as well as those knowledgeable about the birds and local natural resources. Together these stakeholders crafted a vision that incorporates Great Captains Island and associated foraging habitats into a broader, comprehensive habitat management program. The plan provides a guide for conservation actions and educational outreach that the Town of Greenwich, as the owner of the island, and Audubon, as well as government agencies, regional conservation and advocacy organizations, and other partners can undertake. While this designated Important Bird Area is limited to Great Captains Island itself, proximal foraging areas are critical to the sustainability and continued importance of the island as nesting habitat. Nesting wading birds have been shown to fly 6.2 mi (10 km) or more to foraging grounds. Research indicates that birds nesting on the island utilize foraging areas in Fairfield, Westchester and Nassau Counties (Heath and Parkes 2002). Within Fairfield County, offshore islands and wetlands from Byram Harbor to Greenwich Point are key foraging areas. Therefore the participation of stakeholders on a local, regional, and state level is essential to the implementation of the conservation plan. Continued participation by partners throughout the region should be encouraged and strengthened. 2 IMPORTANT BIRD AREA PROGRAM The Important Bird Area (IBA) program is a worldwide effort led by Audubon to identify places that are critical to birds during some part of their life cycle, and to work in partnership with local stewardship groups to conserve those sites that are of greatest importance for maintaining bird populations (Audubon 2006). As an official partner with Birdlife International—a global coalition of over 100 organizations that works to conserve birds and their habitats—National Audubon Society initiated the IBA program in the United States in 1995 and has since identified nearly 2,000 sites. IBA sites tend to receive habitat protection and the conservation of significant species as a result of their status. The IBA program achieves success through partnerships with existing conservation initiatives and through the participation of local agencies, organizations, and individuals. By working through North American Bird Conservation Initiative (NABCI) partners, such as the North American Waterbird Conservation Plan, the U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan, and Partners in Flight, the IBA program has become a key component of hemispheric conservation efforts to protect waterbirds, shorebirds,

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and landbirds. Additionally, by working at a state level, the IBA program has nurtured effective relationships between state agencies, regional and local conservation organizations, and the local community. IBA conservation plans are designed to include state concerns and help states to achieve their State Comprehensive Wildlife Plan objectives. In addition, they include the formation of local stewardship committees to implement the management recommendations detailed in the conservation plan. Science-based conservation planning and local stewardship are the key components to the persistence and success of an IBA site in achieving its conservation objectives. Scientifically defensible data from the state-level IBA sites are reviewed by the U.S. IBA Committee to prioritize conservation efforts and to determine a site’s significance at the continental and global level. To date, there are over 2,000 identified and nominated IBA sites within the United States. Five of these sites are significant on a continental level and 98 are of global significance. At this time another 1,000 U.S. state level sites are likely to be recognized by the program. Currently identified IBA sites constitute over 200 million acres of habitat. Sites typically are unique or rare areas of varying size, protection status, and ownership. Through the recognition of sites critical to the breeding, foraging, wintering, or migration of species of significance, the IBA program “hopes to minimize the effects that habitat loss and degradation have on bird populations.” To qualify as an IBA, sites must satisfy at least one of the following criteria:

• Support a species of conservation concern (e.g. state and/or federally threatened and endangered species),

• Support restricted-range species (species vulnerable because they are not widely distributed),

• Support species that are vulnerable because their populations are concentrated in one general habitat type or biome,

• Support species or groups of similar species (e.g. waterfowl or shorebirds) that are vulnerable because they occur at high densities due to their tendency to congregate.

Within Connecticut, the Audubon Connecticut IBA program has 26 publicly recognized IBA sites. Conservation plans, which are in various stages of development for each site, provide information to help guide management and education actions, including 1) a natural history of the site, 2) present or desired species, 3) conservation concerns and threats to these resources, 4) management actions that fulfill identified conservation goals and 5) an evaluation process to monitor achievement of the desired objectives.

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3 SITE BACKGROUND Great Captains Island (40° 58’N and 73° 37’ W) is approximately 17.2 acres (7.0 hectares) (Bull 1997) and is located in Long Island Sound 1.3 miles (2.1 km) south of Fairfield County, Connecticut and 5.9 miles (9.5 km) north of Nassau County, New York (Figure 1). Within the Town of Greenwich, the island is directly south of Field Point, and is flanked on the southeast by Little Captains Island, the northwest by Calf Island, and the west by the Manursing Islands of the Town of Rye, New York. Great Captains Island consists of two upland areas joined together by a natural sand bridge, or a tombolo, that has been stabilized with boulders (Groff and Mugaburu 2000). The eastern upland area, where the wading birds nest, will be referred to as the “conservation” area and the western area as the “recreation” area for the purposes of distinguishing the two sections in this report (Figure 2). The island is located within Long Island Sound, into which is drained a watershed that extends from Canada to Fairfield and Westchester County’s shoreline, and also drains northern Long Island, New York (Long Island Sound Study 2006). Long Island Sound is an Estuary of National Significance as designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Great Captains Island is at the easternmost reach of the Narrows habitat complex of the New York Bight watershed and the eastern end of the more regional Byram River watershed (United States Fish and Wildlife Service 1997). The Town of Greenwich owns the island which is jointly managed by the town’s Parks and Recreation Department and the Conservation Commission. Parks and Recreation is the principal manager in maintaining the buildings, dock, paths, and recreational functions, while the Conservation Commission oversees the policies dictating the management of the island’s ecological resources.

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3.1 Site’s historical usage Great Captains Island (at times called Great Captain Island or Great Captain’s Island) was named after Captain Daniel Patrick, one of the founders of Old Greenwich (D’Entremont 2005). An alternative legend has the island named after Captain Kidd, who allegedly used it to bury treasure. In the 1700s the island passed through the hands of several families from Greenwich. It was therefore claimed to be part of the State of Connecticut. However, a New Yorker named John Anderson also claimed ownership via a patent from George III of England, and so the State of New York determined the island to be within New York boundaries (Town of Greenwich 1999). This dispute between the two States continued until 1880, when a commission designated the island to be part of the State of Connecticut. During this time, residents of both Connecticut and New York petitioned to have a lighthouse built on the island because of its close proximity to the Long Island Sound shipping lanes and the dangerous shoals that were present in the area. In 1829, the U.S. federal government bought 3.5 acres (1.4 hectares) on the southeast side of the island and a 30 foot (9.1 m) lighthouse was built. In 1867, a sturdier, granite lighthouse replaced the original structure. A foghorn went into operation in 1905—much to the chagrin of southwestern Long Island Sound residents. Full-time lighthouse keepers and their families lived on the island from the 1870s to the 1930s, keeping farm animals and maintaining gardens on the island. The Coast Guard assigned a small crew to the station from the 1940s until 1968, when an automated light was installed.

The remaining 13.7 acres (5.5 hectares) of the island underwent changes in usage from the early 1900s until the present, with most plans geared to making the island a resort or summer retreat. In the late 1920s, owners from White Plains, New York bought a boat and ferried people to the island from the Byram River, planning on transforming the island into a “bungalow community.” These owners sold this parcel to the Great Captain’s Island Corporation, who proceeded to build a private clubhouse. However, the venture fell through due to the high cost of continuous upkeep from winter storm damage and the inability to turn a profit during the Depression. The clubhouse was refurbished as a casino by the Port-Green Corporation in the mid- to late-1930s (Curtis 1979, Lauricella 1995, D’Entremont 2005). In 1947, the casino burned down after a Coast Guard plane, searching for survivors of a downed Army plane that crashed in the vicinity of Great Captains Island during the night, accidentally dropped a flare on the casino roof.

Around 1955, the Aerotech Company purchased the private portion of the island, built bungalows, and used it as a summer retreat for their employees. In 1966, Aerotech sold its 13.7 acres (5.5 hectares) to the Town of Greenwich and in 1973 the town acquired the remaining 3.5 acres (1.4 hectares) and the lighthouse from the Coast Guard. The Town has since kept the island fairly undeveloped, maintaining its goal of providing a camping and beach get-away for Greenwich residents. Most of the Aerotech bungalows have been removed, a breakwater was built, and the freshwater drinking water supply restored. Two shallow wells deliver fresh water to the caretaker cottage and summer tourists (J. Siciliano pers. comm.). A series of caretakers have

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been stationed on the island since the 1970s to discourage vandals, assist summer day visitors and overnight campers, and maintain the facilities and paths. Currently, the island is open year-round to Greenwich residents and their guests, who use a ferry to shuttle them to the island from Friday to Monday, starting the second Saturday in June and continuing until Labor Day. The ferry schedule is limited by the tide. Private boats are allowed to access the island via a sandy tombolo and the beaches on the western portion of the island, although they are limited by rocks on the eastern portion of the island. No boating is permitted in the tidal marsh. Throughout its modern history, the island was explicitly managed to serve for the purposes of recreation and, more recently, the dual purpose of recreation and conservation. Today, the western end is reserved for recreation and includes a ferry dock, restroom facilities, picnic tables, grills, and a beach (Giudice and King 2001). Day-time visitors and over-night campers particularly use this side of the island for picnicking and swimming. Visitors can access a bathhouse and additional restrooms on the eastern side of the island via the tombolo, which runs from the recreation area east to the western edge of the conservation area. The caretaker’s cottage and maintenance sheds also occupy a portion of the eastern section of the island, also known as the conservation area. Within the conservation area, a dirt maintenance road runs east along the northern edge of the tidal marsh, skirts the eastern edge of the marsh and the western extent of the heron colony, and terminates at the historical lighthouse. While the interior of the lighthouse is not open to the public, visitors may visit the lighthouse, adjacent orchard, and benches via the tombolo and the road (see Figure 2). Spectacular views of Long Island and New York City can be had from this location, making it an attractive site for visitors. Finally, restoration of the lighthouse was planned for the winter of 2008/09. This will involve erecting scaffolding around the lighthouse, and having workers, equipment, and small vehicles access the lighthouse on a daily basis. In general, the presence of wildlife on the island is presumed to have been limited throughout the 1800s and 1900s due to human activity on all 17.2 acres (7.0 hectares) of the island. In the years since the island’s acquisition and management by the Town of Greenwich in 1966, the vegetation on the east side has been allowed to grow essentially unchecked and has become attractive to colonially nesting waterbirds. In 1986, Black-crowned Night-Herons began nesting in the woods north of the lighthouse and along the borders of the tidal wetland. The heronry currently occupies the land on the east and south sides of the tidal lagoon and the northern woods on the conservation end of the island (Figure 19a). The lagoon is oriented north-south and its mouth is a narrow channel that opens southwest. The heronry extends along the east and southeast sides of the lagoon up to the dirt road and lighthouse lawn. The colony also occupies the woods north of the lighthouse and east of the road. In the early 2000s, when Audubon Connecticut conducted research on the island, three heron and

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egret, two gull, two shorebird, eight passerine, and two waterfowl species were observed nesting on the island (see Appendix A). 3.2 Importance of Great Captains Island as a colonial waterbird nesting site within southern New England Great Captains Island has provided significant nesting habitat for wading birds since the late 1980s (Bull 1997). In the late 1990s, it was one of the three largest colonies in Long Island Sound and metropolitan New York (Waterbird Working Group 2007). Together with South Brother Island (East River, NY) and Hoffman Island (outer New York Harbor), these colonies hosted 69% of the nearly 4000 nesting adults in the region (Figure 3).

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Figure 3. Distribution of nesting wading birds in southern New England, 1960-2005. Subregions are as follows: PEL=Pelham Bay, NY (Goose and Huckleberry Islands); JAM=Jamaica Bay, NY (Canarsie Pol, Ruffle Bar); ONY=outer New York Harbor (Hoffman Island); ERV=East River, NY (Brother Islands); RAM= Ram Island, CT; MEN= Menunketesuck, CT (Tuxis and Duck Islands); MIL=Milford, CT (Charles Island); NWI=Norwalk Islands, CT (Chimon, Shea, Sheffield, Grassy and Cockenoe Islands); GCI=Great Captains Island, CT.

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Although current abundance (2004) has declined by 75% since maximum numbers were surveyed in 1998 (Figure 4), Great Captains Island remains a viable and critically important nesting site for wading birds in Long Island Sound.

Wading bird species at GCI

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Figure 4. Wading bird species nesting at Great Captains Island, 1986-2004. Species are as follows: GREG=Great Egret; SNEG=Snowy Egret; BCNH=Black-crowned Night-Heron.

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As use of the island by herons enters its third decade, only two other sites in Connecticut have provided nesting habitat for a comparably extended period of time: Chimon Island, 23 years; and Shea Island, 22 years (Figure 5).

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Figure 5. Duration and peak of wading bird nesting at Connecticut colony-sites, 1960-2005. Years of activity (line) and year of peak abundance (diamond) shown. The dotted line indicates the last year of data.

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As of latest survey data (2004), Great Captains Island supports approximately 17% of Connecticut’s coastal wading birds; nearly half nest on Charles Island and approximately 20% use Cockenoe Island (Figure 6).

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Figure 6: Distribution of nesting wading birds in coastal Connecticut, 1960-2005. Subregions are as follows: RAM= Ram Island, CT; MEN= Menunketesuck, CT (Tuxis and Duck Islands); MIL=Milford, CT (Charles Island); NWI=Norwalk Islands, CT (Chimon, Shea, Sheffield, Grassy and Cockenoe Islands); GCI=Great Captains Island, CT. 3.3 Status and prognosis of wading bird colony-sites within the region The primary factors determining persistence of wading bird colonies along the coast of Connecticut since the 1960s have been predators and human disturbance (Bull 1997; Waterbird Working Group 2007). The extent of bird use (indexed as bird years = maximum annual abundance x number years active) appears to be influenced both by island size and distance to the mainland (Figures 7a and 7b).

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R2 = 0.913

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Figure 7a and 7b: Relationship between island size and distance to mainland to wading bird use (abundance and duration) of colony-sites in coastal Connecticut. Currently active sites (squares) and inactive sites (stars) are shown.

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Distance to the mainland may influence disturbances such as the frequency and duration of predator events (possibly raccoon and owl incursions). Distance also influences the disturbance impact of recreational boating, camping and other human activities. Colony-site size may affect predation (larger colonies may dilute overall effect of predators), but might be expected to have less influence on human disturbance. Wading bird abundance along the Connecticut coast has stabilized over the past ten years at approximately 600 pairs (half of historical maximum in the 1980s; 83% BCNH) (Figure 8).

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Figure 8: Wading bird species nesting in coastal Connecticut colonies, 1960-2005. Species are as follows: GREG=Great Egret; SNEG=Snowy Egret; BCNH=Black-crowned Night-Heron. Distribution of the numerically dominant species (BCNH=approximately 300 pairs; SNEG=200 pairs; GREG=100 pairs) is also relatively stable although Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) is no longer a significant nester in the state (about 60 pairs in 1983). Wading bird abundance in the greater New York metropolitan area has undergone significant changes over the past three decades (Figure 3 above). Colonization rate during the 1980s of inner New York Harbor islands (not included in Figure 3) was approximately 15% per year. A decade later, most inner harbor islands

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were abandoned and outer harbor islands (e.g. Hoffman Island, Canarsie Pol, the Brother Islands) grew at proportional rates. Huckleberry Island (east of Pelham Bay; approximately 9.3 miles (15 km) from Great Captains Island) was colonized in the late 1970s and became one of the largest heronries along the coast of New York, but is now nearly abandoned after experiencing a steady decline over the past ten years. Overall, growth in the coastal New York colonies has offset losses along the coast of Connecticut, although when losses from the inner harbor islands are considered, overall abundance in the region is less than during maximum numbers surveyed in the mid 1990s. Black-crowned Night-Heron populations across the northeast U. S. region have declined by 45% since the 1970s, and Snowy Egret has declined by 20-30%; Great Egret has increased by approximately 100% (Waterbird Working Group 2007). Coastal Connecticut wading bird trends roughly parallel these broader geographical patterns. Of the currently active colony-sites along the Connecticut coast, Great Captains Island is the farthest from the mainland and one of the two largest (Figures 7a and 7b above). It also has been active longer than any other current site although it is the only active site that is not presently at its maximum abundance (Figure 5 above). Great Captains Island and Cockenoe Island provide conditions for nesting herons that are most likely to ensure their persistence over the next five years. Both islands are relatively large and at least 0.6 miles (1 km) from the mainland. Charles Island, while relatively large (approximately 14 acres (5.7 hectares)), is less than 0.6 miles (1 km) from the mainland and therefore at risk for access by predators (particularly raccoons, rats, and Great Horned Owls). Tuxis and Duck Islands, although active for approximately a decade, are located on small islands (each 2 acres (0.8 hectares)), less than 0.6 miles (1 km) from the mainland, and support small and therefore vulnerable populations of wading birds. Abandonment of these islands in the next five years may be a likely event. 3.4 Relationship with key foraging locations Studies have indicated that distances foraging wading birds will fly to feed vary by species, from 1.8 miles (2.9 km; Snowy Egret) to 15 miles ( 24.1 km; Black-crowned Night-Heron) (Davis 1993, Parsons and Master 2000). Depending on the habitat, Great Egret will fly 2.0-7.5 miles (3.2-12.1 km) on average to suitable foraging locations (McCrimmon et al. 2001). Studies conducted by Audubon Connecticut have identified key foraging areas for Great Captains Island birds (Heath and Parkes 2002). In these studies, a flight-line analysis method was utilized to determine directional patterns of wading bird flights to and from foraging areas (Erwin 1983). The island was sectioned into eight 45º sectors with the colony being the center of the pie (Figure 9). Observers stationed at points around the island recorded heron and egret arrivals and departures, sector of flight, species, tide, and weather conditions. Additionally, volunteers were stationed at known or suspected foraging sites on the mainland to record use by wading birds. The results from the Audubon Connecticut study showed that the birds flew to foraging locations in both Connecticut and New York. Eighty-five percent of flights was

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directed towards Fairfield and Westchester counties while the remaining 15% of flights headed south towards Nassau County. Specifically, 50% of the herons and egrets flying from Great Captains Island flew toward Connecticut, 35% towards the Westchester area which contains significant wetlands, and 15% to the Glen Cove and Port Washington area of Nassau County on Long Island.

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Figure 9. Flight-line analyses of all herons and egrets observed flying to and from Great Captains Island in 2002. Numbers indicate the proportion of birds observed flying within each of the eight sectors. Radii of 1.9, 6.2, and 15.5 miles (3, 10, and 25 km) show the extent of landscape used for foraging (adapted from Heath and Parkes 2002). Map created with: TOPO! 2001.

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8% 6%

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According to Heath and Parkes (2002), 50% of the three species of nesting wading birds (Great Egret, Snowy Egret, and Black-crowned Night-Heron) studied on Great Captains Island are presumed to fly to coastal and freshwater foraging areas in the Greenwich area, with a portion of these birds possibly continuing on to foraging areas in Stamford. Observations of wading birds in coastal foraging areas around Greenwich included the following locations: Little Captains Island, Calf Island, Greenwich Point Park, Cos Cob Harbor, and Byram Harbor. Additional freshwater areas potentially used by foraging wading birds were identified up both Myanis and Byram Rivers. In Westchester, important foraging areas are Edith G. Read Preserve, Playland Park Lake and coastline, Marshlands County Park, and Mamaroneck Harbor. In Nassau County, West Harbor, Mill Neck Creek, Glen Cove, and Stanco Memorial Park are important. Within Fairfield and Westchester counties, several potentially important foraging areas are already recognized and are being protected by a variety of means. In Fairfield County, Greenwich Point Park and associated islands (Bluff, Driving, and Sand (Pelican) Island) are a recognized Audubon Important Bird Area; this complex is also owned by the Town of Greenwich. While the Point fits the Important Bird Area’s criterion for high concentrations of waterbirds and raptors, it is also an area of extensive habitat for use by wading birds. Cove Island, in the city of Stamford, is also an Audubon Important Bird Area and lies within the 7.5 miles (12.1 km) foraging range of Great Captains Island. This IBA has diverse habitats that include estuarine wetlands including salt marsh and mud flats, as well as fresh water wetlands (Audubon 2007).

Additional municipally-owned sites such as Grass Island, Roger Sherman Baldwin Park, Cos Cob Harbor, and Bruce Park also provide suitable foraging habitat, as do numerous private properties throughout the town. Additional research is needed to determine what other public and private sites are used by foraging wading birds. Nearby and within the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge system, Calf Island provides some foraging opportunities for the nesting Great Captains Island birds. Located 1.0 mile (1.6 km) northwest of Great Captains, Calf has some salt marsh as well as an upland area consisting of large trees. At low tide, the island is connected by a sandbar to Shell Island, which is only 0.3 miles (0.5 km) from the mainland. The Refuge has considered the feasibility of managing this island to provide additional or alternative nesting for the region’s wading birds (S. Williams pers. comm.). Access by predators to the island via Shell Island may be an issue of concern for any wading birds that might nest on Calf Island. Just west of Greenwich on the Westchester coast, a New York State Critical Environmental Area, the Long Island Sound CEA, begins at the Byram River and includes estuaries southwestward along the coastline. Several potentially important foraging areas occur within the CEA and are within 3-6 miles (4.8-9.7 km) of Great Captains Island: Edith G. Read Preserve, Rye Playland Park, and Marshlands Conservancy. Recognized CEAs are generally afforded some legal protection under

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New York’s State Environmental Quality Review Act, in that development projects and changes in regulations and laws within the CEA require an Environmental Impact Statement. The Edith G. Read Wildlife Sanctuary and Marshlands Park are also Audubon Important Bird Areas and Long Island Sound Study Stewardship Areas. The Stewardship Initiative is focused on conservation of and habitat improvement of land parcels along the coast for conservation and recreation purposes. On Long Island, flight-line analyses showed birds flying towards the Bayville area (Heath and Parkes 2002). Potential foraging areas identified are West Harbor, Mill Neck Creek, Glen Cove, and Stanco Memorial Park. The Oyster Bay National Wildlife Refuge/Shu Swamp Nature Preserve and adjacent areas, including Mill Neck, are recognized as Long Island Sound Stewardship areas, and Oyster Bay is also an Audubon IBA. Great Captains Island and potential foraging areas have benefited from the Listen to the Sound Campaign, a partnership of Audubon Connecticut, Audubon New York, Save the Sound, and the Regional Plan Association which includes Connecticut partners. This campaign has highlighted the conservation and habitat improvement of land parcels along the coast. Policies and conservation actions for the protection of habitats used by the birds at Great Captains Island will be effective only if agencies and partners within Westchester County Parks, Audubon Connecticut, the USFWS McKinney Refuge system, and the Town of Greenwich collaborate on a regular basis to manage these wetland areas in both Fairfield and Westchester counties. However, additional research in the region is recommended in order to understand specifically which salt marshes, lakes, and freshwater habitats are the most important to foraging wading birds nesting on Great Captains Island.

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4 NATURAL RESOURCES 4.1 Site’s IBA criteria Great Captains Island of Fairfield County was recognized as an IBA in 2002. The island meets four of the five IBA criteria: the site is important to species of conservation concern and of conservation priority; contains rare or unique habitat; and hosts a high concentration of a group of similar species (Table 1). Table 1: Great Captains Island IBA criteria.

CT IBA CRITERIA SITE CONFORMANCE

1. The site hosts species of conservation concern (e.g. threatened and endangered species).

Snowy Egret, Great Egret, and Little Blue Heron. Refer to Table 4 for Connecticut status.

2. The site hosts species of high conservation priority.

Little Blue Heron and American Oystercatcher.

3. The site contains rare or unique habitat within the state and hosts species of conservation concern whose populations are concentrated in one general habitat type or biome.

Great Captains is a relatively offshore island. Islands have been shown to be important migratory stopover areas for Neotropical migrant landbirds and provide priority habitat for colonial wading birds.

4d. The site hosts high concentrations of species, or groups of similar species (such as waterfowl or shorebirds) of conservation concern during breeding, migration, or wintering season.

The island hosts one of the largest wading bird colony in Connecticut with approximately 365 nesting pairs of Black-crowned Night-Heron, Snowy Egret, Great Egret, and Little Blue Heron.

Great Captains Island was chosen primarily because it is an important island for wading bird conservation and is currently the site of one of the largest heron and egret colonies in Connecticut. In 1998 the island hosted 366 nesting pairs of Black-crowned Night-Heron, Snowy Egret, Great Egret, and Little Blue Heron. Snowy Egret and Great Egret are listed by the State of Connecticut as threatened species and Little Blue Heron as a species of special concern making all three species of high conservation priority. There were also an estimated 100 or more pairs of nesting Herring and Great Black-backed Gulls on the island in 1998 and 3 pairs of American Oystercatcher.

The island also fits the rare and unique habitat IBA criterion as a relatively

undeveloped offshore island as the primary habitat is deciduous forest and the secondary habitat is shrub, salt marsh, and estuary. The IBA boundaries end at the island but foraging areas within 6.2 miles (10 km) of the island are also very important and should receive conservation attention.

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4.2 Habitats on island The island consists of two upland areas connected by a sand bridge (tombolo) that were reinforced with boulders by the Town of Greenwich in the 1960s to prevent erosion (Groff and Mugaburu 2000). A tidal wetland runs northeast-southwest within the eastern conservation-side of the island, and mudflats and a rocky intertidal zone ring portions of the island (Figure 10). Habitats on the island are mainly mixed- and deciduous forest upland suitable for nesting mixed-forest songbirds. On the conservation side of the island, a diverse understory with medium-sized nesting trees and vine species provides nesting habitat suitable for herons and egrets, in addition to mixed-forest passerine species. The distance from the mainland discourages access by ground predators, however, the presence of prey species such as Norway rats and, possibly, nesting wading birds provides a prey-base for Great-horned Owl (Bubo virginianus). The owls may be breeding on the island and using evergreen trees near the lighthouse for nesting. The two upland areas also provide habitat for migrating passerine species (M. Bull pers. comm.). Currently the woods harbor numerous introduced and invasive plants, some of which provide important resources for birds. However, the woods could potentially support coastal shrub species, such as bayberry and shadbush that would offer increased resources (such as food) for migrating birds. The tidal marsh, mud flats, and beach area also provide important habitat for migrating shorebirds for both foraging and roosting. The tall Phragmites reeds near the southern mouth of the tidal wetland support Snowy Egret nesting. The wetland may provide opportunities for newly fledged wading birds to learn foraging skills without having to fly long distances. In addition, several species have been observed on the mud-flats including Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), Black-bellied Plover (Pluvialis squatarola), and Solitary Sandpiper (Tringa solitaria) (Groff and Mugaburu 2000, Giudice and King 2001, Heath and Parkes 2002). The rocky areas surrounding the island on the conservation side provide nesting habitat for Herring (Larus argentatus) and Great Black-backed Gulls (L. marinus). The sand and salt marsh areas of the island provides nesting sites for American Oystercatchers (Haematopus pallitus), and they certainly provide them with foraging areas (i.e. shellfish beds in intertidal areas). 4.3 Abiotic and biotic resources on island and at key foraging locations 4.3.1 Water features 4.3.1.1 Island. Great Captains Island is located in the Long Island Sound Estuary within Captains Harbor, 1.3 miles (2.1 km) south of Fairfield County, Connecticut. The water depth between the Greenwich mainland and the island is shallow, ranging from 10-16 feet (3.1-14.9 m; United States Geological Survey 2006). Immediately off the southern side of the island water depth increases to 26-39 feet (7.9-11.9 m) and continues to about 50 feet (15.2 m) as one goes south. The western basin

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is generally shallower than the eastern Long Island Sound basin (LISS 2006). Weaker currents allow for little mixing and oxygenation of water creating an ideal situation for the development of hypoxia (see Water Quality below). A fresh water aquifer exists on the island. Its extent is unknown. Two wells approximately 30 feet (9.1 m) deep draw fresh water for human use (J. Siciliano pers. comm.).

4.3.1.2 Foraging areas. Within the 6.2 miles (10 km) foraging radius of Great Captains Island, shallow waters and marshes form a fringe along the coastline of Long Island Sound. The larger estuaries are found in Greenwich Cove, Cos Cob Harbor, and Indian Harbor in Fairfield. Freshwater streams and rivers flow through Fairfield County and then into the highly developed urban areas characteristic of these coves. Cos Cob Harbor is fed mainly from the Mianus River and Brothers Brook; Indian Harbor from Greenwich Creek; and Greenwich Harbor is fed by Horseneck Brook. To the east, the Rippowam River flows into Stamford Harbor, while on the west the Byram River runs south along the border of Connecticut and New York.

In New York within 6.2 miles (10 km), the Edith G. Read Preserve has close to

100 acres (40.5 hectares) of wetlands in addition to a brackish lake. South of the preserve, the Marshlands Conservancy has intertidal marshes fed by freshwater streams. Across the Sound, emergent wetlands are found in Oyster Bay and west towards Bayville and Glen Cove. Additional freshwater areas in Fairfield County that may be potential foraging areas are Putnam Lake Reservoir and Rockwood Lake Reservoir. Both are approximately 50 acres (20 hectares) in size. Several forested wetlands are also spread across the County. 4.3.2 Water quality 4.3.2.1 Waters around the island. Overall, the western Long Island Sound basin is characterized as having a fair to poor water quality index 70% of the time (Long Island Sound Study 2006, United States Environmental Protection Agency 2004). This assessment by the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (USEPA) National Coastal Assessment was conducted over a span of 13 years (1991 to 2004) and the water quality index was developed based on dissolved oxygen and chlorophyll a levels, water clarity, and nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations. Due to dense development, Long Island Sound is most impacted in this region by the high nitrogen inputs generated by wastewater treatment plant discharges, automotive vehicles, and land-use practices. The United States Geological Service (USGS) Water-Quality Assessment Program detected generally higher nutrient concentrations in urban Connecticut streams compared with streams draining agricultural or forested lands (Garabedian 1998). Excess nitrogen, often from lawn fertilizers, is one of the most detrimental pollution problems because it results in hypoxia, or low oxygen levels in the water. Hypoxia most frequently occurs in the summer months as nitrogen enrichment, the weak mixing of the water column, and warmer water temperatures encourages algae growth. This excessive algal growth disrupts the food-web because it creates conditions for hypoxia and reduces water clarity. As algal blooms die, organisms engaged in decomposition exhaust dissolved

26

oxygen levels. This in turn negatively affects benthic (bottom-dwelling) and aquatic organism survival and causes fish to flee these hypoxic zones. While total nitrogen discharge has decreased over the years, hypoxia spikes continue to threaten water quality. The potential effects of hypoxia on heron prey populations are poorly understood in this area of Long Island Sound. Pollutants in sediments and subsequent movement up the food chain to prey species are known to affect the reproductive success of wading birds (De Luca-Abbott et al. 2001, Quirós et al. 2008) and must be considered with respect to birds nesting at Great Captains Island. The positive news is that according to 1991 data from the USEPA’s Long Island Sound Study, water quality in the western Long Island Sound was considered “good” with regard to heavy metals (USEPA 1994). Dissolved and total silver, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc concentrations were all below Connecticut and New York standards. Data on polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were too sparse to draw any conclusions for western Long Island Sound, and impacts on shellfish from oil-related products, or polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), were limited to the Bridgeport and Norwalk Harbors. Additional work is needed to monitor potential sublethal effects these compounds may have on the wading birds themselves or their prey in harbor areas around the island. Unfortunately data from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric (NOAA) Status and Trends program show that average heavy metal concentrations in western Long Island Sound surface sediments were considered to be greater than NOAA’s “high” values (USEPA 1994). The sediments lining the bottom of Stamford Harbor, the nearest sampling point to Great Captains Island, have elevated levels of lead, cadmium, and zinc. In the western Long Island Sound basin, where the currents are weaker, metals can accumulate within the sediments; during disturbance events, such as a hurricane or large storm, they may be re-suspended so that they again become available to animals in the food chain (Long Island Sound Study 2006). Toxicity tests that exposed amphipods to sediments collected in western Long Island Sound found that toxicity impacts exceeded the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) guidelines for lowest effect levels for all metals tested. Severe effect level guidelines were exceeded at some sites for copper and chromium (USEPA 1994). On average, near-shore sediments had higher concentrations of metals than did offshore sediments. As no known sediment data have been collected for the Greenwich area, it is difficult to discern the sediment quality in foraging areas and impacts on wading birds from Great Captains Island.

The NOAA data also demonstrated elevated PCB sediment concentrations in Stamford Harbor and, while few additional sites were sampled in western Long Island, the levels of PCBs and PAHs in sediments at these locations also exceeded NOAA’s “high” values (NOAA defines high as 3900 ug/kg for total PAH and 200 ug/kg for total PCB). Tissue testing of shellfish (oysters and blue mussels) for metals and organic contaminants yielded low toxic risk in the area that immediately surrounds Great Captains Island (USEPA 1994). However, elevated levels of copper, lead, chlordane,

27

and lindane were found in the Mamaroneck area, a potential foraging area for Great Captains Island birds. While wading birds tend not to feed on these species of shellfish, the data do raise questions regarding potential contamination of other prey species found in the foraging area. Metal levels in potential prey fish are reported to be low in Long Island Sound compared to other regions of the North Atlantic. However, variable PCB levels in finfish found in the Sound are of concern. The potential relationship of the elevated PCB levels in finfish and effects on waterbirds is unclear. Connecticut and New York have issued human health consumption advisories for waterfowl; for example, the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection (CTDEP) suggest limited consumption of some waterfowl species because of high levels of PCBs and to remove the skin of waterfowl before eating to minimize ingestion of PCBs (CTDEP 2007). The relationship between high contaminant concentrations in the Sound and birds remains unclear since their movement between a variety of water sources and habitats, as well as wide migratory patterns means that they may not solely be exposed to Sound water, sediments, and prey items. Pesticides were detected in water samples collected from the urban Norwalk River in Winnipauk (Norwalk), Connecticut in 1993 and 1994 (Garabedian 1998). Prometon and atrazine were detected in more than 50 percent of the samples, but the concentrations were below the minimum contaminant level permissible in drinking water. Low concentrations of simazine, carbaryl, metalochlor, and the herbacide DCPA were also detected in several samples from this site. Prometon, atrazine, simazine, metalochlor, and DCPA are herbicides with low toxicity to birds, but unknown effects on other free-ranging wildlife. Carbaryl is an inhibitor of the neuroenzyme cholinesterase and has been shown to have lower toxicity to birds (Extoxnet 2007) than other carbamates, however little research has investigated whether the potential adverse sublethal effects found with other cholinesterase-inhibiting compounds occur with carbaryl as well (Parsons et al. 2000, Walker 2003,). The Norwalk River sampling site is 12.4 miles (20 km) east of the Great Captains Island colony site. The trend towards higher concentrations of prometon and carbaryl in urban surface waters compared with surface water draining agricultural land suggests the possibility of similar contamination in the Greenwich area. Investigation into the present water quality with respect to pesticides within foraging areas is warranted. Of perhaps even greater concern are the various pesticides still entering the system, for while they are designed to target terrestrial insects, they often have an unintended adverse impact on other invertebrates (like crabs) consumed by herons. 4.3.2.2 Waters at particular foraging areas. The discussion above regarding water quality within the Sound applies to the foraging areas since they are located at wetlands within the Sound. Some of the freshwater rivers emptying into the Sound have had water quality concerns. In the late 1990s, sediments from the downstream harbor of the Byram River were shown to have up to 5 parts per million PCBs and 4.2 parts per million mercury (NYSDEC 2000). The source of this contamination was unidentified. Several industries that produced felt, metal hardware and aircraft

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instrumentation along the Byram River have been deemed to have little current impact on the watershed (Chute 2002). 4.3.3 Geology 4.3.3.1 Island and foraging areas. Western Long Island Basin geology is marked by Pleistocene epoch glacial deposits. Covered by the Laurentian ice sheet during the Pleistocene, the glacier began to recede about 21,000 years ago and in its recession, formed the Captain Islands-Norwalk Islands moraine and other moraine segments at the southern end of present day Connecticut (U.S. Geological Survey and CT Geological and Natural History Survey 2000). The Captain Islands-Norwalk Islands and Old Saybrook-Wolf Rocks moraines located at the southern edge of present day Connecticut, and the Harbor Hill-Fishers Island-Charlestown moraine on the northern end of Long Island formed a basin that held a large freshwater lake, Lake Connecticut (Varekamp, Thomas, and Groner 2005). This lake drained, but rising sea levels from the melting glacier topped the moraines, re-filled the Long Island Basin and connected the basin with the Atlantic Ocean.

Most islands in the Basin were created from end-moraine deposits laid in narrow

east-northeast trending zones (CTDEP 2008). Greenwich Point is created from glacial laid deposits from the Captain Islands-Norwalk Islands moraine as are the entire eastern end and most of the western end of Great Captains Island (U.S. Geological Survey and CT Geological and Natural History Survey 2000). These deposits are described as a thin, sandy till approximately 13.1-16.4 feet (4-5 m) thick which include stratified sand and gravel with some areas of exposed boulders. The northern portion of the western (recreation) section of Great Captains Island, as well as the bridge that connects the western to eastern sections of the island, are postglacial coastal beach and dune deposits formed after glacial recession during the Holocene epoch, about 10,000 to 13,000 years ago. The texture of the beach is controlled by wave action and is about 6.5 feet (2 m) thick. Long Island Sound Basin bedrock consists of sands, gravels, and clays of coastal plain strata formed around the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods (Lewis 1995). Bedrock of the present day mainland of southern Connecticut, north of Great Captains Island, consists of Ordovician period formations known as Golden Hill Schist and Harrison Gneiss. The bulk of the area is covered with thin postglacial till deposits. Meltwater deposits of sand and gravel are found in Greenwich Harbor, Cos Cob Harbor, and Greenwich Cove. Additionally, artificial fill is found in Greenwich Harbor and Indian Harbor. 4.3.4 Soils characteristics 4.3.4.1 Island. The surficial geology of Great Captains Island consists of alluvial and floodplain soils—basically larger-grained silty, sandy and/or gravelly soil and the finer-grained silty-sand beach. The entire eastern (conservation) and most of the western (recreation) sections of the island are composed of sandy till which is described as a matrix of sand, silt, and clay mixed with stones and boulders (U.S. Geological

29

Survey Coastal and Marine Geology Program and CT Geological and Natural History Survey 2000). The northern portion of the recreation section, as well as the tombolo that connects the eastern to western sections, is composed of sand beach. 4.3.4.2 Foraging areas. The soils of the foraging areas on the Connecticut mainland are the result of two glacial periods. The upper soil is a thin till deposit composed of a mixture of rock and finely ground, sandy material while the lower soil is a thicker, more compact till (United States Department of Agriculture 2005). Most of mainland Greenwich is characterized by a variety of non-wetland soil complexes such as Woodbridge (a dense glacial till), Charlton-Chatfield complex (a deep, well-drained fine sandy loam and rocky complex mainly found on hills), Hollis-Chatfield-Rock outcrop complex (a shallow to deep, well-drained, fine sandy loam soil with rocky outcrops), Ninigret and Tisbury soils (deep, moderately well-drained soils formed over glacial till), and Udorthents (a well-drained soil on very steep areas). Most of these soils are disturbed due to development and covered by urban features such as buildings and roads.

Greenwich Point has a slightly different soil profile in that it is mainly comprised

of loams—Agawam fine sandy loam and Hinckley gravelly sandy loam—both of which are considered prime and important farmland soils by the State of Connecticut. In some of the inner harbor areas such as the waterway that runs from Indian Harbor up to Bruce Park, Westbrook mucky peat (an undrained salt grass tidal marsh soil), Leicester fine sandy loam (an important Connecticut farm soil), and Sutton fine sandy loam are present in small amounts. 4.3.5 Topography 4.3.5.1 Island. The island’s surface topography ranges from 0 to 25 feet (7.7 m) above sea level (Groff and Mugaburu 2000). The areas of highest elevation occur at the south and southeastern corner of the conservation section where the lighthouse is located. 4.3.5.2 Foraging areas. Wading bird foraging areas located along or on the Connecticut mainland from sea-level up to an elevation of 66 feet (20 m) (Long Island Sound Resource Center Hypsography Data 2004). Within the first 3.1 miles (5 km) north of Great Captains Island, the mainland gradually rises from sea-level to 66 feet (20 m), with occasional ascensions to 130 feet (40 m) at the New York-Connecticut border. East, towards Greenwich Point, the land basically remains around sea-level and only rises after 3.1 miles (5 km) to the east of Greenwich Point. The slope is more pronounced to the west of Great Captains Island. The elevation rises to 328 feet (100 m) within the 6.2 mile (10 km) foraging zone from the Mianus River watershed west to the New York border. 4.3.6 Land use/coverage

The following definitions describe the land cover classes found on Great Captains Island (USEPA Multi-Resolution Land Characteristic Consortium (MRLC) 2007):

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- Emergent herbaceous wetlands are described as having 75 to 100% perennial

herbaceous vegetative cover with periodically water-saturated substrate; - Woody wetlands are areas where forest or shrubland vegetation accounts for 25

to 100% of vegetative cover and the substrate is periodically saturated with water;

- Deciduous forest has 75% or more deciduous tree species; - Mixed forest habitat has no more than 75% of cover dominated by deciduous or

evergreen tree species; - Transitional cover is defined as having less than 25% vegetative cover and is a

transition from one land cover type to another; - Low density residential indicates that constructed materials cover 30 to 80% of

the area and vegetation may cover 20 to 70%. 4.3.6.1 Island. Anecdotal information indicated that the island’s land cover has not changed significantly since the 1990s. While 2001 U. S. Geological Survey National Land Cover data (NLCD) were available, detail regarding the island appeared to be lost when compared to the 1992 NLCD. Comparison with the 2000–2002 Audubon reports and a rough ground-truthing conducted in 2007 indicated that the 1992 data best reflected the island’s current condition.

The island can be described as two sections connected by a tombolo or sand bar

that has been artificially stabilized to create a more permanent join (see Figure 2). The tombolo itself is composed mainly of bare rock and sand with some mixed forest habitat and a small area of transitional cover.

The western section of the island covers about 3.5 acres (1.4 hectares) and is a

mosaic of land cover/use classifications. Exposed ground and sand covers the northern tip and southern interior, emergent herbaceous wetlands fringe the northeast and southern sides, and deciduous forest, mixed forest, woody wetlands, and low intensity residential are spread throughout the island (Table 2) (Figure 10) (U. S. Geological Survey 2000, CTDEP 1995). The eastern section of the island is shaped like a 14 acre (5.7 hectares) donut with a center of open water ringed with emergent herbaceous wetlands, except for an inlet of open water at the southwestern end of the pool. Emergent herbaceous is also found at the northern and southern ends of the eastern section. In the upland, small patches of evergreen forest are located near the southern end. Exposed ground and sand patches are scattered mostly at the southeastern end of the island. Deciduous forest, mixed forest, and woody wetlands are interspersed throughout the entire section. Low intensity residential land use is found at the southern end of this section (the lighthouse and some outbuildings) and near the northwestern edge of the tidal open water (cabin).

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Table 2: Proportion of land cover types in the western and eastern sections of Great Captains Island (based on 1992 data (United States Geological Survey 2000)).

Western Section (recreation side)

Land cover type No. of hectares

No. of acres

Percent of total

Open water 0 0 0 Low intensity development 0.11 0.28 5.4 Urban grasses 0 0 0 Mixed forest 0.62 1.5 29.7 Evergreen forest 0 0 0 Deciduous forest 0.17 0.42 8.1 Woody wetlands 0.17 0.42 8.1 Emergent herbaceous 0.34 0.84 16.2 Bare ground/sand/clay 0.62 1.50 29.7 Transitional 0.06 0.14 2.7

Eastern Section (conservation side)

Land cover type No. of hectares

No. of acres

Percent of total

Open water 0.57 1.4 12.2 Low intensity development 0.23 0.56 4.9 Urban grasses 0.06 0.14 1.2 Mixed forest 1.50 3.8 32.9 Evergreen forest 0.23 0.56 4.9 Deciduous forest 0.85 2.1 12.2 Woody wetlands 0.57 1.4 12.2 Emergent herbaceous 0.23 0.56 4.9 Bare ground/sand/clay 0.40 0.98 8.5 Transitional 0 0 0

32

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4.3.6.2 Foraging areas. Based on the most current land cover data (2001) (MRLC 2003), developed land and open water are the predominant land cover types within the 1.9, 6.2, and 15.5 mile (3, 10, and 25 km) foraging radii. These radii were delineated, based on scientific information, by the 2002 Audubon Connecticut study to indicate potential ranges birds will fly to forage (Heath and Parkes 2002) (Table 3). Ninety-two percent of the area within 1.9 mile (3 km) radius around the island is open water. Of the remaining 7%, 5% is developed land. At 6.2 miles (10 km), one-quarter of the area is open water, 16% is developed and 4% is forested. Shallow estuarine and open freshwater wetlands are the most important land cover types for foraging for the wading bird species nesting on Great Captains Island. Black-crowned Night-Heron is the most opportunistic species with regard to foraging, using estuarine, freshwater creeks and ponds, and woody wetlands (Davis 1993). Great Egret will use estuarine and deeper freshwater areas. Snowy Egret generally prefer brackish wetlands, however they will take advantage of freshwater lakes if necessary (Parsons and Master 2000, McCrimmon et al. 2001). Emergent herbaceous wetlands are defined as “areas where perennial herbaceous vegetation accounts for greater than 80 percent of vegetative cover and the soil or substrate is periodically saturated with or covered with water” and woody wetlands are defined as “areas where more than 20% of the vegetation is woody and the area is periodically covered with water” (MRLC 2003 metadata). Within 1.9, 6.2, and 15.5 miles (3, 10, and 25 km) of the island, emergent herbaceous wetlands represent 2.07%, 0.66%, and 0.46%, respectively, of the total land cover. Woody wetlands are not found within the 1.9 mile (3 km) radius but form 0.17% of the total land cover within 6.2 miles (10 km) and 0.46% within 15.5 miles (25 km) of the island. Emergent herbaceous wetlands would be the most preferred land cover available to wading birds based on their ecology as mentioned above. Within the closest foraging ranges, 1.9 miles (3 km) and 6.2 miles (10 km) from the island, approximately 146 to 1112 acres (59 to 450 hectares), respectively, of emergent wetlands are identified. However, caution is advised in interpreting this information since the data do not differentiate between quality foraging areas for wading birds, but rather identifies all emergent wetlands.

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Table 3: Proportion of land cover types within 1.9, 6.2, and 15.5 miles of Great Captains Island.

Land cover type No. of hectares No. of acres Percent of

total 1.9 mile (3 km)

Open water 2601 6428 92.0 Emergent herbaceous 58.6 145 2.07 Woody wetlands 0 0 0 Barren land 10.7 26.5 0.38 Forest/shrub 15.4 38.0 0.54 Crops/pasture 1.98 4.89 0.07 Developed land 139 345 4.93 6.2 mile (10 km) Open water 17252 42632 25.4 Emergent herbaceous 449 1109 0.66 Woody wetlands 118 293 0.17 Barren land 78.9 195 0.12

Forest/shrub 2723 6729 4.00

Crops/pasture 126 311 0.19 Developed land 10667 26360 15.7 15.5 mile (25 km) Open water 61131 151059 14.1 Emergent herbaceous 2016 4982 0.46 Woody wetlands 2009 4967 0.46 Barren land 459 1134 0.11 Forest/shrub 41637 102889 9.57 Crops/pasture 2787 6886 0.64 Developed land 86309 213274 19.9

35

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.

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4.3.7 Vegetation communities and associations 4.3.7.1 Island. The vegetative communities of Great Captains Island include deciduous forest, mixed forest, and tidal wetland. The deciduous forest is fragmented with the majority of trees located in the northeast upland region of the conservation-side of the island. The dominant tree, sassafras (Sassafras albidium), provides about 70% of the tree canopy (Groff and Mugaburu 2000, Giudice and King 2001,). Additional species are northern pin cherry (Prunus pennsylvania), black cherry (Prunus serotina), and red maple (Acer rubrum). Staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina), common greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia), poison ivy (Rhus radicans), and the non-native invasive oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus) form thickets in the understory. In the mixed forest where trees are not present and on the edge of the deciduous forest, thickets of greenbrier, red chokeberry (Pyrus arbutifolis), and the non-native invasives — bittersweet, multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.), and climbing nightshade (Solanum dulcamara) — persist. In Connecticut, four introduced Lonicera species (L. x bella, L. japonica, L. maackii, L. morrowii) are considered invasive and are banned for sale; in addition Lonicera tatarica and L. xylosteum are potentially invasive and banned (USDA 2007 based on Connecticut Invasive Plant List 2004). In the habitat adjacent to the tidal wetland, 40% of the canopy cover is black cherry, red maple, and the invasive Norway maple (Acer platanoids). Staghorn sumac, poison ivy, common blackberry (Rubus allegheniensis), and non-native honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) form dense thickets surrounding the lagoon. Common reed (Phragmites australis) is present at the mouth of the lagoon. Genetic research on Phragmites has shown that changes in the native North American haplotypes are being replaced by more aggressive European/Asian haplotypes since the 1960s (Saltonstall 2002). While it is unknown whether the plants on Great Captains Island are of the native or introduced form, studies have shown that most of the northeast Atlantic coast has been invaded by the introduced invasive haplotype. It is unknown if conditions favor the expansion of this haplotype into the tidal wetland and therefore, monitoring of the wetland is encouraged. 4.3.7.2 Foraging areas. No known complete botanical inventory of the wetland foraging areas has been conducted. Greenwich Point will be conducting a complete botanical survey in the near future (R. Louden pers. comm.). A biological inventory may have been conducted by the Westchester County Department of Parks, Recreation, and Conservation. Inventories at Greenwich Point are scheduled for the near future. 4.3.7.3 Identification of non-native, invasive, introduced plants. Numerous non-native, invasive plants exist on the island. Approximately 28% of the thirty tree and shrubby species and 44% of the seventeen herbaceous species observed by Groff and Mugaburu (2000) and Giudice and King (2001) are non-native (see Appendix C). Norway maple, tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima), honeysuckle, multiflora rose, oriental bittersweet, common reed, and climbing nightshade are listed as invasive

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species and banned in Connecticut. On Great Captains Island, Black-crowned Night-Heron and Snowy Egret nest in the dense understory created by the vine-like non-natives such as oriental bittersweet and multiflora rose. Snowy Egret primarily used the Phragmites in 2001 for nesting (Giudice and King 2001). Some genotypes of Phragmites australis are native to North America, however research has shown that current genotypes of Phragmites australis found in the northeast are the introduced European variety (see discussion 4.2.7.1). Other introduced species on the island include white mulberry (Morus alba), dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides), rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa), common purple lilac (Syringe vulgaris), oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), St. johnswort (Hypericum perforatum), common mallow (Malva neglecta), and curly dock (Rumex crispus). For most of the non-native species it is unknown what their value to wildlife as food or cover may be although honeysuckle may provide good cover for wading birds and small passerines (USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service 2007). Several native species on the island are able to out-compete other vegetation on the island. These are poison ivy, staghorn sumac, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), roundleaf greenbrier and field thistle (Cirsium discolor). These species have value to wildlife as food or cover. Poison ivy and greenbrier create an understory for the smaller wading birds to nest within; the large Great Egret prefers to nest on top of this vegetation structure. Allegheny blackberry, staghorn sumac, poison ivy, and Virginia creeper provide cover and valuable food sources for migrating and resident passerines (P. Comins pers. comm.).

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4.3.8 Avian resources Of the 52 bird species observed nesting, foraging, or visiting Great Captains Island, 10 are CT state-listed (1 endangered, 4 threatened, 5 species of Special Concern) and two species are federally endangered (Table 4). A list of all avian species observed on the island is found in Appendix A. Table 4: The species and status of birds of IBA importance observed at Great Captains Island from 2000 to 2002 (Groff and Mugaburu 2000, Giudice and King 2001, Heath and Parkes 2002, CT DEP accessed 2007, and USFWS Endangered Species Program accessed 2007). Scientific name Common name CT Status Disposition

Ardea alba Great Egret T Nesting

Charadrius melodus Piping Plover T, T(Federal) Probable migrant

Egretta caerulea Little Blue Heron SC Nesting

Egretta thula Snowy Egret T Nesting

Falco sparvericus American Kestrel T Probable migrant

Haematopus pallitus American Oystercatcher SC Nesting

Haliaeetus leucocephalus Bald eagle (immature) E, E

(Federal) Probable migrant/winter resident

Passerculus sandwichensis Savannah Sparrow SC Migrant?

Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis SC Visitor, potential for nesting

Sterna hirundo Common Tern SC possible nester on nearby islands, forages around island

The conservation side of the island has provided conditions suitable for a wading bird colony that now consistently includes three species (Great Egret Ardea alba, Snowy Egret Egretta thula, Black-crowned Night-Heron Nycticorax nyctiicorax). Currently, the wading birds nest in two areas, the deciduous and mixed forest north of the lighthouse and also in the mixed shrub area and Phragmites to the west of the lighthouse along the tidal wetland. The bare sandy and rocky areas on the edges of the island have been used for nesting by Herring (Larus argentatus) and Great Black-backed Gulls (L. marinus).

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American Oystercatchers (Haematopus pallitus) also nest in the sandy beach or on sandy area within the mud flats, although not consistently. Killdeer (Charadrius vociferous), an upland ground-nesting plover, has also been reported breeding on the island. Killdeer are locally abundant in the Northern Atlantic shorebird region, and this region is important to their entire breeding population (Brown et al. 2001). Also nesting on the island are Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and Canada Goose (Branta canadensis), both former wintering but now breeding species in Connecticut. Nesting habitat used is most likely the edge of the mixed woods or tidal wetland. Additionally, several species of songbirds have been observed breeding on the island. While there is not enough contiguous deciduous forest habitat to provide conditions for more sensitive forest-nesting species, passerines that prefer mixed forest, such as Gray Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis), Yellow Warbler (Dendroica petechia), and Common Grackle (Quiscalus quiscula), have been observed to nest on the island. Although the island does not host numerous breeding forest passerines, it is a key stop-over point for many of these species as they migrate north and south each year. Offshore islands within highly developed watersheds have been shown to provide critical disturbance-free habitat for migrating birds (M. Bull unpub. data), especially those species that are not strong flyers and potentially hop from island to island to avoid long flights over open water. The island’s tidal wetlands and mud flats provide important habitat for migrating shorebirds within the mosaic of the highly developed coastal region of the east coast US (Brown et.al 2001). Black-bellied Plover (Pluvialis squatarola), Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), Dunlin (Calidris alpine), Short-billed Dowitcher (Limnodromus griseus), Semipalmated Plover (Charadrius semipalmatus), Least Sandpiper (C. minutilla), and Solitary Sandpiper (Tringa solitaria) have been observed at the island (Groff and Mugaburu 2000, Giudice and King 2001, Heath and Parkes 2002). Due to its heavy use as a migratory corridor, the North Atlantic coastline, including western Connecticut, is extremely important for the overall welfare of shorebirds including Black-bellied Plover, Semipalmated Plover, Ruddy Turnstone, Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), Red Knot (Calidris canutus), Sanderling (C. alba), Semipalmated Sandpiper (C. pusilla), Dunlin, and Short-billed Dowitcher. With the large loss of habitat already along this corridor, refugia such as Great Captains Island are ever-more critical to migrating birds. 4.3.8.1 Identification of key current avian species. The first wading bird species to colonize Great Captains Island was the Black-crowned Night-Heron in 1986 and since then Black-crowned Night-Heron, Great Egret, Snowy Egret, and occasionally Little Blue Heron (Egretta caerulea) have been present on the island every year. Presumably a mixture of appealing vegetative structure, paucity of predators, and lack of disturbance, especially during nest building and incubation, has allowed the colony to persist for 20 years, with a peak in population numbers occurring around 1998 (Table

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5). The colony is spatially dispersed with one section in the deciduous and mixed forest north of the lighthouse, and another section in the mixed forest and Phragmites to the west of the lighthouse along the tidal wetland (see Figures 12 – 17). These forested areas, consisting of introduced species such as honeysuckle, multiflora rose, and oriental bittersweet, are used by herons and egrets for nesting. Introduced, and/or invasive vegetation is commonly used for nesting by herons and egrets in New York Harbor and Boston Harbor as well as in Connecticut (Bernick 2007, S. Elbin and K. Parsons pers. comm.; see Bull 1997). Table 5: Wading bird numbers on Great Captain Island from Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection (CTDEP) censuses and Audubon Connecticut study population census numbers. The 2000, 2001, and 2002 numbers (gray heading) are derived from the Audubon Connecticut counts. The Audubon researchers counted the colony three times over a 3 week period(end of April to mid-May) and reported the highest numbers from three different counts as their colony numbers for that year which was different from the CTDEP counts who conducted a one-time count through the colony between the end of May and mid-June. In 2001, CTDEP also counted the colony although the count was incomplete in order to minimize disturbance. See Figure 4 for graph.

Number of pairs counted

Species 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2000 2001* 2001 2002 2004

GREG 0 10 40 45 46 97 40 98 82 24

SNEG 0 10 30 50 139 20 25 40 20 33

LBHE 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 1 0

BCNH 10 40 90 110 179 90 25 150 150 41

TOTAL 10 60 160 205 366 208 91 289 253 98 * CTDEP numbers: Interior of colony not surveyed therefore numbers may be underestimated.

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Figure 13: Closer view of eastern nesting area. Nests were found in trees adjacent to dirt road.

Figure 14: Second area of Great Egret and Black-crowned Night-Heron nesting on south side of tidal wetland and west of lighthouse.

Great Egret and Black-crowned Night-Heron

nesting area

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Figure 16: Closer view of Snowy Egret nesting area in Phragmites on south side of conservation area near mouth of tidal wetland.

Figure 15: Looking east at second Great Egret and Black-crowned Night-Heron nesting area from along the mouth of the tidal wetland. Snowy Egret nested in Phragmites on right in 2002.

Snowy Egret

nesting area

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4.3.8.2 Identification of key desired avian species. The overarching goal of this Audubon Conservation Plan is to protect and promote the existing wading bird colony. Additional wading bird species that may someday be attracted to Great Captains Island include the Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) and Yellow-crowned Night-Heron (Nyctanassa violacea). Both species are listed as Connecticut Species of Special Concern. The Glossy Ibis breeding numbers in Connecticut have decreased substantially since the 1980s. The tidal lagoon especially around the Phragmites may provide nesting habitat for this species. Yellow-crowned Night-Heron is a sometimes solitary nesting species found in small numbers or loose colonies, but will occasionally nest with other herons. The species prefers wooded, shrubby areas with an open understory (Watts 1995). This night-heron is a crustacean specialist so flourishing populations of shallow water crabs such as mud fiddler crabs (Uca pugnax), marsh crabs (Sesarma reticulatum), and common mud crabs (Panopeus herbstii) among others, are important at the island as well as in adjacent foraging areas. Yellow-crowned Night-Heron appears to be more tolerant of human presence than other heron species, as it is known to nest in residential areas.

American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliates) was documented nesting on the

island in 1998 but has not been observed nesting since then. American Oystercatcher is listed as a Species of Special Concern in Connecticut. A consistent breeding

Figure 17: Herring and Great Black-backed Gull nesting area adjacent to heron and egret nesting west of the lighthouse.

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population of American Oystercatcher is a desired addition to Great Captains Island. Appropriate nesting habitat (i.e. beach with little vegetation or marsh with a sandy substrate surrounded by Spartina alterniflora) is present on the island, however potential ground predators (e.g. rats) on the island and human disturbance must be managed. Killdeer would also benefit from reduced human disturbance between March and August as well as control of rats on the island. Low grassy or sandy areas around the lighthouse and areas along the dirt road might be suitable habitat for Killdeer nesting. As this area is not known for high concentrations of Killdeer, the avifauna of the area would benefit from increased breeding capacity on Great Captains Island (Brown et al. 2001). Spotted Sandpiper is another species that would benefit from a reduction in terrestrial predators (Oring et al. 1997). This unique species is one of only two shorebirds (Killdeer being the other) that breed in the area. The presence of the tidal wetland, a rocky shoreline, and areas of semi-open herbaceous cover may provide suitable nesting habitat for this species. Although continental population estimates are unknown for Spotted Sandpiper, this region of the North Atlantic is important for both migrating and locally breeding populations (Brown et.al 2001). While the mixed forest on the island is an important breeding habitat primarily for the more common and abundant mixed forest passerine species, it is potentially even more important for migrating northern forest species (M. Bull pers. comm.). Therefore it is important to consider vegetation management for migrating passerines for whom a disturbance-free refuge with adequate food sources would be important. Islands are prime areas for migrating birds, as noted on Block Island in Rhode Island and Monomoy Island in Massachusetts (USFWS 2007). Replacement of invasive species with small, branchy, native plants such as black cherry and box elder which have been used in New York Harbor heron colonies (Bernick 2007), and with densely-branched plants used for nesting in Massachusetts, such as red cedar, holly, shadbush, and bayberry, to name a few, would improve habitat for migrating birds as well as improve nesting habitat for the key current avian species. 4.3.8.3 Summary of natural history of avian species of conservation concern known to frequent site. In general, the site-fidelity of wading birds to a colony location depends on the quality of nesting habitat, predation rates, and the availability nearby of quality food (Burger 1981, Melvin, Gawlik, and Scharff 1999, Fasola et al. 2000). All of these factors influence reproductive success. There are costs involved for herons to move their nesting sites and researchers theorize that wading birds tend to desert nesting colonies based on increased predation, strong competition over nest sites, unfavorable foraging conditions (long distance to food or poor food quality or quantity), or lack of mate selection. Lowered reproductive success usually reflects the quality of the nesting habitat and foraging territory as measured along these lines (Switzer 1993). Species Accounts:

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A. Great Egret: Great Egret (Ardea alba) is listed as Threatened in Connecticut. Within the US, this species breeds from southern Maine south along the coast to Florida and west throughout Texas, California and north to Washington (McCrimmon et al. 2001). This species is usually one of the first to arrive at a colony in spring and its presence may induce other species to nest in the colony. In Connecticut, Great Egret arrives late March to early April. Due to its wide wing span 14.2-15.8 inches (360-400 mm) and height (tarsus=4.8-6.8 inches (121-173 mm)), this species prefers to nest on or near the top of woody vegetation on islands or over open water. The nests are comprised of long sticks with the lower region of the nest made from heavier materials for structural stability. On average, the female lays three eggs over 7 days and incubates these eggs for 23 to 27 days. Young are not homoeothermic for several weeks after hatching and thus both parents are needed brood the young; one parent forages for food the other maintains the youngsters’ body temperature, and then the parents trade places. Young begin to fly around 51 days of age and fledge at 62 to 67 days. After gaining independence from their parents, young birds will fly to nearby foraging areas and return to the natal colony to roost. Little is known about fidelity to the breeding site. Great Egret feed in a wide variety of salt and fresh water wetland habitats, and on a wide variety of prey items including fish, invertebrates and, to a lesser extent, amphibians, birds, and small mammals. Great Egret typically forage close (<6.2 miles) to the colony. B. Snowy Egret: Snowy Egret (Egretta thula) is listed as Threatened in Connecticut. Approximately 11% of the global population occurs in Bird Conservation Region (BCR) 30, which extends from southeastern Maine to coastal Virginia (Waterbird Working Group 2007). Snowy Egret breeds from southern coastal Maine, south to Florida, and along the Gulf of Mexico with some inland colonies occurring in eastern Texas and Oklahoma, northern Nevada and Utah, southern Oregon and Idaho, and California (Parsons and Master 2000). Similar to the Great Egret, Snowy Egret arrives in Connecticut around late March to early April. The species is distinguished from Great Egret by their smaller size and bright yellow feet. Snowy Egret tends to prefer isolated nesting islands on the Atlantic seaboard and tends to nest in thick vegetation. Dredge-spoil islands are of particular importance for this species when located near feeding areas. Nest-site stability is a factor in nest placement and nests are placed on tree branches or on the tops of woody vines. While they prefer to nest around 5 ft. (1.5 m) off the ground, some ground nesting has been reported in thick stands of Phragmites. Nests are constructed from twigs and materials that are pruned from live shrubby vegetation, with grass and twigs used to line the nest. The three to five pale greenish-blue eggs laid are approximately 1 ¾ inches (43 mm) long and 1 ¼ inches (32 mm) in diameter. Snowy Egret will lay another clutch if the first is lost early in incubation. Incubation takes 20 to 21 days and young fledge at 53 to 56 days of age. Birds typically begin breeding at two years old.

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Adult Snowy Egret prefers nesting near shallow estuarine feeding sites such as salt-marsh pools, shallow bays, and brackish tidal channels. The species feeds on a wide range of items such as fresh and marine fish, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates (e.g. shrimp, crabs, and crayfish), frogs and toads, and reptiles. However, adult birds feed their nestlings a narrow diet. Studies of nestling regurgitations have shown that 75% of the prey is fish and the remainder is crustaceans. C. Black-crowned Night-Heron: Black-crowned Night-Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) breeds throughout North America in a wide variety of wetland habitats that are free from predators (Davis 1993). The species also uses a large variety of nesting substrate such as tall trees (e.g. oaks, willow, swamp maple, black cherry), woody species (e.g. holly, crabapple, box elder, dogwood), including wetland vegetation, such as cattails, Phragmites, and bulrush. Nests have been found on the ground and up to 160 feet (48.8 m). Nests are also variable but tend to be a bulky stick platform, either sturdy or loosely woven, with or without a lining. Black-crowned Night-Heron arrives at the colony in late March and early April and begins egg-laying late in April. Females will lay 2 to 3 green-blue eggs with a length and breadth of approximately 2 x 1 ½ inches (52 x 37 mm). Both the male and female bird incubates the eggs for 24 to 26 days. Nestlings are brooded continuously for up to 10 days after hatching. Young can climb at 18 days and will depart from the nest at 6 to 7 weeks of age. It is suggested that 2.0 to 2.1 young per breeding pair are required to maintain a stable population (Henny 1972 as cited in Davis 1993). A wide variety of foods are consumed by Black-crowned Night-Heron at shallow, vegetated wetland margins. True to their name, they are nocturnal and feed mainly from evening to early morning on terrestrial insects, aquatic crustaceans, freshwater and marine fish, amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, and birds (especially eggs and young of other colonially-nesting birds). Later in the summer, young will fly to feeding areas with adults and beg for food. D. Little Blue Heron: Little Blue Heron (Egretta caerulea) is listed as Species of Special Concern in Connecticut, where the species occurs at the northern edge of its distribution. The species breeds south to Florida and along the Gulf Coast to Texas (Rodgers and Smith 1995b). Some inland breeding occurs in the southern states, eastern Texas and Oklahoma, north to Illinois and Indiana. Little Blue Heron tends to nest in lower shrubs and small trees in protected sites below the canopy. Nests are constructed from dead twigs 9.8-15.8 inches (25-40 cm) long and tend to be lined with green vegetation. Clutch size is 3 to 5 eggs and the size overlaps with Snowy Egret eggs. Egg color, however, is slightly greener than that of the Snowy Egret. Research has shown that nestlings are capable of thermoregulation at 11 to 16 days of age. Young begin flying around day 28 and fledge after 5 weeks of age. Little Blue Heron will begin breeding as one-year-olds.

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The species is opportunistic, feeding on small fish, amphibians, and terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates. Birds prefer more forested or heavily vegetated fresh or estuarine wetlands than other species. E. American Oystercatcher: American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliates) is listed as a Species of Special Concern in Connecticut predominantly becomes it must directly compete with humans for nesting locations on prime beach sites. This shorebird feeds almost exclusively on shellfish and marine invertebrates in intertidal sand or mud flats or oyster or mussel shoals (Nol and Humphrey 1994). In New England, mussels, soft- and hard-shelled clams, and razor clams are preferred foods. If sandy beaches are unavailable, nesting may occur on marsh islands with Spartina alterniflora or mud flats, upland dune with a small rise in elevation, or dredge spoil with sand or gravel. Two to four eggs comprise a clutch, which is laid in a shallow scrape in sand, a shell bed, or on tidal wrack. Chicks are precocial and downy, capable of running within hours after hatching. Chicks remain in the natal area while adults fly to forage at distant feeding grounds. Young can fly at approximately 35 days of age but remain dependent on adults for food until 60 days old. 4.3.9 Identification of non-avian, listed species No known listed non-avian vertebrates or invertebrates have been found on Great Captains Island. Complete inventories such as those conducted by the Connecticut Butterfly Atlas, or systematic collections of invertebrates and entomological specimens such as is housed at the Yale Peabody Museum, have not included the offshore islands (E. Laso-Wasem pers. comm. 2007, C. Lemmon pers comm. 2006, Yale Peabody Museum 2007). A complete inventory of butterflies, moths, forage fish species, and intertidal invertebrates of the island would be necessary to determine if listed species are present. In the absence of an inventory of terrestrial invertebrates on Great Captains Island, a list of butterfly and moth species that may be present on the island based on the Connecticut Butterfly Atlas findings in Fairfield County and an analysis of the habitats and food sources on the island has been compiled (Appendix D). It is difficult to determine which species would be present on the island without site-specific knowledge of host plant species. Great Captains Island could potentially prove to be critical habitat for rare tiger beetles, bees (pollinators), and sand wasps (D. Wagner pers. comm.). It is possible that with a management plan designed to create novel habitat (e.g. grassland, sand plain, coastal plain pond), the island will be suitable to some imperiled invertebrates. The largest inventory of Connecticut intertidal invertebrates was conducted by Addison E. Verrill in the late 1800s, however no specimens were collected on Great Captains Island. Relatively few studies of macroinvertebrates along the Connecticut coast have been conducted since Verrill’s work. A study of intertidal invertebrates of the Leetes and Thimble Island region (Sibley and Sibley 1969), a paper by Fell et al. (1982) on mollusks in several Connecticut tidal marshes, and periodic collection of invertebrate species within Fairfield County (Yale Peabody Museum Collections:

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http://www.peabody.yale.edu/collections/index.html) appear to be the most current inventory of invertebrates on the Connecticut coast and the findings only extend as far west as Norwalk. It is difficult to extrapolate invertebrate biodiversity for the Greenwich area from inventories of the more easterly offshore islands. Biodiversity may naturally be lower in the western end of the Sound due to warmer water temperatures, less nutrient upwelling as noted in the colder water closer to the Atlantic Ocean (Laso-Wasem pers. comm.), and increased nutrient-enrichment and pollution. An inventory of invertebrates on Great Captains Island is needed. Great Captains Island is within an approved shellfish growing area (CT DEP 2005). The shellfish area around Great Captains was open for the 2007 shellfish season (October 1, 2006 through September 30, 2007) for recreational harvest of hard shell clams (Mercenaria mercenaria), soft shell clams (Mya arenaria), mussels (Mytilus edulis) , and razor clams (Ensis directus) (Greenwich Shellfish Commission 2007). No oysters (Crassostrea virginica) may be harvested due to disease-related reductions in populations. These designated areas support or could support the propagation of shell-stock including American oyster and hard-shelled clam beds offshore from the island. An approved area is determined to be sanitary according to bacteriological criteria and free of effects from actual and potential pollution sources. The mainland foraging area, from the New York state line east to Cos Cob Harbor, is within a restricted-relay designation for shellfish, and the area around Greenwich Point and Calf Island is conditionally approved. Restricted-relay indicates that shellfish may be grown in the area but then must be moved to an approved area for a purification process prior to harvesting for market. Conditionally approved means that certain hydrological or meteorological conditions have made the area temporarily limited for shellfish cultivation at specified times. The only mammal species observed on the island is the introduced Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). The size of the rat population is unknown. This species can be a predator to low nesting herons or egrets, ground nesting birds including American Oystercatcher, Herring and Great Black-backed Gulls, and Spotted Sandpiper. Other mammal species such as raccoon and mink have not been observed. According to the Long Island Sound Study, seals do not appear to use the island as a haul-out in the winter (Long Island Sound Study 2004). It is unknown if terrestrial reptiles live on the island. Based on distribution maps, habitat requirements, as well as sightings on the Norwalk Islands, it is possible that northern diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys t. terrapin) inhabits both the tidal wetland within the island and the mainland wetlands (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997) around Great Captains Island. 5 CONSERVATION CONCERNS AND THREATS Waterbirds along the east coast face a number of threats to their nesting areas. These threats include human disturbance, increases in mammalian predators, and

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habitat alteration including both direct human impacts as well as alteration due to projected sea-level rise (Parnell et al. 1988, Erwin 1989, Rounds et al. 2004). Shortage of colony sites, predation and disturbance at nesting colonies, reduction in nesting and foraging areas, and the impacts of pesticide/chemical contamination are the most pressing threats to Great Egret, Snowy Egret, and Black-crowned Night-Heron in the Mid-Atlantic/New England/Maritimes region (Waterbird Working Group 2007). Experts agree that loss of nesting habitat (especially islands) is a major concern for wading bird species throughout the world (Erwin et al. 1995). In the Greenwich area, there are few alternative sites that might replace Great Captains Island, as most others already have higher levels of human visitation and are usually closer to the mainland. Calf Island is a potential alternative colony site but only if the interior vegetation grows and matures into a structure suitable to heron nesting and the island remains predator- and disturbance-free. Nesting wading birds have been shown to be highly sensitive to human intrusions by land which may cause abandonment of nesting sites or high nest failure (Parsons and Burger 1982, Tremblay and Ellison 1979, see review in Parnell et al. 1988). Disturbance by humans can also indirectly affect nesting success as there is often an increased predation of nests by crows or gulls when adult wading birds are flushed off their nests by humans (Burger 1981). Because Great Captains Island is an established multi-use site with strong advocates and stakeholders for managing recreation, conservation, and historic resources, human disturbance to nesting birds is an important threat to address. Coastal development not only affects nesting islands but foraging areas as well (see Erwin 1996). Vehicle and boat traffic has been shown to cause significant disturbance in avian foraging behavior (Bratton 1990, Stolen 2003, Rodgers and Schwikert 2003, Parnell et al. 1988). Researchers have recommended enforcing buffer zones around foraging birds or designating foraging sanctuaries that prohibit human, boat, and vehicle traffic (Erwin 1996, Erwin et al. 1993, Stolen 2003). While in recent years it is clear that boating traffic has increased, it is difficult to know if it is a problem for foraging birds associated with Great Captains Island. Anecdotal observations of the Greenwich Point marshes indicate that boaters, including sailors and kayakers do not use the marshy areas where wading birds forage (Louden pers. comm.). However, definitive studies have not been conducted. Predation by ground and aerial predators is a major factor affecting persistence of a colony (Taylor and Michael 1971, Wischusen 1979, Bogliani and Bellinato 1998). A colony site will be abandoned if predators create a high level of disturbance or reduce heron and egret productivity. Raccoon (Procyon lotor), mink (Mustela vison), American and Fish crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos and Corvus ossifragus), owls, and rats are all potential predators in a nesting colony. Raccoons have been implicated in the abandonment of Connecticut’s Chimon Island colony in 1993. On Great Captains Island, the Norway rat is present and could be a significant predator of ground-nesting birds. The species’ ability to climb makes them a predation risk for wading bird eggs and very young nestlings.

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The presence of humans on nesting islands can increase predator populations by 1) providing food sources and 2) by introducing them to the island either intentionally or by accident. It is important that sanitation is a priority on the island and garbage is not left for predators to access, in particular human refuse often attracts both rats and crows. Crows can be a significant source of nest failure and disruption (Schmidt and Parsons 1997). A Great-horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) pair and crows have been sighted at the island although there have been no reports as of yet of either species taking eggs or young. Adverse change to the nesting structure is also a threat to the well-being of a colony. In many colonies, as medium sized trees mature, and the architecture shifts to a taller, more open structure, the site is no longer suitable for nesting and nesting birds may desert the island. There is a trade-off in habitat management between trees that are too tall and where nests risk being blown out of the trees’ crowns, and vegetation that is too low and where potential ground predators can access the nests or where the nests can flood from high spring tides.

Reductions or shifts in vegetation due to climatic events or human interference

(e.g. hurricane, human cutting, etc.) can lead to unstable nest substrate that is unable to sustain strong winds or storms during the nesting season. Unstable nests can cause eggs to break and young to fall from nests leading to poor productivity. Nesting birds may not return to a colony-site after poor reproductive success.

In 2008, the Asian Long-horned Beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), a serious

invasive tree pest, was identified in the New York area. On Prall’s Island, a former heron colony in the Arthur Kill, eradication strategies by the United States Department of Agriculture resulted in the removal of most mature trees on the island (USDA-APHIS 2005). Habitat alteration of this scope on Great Captains Island could make the island unsuitable for colonially-nesting herons and egrets. Additionally, threats to the integrity of the island are important to address. Erosion of the eastern conservation side and loss of habitat due to sea level rise could physically destroy nest sites and create vegetation changes due to increases in soil and ground water characteristics. A soil erosion study conducted by the Town of Greenwich’s Department of Public Works in the mid-1980s suggested improvements to the island were needed to minimize erosion. Computer modeling using current elevations and expected sea level rise in the Long Island Sound by Titus and Richman (2000) from the USEPA cautiously indicate that Great Captains Island and associated foraging areas will be above mean high tide for the next couple hundred years however, these lands may be inundated during high spring tides. This can affect non-salt tolerant vegetation as well as low nesting birds, especially the Snowy Egret that nests in Phragmites. The authors recommend coastal protection efforts that may prevent some low-lying area from being flooded as sea level rises.

51

Contaminants and pesticides can cause direct impacts to wading birds. Mercury ingestion by Great Egret caused reduced survival, impaired reproduction, and detrimental alterations of foraging behavior (McCrimmon et al. 2001). Chemicals such as oil can reduce food resources for all three wading bird species (Parsons 1994). Consequently, waterfront restoration projects, such as is contemplated by the Town of Greenwich for the Cos Cob Power Plant site, should include proactive plans to remediate contaminated sediments.

Long-term conservation and management concerns regarding the regional

wetlands used by Great Captains Island birds for foraging include the degradation of habitat due to urban land use practices and chemicals, the impact of recreational activities on foraging birds, changes in the prey base due to climate change, and alteration of wetlands due to sea-level rise (Erwin et al. 2006). In the short-term, researchers predict that the combined effects of wetland fragmentation, increased avian predator populations due to habitat shifts, increased interactions with humans, and decreased nesting site and wetland availability will force birds into low quality colony-sites causing detrimental effects on reproductive success at a hemispheric scale (Butler and Vennesland 2000). While these are all important threats and concerns to address, it is still unclear why the Great Captains Island colony is currently declining. Therefore, it is critical to establish precautionary management strategies that address a broad range of issues until such time as exact causes are known. Clearly, human disturbance on the island may be a big factor in the colony’s health, but a decline in foraging area quality would also be expected to play a role in the colony’s sustainability. More than one action may be necessary to promote and maintain the health of the Town’s heron colony. 6 CONSERVATION PARTNERS An initial list of stakeholders including agencies, partners and other organizations was provided by Audubon Connecticut. This list was expanded as various partners provided additional interested parties (Table 4). Roles vary from interest in island welfare, to foraging habitat management, to educational programming/efforts.

The island managers are those groups that are directly involved in the

management of the island for its recreation and conservation resources. The island is owned by the Town of Greenwich, however it contains migratory and state-listed herons and egrets whose welfare comes under the regulatory authority of the CT DEP and the USFWS. The island also is recognized as an Audubon Important Bird Area because of its unique conservation value. Therefore, those concerned with the island are a diverse group, some with direct management responsibilities, some with legal authority, and others with conservation or education expertise. Presently, this group consists of the following entities: the Town of Greenwich Department of Parks and Recreation, the Town of Greenwich Conservation Commission, CT DEP, Audubon Connecticut, Connecticut Audubon, and the USFWS Stewart B. McKinney Refuge.

52

The Southern New England Long Island Colonial Waterbird Working Group (SNELIWG) is an informal group of waterbird researchers and managers from academia, ngos and government agencies. The Working Group meets yearly to discuss the status of waterbirds in the southern New England/Long Island Sound region, identify current concerns and threats, and explore management opportunities. Their concern is for the welfare of the Great Captains Island heron population as a part of the larger regional population. The organizations involved in managing the foraging habitat for the herons have a role in conserving and managing key foraging areas for Great Captains Island birds. In the Greenwich area, the Town of Greenwich Conservation Commission and Parks & Recreation Department are responsible for municipal lands such as Greenwich Point Park and associated islands, and potentially key foraging areas such as Byram Park and Grass Island. While the Greenwich Land Trust operates within its own directives, they may be enlisted to work on acquiring or securing properties important to foraging wading birds. Due to the State of Connecticut wetland policy, as well as their overall interest in the welfare of the Great Captains Island colony, the CTDEP is by default a part of the island’s welfare group. In Westchester County, where a percentage of Great Captains birds appear to be flying to forage, habitat managers include New York Department of Conservation Region 3 for state-owned lands, the Westchester Department of Parks and Recreation for county lands such as the Marshlands Conservancy and Edith G. Read Wildlife Sanctuary, and Audubon New York for the Important Bird Areas. In addition to the Westchester County cooperators, the conservation planners and managers of the Oyster Bay complex may also be considered partners as these areas appear to be important foraging grounds for Snowy Egret nesting on Great Captains Island. This complex is considered a Long Island Sound Stewardship Site, and these stewards should be included in any region-wide foraging area conservation and management plan and education efforts. Wading bird needs can be incorporated into wetland restoration plans within two important programs used by Stewardship sites, the USFWS’s Coastal Ecosystems Program and the USEPA’s Long Island Sound Study. The education group is very diverse with each organization or agency offering a unique perspective to broad age groups. The group includes the Bruce Museum, Audubon Greenwich, Sound Waters, Town of Greenwich Parks & Recreation Department, Town of Greenwich Conservation Commission, CTDEP, and the Maritime Aquarium in Norwalk. The Friends of Greenwich Point and the Greenwich Point Conservancy carry important and ancillary missions and may be recruited to become involved.

The education component of the plan involves several different audiences such

as:

53

a) education aimed at the managers and employees working directly on the island,

b) public education on the uniqueness and importance of the wading bird colony and offshore islands in general to birds, and

c) public education on a broader scale, extending to foraging areas and the Sound in general.

Education can take place on the island through updated signage and

interpreters/guides as well as through off-shore outlets such as the museums, libraries, and Audubon Centers. Interpersonal interactions with property owners, especially those adjacent to the waterfront can lead to long-lasting conservation benefits. A beach clean-up in the late fall or winter, a heron festival in the spring, and projects to earn merit badges and awards for the Boy Scouts or 4-H youth groups are tools to involve the community and increase a sense of stewardship for the community’s birds. This colony provides a unique opportunity to educate and involve an urban public regarding the concepts of conservation. 6.1 Stakeholder/Partner comments The initial partners provided by Audubon Connecticut were first contacted by email with a list of previous management recommendations and a short questionnaire regarding their organization’s interest in the Island, key issues or management strategies that they would like to see addressed or changed in the Plan, and their organization’s potential participation in implementing the Plan (see Appendix G). A follow-up phone call was placed within a week or two after the email in order to discuss the questionnaire and management recommendations. Stakeholders provided additional contacts who were invited to participate and comment on the management plan. Comments were compiled and included in the drafting of this Plan.

54

Tab

le 6

: G

reat

Cap

tain

s Is

land

par

tner

s, c

onta

ct p

erso

n, r

ole

and/

or u

se o

f the

isla

nd, a

ssoc

iate

d fo

ragi

ng a

reas

, and

ed

ucat

iona

l pro

gram

s/in

tere

sts.

Sta

keh

old

er

Co

nta

ct

No

tes

Isla

nd

M

anag

emen

t

Fo

rag

ing

ar

ea

man

agem

ent

Ed

uca

tio

n

Aud

ubon

CT

Tom

Bap

tist

(Exe

cutiv

e D

irect

or)

Pat

rick

Com

ins

(Dire

ctor

of B

ird

Con

serv

atio

n)

Sta

te o

ffice

of t

he N

atio

nal A

udub

on

Soc

iety

; wor

ks to

pro

tect

bird

s, w

ildlif

e,

and

habi

tats

thro

ugh

educ

atio

n, s

cien

ce,

advo

cacy

, and

ste

war

dshi

p in

C

onne

ctic

ut

ü üüü

ü üüü

Aud

ubon

Gre

enw

ich-

Aud

ubon

Cen

ter

Kar

en D

ixon

(D

irect

or)

Nat

iona

l Aud

ubon

Soc

iety

Gre

enw

ich

chap

ter;

wor

ks to

enc

oura

ge

cons

erva

tion

and

rest

orat

ion

of w

ildlif

e an

d ha

bita

ts

ü üüü

ü üüü

Bru

ce M

useu

m

Car

olyn

Reb

bert

(C

urat

or o

f Sci

ence

) C

ynth

ia E

hlin

ger

Tow

n-ow

ned

Sea

side

Cen

ter

at

Gre

enw

ich

Poi

nt; i

nter

este

d in

wild

life,

pl

ants

, eco

logi

cal c

onne

ctio

ns, b

utte

rflie

s at

Gre

enw

ich

Poi

nt; c

an p

ossi

bly

setu

p a

web

cam

; diff

icul

t to

do e

duca

tion

on

isla

nd d

ue to

dis

tanc

e, a

cces

s, a

nd

timin

g of

thei

r ed

ucat

iona

l pro

gram

s;

will

ing

to a

ssis

t in

mon

itorin

g of

fora

ging

ar

eas

ü

ü üüü

Con

nect

icut

Aud

ubon

; C

onne

ctic

ut O

rnith

olog

ical

A

ssoc

iatio

n

Mila

n B

ull,

(Sen

ior

Dire

ctor

of S

cien

ce)

Pro

mot

es in

tere

st a

nd p

rote

ctio

n of

CT

bi

rds;

wor

ked

with

CT

DE

P o

n w

adin

g bi

rd is

land

s fo

r nu

mer

ous

year

s

ü üüü

Con

nect

icut

Dep

artm

ent o

f E

nviro

nmen

tal P

rote

ctio

n

Jenn

y D

icks

on

(Dep

artm

ent B

iolo

gist

) Ju

lie V

icto

ria

(Dep

artm

ent B

iolo

gist

)

Pro

vide

exp

ertis

e an

d as

sist

ance

to

Tow

n re

gard

ing

man

agem

ent o

f the

is

land

; con

duct

tri-a

nnua

l sur

vey

of C

T

wad

ing

bird

col

onie

s

ü üüü

ü üüü

ü üüü

55

Sta

keh

old

er

Co

nta

ct

No

tes

Isla

nd

M

anag

emen

t

Fo

rag

ing

ar

ea

man

agem

ent

Ed

uca

tio

n

Frie

nds

of G

reen

wic

h P

oint

S

ue B

aker

R

osem

ary

Loud

en

Adv

ocat

e fo

r G

reen

wic

h P

oint

thro

ugh

stew

ards

hip

and

educ

atio

n; m

ay b

e ab

le

to in

corp

orat

e w

adin

g bi

rds

into

ed

ucat

ion;

may

be

will

ing

to c

reat

e a

fora

ging

san

ctua

ry in

wet

land

s no

t di

stur

bed

by th

e G

reen

wic

h P

oint

Sai

ling

Sch

ool;

Ros

emar

y is

a b

otan

ist t

hat m

ay

be a

ble

to a

ssis

t with

a c

ompr

ehen

sive

pl

ant i

nven

tory

on

the

isla

nd.

ü

ü üüü

Gre

enw

ich

Land

Tru

st

Van

Par

ker

Act

ive

in a

cqui

ring

open

spa

ce fo

r pe

rman

ent p

rese

rvat

ion;

ste

war

ds o

f se

vera

l coa

stal

wet

land

pro

pert

ies

(e.g

. S

hell

Isla

nd)

ü

Long

Isla

nd S

ound

Stu

dy

Mar

k T

edes

co

(Dire

ctor

)

LIS

S h

as s

ome

fund

ing

avai

labl

e to

NY

an

d C

T to

iden

tify

thre

ats

in th

e ov

erla

ppin

g S

tew

ards

hip

Are

as; w

illin

g to

in

corp

orat

e w

adin

g bi

rds

into

pro

tect

ion

stra

tegi

es

ü üüü

New

Yor

k D

epar

tmen

t of

Con

serv

atio

n T

ed K

erpe

z

The

NY

DE

C m

ay b

e im

port

ant

colla

bora

tors

in a

bi-r

egio

nal p

lan

to

impr

ove

and

prot

ect i

mpo

rtan

t for

agin

g w

etla

nds

with

in N

YD

EC

Reg

ion

3. .

ü üüü

Mar

itim

e A

quar

ium

in

Nor

wal

k Ja

ck S

chne

ider

(D

irect

or o

f Res

earc

h)

Aqu

ariu

m e

xhib

its C

onne

ctic

ut

cons

erva

tion

issu

es

ü üüü

Sav

e th

e S

ound

Rob

in K

riesb

erg

(Int

erim

Dire

ctor

of

Res

tora

tion

and

Ste

war

dshi

p)

Foc

used

on

habi

tat r

esto

ratio

n,

prot

ectio

n, a

nd e

duca

tion

of th

e Lo

ng

Isla

nd S

ound

in N

Y a

nd C

T

ü üüü

ü üüü

56

Sta

keh

old

er

Co

nta

ct

No

tes

Isla

nd

M

anag

emen

t

Fo

rag

ing

ar

ea

man

agem

ent

Ed

uca

tio

n

Sou

ther

n N

ew E

ngla

nd

Long

Isla

nd C

olon

ial

Wat

erbi

rds

Wor

king

Gro

up

And

rew

Mac

Lach

lan

(Cha

ir-U

SFW

S)

Gro

up o

f wat

erbi

rd s

cien

tists

wor

king

in

the

regi

on; w

orks

toge

ther

to c

oord

inat

e m

onito

ring

effo

rts,

kee

p tr

ack

of r

egio

nal

popu

latio

ns, t

hrea

ts, c

an a

dvis

e w

ith

man

agem

ent o

f isl

and

and

fora

ging

ar

eas

ü

ü

Sou

ndW

ater

s K

athy

Rho

des

(D

irect

or o

f Edu

catio

n)

Env

ironm

enta

l edu

catio

n or

gani

zed

arou

nd th

e Lo

ng Is

land

Sou

nd; p

ossi

ble

to u

se s

choo

ner

to v

iew

col

ony

from

the

wat

er a

nd c

ondu

ct e

duca

tiona

l tou

rs

ü üüü

The

Tow

n of

Gre

enw

ich

Con

serv

atio

n C

omm

issi

on

Den

ise

Sav

agea

u M

anag

es G

reat

Cap

tain

s Is

land

re

sour

ces

ü üüü

ü üüü

ü üüü

The

Tow

n of

Gre

enw

ich

Par

ks a

nd R

ecre

atio

n

Jose

ph A

. Sic

ilian

o (D

irect

or)

Gre

at C

apta

ins

Isla

nd la

ndow

ner;

P

arks

and

Rec

reat

ion

repr

esen

ts th

e G

reen

wic

h co

mm

unity

ü üüü

ü üüü

ü üüü

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

Fis

h an

d W

ildlif

e S

ervi

ce-M

cKin

ney

Nat

iona

l Wild

life

Ref

uge

Ric

k P

otzi

n (R

efug

e M

anag

er)

Man

ages

Cal

f Isl

and,

a fr

eque

nt

fora

ging

are

a fo

r eg

rets

from

G

reat

Cap

tain

s Is

land

ü üüü

ü üüü

57

Sta

keh

old

er

Co

nta

ct

No

tes

Isla

nd

M

anag

emen

t

Fo

rag

ing

ar

ea

man

agem

ent

Ed

uca

tio

n

US

FWS

Sou

ther

n N

ew

Eng

land

- N

ew Y

ork

Big

ht

Coa

stal

Eco

syst

ems

Pro

gram

Don

Hen

ne

Tas

ked

with

inve

ntor

ying

and

ass

essi

ng

Sou

ther

n N

ew E

ngla

nd -

New

Yor

k B

ight

co

asta

l res

ourc

es a

nd h

abita

ts;

iden

tifyi

ng a

nd a

sses

sing

thre

ats

to

thes

e re

sour

ces;

dev

elop

ing

stra

tegi

es to

pr

otec

t and

res

tore

thes

e re

sour

ces;

co

ordi

natin

g an

d fa

cilit

atin

g im

plem

enta

tion

of r

esou

rce

prot

ectio

n an

d re

stor

atio

n st

rate

gies

; pro

mot

ing

publ

ic e

duca

tion

and

awar

enes

s of

the

valu

e of

and

thre

ats

to c

oast

al r

esou

rces

; id

entif

ying

opp

ortu

nitie

s fo

r th

e pu

blic

to

beco

me

invo

lved

in th

e so

lutio

ns

http

://w

ww

.fws.

gov/

r5sn

ep/s

nep1

.htm

ü üüü

ü üüü

Wes

tche

ster

Dep

t of P

arks

an

d R

ecre

atio

n Je

ff M

ain

Wor

ks w

ith th

e LI

S In

itiat

ive;

LIS

nee

ds

publ

ic s

uppo

rt to

incl

ude

ecol

ogic

al

need

s in

the

initi

ativ

e; h

e ha

s a

visi

on o

f Je

ff ha

s a

visi

on o

f a b

i-reg

iona

l co

mpr

ehen

sive

man

agem

ent p

lan

betw

een

Wes

tche

ster

Cou

nty,

NY

th

roug

h F

airf

ield

Cou

nty,

CT

ü üüü

58

7 CURRENT CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES In 1997, a report for the CTDEP by Milan Bull (Connecticut Audubon Society) entitled CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR THE COLONIAL NESTING WADING BIRDS IN CONNECTICUT, identified management concerns and threats to the wading bird colony on Great Captains Island. Bull highlighted several conservation needs including 1) reduced human disturbance on the conservation area of the island from April 1 to early August, 2) research, monitoring, and management of predators (e.g. raccoon, opossum, Great Horned Owl, and Norway rat) and competitors (white-tailed deer and Double-crested Cormorants), 3) maintenance of a mixture of mature trees and shrubby areas, and 4)public education through a variety of means including interpretive signs and education packets sent to private landowners. Additionally, this report suggested standardization of census protocols, coordination with censuses of other Connecticut wading bird nesting sites, a networked data management system for regional colony data, and the creation of a regional colonial nesting bird working group to assist with monitoring State and regional population objectives. From 2000 to 2002, Audubon Connecticut conducted research designed to estimate population sizes, investigate productivity, identify key foraging areas within the surrounding region, and determine predation rates for nesting wading bird species on Great Captains Island (Heath and Parkes 2002). The final report from these three years of research recommended the following actions, some of which were similar to those detailed in Bull (1997): 1) a reduction of human disturbance through closure of the conservation loop and postponement of mowing near the colony during the breeding season, 2) monitoring for raccoon and gull predation and research into effects from rats, 3) monitoring for presence of Double-crested Cormorants, 4) invasive plant management, 5) identification and protection of important foraging areas, 6) standardized census protocols, and 7) increased education regarding the importance of the wading bird colony. 7.1 Island To date, several on-going activities resulting from these two sets of recommendations by Bull (1997) and the Audubon CT research (2000, 2001, and 2002) have been realized at the island. These are the following: a) The Town of Greenwich has placed signage identifying the colony as an

important nesting area for egrets and herons at the beginning of the conservation road at the north side of the tidal wetland, just east of the maintenance sheds and caretaker housing;

b) There is a caretaker on the island who during late spring and summer seeks to curtail excessive human disturbance of the colony;

c) The CTDEP conducts censuses of all Connecticut wading bird colonies every three years and at that time the surveyors investigate the island for signs of raccoon or other predators;

d) A regional colonial nesting bird working group (Southern New England Long Island Sound Working Group [SNELIWG]) has convened since the late 1980’s. This group is hosted by the USFWS Region 5, includes southern New England

59

and New York Bight states (CT, RI, MA, NY, NJ), and meets annually in early winter; e) The island has been recognized as an Important Bird Area by National Audubon and efforts to conserve the important bird resources have been spearheaded by Audubon Connecticut, Audubon Greenwich, and the Town of Greenwich Conservation Commission among other stakeholders.

7.2 Foraging areas Within the foraging areas, several current conservation initiatives and actions have been taken or are underway: a) The Long Island Sound Stewardship Act of 2004 was proposed to help

identify, protect, and enhance significant open space, and recreational and ecological sites along the Sound;

b) The Long Island Sound Stewardship Act of 2006 established the Long Island Stewardship Initiative Region within Connecticut and New York. It‘s purpose is to “identify, protect, and enhance upland sites within the Long Island Sound ecosystem with significant ecological, educational, open space, public access, or recreational value through a bi-state network of sites” (GovTrack.us).

c) Greenwich Point, an important foraging area, has been selected as an Audubon Important Bird Area and therefore may benefit from the attentions of the

Figure 18: Town signs placed at beginning of dirt road into conservation area.

60

Friends of Greenwich Point, the Bruce Museum, and stakeholders also interested in the Great Captains Island wading bird colony. It is recommended that the Greenwich Point Important Bird Area Conservation Plan consider the recommendations from this Plan, such as creating a wading bird foraging sanctuary and initiating educational programs as recommended in Section 9.4.1.

d) The Edith G. Read Preserve, Rye Playland Park, and Marshlands County Park, potentially important foraging areas in the Westchester area, are also recognized Audubon Important Bird Areas in addition to being protected as New York Critical Environmental Areas and Long Island Sound Study Stewardship Areas;

e) Potential foraging areas on Long Island such as West Harbor, Mill Neck Creek, Glen Cove, Stanco Memorial Park, and the Oyster Bay National Wildlife Refuge/Shu Swamp Nature Preserve are also recognized as Long Island Sound Stewardship Areas and Oyster Bay is an Audubon Important Bird Area;

f) Incorporation and protection of Calf Island into the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Stewart B. McKinney Refuge system;

g) The Long Island Sound Restoration Act of 2001 was established to assist communities in achieving reduction of nitrogen waste by upgrading their sewer treatment plants and thus improving water quality within foraging areas;

h) The New York City Comprehensive Clean-up Plan was signed in 2006 after a strong effort by the Listen to the Sound Campaign. This plan’s goal is to significantly reduce nitrogen pollution from New York City into Long Island Sound. In addition to the signage placed on the island to inform visitors about the

heronry, current educational efforts appear to be limited to excursions by local ornithological organizations. Connecticut Audubon conducts a boat tour around the island to view the wading bird colony, and Audubon Greenwich conducts a public walk along the road to the lighthouse for a similar purpose. 8 CONSERVATION GOALS 8.1 Management/conservation needs/goals consistent with island policies, goals, and functions Conservation goals for this Important Bird Area are mainly based on the nesting and foraging requirements of the three major wading bird species at Great Captains Island. The goals are born out of a desire by the Town of Greenwich Conservation Commission, the CTDEP, Audubon CT, and other partners to have a sustainable population of breeding wading birds at Great Captains Island while also allowing for recreational use in a sensitive and collaborative fashion. These general goals address threats and concerns identified for the colony and foraging areas. Specific management actions included in the Action Plan section, based on these goals, will provide guidance in reaching the desired outcomes. Goals identified by partners include the following:

1. Incorporate management actions within the Conservation Area to support an enduring and healthy breeding population of wading birds;

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2. Foster communication among agencies and organizations in order to encourage best management practices that will support the wading bird colony as well as integrate the island’s multiuse objectives; 3. Develop a robust education component aimed at managers of both foraging and the nest site, elected officials, policy stakeholders, and the public. Education programs should emphasize the importance of and encouraging the value of this unique heronry and its associated foraging areas; 4. Improve the protection and health of the overall foraging area habitat; 5. Establish inventory, monitoring, and research programs to address the gaps in information on non-target wildlife species in order to measure the success of management actions and investigate questions regarding management of both target and non-target species.

8.2 Policies and instruments that can be implemented on island and at key foraging locations to further conservation goals

8.2.1 Policy: The Long Island Sound Study (LISS) is a partnership of state and federal agencies, researchers, not-for-profit conservation organizations, recreational user groups, and concerned individuals that are working to protect and improve the Long Island Sound. In 1994, the LISS developed and began implementing the Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (CCMP) which identifies goals and actions to improve water quality, enhance and protect habitat, educate and involve the public in this protection, and research ways to best apply management actions. Since 1996 the Plan has been refined and new priorities added based on research findings and management initiatives. The Long Island Sound Stewardship Act of 2005 established the Long Island Sound Stewardship Initiative to identify, protect, and enhance sites within the Long Island Sound ecosystem (J. Liner and A. Caccese pers. comm.). This Initiative may help with the implementation of the conservation actions suggested in this plan by providing money for grants that fund the development and implementation of management plans to address threats, as well as projects that protect and enhance stewardship sites.

The Long Island Sound Restoration Act was crafted to help develop

environmental projects within the CCMP. This Act is aimed at helping “distressed” communities upgrade their sewage treatment plants, thereby reducing nitrogen discharges to the Sound. The Act also authorizes improvements in storm water controls. In 2005, Congress reauthorized this Act through 2010 with annual appropriations of $40 million (LISS 2005). Connecticut Clean Water Fund is an infrastructure assistance program that administers monies to help municipalities plan, design, and implement wastewater treatment projects.

Great Captains Island and the potential foraging areas have also benefited from

the Listen to the Sound Campaign, a partnership of Audubon, Save the Sound, and the Regional Plan Association (which also includes Connecticut partners). This campaign has resulted in policy such as the 2006 New York Comprehensive Clean-Up Plan that focuses on improving water quality by reducing New York City nitrogen output into the Long Island Sound.

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Connecticut’s Coastal Management Act recognizes that development in coastal

areas causes loss of natural systems function. The Town of Greenwich’s Coastal Overlay Zone mandates that construction activities conducted on properties within the Town’s coastal overlay zone, such as property improvements, building permits, and erosion and flood control structures, are subject to a coastal site plan review (Town of Greenwich 1998).

8.2.2 Funding: Funding opportunities exist through the Long Island Sound Study to help accomplish the conservation goals and needs identified for Great Captains Island. The Long Island Futures Fund supports local stakeholders working to protect and restore living resources of the Sound (www.longislandsoundstudy.net/futurefund.htm). Small grants (≤$5,000) are administered for projects that focus on public engagement and education such as festivals, beach cleanups, and signage, while large grants ($10,000 to $150,000) are available for projects such as restoration of habitat, control of invasive species (plant or animal), and pollution control. This fund is administered by the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation in cooperation with the Long Island Sound Study, CTDEP, NYDEC, USFWS, USEPA, and NOAA.

The Long Island Sound Study Small Grants Program and the USEPA’s

Environmental Education Grant program both provide grants for educational products that increase public awareness and involvement in the Sound protection. National Fish and Wildlife Foundation grants may also benefit key foraging areas. Their Dissolved Oxygen Fund supports improvement of water quality, as well as habitat restoration and land protection/acquisition. The key foraging areas recognized as Long Island Sound Study Stewardship areas can benefit from Long Island Sound Study monies, such as through the Long Island Sound Study CCMP Enhancement Projects Grant Program, earmarked for projects and studies that help implement the CCMP. The USFWS’s National Coastal Wetlands Conservation Grant Program also funds projects that restore and enhance wetlands. This program provides matching grants to states to acquire, restore, and manage coastal wetlands. This program may be helpful for the overlapping Long Island Sound Stewardship areas, Rye Playlands - Marshlands Conservancy complex and Greenwich Point Park and Islands. The Long Island Sound study may also have some funding available to identify threats in these overlapping stewardship regions.

Some funding opportunities for management of the island and associated

ecosystem may exist with the Connecticut Sea Grant Program. The Sea Grant program is a partnership between the NOAA and universities such as the University of Connecticut. The Connecticut Sea Grant program supports applied research and education to meet management and conservation objectives within communities on the Long Island Sound. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (WHIP) and other similar programs that sponsor private land owners to develop and enhance

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wildlife habitat on their property may be beneficial to wading bird foraging areas in the vicinity of Great Captains Island. The technical and financial incentives given by these programs may help coastal property owners restore wetlands to benefit wading birds, waterfowl, and associated wildlife. 9 ACTION PLAN Management of Great Captains Island is challenging because of the balance required between its potentially conflicting recreation and conservation functions. The island’s configuration—one side recreation connected by a narrow sandbar to the eastern conservation area—would lend itself easily to the separation of the island’s multi-use objectives. However, the location of the historical lighthouse on the conservation side of the island in close proximity to the wading bird colony creates tension between the birds and people. Ideally, the nesting wading birds should not be disturbed by people enjoying the lighthouse. Sound management goals that reduce impacts to the heron colony yet preserve access to the lighthouse can be achieved if all stakeholders understand the importance, fragile nature, and special needs of this unique avian resource. Management of the island’s wading bird colony is also difficult because the exact cause or causes of the decline are unknown. It is important therefore that research actions in addition to management actions be pursued. Appendix H lists and prioritizes research actions. The actions recommended are not new. Many have been recommended before by Bull (1997) and Heath and Parkes (2002) and the repetition of these suggested actions 10 years after the Bull report highlights the importance of these recommendations to the Great Captains Island wading bird colony. The decrease in wading bird colony numbers emphasizes the need for swift action. 9.1 Management Actions (See Appendix H for prioritized management actions) 9.1.1 Human disturbance Control of human disturbance to adult and nestling herons and egrets within the colony and on the foraging grounds is of foremost concern in the management of a heronry (Parnell et al. 1988). Reduction of human disturbance on most of the Connecticut colonies is a goal of the CTDEP (J. Dickson and J. Victoria pers. comm.). Great Captains Island is a multiuse island where human curiosity, bird watching, and research of the heronry, as well as interest, historical preservation, and peacefulness of the Great Captain Light, puts humans in conflict with wildlife. While this conservation plan is geared towards protecting the nesting birds, a balance must be reached between the conservation of the wading bird colony and the island’s multiuse objectives; support from all partners will be necessary for a conservation plan to be successful.

The most precautionary approach would be to completely close off the eastern

side of the island during the nesting season (1 April through 15 August). However, due to the presence of the historical lighthouse and the Town’s multiuse mandate, we have

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provided a gradation of options that may help to preserve this balance and will be supported by all groups. 9.1.1.1. Closure of eastern conservation area to visitors. Closure of the eastern conservation area, including the dirt road and lighthouse from 1 April to 15 August would ensure that disturbance to birds is reduced. The dirt road skirting the tidal wetland and leading to the lighthouse runs within 33 feet (10 m) of nesting Great Egret and Black-crowned Night-Heron, and its access could cause disruption and/or reduced productivity in adjacent nests. Nesting also occurs west of the lighthouse around the tidal wetland. Nests were noted less than 33 feet (10 m) from the grassy lawn that extends west of the lighthouse. Critical periods of heron nesting occur during the early incubation phase and the pre-fledgling period (Hunt 1972, Conover and Miller 1979, Tremblay and Ellison 1979, Cairns 1980, Parsons and Burger 1982). Disturbance to a colony during the courtship and early incubation phase can lead to abandonment of the colony. In southern New England, the incubation period occurs early April to mid-May. Ferry service to the island does not occur until early June; therefore, there is little risk of disturbance-related issues during the incubation period unless private boats access and disturb the colony. However, a successful nestling period is equally important for a colony to succeed and coincides with the end of June to the end of July. Human disturbance can cause high mortality in a colony at this time, especially when birds have not been habituated to groups of humans near the colony. At around 4 to 6 weeks of age, nestling herons and egrets are skittish and are easily scared off their nest. They will “run” off their nests and can then easily fall to the ground or lose their bearings with respect to the nest (Parsons and Burger 1982). Unlike passerines or songbirds, adult herons and egrets will not feed their young on the ground or locate them if they are lost. The change from a quiet, disturbance-free island at the initiation of nesting to one with regular human disturbance in mid-June can reduce productivity for this colony. Birds choose nesting sites based on a variety of preferences such as vegetative structure, proximity to other birds, and disturbance factors. Birds on the edge of paths or grassy areas frequented by people can find themselves in a less-than-ideal situation after mid-June when people start occupying the island and could suffer a loss in productivity as a result. Optional actions 9.1.1.1A and 9.1.1.1B: If actions other than complete closure are to be taken, we strongly recommend that all the options be used to most effectively minimize disturbance to the birds while keeping the multiuse management objectives for the island.

9.1.1.1A Restrict access and enforce buffer zones around key nesting areas on the conservation side of the island. If access to the lighthouse is necessary to fulfill the multi-use functions of the island, the only areas that should be open for use by visitors are the dirt road skirting the tidal wetland and leading to the lighthouse, and the grassy areas immediately adjacent to the lighthouse and south of the row of red pine.

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However it will also be important to limit the size of the visiting groups to prevent nest abandonment (See Option 9.1.1.1B). Access by town personnel to the gas tank just north of the lighthouse would be acceptable, but the grassy trail leading to the bench on the southeastern point of the island should remain closed until 1 August. Fencing, fronted by a row of red cedar, beginning at the north end of the dirt road and extending south to the lighthouse, and enclosing the grassy area around the tidal wetland to the west of the lighthouse, is necessary. Research has shown that birds nesting in mixed-species heronries flush off their nest when walking humans are between 98 and 165 feet (30 to 50 m) from the colony (Erwin 1989). Great Egret and Black-crowned Night-Heron have been shown to flush at 33 to 165 feet (10 to 50 m) from a walking human approaching their nest (Rodgers and Smith 1995). Heronries surrounded by a buffer zone of at least 165 feet (50 m) suffered few negative effects compared with colonies without a buffer zone (Burger et al 1995). These colonies without the buffer zone experienced high nest mortality rates when disturbed by tourists. However, several researchers suggest that buffers of no less than 330 feet (100 m) be created between tourists and heron colonies to minimize the effects of disturbance (Erwin 1989, Rodgers and Smith 1995, Carney and Sydeman 1999). We suggest that a buffer reinforced by fencing be no less than 165 feet (50 m) from the edge of nesting area along the dirt road and west of the lighthouse (Figures 19a & 19b). A larger buffer (up to 330 feet; 100 m) is preferred, however there may not be this much space available since the lighthouse and the dirt road sit very close to the western nesting area. A screen of native vegetation such as arborvitae is strongly suggested as a physical and visual barrier between the lighthouse and the nesting area to the west of the lighthouse. Native evergreens would create additional refugia for migrating birds in the spring and fall. An attractive fence, such a split rail, could be used to enforce this buffer. Another cost effective tool for ensuring that unsupervised visitors do not stray from paths is the use of electronic monitors, such as Airwaves Sentor 740, which has been used in other waterbird colonies. This motion detector can send a signal to a caretaker or other personnel’s walkie-talkie when people stray into sensitive areas. Also, cameras may be used, though they only document what has transpired instead of soliciting a response.

9.1.1.1B Limit visitor group size. In addition to a buffer zone surrounding the heron nesting areas, visitor group size should be limited. While adult and nestling herons and egrets have been shown to adapt to regular disturbance by one to two researchers, larger, noisier groups tend to create a panic reaction. Panicked adult birds may topple nests and accidentally kick out or crush eggs, while panicked nestlings may flee far from their nests or fall and be unable to return to their nests (Parsons and Burger 1982). These situations can cause a colony to abandon or cause poor productivity. A colony experiencing decreased productivity due to human intrusions may desert the site in the upcoming years.

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The dirt road skirting the tidal wetland and leading to the lighthouse, as well as grassy areas immediately adjacent to the lighthouse and south of the row of red pines, should not be accessed by large un-supervised groups (> 4-6 people) 1 April to 15 August. Heron colonies may acclimate to the regular passage of one to three people - moving quietly, such as the caretaker and/or workers who are on the island frequently. If visitors must travel to the lighthouse during the breeding season, they should be supervised and instructed to remain together as a group, speak quietly, and not clang or bang anything while in the conservation section of the island. Large groups can view nesting herons and egrets by boat at a safe distance from the island. On-island viewing can be conducted from the area around the existing signage west of the colony or near the caretaker/storage cabins, across the tidal lagoon from the colony. Care must be taken to remain at least 330 feet (100 m) from the Snowy Egret nesting area (Figure 19a) colony as suggested by wading bird experts (Erwin 1989).

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9.1.1.2. Postpone mowing in conservation area if this area is closed to the public between March and August. Do not mow the dirt road leading to the lighthouse, the grassy trail behind the gas tank, and the grass area around the lighthouse from 1 April through 15 August. Mowing coincides with critical nesting periods, as discussed in Action 9.1.1.1, and can disturb the colony. Cessation of mowing may also discourage visitors from accessing closed areas. Optional action 9.1.1.2A: 9.1.1.2A Conduct mowing on a limited basis. As mentioned above, access to the lighthouse is an important function of the multiuse nature of the island and stakeholders have expressed concern that disabled visitors would not be able to access the lighthouse if the track was not mowed. Therefore, mowing should be conducted on a very limited basis.

Mowing the grass along the dirt road outside of the 165 to 330 foot (50 to 100 m)

buffer zone and the grassy area to the west of the lighthouse up to the buffer zone could be conducted once a week from the June 1 through August. A non-motorized push mower may be considered, but there is some evidence that herons habituate to consistent and predictable use of motorized vehicles provided they are used only at the outskirts of the colony and are not accompanied by banging or sharp noises (Nisbet 2000, K. Parsons and S. Schmidt pers. comm.).

Mowing the grassy trail behind the gas tank and the loop to the bench should not

be conducted at all between 1 April and 15 August. These areas are too close to nesting birds and could cause loss of productivity. 9.1.1.3. Increase signage around the island. Signs indicating that the eastern end of the island is off-limits to visitors and boaters should be erected between March and August. Signs should be placed around the bay side as well as by the dirt road and along the western edge of the tidal marsh. The existing kiosk by the entrance to the eastern side of the island should be enhanced to include information about the effects of human disturbance on the colony, information about wading bird ecology, and about the importance of reduced disturbance on the foraging areas. A kiosk can also be placed at the dock where the ferry unloads visitors to the island. 9.1.1.4. Enforce access decisions with a seasonal intern/biological technician/educator. A seasonal intern/biological technician stationed on the island from June to August can help to enforce decisions regarding access to the colony. This employee can also be responsible for collecting data on the heronry for numerous research questions discussed below. At high-use periods, such as on weekends from mid-June through July, this person can provide education to the visiting public. Audubon Greenwich has expressed interest in funding and supervising this seasonal position. Audubon can provide funding and off-site housing while the Town

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Conservation Commission can have a co-supervisory function while providing the seasonal employee with transportation to and from the island, a workspace on the island, and other materials as necessary. Ideally, the intern/seasonal technician would have a science background in ornithology to collect data for the suggested Research Actions, given training, supervision, and guidance from Audubon Greenwich, Audubon Connecticut, and the CTDEP. 9.1.2 Predator effects and monitoring It is important to ensure that predators do not become established on the island. Predators can cause colonies to abandon, as observed on Chimon Island in the 1990s when a raccoon accessed the island. The precautions recommended in Heath and Parkes (2002) should be employed. These include placing rat guards on the ferry, the securing and removal of all trash from the island, signage explaining the importance of proper trash disposal, and monitoring the island for avian and mammalian predators. The presence of ground predators can be monitored by looking for signs of scat and tracks. Heath and Parkes (2002) found one headless Norway rat and reported that the town maintenance staff had observed live rats on the island. Rats are most likely to cause predation problems for ground- or low-nesting birds, but their ability to climb means that they may affect birds at any level. The researchers found no evidence of raccoons in 2002 and Jenny Dickson of CTDEP also reported no evidence of raccoon during the 3-year colony census. A raccoon could cause a colony to abandon as happened to the Chimon Island colony in 1993, so regular monitoring for presence is important. Heath and Parkes (2002) also observed no predator attacks on nesting wading birds by either gulls or the Great Horned Owl pair that nested on the island in 2001. Owls may potentially cause colony abandonments. Monitoring of predation by mammalian and avian predators is essential. The following are recommendations to understand predator effects, monitor predators, and limit predators if necessary on Great Captains Island.

9.1.2.1. Raccoon and mustelids: Monitoring for raccoon (Procyon lotor), mink (Mustela vison), or other mustelids during the spring and summer can easily be accomplished by a trained individual. One option is for the CTDEP, USFWS, or other knowledgeable entity to train the summer caretaker in reading raccoon sign and having that individual monitor the mud along the edges of the tidal wetland on a weekly or bi-weekly basis. If the caretaker is regularly working in the area, monitoring would not require much time away from regular duties. Alternately, an intern could be trained by a knowledgeable person and access the island weekly/monthly to monitor the tidal wetland for raccoon sign. If a raccoon is suspected, the Town Conservation Commissioner and CTDEP should be notified immediately and a trapping program begun to remove the animal. Raccoons and mustelids can quickly damage a colony so removal is imperative.

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9.1.2.2. Great Horned Owl, crows, and gulls: Monitoring predation by avian predators requires time and effort. A pair of Great Horned Owl presumably nests near the lighthouse. The owls may be eating rats, which would be beneficial to the wading bird colony as rats can be detrimental to nesting birds. However, threats of owl predation on the wading birds can cause the colony to abandon. It is important to know if crows are nesting on the island and if present, to determine if they are using wading bird eggs and young as a source of food. The use of the colony by avian predators can be observed remotely with little disturbance of the colony. This can be accomplished by a summer intern or a volunteer with training by a knowledgeable person at the CTDEP or Audubon. Gulls can also be significant predators of eggs and young, although no gulls were observed taking eggs or young during the three years of Audubon studies (Groff and Mugaburu 2000, Heath and Parkes 2002). An intern on several day and night shifts, can remotely observe the colony for owl and crow predation. A large percentage of the colony is observable from the western edge of the tidal wetland with a spotting scope. Observations during periods of peak owl activity can be made by an intern. The number of forays of the owl into the colony, displacement of adult birds from their nests when owls fly over the colony, number of kills, and other pertinent information should be recorded. Quantification of consumed herons or egrets is needed in addition to the conditions required for an owl to take birds (e.g. does the owl take nestlings when adult wading birds flush due to disturbance?). If the owls consume prey at their nest site or at another location outside of the colony, owl pellets can be analyzed for heron and egret bones. Similarly, an intern can scout for crow nests through observations with a spotting scope and predation by crows can be monitored by looking for punctured eggs under a “kill tree” and observing the colony several times a day for signs of disturbance and taking of eggs by crows. It will be important to minimize disturbance to the colony while searching for crow nests. If necessary, a depredation permit can be applied for by the Town from CTDEP for removal of owls and gulls if they prove to be an important factor in determining wading bird productivity. 9.1.2.3. Rats: Norway and black rats (Rattus norvegicus and Rattus rattus) are significant predators of bird eggs and have been significant factors in the extirpation of ground-nesting birds on islands the world over (Atkinson 1985). Black rats are excellent climbers and Norway rats have been implicated in the declines of ground-nesting birds (see Nelson et al. 2002). Evidence of Norway rats and rat burrows on Great Captains Island has been observed (T. Baptist pers. comm.) however effects on the colony are unknown. While it is assumed that these ground predators are problems for only the ground or low-

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nesting species, this assumption needs to be verified. Snowy Egret nesting in Phragmites may be subject to rat predation as their nests are low. Additionally, vines have nearly completely covered the trees in some areas, possibly allowing access to these higher nests by ground predators. Rats may also be a problem for the ground-nesters, such as gulls and American Oystercatcher. A study can help determine the impact of rats on the colony, however extensive research that would disturb the colony would be counter productive. Observations by an intern or other field personnel can help form a picture of predation effects on the island. Tasks such as analysis of owl pellets could help determine their effect in controlling rat populations, and reconnaissance around the perimeter of the colony for predated eggs and young on a regular basis can help to determine the extent of bird predation.

Wading birds usually adapt to the regular presence of researchers if visits are

conducted on a regular basis, are done quietly, and do not enter the densest nesting regions of a colony (Parsons and Burger 1982). It is possible that the town might consider a rat eradication program if supported by predator studies. However the method of removal needs to be carefully considered. Secondary poisoning of non-target species such as avian scavengers is important to consider in any predator removal plan. Baited traps are the preferred method of control, while the wide-spread application of rodenticides should be avoided. At some seabird colonies, rat eradication programs were undertaken in the winter months, and both baited-traps and rodenticides carefully placed in rat burrows were utilized. 9. 1. 3 Nesting habitat 9.1.3.1. Enhance and create nesting habitat on the island in areas farthest from regions of disturbance such as the road and lighthouse. The planting of cedars and other medium-height shrubby species, along with native vines, can enhance nesting areas for wading birds. Great Egret and the smaller herons and egrets prefer to nest in specific shrubs and trees that provide stability for larger nests and for numerous nests, enough height so nests are a safe distance off the ground, enough cover for the smaller birds, and enough openness for the larger birds to access their nests (Davis 1993, Parsons and Master 2000, McCrimmon et al. 2001; see Section 4.4 for vegetation preferences for each species). For the colony to persist, it may be necessary to improve and expand portions of the conservation area to help ensure continued nesting of wading birds at this island. Bayberry (Myrica pensylvanica), black cherry (Prunus serotina), American arbovitae (Thuja occidentalis), eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), American holly (Ilex opaca), black gum (Nyssa sylavatica), sassafras (Sassafras albidum), and vines such as blackberry (Rubus allegheniensis), greenbrier (Smilax spp.), grape (Vitis spp.), and poison ivy (Rhus radicans) are among a few of the species that are used by Great Egret, Black-crowned Night-Heron, and Snowy Egret (Davis 1993, Parsons and Master 2000, McCrimmon et al. 2001). Nesting habitat can be increased along the northeast

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Figure 20: Proposed region for nesting habitat restoration.

side of the lighthouse behind the bench and the mowed swale (Figure 20). Conifers such as red cedar and arborvitae can be used as a screen between the lighthouse and the nesting region to the west of the lighthouse. Bayberry can be added in small increments around the patch of Phragmites to increase the Snowy Egret nesting area. Since alteration of an area can deter nesting, this management action should proceed with careful planning on the part of a Habitat Stewardship Committee consisting of the Town of Greenwich’s Conservation Commission, Parks and Recreation Department, and Plants and Trees Department, the CTDEP, Audubon Connecticut, and Audubon Greenwich. Any changes in habitat should be conducted in small sections, between mid-August through the end of February, and the birds’ reaction to the altered site monitored before proceeding with the next phase. Planting in small batches and monitoring of the birds’ reactions cannot be stressed enough.

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Snowy Egret primarily used the Phragmites in 2001 for nesting (Giudice and King 2001). Phragmites stands have provided significant nesting habitat for Snowy Egret and other species at many colonies including Pea Patch Island, Delaware, and Gull Island, New Jersey (K. Parsons and S. Schmidt pers. comm.). It is unknown if the Phragmites is behaving as an invasive. The spread of Phragmites should be monitored. However, if it is spreading and creating habitat favored by Snowy Egret, a larger Phragmites patch may actually benefit this egret. The wading birds are currently using many introduced species, such as muti-flora rose and honey locust, for nesting. These plants create a dense nesting substrate that provides protection, structure, and strength required by wading birds for nesting. While the Town of Greenwich has an invasive plant removal directive, any changes or removal of existing introduced species should only be done if absolutely necessary. 9.1.3.2. Erosion of island. Islands created by dredged material provide important alternatives to areas with limited nesting islands (Erwin and Hattfield 1995, Erwin et al. 2003). A feasibility study into the use of dredged material to stabilize the eastern conservation section of the island may be important for protecting island habitat. Indeed, as long as the dredged material is free of contaminants, it would be a good addition to off-set the island’s erosion. Sea level rise will cause this to be a serious issue in future years and should be addressed now. A soil erosion study was conducted by the Town of Greenwich in 1990 and may need to be updated. Projects such as the “Living Shoreline” concept (http://shorelines.dnr.state.md.us/living.asp), a management method that improves erosion control by enhancing the natural shoreline habitat, may help reduce island erosion as well as create new foraging areas. 9.1.4 Foraging areas 9.1.4.1 Proactive landscape planning and zoning by towns. Coastal development is a difficult issue to tackle along the east coast, especially in a desirable region such as the western Long Island Sound coastline. The Greenwich Planning and Zoning Commission’s 1998 Plan of Conservation and Development recommended stricter zoning and wetland regulations, incentives to land owners to protect land, and public-private partnerships to acquire land for open space (Town of Greenwich 1998). Several substantial Greenwich coastal parcels, held by private landowners or organizations, are under Public Act 490 (Forest and Farm). Public Act 490, a Connecticut state law, allows property that qualifies as farmland, open space, or forest, to be assessed at a use value rather than fair market value in order to reduce property taxes on the parcel (www.ct.gov). Public-private partnerships, as recommended in the 1998 Plan of Conservation and Development, may help in acquisition of important parcels in the future. Additional incentives for landowners to protect their land and restore wetlands may be created. Climate change may already be affecting regional wetlands. Understanding actual effects may not occur for several decades, but research on potential effects to the Connecticut coast as suggested in 9.2.4.5, may highlight priority areas that need to be protected now for future use by wading birds and other wetland species.

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9.1.4.2 Protect foraging areas. This is a similar action to 9.1.4.2. Once important areas are identified, efforts to protect priority foraging habitats should be pursued. Outreach to private landowners and the public about the importance of wetlands/mud flats to avian species of concern and the importance of disturbance-free and healthy foraging areas can occur through venues discussed in 9.4.1.

Public outreach regarding the importance of keeping salt marshes healthy is of

high importance. This can be accomplished by removing impediments to tidal flow such as tide-gating or blocked inlet/outlets. Full tidal flushing, so that sufficient salt water penetrates to the back corners of any marsh, will help reduce Phragmites growth and restore native marsh vegetation (Niering and Warren 1980, Roman et al. 1984). Spartina - dominated habitats function as nurseries for prey species such as mummichog and killifish (Able et al. 2003).

Continued participation by Audubon Connecticut and the Town of Greenwich with

the Long Island Sound Stewardship Program is essential to bring focus, beneficial actions (changes in management, restoration or acquisition), and possible funding to protect critical areas for waterbirds. Proactive protection of priority areas to serve as refugia from the effects of sea-level rise may be accomplished through collaboration with the USFWS and USEPA. 9.1.4.3 Reduce disturbance on foraging areas; establish foraging area sanctuaries. Nesting birds have increased nutritional requirements due to the high energy demands of breeding and providing for their young (Frederick 1997, Rodgers and Schwikert 2003, Stolen 2003). Disturbance to foraging birds can affect their ability to meet these requirements by reducing feeding times and disrupting rest. Experts have recommended that refugia be designated for birds to rest or feed without disturbance by boat, car, bicycle, or pedestrian humans (Burger et al. 1995, Erwin 1996). Small power boats, jet skis, kayaks, and canoes disturb birds feeding in shallow coastal waters. Restricting access to important foraging areas from 1 April through 15 August may decrease disturbance stress to birds during the intensive nesting/egg-laying period through the juvenile stages of heron and egret breeding season.

Wetlands already designated for their ecological significance, such as Greenwich

Point and other Town-owned coastal lands where foraging may occur, Calf Island, and the Rye Playland-Edith B. Read Marshlands, should first be considered for designation as foraging area sanctuaries. While the level of disturbance at prime foraging areas utilized by Great Captains Island wading birds is currently unknown, a proactive approach would be to identify prime foraging areas within the above wetlands and establish 400 ft. (125 m) buffer around feeding and roosting birds within this “sanctuary”. The buffer distance would apply to personal watercraft (including canoes, kayak, and outboard motor), power boats, swimmers, and other human activities (Erwin 1996, Rodgers and Schwikert 2002).

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Signs on buoys indicating an area’s designation as a foraging sanctuary can be placed around intertidal areas where the water depth ranges from 5-24 inches (12-61 cm) as these are depths most likely used by wading birds (see Erwin 1996). Enforcement may be challenging. Therefore a voluntary program can be tested. Voluntary conservation agreements work well in some cases such as with the VWAA (Voluntary Waterfowl Avoidance Area) on the Upper Mississippi River (Kenow et al. 2003). However, a strong educational component should accompany the program. Signs can be posted at marinas, boat ramps, and public coastal access areas and should explain the uniqueness of the colony to the region, the importance of disturbance-free foraging areas to wading birds, and how the water recreation community can do their part to help protect this resource. Also, periodic evaluation of the program is important (Wiley et. al 2008). An additional avenue is available through the drafting of a conservation plan for Greenwich Point, which qualifies as an Important Bird Area due to high concentrations of waterbirds and raptors using the site. As an area of unique habitat, its importance as a foraging area for the Great Captains Island wading birds should be considered in formulating management actions for Greenwich Point. 9.2 Research Actions (See Appendix H for prioritized research actions). 9.2.1. Research potential causes for the colony’s decline Available data suggest the abundance of nesting wading birds on Great Captains Island is declining. This decline is noted for all three species—Great Egret, Snowy Egret, and Black-crowned Night-Heron. There can be many reasons for the decline, including change in nesting habitat over time, change in disturbance, and change in foraging area productivity or availability. Understanding the reason for the decline is important in order to recommend proper and cost-effective management for maintaining bird nesting at Great Captains Island. We recommend that an investigation of these issues be undertaken. As research is expensive, stakeholders such as the State and town should decide on which research they can fund internally or develop a relationship with area researchers to accomplish the work. The CTDEP and other stakeholders are concerned about disturbance to the colony, which ranks as one of the most likely causes of the current decline. Therefore any research proposed must be minimally disruptive to the colony. Wading birds have been shown to become habituated to controlled researcher disturbance (Parsons and Burger 1982). Colonies that experience regular visitation by a researcher who works quietly, quickly, and with minimal visits during the first half of incubation, fare better than colonies with single, intense disturbances. Loud clanging noises are not tolerated by birds (K. Parsons and S. Schmidt pers. comm.). Additionally, adults appear to tolerate repeated visits if researchers do not surprise the birds by being too quiet and not giving the birds a chance to hear before they see. Studies can be developed and/or guided by Audubon Greenwich Science Committee and Audubon Connecticut, reviewed by Audubon Connecticut, Connecticut Audubon, CTDEP, and The Town of Greenwich Conservation Commission, and

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conducted by CTDEP, USFWS, Audubon, a graduate student, a not-for-profit organization, or a consultant. 9.2.1.1 Nesting habitat: Design and implement a study to determine nest-site selection by the three primary nesting species, current habitat structure and plant species in the eastern conservation area, and determine if changes in vegetation architecture are occurring and if birds are shifting among or away from certain habitats over time. To minimize disturbance, such research could largely be accomplished after the breeding season has concluded. The three main egret and heron species construct nests that are identifiable to species after the birds leave. Herons and egrets are relatively specific in their nesting requirements. Wading bird colonies move from time to time when habitat conditions, an influx of predators, or other disturbance disrupt these requirements. Historically, numerous small islands were available as alternate sites for heron nesting. However, this is no longer the case due to the expansion of human development and introduction of ground predators to formally predator-free islands. A persisting wading bird colony on Great Captains Island is the main objective of this Plan. One crucial factor in achieving this goal is the availability of substantial and appropriate nesting conditions for the birds. Research into the habitat structure may help to understand the structural habitat needs of these birds and help to plan habitat restoration and maintenance for the future. 9.2.1.2 Disturbance to the colony: Disturbance is a very important issue and has been known to cause nesting birds to abandon otherwise appropriate colony-sites. Heron colonies are more sensitive to disturbance at the beginning of breeding and incubation, and during the pre-fledging period. The greatest use of Great Captains Island by recreationists occurs after the second week in June, when the colony may be incubating eggs or tending to small chicks. Human-disturbance presents a problem for birds that have nested in disturbance-free areas at the beginning of the season, but find themselves in areas subjected to human visitation after the second week in June. Research quantifying and identifying the types of disturbance to the colony can be undertaken during the breeding season with minimal disruption to the colony and may help identify further management action steps. 9.2.1.3 Influence of ground and avian predators: Since predators can cause devastation and abandonment of wading bird colonies, it is important to understand the effects of various predators in the colony. Monitoring and research recommendations are found in Section 9.1.2. 9.2.2 Monitor island resources 9.2.2.1 Improve and standardized the survey method for monitoring the colony and coordinate temporally with other southern New England States. Continue monitoring colony size and productivity and coordinate survey period with neighboring states so that regional wading bird population estimates can be made. This

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will help regional groups see if birds are declining or moving into other states. The CTDEP is very active in the Southern New England/Long Island Waterbird Working group and other coordination efforts. This involvement should be encouraged and continued.

Survey information collected should include the species, location on the island,

number of nests, and the productivity of each nest. Currently the survey method at Great Captains Island is a complete ground count with an estimate for the nests that may be underestimated due to the inability to access some areas with a dense understory. This protocol is followed in all Connecticut wading bird colonies. With regard to the surveys, it is important that breeding season counts be conducted at the same stage in the breeding cycle each year. The best time to conduct counts is in the late stage of incubation, when presumably one parent will stay at the nest. Birds are also less likely to abandon the colony than they are if disturbed at the beginning of incubation. In mixed species heronries in Connecticut, late stage incubation will be variable and reconnaissance trips may be required to determine the correct timing. In Massachusetts, this stage of breeding occurs around May 12 to May 25th (K. Parsons pers. comm., USFWS Monomoy Island National Wildlife Refuge pers. comm.). Currently counts are conducted by the CTDEP in June when young have hatched. While it may be easier to identify the species belonging to the nest when young have hatched, this stage of breeding is undesirable because early nesters may have large young (branchers) that are highly mobile and can fall from the nest if disturbed. Conducting late-stage incubation counts is suggested for future surveys of Great Captains Island and other wading bird colonies in Connecticut. Since reconnaissance trips to colonies are required and thus involve more staff time, partnering with organizations or individuals outside the State system who are knowledgeable in wading bird ecology may be helpful. 9.2.2.2 Monitor and map nesting vegetation and any enhanced nesting actions. Map vegetation in areas where birds are nesting and monitor nesting and vegetation patterns. Determine if there are changes or losses in nesting habitat or shifts in nesting patterns. Since disturbance to the colony is an issue, it is suggested that nesting strata information be collected at the time of the State’s complete survey. Number of nests, species of bird, and type of vegetation where nests are located can be collected for each tree, shrub, or vine without added disturbance. In fact, if detailed notes are made at the time of the regular survey, a researcher could return late in the summer or fall to spend more time at a nest site and make more detailed notes on plant species used and architectural variables. If a scribe is used, in addition to a knowledgeable wading bird biologist to fill in data sheets, this process will add little time to the survey operation.

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If a loss in desirable nesting habitat is documented, restoration of selected areas should be considered. Any habitat improvements must be done in small increments, with several years of monitoring bird behavior towards the restored area. The ultimate outcome of habitat restoration is that quality wading bird nesting habitat is created. Monitoring is necessary to make sure that birds are not deterred from nesting near the new habitat, and that they eventually begin nesting in the new habitat Since non-native species tend to out-compete native species and spread quickly due to the lack of predators and competition, native plant species should be considered in any habitat enhancements. 9.2.2.3 Monitor invasive plant species. Invasive species are usually a problem for wildlife in that they out-compete native plant food sources and cover and destroy wetlands and woodlands. On the contrary, the invasive plants on Great Captains Island, such as multiflora rose, oriental bittersweet, and Phragmites, benefit the wading birds by providing important nesting habitat. The spread of Phragmites may be a detriment to the wetland in general, but may provide additional habitat for Snowy Egret. However, it is important to monitor the nesting areas to be certain these plants continue to provide this service to the birds. The primary concern is for the quality of nesting substrate for the birds, and any discussion of removing invasives must occur concurrently with a discussion of creating alternative wading bird nesting habitat. 9.2.2.4 Monitor for Double-crested cormorants. The Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) has made comeback on the east coast since its populations were extirpated from New England due to persecution, contaminants, and loss of breeding islands in the early 1900s (Hatch and Weseloh 1999). Since the 1970s, this fish-eating waterbird has recolonized the New England Coast and extended its breeding range from Newfoundland to New York.

Within the southern New England region, cormorants have been nesting in mixed

heron and egret colonies (e.g. Sarah Island, Hingham, MA). While cormorants and wading birds can coexist at colony sites, nesting cormorants may cause conflict with other wading bird species because of loss of nest trees due to accumulation of highly acidic cormorant droppings which kill the trees used for nesting. In the Great Lakes region, research has shown that the increased cormorant population has not negatively influenced the breeding productivity of Black-crowned Night-Heron and Great Blue Heron (Cuthbert et al. 2002). In other regions, however, cormorants have caused colony site abandonment. This is a concern in a region that has too few alternative nesting islands available such as in the Long Island Sound.

No cormorant nesting has been documented on Great Captains Island, however,

continued monitoring is necessary. On Great Captains Island, monitoring for cormorants can be done without disturbance to the colony by conducting observations of birds flying to and from the island, and by scanning trees for nesting birds. This can be accomplished by trained Town personnel, an intern/seasonal biological technician, or by bird observers circumnavigating the island in boats. Data should be reported to

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Audubon Connecticut and Town of Greenwich, and CTDEP to assist them in their stewardship roles for the Great Captains colony and colonies throughout Connecticut, respectively. Management of cormorants should be incorporated into the Action Plan only if there is danger of vegetation die-off and clear detriment to the wading birds. 9.2.2.5 Monitor breeding and migrating passerines and migrating shorebirds. Yearly monitoring of these target groups will establish trends for the island and help evaluate the effectiveness of habitat restoration. While habitat will be restored mainly for the benefit of the wading bird colony, the planting of native upland food species may positively influence use by migrating passerines. Great Captains Island would make an ideal site for a long-term bird banding laboratory. 9.2.2.6 Biological survey of island resources. A complete, systematic inventory of all flora and fauna on the island should be conducted, to identify wildlife of greatest concern and thereby protect them from proposed management actions, and to be used to critique management objectives. Baseline information is necessary in order to evaluate conservation action outcomes.

Comprehensive surveys should include: 1. Birds (during breeding and migration) 2. Terrestrial insects 3. Invertebrate host species and their plant hosts 4. Aquatic invertebrates 5. Reptiles 6. Small mammals (including bats) 7. Vegetation

The vegetation list from former years is not comprehensive and an inventory should be conducted to ascertain the presence of additional species, their extent on the island, and their value to wildlife. Great Captains Island could prove to be critical habitat for rare tiger beetles, bees (pollinators), and sand wasps (Wagner pers. comm.). It is possible that with a management plan designed to create novel habitat (e.g. grassland, sandplain, coastal plain pond), the island will be suitable to invertebrates that are imperiled. However, this is not a priority for this conservation plan and management for invertebrates should not come at the expense of the wading bird colony needs. 9.2.3 Foraging area research 9.2.3.1 Identify important foraging areas. Research is required to identify foraging areas important for Great Captains Island wading birds as well as American Oystercatcher. In order to understand which specific regional salt marsh, lakes, and freshwater habitats within municipal-owned as well as privately-owned properties are most important to foraging wading birds nesting on Great Captains Island, additional research in Connecticut and New York is recommended. Once important areas are identified, efforts to protect these foraging areas and conduct outreach to private

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landowners and the public about the importance of wetlands/mud flat to avian species of concern should be pursued. 9.2.3.2 Protect and enhance Calf Island. Calf Island is already a protected island within the USFWS McKinney National Wildlife Refuge system. Park staff and Audubon naturalists have noted wading birds foraging at this island. This island may be important as a foraging area for juvenile birds that forage at wetlands proximal to the breeding colony in order to optimize their metabolic cost/benefit ratio. Inexperienced first-year birds are significantly less efficient catching prey items than adults, and the provision of a productive foraging wetland close to the colony where the juveniles return each evening enhances overall colony productivity. The importance of Calf Island as a foraging area from nesting to fledging should be documented. If it is deemed highly important, appropriate action should be taken to minimize disturbance to foraging birds. A feasibility study of Calf Island as an alternative nesting area or as an additional nesting area if the colony expands is warranted. 9.2.3.3 Research on population, availability, and health of prey populations. Research on the abundance and population trends of species of potential prey items in established foraging areas and adjacent foraging is important for documenting population changes over time, availability of high-quality prey items to wading birds, and for determining if food is a limiting factor to wading bird success in this region. The three wading bird species nesting on Great Captains Island are fairly opportunistic foragers, eating fish, crustaceans, amphibians, small birds, and rodents, however fish tend to make up the highest percentage of nestling diet (Davis 1993, Parsons and Master 2000, McCrimmon et al. 2001). On the Atlantic coast, diet items found in regurgitations of Snowy Egret young included sheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon variegates), mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus) and killifish (Fundulus spp.), prawns (Palaemonetes pugio), and Atlantic silverisides (Menidia menidia), for Great Egret, small local fish, crayfish, prawns (Palaemonetes spp), and for Black-crowned Night-Heron young the majority of bolus included fish in addition to amphibians, insects, and small mammals. A colony-based evaluation of nestling growth rates would also provide information on the adequacy of regional foraging areas in sustaining nesting on Great Captains Island. Since prey items vary by location, it will be necessary to carry out a foraging study to determine types and species of prey items fed to young. Food items can be determined by examining chick regurgitations – most young will readily regurgitate their latest meal when handled by a researcher. However, concerns about the fragility of this colony to disturbance may not warrant such a study. Hypoxia has been documented as a water quality issue in this region (See Section 4.3.2). Hypoxia drives fish away from affected areas. If this is occurring in important wading bird foraging areas, or if fish are being driven out to deeper water where they are unavailable to wading birds, shortage of food may be an issue for this colony. The abundance of small fish in foraging areas before, during, and after a hypoxic event will help in assessing the availability of prey items to wading birds.

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9.2.3.4 Contaminants research. Studies of water quality in western Long Island Sound indicated a lack of information regarding polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This work called for additional research on the deposition of PCBs and sublethal effects of PAHs on organisms in the Greenwich area (See Section 4.3.2). PCB levels in finfish within the Sound are a concern. The potential relationship between elevated PCB levels in finfish and effects on waterbirds is unclear. Pesticides (Prometon, atrazine, carbaryl, metalochlor, and the herbacide DCPA) were found in water samples around the urban Norwalk area in the 1990s. Since prometon and carbaryl tend to be found in higher concentrations around urban areas, investigation of these chemicals in waters around the Greenwich area is warranted. Additionally, heavy metal concentrations (lead, cadmium, and zinc) were shown to be high in western Long Island Sound surface sediments. Near-shore sediments had higher concentrations of metals than did offshore sediments. Sediment data have not been collected for the Greenwich area apparently, and therefore it is difficult to characterize sediment quality in foraging areas and potential impacts on wading birds from Great Captains Island. Evaluation of PCBs, PAHs, and pesticides in foraging area water, heavy metals in foraging area sediments, and PCBs in wading bird prey items would contribute needed information to assess the status of foraging areas used by wading birds. The impacts of these contaminants on wading bird populations also need to be addressed. Establishing a Research Action Team to guide the science and to build relationships with universities and colleges would significantly promote the development of new information on the system. Connecticut has several universities and colleges with programs in toxicology, environmental studies, vertebrate and invertebrate zoology, ornithology, wading bird biology, wetland habitat management and restoration, and conservation planning. This team may include members from Audubon Greenwich, the Town Conservation Commission, and the CTDEP. Audubon may want to inquire at universities that offer environmental studies programs to find a researcher that would be interested in pursuing the contaminants issue. Yale’s Center for Coastal and Watershed Systems, within the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, indicates current research on nonpoint pollution and heavy metal in salt marshes and their program “[focuses] on the physical, biological and social studies of local watersheds…” (http://www.yale.edu/ccws/research.html). Work on pollutant effects on Fundulus spp. are being conducted at the University of Connecticut. The University of New Haven offers a Master’s Degree in Environmental Science (http://qrwgis.newhaven.edu/QRWweb/GRADUATE.HTM#M.S.%20Environmental%20Science) which includes wetlands ecology and toxicology coursework, and out of state schools such as Clemson University in South Carolina and Columbia University in New York, to name a few, have larger environmental toxicology programs that may have

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established research programs that could incorporate the research needs of the Great Captains Island area. Funding sources need to be identified. 9.2.3.5 Model the effects of sea level rise on foraging areas and procure properties that may become alternatives to current foraging areas. Sea level rise will affect current foraging areas by creating conditions that will alter the ecology of these wetlands. The Long Island Sound Study (2003) has indicated wetland loss in western Long Island Sound since the 1980s. The Connecticut Coastal Management Department, NYDEC, local municipalities such as the Town of Greenwich, Port Chester, Rye, and Mamaroneck, and managers of protected areas such as Greenwich Point, Edith G. Read and the Marshlands Conservancy, should be encouraged to work together on actions to protect current coastal lands from sea level rise and work to procure additional lands that will become important foraging wetlands in the future. 9.3 Communication Actions 9.3.1 Establish a bioregional approach to foraging area management. 9.3.1.1 Host a bi-regional conference. The Long Island Sound Study group, CTDEP, NYDEC, and stakeholders listed in the stakeholder section can bring groups together to run a conference focused on Connecticut and New York foraging areas management. A meeting should be pursued to develop a bi-regional approach to management between the Connecticut and New York Important Bird Area managers, Long Island Sound Stewardship managers and associated town conservation officers. 9.3.1.2 Involvement in a bi-state management plan with managers of key foraging areas. The Long Island Sound Study is currently working on conservation plans to manage Stewardship areas in CT and NY that appear to be important for Great Captains Island birds based on Audubon CT 2002 research. It may be effective to work with these groups to insure that wading birds and foraging areas are considered when plans are drafted. The Long island Sound Study would be willing to incorporate wading birds into its plans (M. Tedesco pers. comm.). 9.3.2 Other Communications 9.3.2.1 Proactive management of Asian Long-horned beetle. Currently management of Asian Long-horned beetle involves the removal of host trees. Habitat alteration of this scope on Great Captains Island could make the island unsuitable for colonially-nesting herons and egrets. Communication and training with USDA-APHIS to learn how to monitor for the beetle can be undertaken by the Town Department of Parks and Recreation. Routine monitoring of Great Captains Island is necessary. 9.4 Education Actions Numerous educational opportunities exist on the island, near foraging areas, and within the community through the diverse education stakeholder group. A meeting of the education stakeholder group for the purpose of creating partnerships, defining targeted groups within the community, establishing a cohesive and dynamic educational message, and sharing resources for the crafting of educational products is strongly encouraged. Educational programs created by the education stakeholders, highlighting

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the information and objectives in this conservation plan, would ensure that all target audiences and target areas are reached and resources are spent efficiently. 9.4.1 Develop educational programs on and off the island. Audubon Centers, libraries, museums, other public facilities, and at some of the foraging areas such as Greenwich Point and Cos Cob Harbor offer ideal places for informing the public about the heronry, conservation of the island, and conservation and protection of foraging areas. On-island educational events, such as a beach clean-up day in March and a “Day with the Herons” that invites the public to a guided view of the heronry from the kiosk at the beginning of the dirt road to the heronry, can educate and involve the community in the maintenance of the island and heronry. On-island events, which are limited by access to the island, may be difficult for disabled people to attend and are restricted to the warmer weather months. Therefore, both off-island and on-island activities are necessary. 9.4.1.1 Create an internship or seasonal technician position on the island. Use an intern to educate visitors to the island in addition to collecting data on research questions such as predation, disturbance, and use of the island for foraging. A sample job description can be found in Appendix G. 9.4.1.2 Educational programs. The following educational programs are suggestions compiled from interviews with educational organizations and reviewers of the Plan: 1. A high priority is developing an educational workshop designed for Town employees that work with and on the island. The workshop should include heron and egret natural history, as well as guidelines for working around the birds, as this interaction will be unavoidable for the Town managers and island caretaker, 2. Conduct bird walks to the observation area or boat trips around island to view colony with knowledgeable personnel, 3. A bird blind and platform situated at some point near the dirt road into the colony or on the western edge of the tidal wetland may allow folks to view the birds without disturbance. Upkeep and maintenance needs to be decided, 4. Conduct pre-breeding season talks about wading birds, the uniqueness of the colony to Connecticut as well as the Northeast, conservation of wetlands, and other similar topics, 5. Organize a celebration such as the Crane Festival in New Mexico to herald in the wading birds and other migrants. The first festival should be the dedication of the island as an Important Bird Area,

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6. Talks and exhibits at the Bruce Museum in town. Also, talks and walks at the satellite center on Greenwich Point for foraging birds and importance of foraging areas, 7. A webcam from the Bruce Museum’s Seaside Center on Greenwich Point, 8. An exhibit at Maritime Aquarium in Norwalk to reach people from outside the area, 9. Outreach to the public at Playland Park in Westchester County, 10. Education of children via a science curriculum designed for public schools from the New Haven Sound School, 11. Grant and fee-based educational cruises on the Soundwaters schooner can be an effective outreach tool for school children. Trips around the island on the schooner could teach children about bird population and migration. Soundwaters is also interested in providing leadership opportunities for students in invasives management or other management projects, 12. Outreach to landowners adjacent to foraging areas regarding the importance of the wetlands, health of the wetlands, effects of management actions such as lawncare on water quality and wildlife, 13. Outreach to owners of both motor and non-motor boats regarding disturbance to foraging wading birds by boats and disturbance to the nesting colony early in the season during settlement/incubation, 14. Increase awareness on the foraging grounds. Cos Cob Harbor offers a unique educational opportunity as it is a known wading bird foraging area within close proximity and visibility to the public. Seasonal talks and walks at Greenwich Point and Cos Cob Harbor could center on the site and on the importance of park wetlands as foraging areas, 15. Increase educational signage in the foraging areas in addition to on the island. An agreement between Audubon and Starbucks may support such signage, 16. Education for landowners and managers on minimizing pesticide use. Flyers can be sent to property owners adjacent to foraging areas, in their water bills or other municipal mail, informing them about greenscaping and using alternatives to lawn care chemicals, 17. Audubon at Home (http://www.audubon.org/bird/at_home/) educates and involves the community in creating healthy habitats by reducing pesticide usage on their yards, conserving water, protecting water quality, and removing exotic plants and replacing with native plants. This program provides tools for residents in a variety of housing situations to make a difference in the quality of their residences for both their families as well as wildlife.

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10 EVALUATION (Measures of success) The success of implementation of this plan can be measured through long-term monitoring of the colony’s population. Stable or increasing wading bird populations with increased abundance of other desired species indicates success of implemented management techniques. 11 LITERATURE CITED Able, K. W., S. M. Hagan and S. A. Brown. 2003. Mechanisms of marsh habitat alteration due to Phragmites: Response of young-of-the-year mummichog (Fundulus heterclitus) to treatment for Phragmites removal. Estuaries and Coasts 26 (2): 484-494. Atkinson, I. A. E. 1985. The spread of commensal species of Rattus to oceanic islands and their effects on island avifaunas. Pages 35-81 in P. J. Moors, editor. Conservation of island birds: case studies for the management of threatened island species. ICBP Technical Publication 3. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge. Audubon 2007. Cove Island Park site profile. http://iba.audubon.org/iba/viewSiteProfile.do?siteId=732&navSite=state. Accessed October 2007 Audubon 2006. What is the status of the IBA program? Available from: http://www.audubon.org/bird/iba/prog_status.html. Accessed 2006. Bernick, A. J. 2007. New York City Audubon’s Harbor Herons Project: 2007 Nesting Survey. New York City Audubon, New York, NY. Bogliani G. and F. Bellinato. 1998. Conditioned aversion as a tool to protect eggs from avian predators in heron colonies. Colonial Waterbirds 21(1): 69-72. Bratton, S. P. 1990. Boat disturbance of Ciconiiformes in Georgia estuaries. Colonial Waterbirds 13(2): 124-128. Brown, S., C. Hickey, B. Harrington, and R. Gills, eds. 2001. The U. S. Shorebird Plan, 2nd ed. Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences, Manomet, MA. Bull, M. G. 1984. Species composition and status (1981-1984) of colonial-nesting ciconiformes on Chimon Island, Norwalk, Connecticut and the identification of their feeding grounds. Masters thesis. Bull, M. G. 1997. Conservation and management plan for colonial nesting wading birds in Connecticut. Connecticut Audubon Society. Burger, J. 1981. A model for the evolution of mixed-species colonies of ciconiiformes. The Quarterly Review of Biology 56: 143-167. Burger, J. 1991. Human distance and birds-tolerance and response distances of resident and migrant species in India. Environmental Conservation 18(2): 158-165.

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Burger, J. M. Gochfield, and L. J. Niles. 1995. Ecotourism and birds in coastal New Jersey-contrasting responses of birds, tourists, and managers. Environmental Conservation 22(1): 56-65. Butler, R. W. and R. G. Vennesland. 2000. Integrating climate change and predation risk with wading bird conservation research in North America. Waterbirds 23(3): 535-540. Carney, K. M. and W. J. Sydeman. 1999. A review of human disturbance effects on nesting colonial waterbirds. Waterbirds 22(1): 68-79. Chute, S. K. 2002. Petitioned health consultation: public health implication of direct exposure to Byram River sediment, Greenwich, Fairfield County, Connecticut. Connecticut Department of Environmental Health. Available from: www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/PHA/byramriver/byr_p1.html. Connecticut Butterfly Atlas. http://www.peabody.yale.edu/collections/ent/ent_cbap.html. Accessed 02/03/2007. CT Department of Environmental Protection. 2008. GIS Data guide support: glacial ice-laid deposits. http://www.ct.gov/dep/cwp/view.asp? Accessed December 2008. CT Department of Environmental Protection. 2007. 2007-2008 Migratory Bird Hunting Guide Bureau of Natural Resources Wildlife Division. http://www.ct.gov. Accessed October 2007. CT Department of Environmental Protection. 2006. Sound Outlook, June 2006, No. 22. Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection, Hartford, CT. CT Department of Environmental Protection. 1998. Unpublished nesting bird census numbers. Jenny Dickson, CT DEP Wildlife Division, Wildlife Diversity Program. Curtis, M. 1979. Island Beach: oral history interview with William Erdmann. The Greenwich Library, Greenwich, CT. Cuthbert, F. J., L.R. Wires, and J. E. McKearnan. 2002. Potential impacts of nesting double-crested cormorants on great blue herons and black-crowned night-herons in the US Great Lakes region. Journal of Great Lakes Research 28(2): 145-154. Davis W. E., Jr. 1993. Black-crowned Night-Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax). In The Birds of North America, No. 74 (A. Poole and F. Gills, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. D’Entremont, J. 2005. The lighthouses of Connecticut. Commonwealth Editions, Beverly, Massachusetts. 182 pp. De Luca-Abbott, S.B., Wong, B.S., Peakall, D.B., Lam, P.K., Young, L., Lam, M.H., Richardson, B.J., 2001. Review of effects of water pollution on the breeding success of waterbirds, with particular reference to ardeids in Hong Kong. Ecotoxicology 10, 327-349.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. The Long Island Sound Study Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan. EPA Long Island Sound Office, Stamford, CT. Available from: http://www.longislandsoundstudy.net/mgmtplan.htm. Accessed November 2006.

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93

12 Appendices • Appendix A – List of Bird Species: A comprehensive list of birds reported to

occur at Great Captains Island will be provided in tabular form. Both common and scientific names will be provided following recent nomenclature (i.e., based on the names provided in the American Ornithologists’ Union (AOU) check-list of North American birds, seventh edition [1998] and any subsequent supplements).

• Appendix B – List of Other Fauna: A comprehensive list of other vertebrate

fauna reported to occur at Great Captains Island will be provided in tabular form. If existing site-specific data do not exist a list of expected vertebrate fauna will be composed based on existing on-site habitat types, special habitat attributes noted and the known range distributions of Connecticut’s vertebrate fauna.

• Appendix C – List of Plant Species: A comprehensive list of plant species

especially important to avifauna reported to occur at Great Captains Island will be provided in tabular form. If existing site-specific data do not exist, such list will be generated from site observations.

• Appendix D – List of Butterfly and Other Invertebrate Species: A

comprehensive list of butterflies and other invertebrates reported to occur at Great Captains Island will be provided in tabular form. If existing site-specific data do not exist a list of expected vertebrate fauna will be composed based on existing on-site habitat types, special habitat attributes, the presence of host plants noted on site, and the known range distributions of Connecticut’s lepidopteran fauna.

• Appendix E – Natural History Information of Current Key Avian Species

Occurring at the Site: Information regarding the species range and relative abundance in New England and the Northeast, preferred habitat, special habitat requirements, nesting requirements, egg dates, nestling period, broods per year, nest sites, territory size, home range, densities, foraging requirements, and other species specific comments will be provided for key avian species occurring at the site.

• Appendix F - Natural History Information of key desired additional avian

species. Similar information provided for species in Appendix E will also be provided for desired additional avian species that may easily be attracted to the preserve.

• Appendix G – Sample Intern Job Description.

• Appendix H – Conservation Goals, Concerns/Threats and Recommendations

94

Scientific name Common name Disposition* CT Status** Agelaius phoeniceus Red-winged Blackbird N Anas platyrhynchos Mallard N Ardea alba Great Egret N T Ardea herodius Great Blue Heron Arenaria interpres Ruddy Turnstone Branta bernicla Brant Branta canadensis Canada Goose N Bubo virginianus Great Horned Owl N Butordies virescens Green Heron Calidris alpina Dunlin Calidris minutilla Least Sandpiper Cardinalis cardinalis Northern Cardinal Carduelis tristis American Goldfinch Carpodacus mexicanus House Finch Charadrius melodus Piping Plover ? T** Charadrius semipalmatus Semipalmated Plover Charadrius vociferus Killdeer N Clangula hyamalis Long-tailed Duck Colaotes auratus Northern Flicker Columba livia Rock Dove Corvus brachyrhynchos American Crow Corvus ossivfragus Fish Crow Dendroica petechia Yellow Warbler N Dumetella carolinensis Gray Catbird N Egretta caerulea Little Blue Heron N SC Egretta thula Snowy Egret N T Falco sparvericus American Kestrel T Geothlypis trichas Common Yellowthroat N Haematopus pallitus American Oystercatcher N SC Haliaeetus leucocephalus Bald eagle (immature) E** Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow N Larus argentatus Herring Gull N Larus atricilla Laughing Gull Larus marinus Great Black-backed Gull N Limnodromus griseus Short-billed Dowitcher Megaceryle alcyon Belted Kingfisher Melospiza melodia Song Sparrow N Molothrus ater Brown-headed Cowbird Nycticorax nycticorax Black-crowned Night-Heron N Pandion haliaetus Osprey Parus atricapillus Black-capped Chickadee ? Passerculus sandwichensis Savannah Sparrow SC Phalacrocorax auritas Double-crested Cormorant Piranga olivacea Scarlet Tanager

Appendix A - List of Bird Species Birds observed on Great Captain Island (CT DEP 1998, Groff and Mugaburu 2000, Giudice and King 2001, Heath and Parkes 2002, Palmer pers. comm. 2007)

95

Scientific name Common name Disposition* CT Status** Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis SC Pluvialis squatarola Black-bellied Plover Quiscalus quiscula Common Grackle N Sayornis phoebe Eastern Phoebe Sterna hirundo Common Tern SC Sturnus vulgaris European Starling Tringa solitaria Solitary Sandpiper Tyrranus tyrannus Eastern Kingbird N

* N = nesting, blank cell means bird was present on island but it is unknown if nesting. ** E*= endangered in CT and federally; T*=threatened in CT but federally endangered; SC=species of special concern.

Appendix A - List of Bird Species Birds observed on Great Captain Island (CT DEP 1998, Groff and Mugaburu 2000, Giudice and King 2001, Heath and Parkes 2002, Palmer pers. comm. 2007)

96

Scientific name Common name Disposition CT Status* Rattus norvegicus Norway rat probable

* E= endangered in CT and federally; T=threatened in CT but federally endangered; SC=species of special concern.

Appendix B – List of Other Fauna

97

Appendix C – List of Plant Species A. Tree and shrub species (modified from Groff and Mugaburu 2000, Giudice and King 2001)

Common name Scientific name Notes Value to waterbirds/terrestrial birds/small mammals *

ash-leaf maple (boxelder) Acer negundo native ?

norway maple Acer platanoides non-native, invasive (listed CT) ?

red maple Acer rubrum native ?

tree-of-heaven Ailanthus altissima non-native, invasive (listed CT), banned for sale in CT

?

false indigo Amorpha fruticosa native ? devil’s walkingstick/hercules’ club Aralia spinosa native LF/LF/LF paper birch Betula papyrifera native ?/LFMC/LF shagbark birch Carya ovata native ?

mockernut hickory Carya tomentosa/C. alba native ?

honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos native ?

marsh elder Iva frutescens native ?

honeysuckle Lonicera spp. non-native, invasive (listed CT), banned for sale in CT

?/LFMC/LFMC

dawn redwood Metasequoia glyptostroboides non-native ?-not on state list

white mulberry Morus alba non-native ? spruce sp. Picea sp. ? ?/ MF/MFMC

red pine Pinus resinosa native (Endangered-native populations only)?

?

bigtooth aspen Populus grandidentata native ?/MF/MF

black cherry Prunus serotina native LF/LF/LF

red chokeberry Pyrus arbutifolia/ Photinia pyrifolia native ?/LF/?

white oak Quercus alba native ? red oak Quercus rubra native ? poison ivy Rhus radicans native, invasive LF/LF/MF staghorn sumac Rhus typhina native, invasive ?

black locust Robinia pseudoacacia native, invasive ?/LF/LF

multiflora rose Rosa multiflora non-native, invasive (listed CT), banned in CT

?/LFMC/LF

rugosa rose Rosa rugosa non-native, potentially invasive (listed CT), ?

pussy willow Salix discolor native ?

98

Common name Scientific name Notes Value to waterbirds/terrestrial birds/small mammals *

sassafras Sassafras albidum native ?/LF/LF common purple lilac Syringe vulgaris non-native ? elm Ulmus spp. ? LF/LF HC/LF

* USDA Wildlife habitat values: Type: F=food, C=cover; Value class: L, M, H = low (5-10% of diet; infrequently used as cover), medium (10-25% of diet; occasionally used as cover), high (25-50% of diet; regular source of cover). From: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service http://plants.usda.gov/ B. Herbaceous species

Common name Scientific name Notes** Value to waterbirds/terrestrial birds/small mammals *

Oriental bittersweet Celastrus orbiculatus non-native, invasive (listed CT), banned for sale in CT

?

field chickweed Cerastium arvense native ? oxeye daisy Chrysanthemum

leucanthemum non-native ?

field thistle Cirsium discolor native, invasive ? hedge false bindweed Convolvulvus

sepium/Calystegia sepium

?/invasive ?

St. Johnswort Hypericum perforatum non-native, invasive ? beach pea Lathyrus japonicus native ? common mallow Malva neglecta non-native, invasive ? Virginia creeper Parthenocissus

quinquefolia native, invasive ?/LF/LF

common reed Phragmites australis non-native, potentially invasive (listed CT), banned in CT

?

Allegheny blackberry Rubus allehgeniensis native ?/MF MC/MF MC curly dock Rumex crispus non-native ? slender glasswort Salicornia europaea native ? roundleaf greenbrier Smilax rotundifolia native, invasive ?/LF/LF bittersweet/climbing nightshade

Solanum dulcamara non-native, potentially invasive (listed CT), banned in CT

?

saltmarsh grass Spartina alterniflora native ? stinging nettle Urtica dioica ?/ invasive ?

* USDA Wildlife habitat values: Type: F=food, C=cover; Value class: L, M, H = low (5-10% of diet; infrequently used as cover), medium (10-25% of diet; occasionally used as cover), high (25-50% of diet; regular source of cover) ** Notes: denotes whether plant is native to U.S. or introduce; if it is invasive and on the CT State Invasive list; if plant is banned in CT. No plants appear to federally banned. From: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service http://plants.usda.gov/

99

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mon

Buc

keye

S

napd

rago

n fa

mily

(e.

g.

snap

drag

on (Antirrhinum

), t

oadf

lax

(Linaria

)); p

lant

ain

fam

ily (

e.g.

pl

anta

ins

(Pla

ntag

o));

aca

nthu

s fa

mily

(e.

g. r

uelli

a (R

uelli

a no

diflo

ra))

Nec

tar

from

com

posi

tes

(e.g

. ast

er,

chic

kory

, gum

wee

d,

knap

wee

d);d

ogba

ne, p

eppe

rmin

t, va

riety

of o

ther

flow

ers

Ope

n, s

unny

are

as w

ith lo

w

vege

tatio

n an

d so

me

bare

gro

und

10

0

Sci

enti

fic

nam

e C

om

mo

n n

ame

Cat

erp

illar

ho

st

Ad

ult

fo

od

H

abit

at

Limenitis arthemis

Red

-spo

tted

Pur

ple

or W

hite

Adm

iral

Tre

e an

d sh

rub

leav

es (

e.g.

wild

ch

erry

(Prunus spp.

), a

spen

, po

plar

, cot

tonw

ood

(Populus

), o

aks

(Quercus

), h

awth

orn

(Crataegus

),

deer

berr

y (Vaccinium stamineum

),

birc

h (Betula)

, will

ows

(Salix

),

bass

woo

d (Tilia)

, sha

dbus

h (Amelanchier)

)

Sap

flow

s, r

ottin

g fr

uit,

carr

ion,

du

ng, n

ecta

r fr

om s

mal

l whi

te

flow

ers

(e.g

. spi

raea

, priv

et,

vibu

rnum

); a

phid

hon

eyde

w

Dec

iduo

us o

r m

ixed

fore

sts,

moi

st

upla

nd, v

alle

y bo

ttom

s, a

nd c

oast

al

plai

ns

Nymphalis antiopa

Mou

rnin

g C

loak

W

illow

s (e

.g. b

lack

will

ow (

Sal

ix

nigr

a), w

eepi

ng w

illow

(S

. ba

bylo

nica

), a

nd s

ilky

will

ow (

S.

seric

ea))

; Am

eric

an e

lm (Ulmus

americana)

, cot

tonw

ood

(Populus

deltoides

), a

spen

(P

. tre

mul

oide

s),

pape

r bi

rch

(Betula papyrifera)

, ha

ckbe

rry

(Celtis

))

Tre

e sa

p es

peci

ally

from

oak

s,

rotti

ng fr

uit,

and

only

occ

asio

nally

on

flow

er n

ecta

r.

Mou

rnin

g C

loak

s ro

am a

nd m

igra

te,

ther

efor

e th

ey a

re fo

und

alm

ost

anyw

here

that

hos

t pla

nts

occu

r in

clud

ing

woo

ds, o

peni

ngs,

par

ks,

and

subu

rbs;

and

esp

ecia

lly

ripar

ian

area

s

Papilio polyxenes

Bla

ck S

wal

low

tail

Leav

es p

arsl

ey fa

mily

(A

piac

eae)

(e

.g. Q

ueen

Ann

e's

Lace

, car

rot,

cele

ry,d

ill);

occ

asio

nally

citr

us

fam

ily (

Rut

acea

e)

Flo

wer

nec

tar

(e.g

. red

clo

ver,

m

ilkw

eed,

this

tles)

V

arie

ty o

f ope

n ar

eas

(e.g

. fie

lds,

su

burb

s, m

arsh

es, d

eser

ts,

road

side

s)

Papilio troilus

Spi

cebu

sh

Sw

allo

wta

il S

pice

bush

(Lindera benzoin)

, sa

ssaf

ras

tree

s (Sassafras

albidum

); p

erha

ps p

rickl

y as

h (Zanthoxylum americanum

), tu

lip

tree

(Liriodendron tulipifera

),

swee

tbay

(Magnolia virginiana

),

cam

phor

(Cinnamomum

camphora)

, red

bay

(Persea

borbonia

)

Nec

tar

(e.g

. Jap

anes

e ho

neys

uckl

e, je

wel

wee

d, th

istle

s,

milk

wee

d, a

zale

a, d

ogba

ne,

lant

ana,

mim

osa,

sw

eet

pepp

erbu

sh)

Dec

iduo

us w

oodl

ands

, fie

lds,

ro

adsi

des,

yar

ds, p

ine

barr

ens,

w

oode

d sw

amps

, par

ks

Phyciodes tharos

Pea

rl C

resc

ent

Sm

ooth

-leav

ed tr

ue a

ster

s (e

.g.

Aster pilosus,

A. texanus

, and

A.

laevis

)

Nec

tar

from

wid

e va

riety

of f

low

ers

(e.g

. dog

bane

, sw

amp

milk

wee

d,

shep

herd

's n

eedl

e, a

ster

s, w

inte

r cr

ess)

Ope

n ar

eas

(e.g

. pas

ture

s, r

oad

edge

s, v

acan

t lot

s, fi

elds

, ope

n pi

ne

woo

ds)

10

1

Sci

enti

fic

nam

e C

om

mo

n n

ame

Cat

erp

illar

ho

st

Ad

ult

fo

od

H

abit

at

Pieris rapae

Cab

bage

Whi

te

Mus

tard

(B

rass

icac

eae)

fam

ily a

nd

occa

sion

ally

cap

er fa

mily

(C

appa

ridac

eae)

Flo

wer

nec

tar

from

a v

ery

wid

e ar

ray

of p

lant

s (e

.g. m

usta

rds,

da

ndel

ion,

red

clo

ver,

ast

ers,

min

ts)

Alm

ost a

ny ty

pe o

f ope

n sp

ace

incl

udin

g w

eedy

are

as, g

arde

ns,

road

side

s, c

ities

, and

sub

urbs

Poanes viator

Bro

ad-w

inge

d S

kipp

er

Coa

stal

pop

ulat

ions

feed

on

reed

(Phragmites communis

), w

ild r

ice

(Zizania aquatica)

, mar

sh m

illet

(Zizaniopsis miliacea

)

Coa

stal

pop

ulat

ions

use

nec

tar

from

dog

bane

, sw

amp

milk

wee

d,

pick

erel

wee

d, th

istle

s, s

alt m

arsh

fle

aban

e, a

mon

g ot

hers

Fre

shw

ater

and

sal

twat

er m

arsh

es.

Polites themistocles

Taw

ny-e

dged

S

kipp

er

Pan

ic g

rass

es (Panicum

), s

lend

er

crab

gras

s (Digitaria filiformis

), a

nd

blue

gras

s (Poa pratensis

).

Flo

wer

nec

tar

(e.g

. alfa

lfa, r

ed

clov

er, d

ogba

ne, s

hrub

hou

ston

ia,

purp

le c

onef

low

er, t

hist

les,

chi

cory

)

Moi

st g

rass

y ar

eas

(e.g

. pra

irie

swal

es, p

astu

res,

law

ns, r

oads

ides

, va

cant

lots

) Polygonia

interrogationis

Que

stio

n M

ark

Am

eric

an e

lm (Ulmus americanus

),

red

elm

(Ulmus rubra

), h

ackb

erry

(Celtis

), J

apan

ese

hop

(Humulus

japonicus)

, net

tles

(Urtica)

, and

fa

lse

nettl

e (Boehmeria cylindrica)

.

Rot

ting

frui

t, tr

ee s

ap, d

ung,

ca

rrio

n, o

ccas

sion

ally

flow

ers

(e.g

. co

mm

on m

ilkw

eed,

ast

er, s

wee

t pe

pper

bush

)

Woo

ded

area

s w

ith s

ome

open

sp

ace,

city

par

ks, s

ubur

bs,

fenc

erow

s

Pompeius verna

Littl

e G

lass

ywin

g P

urpl

etop

(Tridens flavus)

N

ecta

r fr

om w

hite

, pin

k, a

nd p

urpl

e flo

wer

s pr

efer

red

(e.g

. dog

bane

, se

lfhea

l, pe

pper

min

t, jo

e-py

e w

eed,

co

mm

on a

nd s

wam

p m

ilkw

eeds

)

Moi

st p

lace

s ne

ar s

hade

d w

ood

edge

s.

Strymon melinus

Gra

y H

airs

trea

k F

low

ers

and

frui

ts fr

om la

rge

varie

ty

of p

lant

s (f

avor

ites

are

pea

(Fab

acea

e) a

nd m

allo

w

(Mal

vace

ae)

fam

ilies

(e.

g. b

eans

(Phaseolus

), c

love

rs (Trifolium

),

cotto

n (Gossypium

), m

allo

w

(Malva

))

Flo

wer

nec

tar

(e.g

. dog

bane

, m

ilkw

eed,

min

t, w

inte

r cr

ess,

go

lden

rod,

tick

tref

oil,

whi

te s

wee

t cl

over

)

Ope

n, n

onfo

rest

ed s

ites;

com

mon

in

dis

turb

ed, w

eedy

are

as

Vanessa atalanta

Red

Adm

iral

Net

tle fa

mily

(U

rtic

acea

e) (

e.g.

st

ingi

ng n

ettle

(Urtica dioica

), ta

ll w

ild n

ettle

(U. gracilis

), w

ood

nettl

e (Laportea canadensis

), fa

lse

nettl

e (Boehmeria cylindrica)

, am

ong

othe

rs)

Sap

flow

s on

tree

s, fe

rmen

ting

frui

t, bi

rd d

ropp

ings

; occ

asio

nally

flow

er

nect

ar (

e.g.

com

mon

milk

wee

d, r

ed

clov

er, a

ster

, alfa

lfa, a

mon

g ot

hers

)

Moi

st w

oods

, yar

ds, p

arks

, m

arsh

es, s

eeps

, moi

st fi

elds

; fou

nd

in a

lmos

t any

hab

itat f

rom

tund

ra to

su

btro

pics

dur

ing

mig

ratio

ns

Vanessa cardui

Pai

nted

Lad

y W

ide

varie

ty o

f hos

t pla

nts

(fav

orite

s in

clud

e th

istle

s (A

ster

acea

e), h

olly

hock

, mal

low

(M

alva

ceae

), v

ario

us le

gum

es

(Fab

acea

e))

Nec

tar

from

3-6

feet

hig

h co

mpo

site

s (e

.g. t

hist

les;

ast

er,

cosm

os, b

lazi

ng s

tar,

iron

wee

d,

joe-

pye

wee

d); a

lso

red

clov

er,

butto

nbus

h, p

rivet

, and

milk

wee

ds

Alm

ost e

very

whe

re, e

spec

ially

in

open

or

dist

urbe

d ar

eas

incl

udin

g ga

rden

s, o

ld fi

elds

, dun

es

10

2

Sci

enti

fic

nam

e C

om

mo

n n

ame

Cat

erp

illar

ho

st

Ad

ult

fo

od

H

abit

at

If ha

ckbe

rry

grow

s on

the

isla

nd a

s on

the

Nor

wal

k Is

land

s, th

e fo

llow

ing

spec

ies

may

be

pres

ent (

C. L

emm

on p

ers.

com

m.)

: Asterocampa celtis

Hac

kber

ry E

mpe

ror

Var

ious

hac

kber

ries

(Cel

tis

spec

ies)

and

sug

arbe

rry

(Cel

tis

laev

igat

a).

Sap

, rot

ting

frui

t, du

ng, c

arrio

n. W

ill

take

moi

stur

e at

wet

spo

ts a

long

ro

ads

and

stre

ams

Alo

ng w

oode

d st

ream

s, fo

rest

gl

ades

and

riv

er e

dges

, woo

ded

road

side

s, to

wns

Asterocampa clyton

Taw

ny E

mpe

ror

Elm

fam

ily (

hack

berr

y –

e.g.

Celtis

occidentalis, C. tenuifolia

, C.

laevigata,

C. lindheimeri,

and C.

reticulata.

Tre

e sa

p, r

ottin

g fr

uit,

dung

, car

rion;

al

mos

t nev

er v

isit

flow

ers.

D

ense

ly w

oode

d rip

aria

n ar

eas,

dry

w

oods

, ope

n w

oods

, citi

es,

fenc

erow

s, p

arks

Libytheana carinenta

Am

eric

an S

nout

H

ackb

erry

(Celtis

).

Flo

wer

nec

tar

(e.g

. ast

er, d

ogba

ne,

dogw

ood,

gol

denr

od, s

wee

t pe

pper

bush

, oth

ers)

For

est c

lear

ings

and

edg

es, t

horn

sc

rub,

bru

shy

field

s, r

oads

ides

.

List

and

info

rmat

ion

is c

ompi

led

from

: But

terf

lies

repo

rted

in F

airf

ield

Cou

nty,

CT

in

Opl

er, P

aul A

., H

arry

Pav

ulaa

n, R

ay E

. Sta

nfor

d, M

icha

el

Pog

ue, c

oord

inat

ors.

200

6. B

utte

rflie

s an

d M

oths

of N

orth

Am

eric

a. B

ozem

an, M

T: M

ount

ain

Pra

irie

Info

rmat

ion

Nod

e.

ww

w.b

utte

rflie

sand

mot

hs.o

rg/ (

Ver

sion

02/

03/2

007)

and

the

Con

nect

icut

But

terf

ly A

tlas

Pro

ject

, col

lect

ion

reco

rds

for

the

Sta

mfo

rd Q

uadr

angl

e,

ww

w.p

eabo

dy.y

ale.

edu/

colle

ctio

ns/e

nt/e

nt_c

bap.

htm

l, ac

cess

ed J

an. 2

007.

94

AP

PE

ND

IX E

- N

atur

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atio

n of

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rent

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an S

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ccur

ring

at th

e S

ite

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EN

D A

ND

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OR

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N S

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RC

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pec

ies

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mm

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e (Scientific nam

e) �

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• D

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ibut

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in r

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Hab

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Nat

ura

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tory

�

Reg

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al A

bu

nd

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�

• R

ecen

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estim

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•

1970

s-19

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popu

latio

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timat

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• T

rend

est

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egio

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Th

reat

s/L

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Fac

tors

�

• T

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ts a

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miti

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ctor

s in

reg

ion

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Nee

ds:

Sustainability

� —estimates of productivity and/or density necessary to sustain population either from population viability studies or

maximum level of productivity reported; Conservation Actions/Needs

� ; Population Goals

� ; Habitat Goals

�

Glo

bal

Ran

ge

Map

� : Species

occurrence globally

Reg

ion

al R

ang

e M

ap

� : Species

occurrence in MANEM region

95

HE

RR

ING

GU

LL

(Larus argentatus smithsonianus)

C

on

serv

atio

n S

tatu

s: A

bund

ance

(b=

bree

ding

, nb=

nonb

reed

ing,

t=to

tal i

ndiv

idua

ls),

Pop

ulat

ion

Impo

rtan

ce (

% r

efer

ence

pop

ulat

ion)

and

Con

serv

atio

n R

ank

Glo

bal

Nor

th A

mer

ica

BC

R 1

4 B

CR

30

Mid

-Atla

ntic

S

. New

Eng

land

G

ulf o

f Mai

ne

Mar

itim

es

2,60

0,00

0 –

3,00

0,00

0t

>286

,000

b (?

% g

loba

l) 19

6,18

2b

(?%

NA

) 90

,734

b (?

% N

A)

36,9

16b

(13%

MA

NE

M)

36,2

56b

(13%

MA

NE

M)

75,2

44b

(26%

MA

NE

M)

138,

500b

(4

8% M

AN

EM

)

IUC

N-

Leas

t Con

cern

N

AW

CP

- Lo

w C

once

rn

Mod

erat

e C

once

rn

Low

C

once

rn

NJ-

S5B

, S5N

; DE

-S3B

, S

5N; M

D-S

5B, S

5N; V

A-

S4

MA

NE

M F

oca

l Sp

ecie

s

NY

-S5;

CT

-S5;

RI-

S3B

, S

ZN

; MA

-S5;

VT

-S4B

,S5N

M

AN

EM

Fo

cal S

pec

ies

Sta

te S

GC

N-R

I

MA

-S5,

NH

-S5;

ME

-S5B

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Reg

ion

al O

ccu

rren

ce

• D

istr

ibut

ion:

bre

eds

and

win

ters

in r

egio

n

Reg

ion

al N

atu

ral H

isto

ry

• Nesting requirements: f

ree

from

pre

dato

rs a

nd d

istu

rban

ce;

pref

er n

est s

ites

prot

ecte

d fr

om p

reva

iling

win

ds

• Arrival and egg dates: a

rriv

es a

t nes

ting

site

in M

arch

to A

pril;

eg

gs la

id th

roug

h m

id M

ay; i

ncub

atio

n 30

to 3

2d

• Nestling period: c

apab

le o

f the

rmor

egul

atio

n at

1d; c

an le

ave

nest

at 1

d; fl

edge

at 4

5 to

50d

• Broods per year: 1

bro

od p

er s

easo

n •

Territory size: d

efen

ds n

estin

g ar

ea (

appr

ox 4

to 9

m d

epen

ding

on

hab

itat)

• Foraging requirements: f

orag

es u

p to

62

mile

s fr

om c

olon

y,

typi

cally

with

in 1

2.4

mile

s; g

ener

alis

t and

pre

dato

r on

pel

agic

and

in

tert

idal

mar

ine;

opp

ortu

nist

ic; a

long

roc

ky s

hore

, low

inte

rtid

al,

shal

low

sub

tidal

; at s

ea a

roun

d su

bmar

ine

feat

ures

•

Diet:

oppo

rtun

istic

; mar

ine

inve

rteb

rate

s, fi

sh, c

arrio

n re

fuse

, pr

edat

es e

ggs

and

nest

lings

of o

ther

sea

bird

s an

d w

ater

bird

s,

som

e ad

ult

sea

and

song

bird

s •

Preferred habitats used:

bre

eds

on s

eaco

asts

, bay

s, e

stua

ries,

la

kes,

riv

ers,

alo

ng r

ocky

or

sand

y co

asts

, isl

ands

, clif

fs, o

n ro

ofto

ps

¡ -

Bre

edin

g si

te (

Mar

-Aug

)

Non

-Bre

edin

g (S

ep-F

eb)

96

HE

RR

ING

GU

LL

(Larus argentatus sm

ithsonianus), con’t.

Reg

ion

al A

bu

nd

ance

•

1990

s: U

S—

148,

416b

(46

8 co

loni

es);

CA

N—

138,

500b

•

1970

s: U

S—

184,

278b

(41

4 co

loni

es)

• 19

% d

ecre

ase

in U

S p

opul

atio

n; d

eclin

ing

in C

anad

a

Reg

ion

al T

hre

ats/

Lim

itin

g F

acto

rs

• P

opul

atio

n gr

owth

lim

ited

by a

vaila

bilit

y of

sui

tabl

e ne

stin

g an

d fo

ragi

ng a

reas

•

Dis

turb

ance

and

pre

datio

n at

nes

ting

colo

nies

•

Oil

pollu

tion,

pes

ticid

es, o

ther

env

ironm

enta

l con

tam

inat

ion

• R

isin

g se

a le

vels

may

red

uce

avai

labl

e ne

stin

g ar

eas

• R

educ

tion

in fo

od s

uppl

y du

e to

ove

r-fis

hing

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Nee

ds:

•

Sustainability

: 3 fl

edgl

ings

/pai

r/yr

.

• Conservation Actions

: Pop

ulat

ion

cont

rol o

f Her

ring

Gul

ls h

as b

een

cond

ucte

d by

sta

te a

genc

ies

and

priv

ate

indi

vidu

als

in a

ttem

pts

to p

rovi

de g

reat

er n

estin

g op

port

uniti

es fo

r ot

her

seab

irds

(ter

ns, p

uffin

s, a

nd o

ther

spe

cies

of g

ulls

); e

ffort

s ap

pear

inef

fect

ive

on la

rge

scal

e, b

ut s

ucce

ssfu

l in

smal

ler

colo

nies

; out

-co

mpe

ted

by G

reat

Bla

ck-b

acke

d G

ulls

.

• Needs

: mon

itor,

man

age

on s

ite b

asis

for

conf

licts

with

oth

er n

estin

g sp

ecie

s, a

nd r

educ

e su

pple

men

tal f

ood

sour

ces

and

conf

licts

with

pub

lic.

•

Population Goals

: mai

ntai

n (b

elow

max

imum

) at

261

,293

-319

,359

b.

• Habitat Goals

: Res

tore

/pro

tect

bre

edin

g ha

bita

t in

follo

win

g pr

iorit

y co

mpl

exes

: VA

-E S

hore

Che

sape

ake

Bay

Gro

up, B

arrie

r Is

Gro

up; M

D-P

etap

sco

Gro

up; N

J-Li

ttle

Egg

Har

bor;

NY

-Jam

aica

Bay

Gro

up; R

I-M

isqu

amic

ut, H

ope

Is G

roup

; MA

-Nat

iona

l Sea

shor

e, N

oman

’s L

and,

Bos

ton

Har

bor;

ME

-Mac

hias

Bay

, Ple

asan

t B

ay; N

B-G

rand

Man

an G

roup

; NS

-Brie

r Is

; PE

-Pov

erty

Bea

ch G

roup

, Oul

tons

Is G

roup

; QC

-W S

t Law

renc

e. P

rote

ct n

on-b

reed

ing

habi

tat o

f she

lf w

ater

s of

N

orth

east

US

Con

tinen

tal S

helf

and

Gul

f of M

aine

.

97

GR

EA

T B

LA

CK

-BA

CK

ED

GU

LL

(Larus marinus)

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Sta

tus:

Abu

ndan

ce (

b=br

eedi

ng, n

b=no

nbre

edin

g, t=

tota

l ind

ivid

uals

), P

opul

atio

n Im

port

ance

(%

ref

eren

ce p

opul

atio

n) a

nd C

onse

rvat

ion

Ran

k

Glo

bal

Nor

th A

mer

ica

BC

R 1

4 B

CR

30

Mid

-Atla

ntic

S

. New

Eng

land

G

ulf o

f Mai

ne

Mar

itim

es

630,

000

– 72

0,00

0t

160,

430b

(3

3-38

% g

loba

l) 11

5,54

6b

(72%

NA

) 37

,372

b (2

3% N

A)

3,34

0b

(2%

MA

NE

M)

25,5

28b

(17%

MA

NE

M)

43,5

50b

(28%

MA

NE

M)

80,5

00b

(53%

MA

NE

M)

IUC

N-

Leas

t Con

cern

N

AW

CP

- Lo

wes

t Con

cern

Low

Con

cern

Low

est

Con

cern

N

J- S

5B, S

5N; D

E-S

1B,

S5N

; MD

-S4B

, S4N

; VA

-S4

MA

NE

M F

oca

l Sp

ecie

s S

tate

SG

CN

-DE

NY

-S3;

CT

-S5;

RI-

S2B

, S

ZN

; MA

-S4;

VT

-S1B

,S5N

M

AN

EM

Fo

cal S

pec

ies

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te S

GC

N-R

I

MA

-S4;

NH

-S5;

ME

-S

5B, S

5N; N

B-S

5B,

S5N

NS

- S

5B

MA

NE

M F

oca

l Sp

ecie

s

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- S

5; N

B-

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5N; P

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Reg

ion

al O

ccu

rren

ce

• D

istr

ibut

ion:

bre

eds

and

win

ters

in r

egio

n

Reg

ion

al N

atu

ral H

isto

ry

• Nesting requirements: f

ree

from

pre

dato

rs a

nd d

istu

rban

ce;

nest

on

rock

y co

asts

, gra

ssy

knol

ls o

r de

pres

sion

s in

sho

rt

vege

tatio

n; p

refe

r ne

st s

ites

prot

ecte

d fr

om p

reva

iling

win

ds;

will

pla

ce n

ests

nex

t to

obje

cts

that

may

act

as

barr

iers

to

near

est n

eigh

bor

•

Arrival and egg dates: a

rriv

e at

nes

ting

site

mid

Mar

ch to

ea

rly A

pril;

egg

s la

id e

arly

to m

id A

pril;

asy

nchr

onou

s;

incu

batio

n 26

-28d

•

Nestling period: c

apab

le o

f the

rmor

egul

atio

n at

1 to

2d; a

ble

to le

ave

nest

afte

r 1d

; fle

dge

45 to

55d

• Broods per year: 1

bro

od p

er s

easo

n •

Territory size: d

efen

ds n

estin

g ar

ea (

appr

ox 4

to 1

2m)

• Foraging requirements: f

orag

es u

p to

62

mile

s fr

om c

olon

y,

typi

cally

with

in 1

2 m

iles;

fora

ges

on r

ocky

sho

res,

low

in

tert

idal

and

sha

llow

sub

tidal

, mud

flats

, and

at s

ea a

roun

d su

bmar

ine

feat

ures

•

Diet:

mar

ine

inve

rteb

rate

s, fi

sh, i

nsec

ts, r

efus

e, p

reda

tes

eggs

and

nes

tling

s of

oth

er s

eabi

rds

and

wat

erbi

rds,

som

e ad

ult s

ea a

nd s

ongb

irds

• Preferred habitats used:

sea

coas

ts, l

arge

inla

nd b

odie

s of

w

ater

; nes

ts o

n ro

cky

coas

ts a

nd is

land

s

¡ -

Bre

edin

g si

te (

Mar

-Aug

) N

on-B

reed

ing

(Sep

-Feb

)

98

GR

EA

T B

LA

CK

-BA

CK

ED

GU

LL

(Larus marinus), con’t.

Reg

ion

al A

bu

nd

ance

•

1990

s: U

S—

72,4

18b

(462

col

onie

s); C

AN

—80

,500

b •

1970

s: U

S—

34,6

36b

(346

col

onie

s)

• 10

9% in

crea

se in

US

pop

ulat

ion;

incr

ease

in C

anad

a

Reg

ion

al T

hre

ats/

Lim

itin

g F

acto

rs

• H

uman

dis

turb

ance

can

cau

se in

terr

uptio

n of

incu

batio

n •

Col

lisio

ns w

ith a

ircra

ft ne

ar a

irpor

ts (

has

been

nec

essa

ry to

sho

ot in

divi

dual

s in

NY

to p

reve

nt th

is p

robl

em)

• O

il co

ntam

inat

ion

lead

s to

red

uced

hat

chin

g su

cces

s, e

sp. w

hen

plum

age

arou

nd b

rood

pat

ch is

affe

cted

C

on

serv

atio

n N

eed

s:

• Sustainability

: 1.4

fled

glin

gs/n

est/y

r.

• Conservation Actions

: Spe

cies

is s

ubje

ct to

pop

ulat

ion

cont

rol,

espe

cial

ly w

hen

loca

ted

near

airp

orts

; sin

gle

nest

ing

pair

can

excl

ude

tern

nes

ting

colo

ny.

•

Needs

: mon

itor,

man

age

on s

ite b

asis

for

conf

licts

with

oth

er n

estin

g sp

ecie

s an

d w

ith p

ublic

.

• Population Goals

: mai

ntai

n (b

elow

max

imum

) at

137

,626

-168

,210

b.

• Habitat Goals

: Res

tore

/pro

tect

bre

edin

g ha

bita

t in

follo

win

g pr

iorit

y co

mpl

exes

: VA

-Bar

rier

Is G

roup

; NJ-

Littl

e E

gg H

arbo

r, C

ape

May

Wet

land

s G

roup

; RI-

Mis

quam

icut

; MA

-Glo

uces

ter,

Nat

iona

l Sea

shor

e, N

antu

cket

; ME

-Mac

hias

Bay

, Mus

cong

us B

ay, I

sles

of S

hoal

s G

roup

; NB

-Gra

nd M

anan

Gro

up; N

S-B

ird Is

; P

E-L

ittle

Cou

rtin

Is, P

over

ty B

each

Gro

up; Q

C-W

St L

awre

nce.

Pro

tect

non

-bre

edin

g ha

bita

t of s

helf

wat

ers

of N

orth

east

US

Con

tinen

tal S

helf,

Gul

f of M

aine

, an

d S

cotia

n S

helf.

99

LIT

TL

E B

LU

E H

ER

ON

(Egretta caerulea)

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Sta

tus:

Abu

ndan

ce (

b=br

eedi

ng, n

b=no

nbre

edin

g, t=

tota

l ind

ivid

uals

), P

opul

atio

n Im

port

ance

(%

ref

eren

ce p

opul

atio

n) a

nd C

onse

rvat

ion

Ran

k

Glo

bal

Nor

th A

mer

ica

BC

R 1

4 B

CR

30

Mid

-Atla

ntic

S

. New

Eng

land

G

ulf o

f Mai

ne

Mar

itim

es

? 20

0,00

0 –

300,

000b

(?

% g

loba

l) 18

b (<

1% N

A)

3,54

6b

(1-2

% N

A)

3,51

8b

(99%

MA

NE

M)

16b

(<1%

MA

NE

M)

30b

(<1%

MA

NE

M)

0b

(0%

MA

NE

M)

IUC

N-

Le

ast C

once

rn

NA

WC

P-

Hig

h C

once

rn

Hig

h C

once

rn

Hig

h C

once

rn

NJ-

SC

S2B

; DE

-S1B

M

D-S

3B; V

A-S

CS

2B, S

3N

MA

NE

M F

oca

l Sp

ecie

s S

tate

SG

CN

-NJ,

DE

,MD

,VA

NY

-S2;

CT

-SC

S1B

, SZ

N; R

I-

SC

S1B

, S2N

; MA

-S1;

VT

-na

Sta

te S

GC

N-N

Y,C

T,R

I

MA

-S1;

NH

-SZ

N; M

E-

S1B

; NB

, NS

- no

info

S

tate

SG

CN

-ME

QC

-SN

; PE

- no

in

fo;

NB

, NS

- no

info

#S

#S

#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S #S #S

#S

#S#S#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S #S#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S

#S#S#S

#S

Reg

ion

al O

ccu

rren

ce

• D

istr

ibut

ion:

bre

eds

in B

CR

30;

mig

rate

s in

BC

R 1

4; w

inte

rs in

BC

R

30

Reg

ion

al N

atu

ral H

isto

ry

• Nesting requirements: f

ree

from

pre

dato

rs a

nd d

istu

rban

ce; n

ests

be

low

can

opy

in lo

wer

shr

ubs

and

smal

l tre

es; p

refe

r ve

geta

tion

of

inte

rmed

iate

siz

e an

d st

abili

ty r

athe

r th

an p

artic

ular

pla

nt s

peci

es

com

pare

d to

oth

er a

rdei

ds; w

ill n

est i

n po

ison

ivy,

non

nativ

e ve

geta

tion,

upl

and

vege

tatio

n.

• Arrival and egg dates: a

rriv

es la

te M

arch

to e

arly

Apr

il; e

ggs

laid

late

A

pril

to e

arly

May

; inc

ubat

ion

22 to

23

d.

• Nestling period:

cap

able

of t

herm

oreg

ulat

ion

at 1

1 to

16

d; n

estli

ngs

clim

b at

14

d; r

eadi

ly le

ave

nest

at 2

1 d;

fled

ge 3

5 d.

•

Broods per year: 1

bro

od p

er s

easo

n; p

ossi

bly

rene

st if

firs

t fai

ls

• Territory size: d

efen

d ar

ea a

roun

d ne

st a

ppro

xim

atel

y 1m

; for

age

in

unde

fend

ed a

ggre

gate

gro

ups.

• Foraging requirements: f

orag

es m

ean

6.2

mile

s fr

om c

oast

al c

olon

y in

fres

hwat

er a

nd m

arin

e-es

tuar

ine

wet

land

hab

itats

; sha

llow

wat

er;

ofte

n us

es d

ense

ly v

eget

ated

fora

ging

site

s; c

hoic

es h

ighl

y va

riabl

e;

open

poo

ls a

nd c

hann

el e

dges

of Spartina

mar

shes

. •

Diet:

smal

l fis

h, in

vert

ebra

tes

espe

cial

ly c

rust

acea

ns, s

mal

l am

phib

ians

. •

Preferred habitats used:

bre

eds

in m

arsh

es, s

wam

py w

oods

, tid

al

estu

arie

s, la

goon

s, m

angr

oves

and

str

eam

s, a

nd p

rimar

ily in

talle

r tr

ees.

¡ -

Bre

edin

g si

te (

Mar

-Aug

) N

on-B

reed

ing

(Sep

-Feb

)

10

0

LIT

TL

E B

LU

E H

ER

ON

(Egretta caerulea), con’t.

Reg

ion

al A

bu

nd

ance

b •

1990

s: U

S—

3,56

4b (

53 c

olon

ies)

; CA

N—

0b

• 19

70s:

US

—2,

326

(39

colo

nies

) •

53%

incr

ease

in r

egio

nal p

opul

atio

n

Reg

ion

al T

hre

ats/

Lim

itin

g F

acto

rs

• D

istu

rban

ce/d

evel

opm

ent o

f nes

ting

and

fora

ging

site

s; a

ltera

tion

or e

rosi

on o

f sho

relin

e ha

bita

t •

Pes

ticid

es a

nd e

nviro

nmen

tal c

onta

min

ants

•

Col

lisio

ns w

ith p

ower

line

s, s

uppo

rt w

ires,

and

veh

icle

s •

Sev

ere

wea

ther

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Nee

ds:

•

Sustainability

: 2.7

fled

glin

gs/s

ucce

ssfu

l nes

t/yr.

•

Conservation Actions

: Som

e st

ates

pro

hibi

t tre

spas

sing

into

her

on c

olon

ies

and

surr

ound

ing

buffe

r zo

nes,

esp

. dur

ing

bree

ding

sea

son.

•

Needs: m

onito

r po

pula

tions

, ide

ntify

pot

entia

l nes

ting

area

s an

d ke

y fo

ragi

ng a

reas

for

hist

oric

al a

nd c

urre

nt c

olon

ies

(can

aba

ndon

col

onie

s w

ith li

ttle

notic

e),

rese

arch

pro

duct

ivity

at n

estin

g co

loni

es, m

onito

r co

loni

es fo

r pr

edat

or a

ctiv

ity, i

nstit

ute

pred

ator

con

trol

reg

imes

at e

arly

sig

ns o

f pre

dato

r pr

essu

re.

•

Population Goals

: mai

ntai

n (a

bove

min

imum

) at

3,2

00-4

,000

b.

• Habitat Goals

: Res

tore

/pro

tect

bre

edin

g ha

bita

t in

follo

win

g pr

iorit

y co

mpl

exes

: VA

-Chi

ncot

eagu

e G

roup

, Poc

omok

e S

ound

; MD

-Mid

-Che

sape

ake

Bay

; DE

-Pea

P

atch

Gro

up; N

J-N

orth

Cha

nnel

, Atla

ntic

Co

Coa

st.

Pro

tect

non

-bre

edin

g ha

bita

t in

BC

R 3

0.

10

1

GR

EA

T E

GR

ET

(Ardea alba egretta)

C

on

serv

atio

n S

tatu

s: A

bund

ance

(b=

bree

ding

, nb=

nonb

reed

ing,

t=to

tal i

ndiv

idua

ls),

Pop

ulat

ion

Impo

rtan

ce (

% r

efer

ence

pop

ulat

ion)

and

Con

serv

atio

n R

ank

Glo

bal

Nor

th A

mer

ica

BC

R 1

4 B

CR

30

Mid

-Atla

ntic

S

. New

Eng

land

G

ulf o

f Mai

ne

Mar

itim

es

550,

000

– 1,

900,

000t

>1

80,0

00b

(14-

49%

glo

bal)

4b

(<1%

NA

) 9,

142b

(5

% N

A)

8,22

2b

(90%

MA

NE

M)

818b

(9

% M

AN

EM

) 10

6b

(1%

MA

NE

M)

0b

(0%

MA

NE

M)

IUC

N-

Le

ast C

once

rn

NA

WC

P-

Low

est C

once

rn

Low

est

Con

cern

Low

est

Con

cern

NJ-

S4B

; DE

-S1B

; M

D-S

4B; V

A-S

CS

2B, S

3N

MA

NE

M F

oca

l Sp

ecie

s S

tate

SG

CN

-NJ,

DE

,MD

NY

-S2;

CT

-TS

1B,S

ZN

; R

I-S

CS

1B,S

ZN

; MA

-S1;

V

T-S

2N

Sta

te S

GC

N-N

Y,C

T,R

I

MA

-S1;

NH

-SZ

N; M

E-

S1?

B; N

B, N

S-

no in

fo

Sta

te S

GC

N-M

E

QC

-S3;

PE

- no

info

; N

B, N

S-

no in

fo

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X (X

(X

(X (X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X(X(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X(X(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X(X(X(X(X

(X (X(X

(X(X(X(X(X

(X

(X

(X(X(X

(X (X

(X(X(X

(X

(X

(X(X(X

(X

(X

(X (X(X(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X(X(X(X(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X(X(X(X(X

(X

(X(X

(X(X(X

Reg

ion

al O

ccu

rren

ce

• Distribution:

bre

eds

and

win

ters

in B

CR

30;

mig

rate

s in

B

CR

14

Reg

ion

al N

atu

ral H

isto

ry

• Nesting requirements: f

ree

from

pre

dato

rs a

nd d

istu

rban

ce;

on o

r ne

ar to

p of

tree

s or

woo

dy v

eget

atio

n or

on

top

of

vine

-sm

othe

red

tree

s; s

ubst

rate

- o

ak s

p.; h

ackb

erry

, ea

ster

n re

d ce

dar,

bay

berr

y, p

oiso

n iv

y; n

ests

aw

ay fr

om

cent

ral t

runk

; hei

ght d

epen

ds o

n su

bstr

ate

but a

ppro

x. 2

.8

to 5

m; c

ompe

titio

n fo

r ap

prop

riate

nes

t-si

tes

impo

rtan

t in

dete

rmin

ing

disp

ersi

on in

col

ony

• Arrival and egg dates: a

rriv

e la

te M

arch

to e

arly

Apr

il; e

ggs

laid

late

Apr

il to

ear

ly M

ay; e

ggs

laid

asy

nchr

onou

s;

incu

batio

n 23

to 2

7 d

•

Nestling period: y

oung

are

not

hom

othe

rmic

for

seve

ral

wee

ks a

fter

hatc

hing

.; yo

ung

can

clim

b at

21d

; fle

dge

at 6

2 to

67

d

• Broods per year: 1

bro

od p

er s

easo

n; w

ill r

enes

t if f

irst f

ails

•

Territory size: d

efen

ds n

est a

rea

(app

rox.

1 to

4 m

2 )

• Foraging requirements: t

ypic

ally

fora

ges

<6.2

mile

s fr

om

colo

ny; f

eeds

sol

itaril

y or

in a

ggre

gatio

ns; f

eeds

in w

ide

varie

ty o

f wet

land

hab

itats

: mar

shes

, sw

amps

, str

eam

s,

river

s, p

onds

, lak

es, l

agoo

ns, t

idal

flat

s, c

anal

s, d

itche

s,

fish-

rear

ing

pond

s, fl

oode

d ag

ricul

tura

l fie

lds,

sha

llow

wat

er

near

sho

re, d

ry h

abita

t •

Diet:

smal

l fis

h, in

vert

ebra

tes

esp.

cru

stac

eans

, als

o so

me

amph

ibia

ns, s

nake

s, a

nd s

mal

l mam

mal

s

• Preferred habitats used:

bre

eds

in m

arsh

es, s

wam

py

woo

ds, t

idal

est

uarie

s, la

goon

s, m

angr

oves

, and

alo

ng

stre

ams

¡ -

Bre

edin

g si

te (

Mar

-Aug

) N

on-B

reed

ing

(Sep

-Feb

)

10

2

GR

EA

T E

GR

ET

(Ardea alba egretta)

R

egio

nal

Ab

un

dan

ce

• 19

90s:

US

—9,

146b

(10

1 co

loni

es);

CA

N—

0b

• 19

70s:

US

—4,

384b

(52

col

onie

s)

• 10

9% in

crea

se in

reg

iona

l pop

ulat

ion

R

egio

nal

Th

reat

s/L

imit

ing

Fac

tors

•

Red

uctio

n in

qua

ntity

and

qua

lity

of fo

ragi

ng a

nd n

estin

g ha

bita

t •

Pre

datio

n an

d di

stur

banc

e at

nes

ting

colo

nies

•

Pes

ticid

es/c

hem

ical

con

tam

inat

ion

caus

es e

ggsh

ell t

hinn

ing

and

loss

; mer

cury

inge

stio

n ca

uses

red

uced

sur

viva

l and

impa

ired

repr

oduc

tion

• C

an a

band

on c

olon

ies

with

littl

e no

tice

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Nee

ds

• Sustainability

: 2.9

chi

cks/

nest

/yr.

•

Conservation Actions

: Pop

ulat

ions

res

pond

wel

l to

prot

ectio

n of

nes

ting

and

fora

ging

site

s an

d re

stor

atio

n of

wet

land

hab

itats

. Mon

itorin

g of

nes

ting

colo

nies

im

port

ant t

o de

term

ine

popu

latio

n st

atus

.

• Needs

: mon

itor,

ID p

oten

tial n

estin

g ar

eas

and

key

fora

ging

are

as fo

r hi

stor

ical

and

cur

rent

col

onie

s, a

nd p

rodu

ctiv

ity a

t nes

ting

colo

nies

; mon

itor

colo

nies

for

pred

ator

act

ivity

; ins

titut

e pr

edat

or c

ontr

ol r

egim

es a

t ear

ly s

igns

of p

reda

tor

pres

sure

; nee

d po

tent

ial i

ndic

ator

for

estu

arin

e m

ercu

ry c

onta

min

atio

n.

• Population Goals: m

aint

ain

(abo

ve m

inim

um)

at 8

,200

-10,

000b

.

• Habitat Goals: R

esto

re/p

rote

ct b

reed

ing

habi

tat i

n th

e fo

llow

ing

prio

rity

com

plex

es: V

A-M

ason

Cr,

Ham

pton

Gro

up; M

D-C

hinc

otea

gue

Bay

; DE

-Pea

Pat

ch

Gro

up; N

J-A

tlant

ic C

o C

oast

. P

rote

ct n

on-b

reed

ing

habi

tat i

n B

CR

30.

10

3

SN

OW

Y E

GR

ET

(Egretta thula thula)

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Sta

tus:

Abu

ndan

ce (

b=br

eedi

ng, n

b=no

nbre

edin

g, t=

tota

l ind

ivid

uals

), P

opul

atio

n Im

port

ance

(%

ref

eren

ce p

opul

atio

n) a

nd C

onse

rvat

ion

Ran

k

Glo

bal

Nor

th A

mer

ica

BC

R 1

4 B

CR

30

Mid

-Atla

ntic

S

. New

Eng

land

G

ulf o

f Mai

ne

Mar

itim

es

? >1

43,5

55b

(?%

glo

bal)

372b

(<

1% N

A)

15,4

02b

(11%

NA

) 12

,816

b (8

1% M

AN

EM

) 1,

674b

(1

1% M

AN

EM

) 1,

274b

(8

% M

AN

EM

) 10

b (<

1% M

AN

EM

)

IUC

N-

Leas

t C

once

rn

NA

WC

P-

Hig

h C

once

rn

Hig

h C

once

rn

Hig

h C

once

rn

NJ-

SC

S3B

,S4N

; DE

-S1B

; M

D-S

3S4B

; VA

-S2B

,S3N

M

AN

EM

Fo

cal S

pec

ies

Sta

te S

GC

N-N

J,D

E,M

D

NY

-S2S

3; C

T-T

S1B

,SZ

N; R

I-

SC

S1B

,SZ

N; M

A-S

1; V

T-n

o in

fo

MA

NE

M F

oca

l Sp

ecie

s S

tate

SG

CN

-NY

,CT

,RI,M

A

MA

-S1;

NH

-SZ

N; M

E-

S3B

; NB

, NS

- no

info

M

AN

EM

Fo

cal S

pec

ies

Sta

te S

GC

N-M

A,M

E

QC

-no

info

; PE

-no

info

; NB

, NS

- no

info

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S #S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S

#S

Reg

ion

al O

ccu

rren

ce

• D

istr

ibut

ion:

bre

eds

in r

egio

n; w

inte

rs in

BC

R 3

0 R

egio

nal

Nat

ura

l His

tory

•

Nesting requirements: f

ree

from

pre

dato

rs a

nd

dist

urba

nce;

req

uire

s re

lativ

ely

isol

ated

est

uarin

e si

tes-

barr

ier,

dre

dge

spoi

l and

sal

tmar

sh is

land

s; s

ubst

rate

-

thic

k ve

geta

tion,

priv

et, Phragmites,

arr

oww

ood,

bay

berr

y,

wax

myr

tle, m

arsh

eld

er, b

lack

che

rry,

Am

eric

an h

olly

, bl

ack

gum

, bla

ckbe

rry,

gre

enbr

iar,

gra

pe v

ine;

hei

ght-

grou

nd to

2 m

.

• Arrival and egg dates:

arriv

e la

te M

arch

to m

id A

pril;

eg

gs la

id m

id-A

pril;

egg

s la

id a

sync

hron

ous;

incu

batio

n 20

to

21d

. •

Nestling period: in

capa

ble

of th

erm

oreg

ulat

ion

•

Broods per year: 1

bro

od p

er s

easo

n; w

ill r

enes

t if f

irst

fails

; nes

tling

s cl

imb

at 8

to 1

2 d;

fled

ge a

ppro

x. 5

3 to

56

d.

• Territory size: i

f fee

ding

sol

itaril

y, d

efen

ds s

mal

l for

agin

g te

rrito

ries;

feed

s in

agg

rega

tions

als

o; d

efen

ds s

mal

l are

a ar

ound

nes

t app

rox.

1 to

2 m

• Foraging requirements: f

orag

ing:

1.7

mile

s fr

om c

olon

y (t

ypic

ally

<0.

87 m

iles)

; sal

t mar

sh p

ools

, tid

al c

hann

els,

fla

ts, f

resh

wat

er m

arsh

es/s

wam

ps, o

cean

inle

ts, l

ake

mar

gins

, bra

ckis

h or

mar

ine

habi

tats

with

sha

llow

wat

er

and

shor

elin

e •

Diet:

aqua

tic a

nd te

rres

tria

l ins

ects

, cra

bs, c

rust

acea

ns,

shrim

p, fr

esh

and

mar

ine

fish,

terr

estr

ial a

nd a

quat

ic

wor

ms,

frog

s, s

nake

s; fe

ed n

estli

ngs

mai

nly

fish

and

crus

tace

ans

• Preferred habitats used:

mar

shes

, lak

es, p

onds

, lag

oons

, m

angr

oves

, sha

llow

coa

stal

hab

itats

; bus

hes

and

tree

s

¡ -

Bre

edin

g si

te (

Mar

-Aug

) N

on-B

reed

ing

(Sep

-Feb

)

10

4

SN

OW

Y E

GR

ET

(Egretta thula thula), con’t.

Reg

ion

al A

bu

nd

ance

•

1990

s: U

S—

15,7

64b

(87

colo

nies

); C

AN

—10

b •

1970

s: U

S—

20,2

88b

(83

colo

nies

) •

22%

dec

reas

e in

reg

iona

l pop

ulat

ion

R

egio

nal

Th

reat

s/L

imit

ing

Fac

tors

•

Loss

/deg

rada

tion

of w

etla

nd n

estin

g an

d fo

ragi

ng h

abita

t lim

iting

in s

ome

area

s •

Pre

datio

n (e

sp. r

acco

ons)

and

dis

turb

ance

at n

estin

g co

loni

es

• C

onta

min

atio

n (o

il, p

estic

ides

)

• In

gest

ion

of p

last

ics

and

Sty

rofo

am d

ocum

ente

d C

on

serv

atio

n N

eed

s:

• Sustainability

: 3.2

chi

cks

fledg

ed/n

estin

g fe

mal

e/yr

.

• Conservation Actions

: Ren

ewed

mon

itorin

g an

d re

sear

ch d

ue to

dec

reas

ing

popu

latio

ns a

cros

s pa

rt o

f ran

ge.

Res

tore

col

ony-

site

s an

d m

aint

ain

impo

rtan

t w

inte

ring

area

s. S

peci

es r

espo

nds

wel

l to

prot

ectiv

e lis

ting

and

man

agem

ent m

easu

res.

•

Needs

: ass

ess

prod

uctiv

ity, m

onito

r si

te-s

peci

fic im

pact

s, m

anag

e di

stur

banc

e at

nes

ting

site

s, ID

pot

entia

l nes

ting

area

s an

d ke

y fo

ragi

ng a

reas

for

exis

ting

and

hist

oric

al c

olon

ies,

mon

itor

colo

nies

for

pred

ator

act

ivity

, and

inst

itute

pre

dato

r co

ntro

l reg

imes

at e

arly

sig

ns o

f pre

dato

r pr

essu

re. Population Goals

: re

stor

e (in

crea

se)

to 1

8,30

0-22

,300

b.

• Habitat Goals

: Res

tore

/pro

tect

bre

edin

g ha

bita

t in

follo

win

g pr

iorit

y co

mpl

exes

: VA

-Chi

ncot

eagu

e G

roup

, Poc

omok

e S

ound

; MD

-Mid

-Che

sape

ake

Bay

; DE

-P

ea P

atch

Gro

up, R

eedy

Isla

nds;

NJ-

Gre

at S

ound

Gro

up, L

udla

m B

ay G

roup

, Atla

ntic

Co

Coa

st; N

Y-S

tate

n Is

land

, Bro

ther

Isla

nds

Gro

up; C

T-G

reat

C

apta

in’s

, Milf

ord;

RI-

Nar

raga

nset

t Bay

; MA

-Nor

th S

hore

, Bos

ton

Har

bor,

Mon

omoy

; ME

-Sac

o B

ay, C

asco

Bay

. P

rote

ct n

on-b

reed

ing

habi

tat i

n B

CR

30.

10

5

BL

AC

K-C

RO

WN

ED

NIG

HT

-HE

RO

N (Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli)

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Sta

tus:

Abu

ndan

ce (

b=br

eedi

ng, n

b=no

nbre

edin

g, t=

tota

l ind

ivid

uals

), P

opul

atio

n Im

port

ance

(%

ref

eren

ce p

opul

atio

n) a

nd C

onse

rvat

ion

Ran

k

Glo

bal

Nor

th A

mer

ica

BC

R 1

4 B

CR

30

Mid

-Atla

ntic

S

. New

Eng

land

G

ulf o

f Mai

ne

Mar

itim

es

430,

000

– 3,

600,

000t

>5

0,00

0b

(>17

% g

loba

l) 2,

468b

(5

% N

A)

10,3

88b

(21%

NA

) 3,

808b

(3

0% M

AN

EM

) 4,

702b

(3

7% M

AN

EM

) 2,

096b

(1

6% M

AN

EM

) 2,

250b

(1

7% M

AN

EM

)

IUC

N-

Leas

t Con

cern

N

AW

CP

- M

oder

ate

Con

cern

M

oder

ate

Con

cern

M

oder

ate

Con

cern

N

J-T

S3B

,S4N

; DE

-ES

1B;M

D-

S3B

,S2N

; VA

-S2S

3B, S

4N

MA

NE

M F

oca

l Sp

ecie

s S

tate

SG

CN

-NJ,

DE

,MD

,VA

NY

-S3;

CT

-S2B

, SZ

N; R

I-S

CS

2B,

SZ

N; M

A-S

2; V

T-S

1B, S

2N

MA

NE

M F

oca

l Sp

ecie

s S

tate

SG

CN

-NY

,CT

,RI,M

A,V

T

MA

-S2;

NH

-SH

B,

SZ

N; M

E-S

CS

2B;

NB

- S

2B; N

S-

S1B

S

tate

SG

CN

-MA

,ME

QC

- S

4; N

B-

S2B

; PE

- no

info

; NS

- S

1B

MA

NE

M F

oca

l Sp

ecie

s

(X

(X(X (X (X

(X(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X(X (X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X (X

(X(X (X

(X

(X

(X(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X(X(X

(X(X(X(X(X

(X

(X(X(X(X(X

(X

(X (X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X (X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X(X(X(X

(X(X (X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X(X(X(X(X

(X

(X

(X (X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X

(X(X

(X(X

(X(X

(X

(X

(X(X(X

(X

(X(X(X

(X(X

(X(X (X(X(X(X

(X (X

Reg

ion

al O

ccu

rren

ce

• Distribution:

bre

eds

in r

egio

n; w

inte

rs in

BC

R 3

0 R

egio

nal

Nat

ura

l His

tory

o

Nesting requirements: f

ree

from

pre

dato

rs a

nd d

istu

rban

ce;

bree

ds in

tree

s in

woo

ded

area

s ne

ar w

ater

; wid

e va

riety

of

subs

trat

e us

ed-Phragmites,

poi

son

ivy,

wax

myr

tle, e

aste

rn

red

ceda

r, b

lack

che

rry,

hac

kber

ry; n

est f

rom

gro

und

to >

20

ft.; n

est n

ear

tree

trun

ks o

r fo

rks,

in th

e op

en o

r in

den

se

vege

tatio

n o

Arrival and egg dates: a

rriv

e la

te M

arch

to e

arly

Apr

il; e

ggs

laid

late

Apr

il to

ear

ly M

ay; e

ggs

laid

asy

nchr

onou

s;

incu

batio

n 24

to 2

6 d

o Nestling period:

cap

able

of t

herm

oreg

ulat

ion

at 6

d; c

an

clim

b at

18

d; fl

edge

in 4

2 to

49

d

o Broods per year: 1

bro

od p

er s

easo

n; w

ill r

enes

t if f

irst f

ails

o

Territory size: p

air

defe

nds

area

aro

und

nest

(ap

prox

. 90

to

480

cm to

nea

rest

nei

ghbo

r); a

dults

def

end

feed

ing

terr

itorie

s o

Foraging requirements: m

ay fl

y up

to 1

5 m

iles;

gra

ssy

salt

mar

sh m

ost i

mpo

rtan

t for

agin

g ar

ea; o

ther

s in

clud

e: s

hallo

w,

wee

dy p

ond

mar

gins

, cre

eks,

mar

shes

, mud

flats

, tid

al

cree

ks, d

itche

s, p

iling

s, b

oat r

iggi

ngs

o Diet:

wid

e va

riety

; opp

ortu

nist

ic; t

erre

stria

l ins

ects

and

an

imal

s, fi

sh, a

mph

ibia

ns, c

arrio

n, e

ggs,

gar

bage

; pre

date

s eg

gs a

nd n

estli

ngs

of o

ther

wat

erbi

rds

• Preferred habitats used:

wid

e va

riety

of w

etla

nd h

abita

ts

durin

g br

eedi

ng a

nd n

on-b

reed

ing

(mar

shes

, sw

amps

, po

nds,

lake

s, a

nd m

angr

oves

)

¡ -

Bre

edin

g si

te (

Mar

-Aug

) N

on-B

reed

ing

(Sep

-Feb

)

10

6

BL

AC

K-C

RO

WN

ED

NIG

HT

-HE

RO

N (Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli), con’t.

Reg

ion

al A

bu

nd

ance

•

1990

s: U

S—

10,6

06b

(101

col

onie

s); C

AN

—2,

250b

•

1970

s: U

S—

18,9

26b

(95

colo

nies

) •

44%

dec

reas

e in

US

pop

ulat

ion;

unk

now

n tr

end

in C

anad

a R

egio

nal

Th

reat

s/L

imit

ing

Fac

tors

•

Deg

rada

tion/

dest

ruct

ion

of n

estin

g an

d fo

ragi

ng a

reas

•

Mam

mal

ian

pred

atio

n •

Hum

an d

istu

rban

ce c

an in

hibi

t egg

layi

ng a

nd m

ay in

crea

se n

est a

band

onm

ent,

egg

pred

atio

n an

d ne

stlin

g m

orta

lity

• V

ulne

rabl

e to

con

tam

inan

ts

Reg

ion

al C

on

serv

atio

n N

eed

s

• Sustainability: 2

.0-2

.1yo

ung/

bree

ding

pai

r/yr

. •

Conservation Actions: D

redg

ed m

ater

ial i

slan

ds h

ave

beco

me

wid

ely

used

by

nest

ing

wad

ing

bird

s; im

plem

ent i

n ar

eas

of d

ecre

asin

g po

pula

tions

.

• Needs

: ass

ess

prod

uctiv

ity, m

onito

r; m

anag

e di

stur

banc

e at

nes

ting

site

s, m

anag

e ne

gativ

e im

pact

s w

ith o

ther

spe

cies

. •

Population Goals

: res

tore

(in

crea

se)

to 1

6,66

1-20

,363

b.

•

Habitat Goals: R

esto

re/p

rote

ct b

reed

ing

habi

tat i

n fo

llow

ing

prio

rity

com

plex

es: V

A-P

ocom

oke

Sou

nd, B

arrie

r Is

Gro

up; M

D-A

berd

een,

Mid

-Che

sape

ake

Bay

; D

E-P

ea P

atch

Gro

up; N

J-Lu

dlam

Bay

Gro

up, A

tlant

ic C

o C

oast

; NY

-Bro

ther

Isla

nds

Gro

up, S

tate

n Is

land

; CT

-Milf

ord,

Gre

at C

apta

in’s

Is; R

I-N

arra

gans

ett B

ay;

MA

-Bos

ton

Har

bor,

Mon

omoy

; NB

-Mira

mac

hi B

ay, G

rand

Man

an, F

ox; N

S-C

hann

el Is

. P

rote

ct n

on-b

reed

ing

habi

tat i

n B

CR

30.

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10

9

Sp

ecie

s P

rofi

le--

Sp

ecif

ic In

form

atio

n S

ou

rces

1 D

avis

, W. E

., Jr

. 19

93.

Bla

ck-c

row

ned

Nig

ht-H

eron

(Nycticorax nycticorax

). In

The

Bird

s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

No.

74

(A. P

oole

and

F. G

ill,

eds.

). P

hila

delp

hia:

The

Aca

dem

y of

Nat

ural

Sci

ence

s; W

ashi

ngto

n, D

.C.:

The

Am

eric

an O

rnith

olog

ists

' Uni

on.

2 D

avis

, W. E

., Jr

. and

J. K

riche

r. 2

000.

Glo

ssy

Ibis

(Plegadis falcinellus)

. In

The

Bird

s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

No.

545

(A

. Poo

le a

nd F

. Gill

, ed

s.).

The

Bird

s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

Inc.

, Phi

lade

lphi

a, P

A.

3 G

ood,

T.P

. 19

98.

Gre

at B

lack

-bac

ked

Gul

l (Larus marinus

). In

The

Bird

s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

No.

330

(A

. Poo

le a

nd F

. Gill

, eds

.).

The

B

irds

of N

orth

Am

eric

a, In

c., P

hila

delp

hia,

PA

.

4 M

cCrim

mon

, D.A

., Jr

., J.

C. O

gden

, and

G.T

. Ban

crof

t. 2

001.

Gre

at E

gret

(Ardea alba)

. In

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s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

No.

570

(A

. Poo

le

and

F. G

ill, e

ds.)

. T

he B

irds

of N

orth

Am

eric

a, In

c., P

hila

delp

hia,

PA

.

5 P

arso

ns, K

.C. a

nd T

. L. M

aste

r. 2

000.

Sno

wy

Egr

et (Egretta thula)

. In

The

Bird

s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

No.

489

(A

. Poo

le a

nd F

. Gill

, eds

.).

The

Bird

s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

Inc.

, Phi

lade

lphi

a, P

A.

6 P

iero

tti, R

.J. a

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. Goo

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994.

Her

ring

Gul

l (Larus argentatus

). In

The

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s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

No.

124

(A

. Poo

le a

nd F

. Gill

, eds

.).

Phi

lade

lphi

a: T

he A

cade

my

of N

atur

al S

cien

ces;

Was

hing

ton,

D.C

.: T

he A

mer

ican

Orn

ithol

ogis

ts' U

nion

.

7 R

odge

rs, J

.A.,

Jr.,

and

H.T

. Sm

ith.

1995

. Li

ttle

Blu

e H

eron

(Egretta caerulea)

. In

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Bird

s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

No.

145

(A

. Poo

le a

nd F

. G

ill, e

ds.)

. T

he A

cade

my

of N

atur

al S

cien

ces,

Phi

lade

lphi

a, P

A a

nd T

he A

mer

ican

Orn

ithol

ogis

ts' U

nion

, Was

hing

ton,

D.C

.

8 W

atts

, B.D

. 19

95.

Yel

low

-cro

wne

d N

ight

-Her

on (Nyctasnassa violacea)

. In T

he B

irds

of N

orth

Am

eric

a, N

o. 1

61 (

A. P

oole

and

F. G

ill,

eds.

). T

he A

cade

my

of N

atur

al S

cien

ces,

Phi

lade

lphi

a, a

nd T

he A

mer

ican

Orn

ithol

ogis

ts' U

nion

, Was

hing

ton,

D.C

.

9 H

anco

ck, J

. and

J. A

. Kus

hlan

. T

he H

eron

s H

andb

ook.

New

Yor

k: H

arpe

r &

Row

Pub

lishe

rs; 1

984.

10

Wat

erbi

rd M

onito

ring

Par

tner

ship

, of t

he W

ater

bird

s fo

r th

e A

mer

icas

Initi

ativ

e. U

nite

d S

tate

s G

eolo

gica

l Sur

vey,

Pat

uxen

t Wild

life

Res

earc

h C

ente

r. 2

001.

http

://w

ww

.mp2

-pw

rc.u

sgs.

gov/

cwb/

11

Wet

land

s In

tern

atio

nal.

200

2. W

ater

bird

Pop

ulat

ion

Est

imat

es -

Thi

rd E

ditio

n. W

etla

nds

Inte

rnat

iona

l Glo

bal S

erie

s N

o. 1

2, W

agen

inge

n,

The

Net

herla

nds.

11

0

AP

PE

ND

IX F

- N

atur

al H

isto

ry In

form

atio

n of

Des

ired

Avi

an S

peci

es O

ccur

ring

at th

e S

ite

(SE

E L

EG

EN

D A

ND

SO

UR

CE

S IN

AP

PE

ND

IX E

)

GL

OS

SY

IBIS

(Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus)

C

on

serv

atio

n S

tatu

s: A

bund

ance

(b=

bree

ding

, nb=

nonb

reed

ing,

t=to

tal i

ndiv

idua

ls),

Pop

ulat

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Impo

rtan

ce (

% r

efer

ence

pop

ulat

ion)

and

Con

serv

atio

n R

ank

Glo

bal

Nor

th A

mer

ica

BC

R 1

4 B

CR

30

Mid

-Atla

ntic

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. New

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land

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ulf o

f Mai

ne

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itim

es

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bal)

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% N

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) 9,

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7% M

AN

EM

) 1,

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EM

) 38

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MA

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M)

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(<1%

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NE

M)

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t Con

cern

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AW

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NJ-

S3B

, S4N

; DE

- S

1B;

MD

-S4B

; VA

-SC

S2B

, S1N

M

AN

EM

Fo

cal S

pec

ies

Sta

te S

GC

N-N

J,D

E,M

D,V

A

NY

-S2;

CT

-SC

S1B

, SZ

N; R

I-

SC

S1B

, SZ

N; M

A-S

1; V

T-n

a M

AN

EM

Fo

cal S

pec

ies

Sta

te S

GC

N-N

Y,C

T,R

I

MA

-S1;

NH

-SZ

N;

ME

-S2B

; NB

, NS

–

no in

fo

Sta

te S

GC

N-M

E

QC

-SN

; PE

I- n

o in

fo;

NB

, NS

- no

info

#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S #S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S#S #S

#S

#S

#S #S#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

Reg

ion

al O

ccu

rren

ce

• D

istr

ibut

ion:

bre

eds

and

mig

rate

s in

BC

R 3

0 R

egio

nal

Nat

ura

l His

tory

•

Nesting requirements: f

ree

from

pre

dato

rs a

nd

dist

urba

nce;

ofte

n ne

sts

far

from

feed

ing

area

s; g

ener

ally

in

den

ser

vege

tatio

n; s

ubst

rate

- A

mer

ican

hol

ly, r

ed

ceda

r, b

aybe

rry,

bla

ck c

herr

y, s

umac

, sha

dbus

h,

arro

ww

ood,

hig

hbus

h bl

uebe

rry,

Phragmites,

sal

twat

er

myr

tle, V

irgin

ia c

reep

er, w

ild g

rape

, cat

brie

r; n

est h

eigh

t gr

ound

to 3

m

• Arrival and egg dates: a

rriv

e m

id to

late

Apr

il; e

ggs

laid

la

te A

pril

to e

arly

May

; inc

ubat

ion

21d

•

Nestling period: c

apab

le o

f the

rmor

egul

atio

n at

XX

Xd;

yo

ung

can

clim

b at

8d;

crè

che

(for

m a

ggre

gatio

ns in

ne

stin

g ar

ea)

with

oth

er n

estli

ngs

at 1

4d; f

ledg

e at

42d

•

Broods per year: 1

bro

od p

er s

easo

n; w

ill r

enes

t if f

irst

fails

•

Territory size: n

ot k

now

n to

def

end

fora

ging

are

as; w

ill

defe

nd n

est t

o ap

prox

imat

ely

3m

• Foraging requirements: t

actil

e fo

rage

r; g

ener

ally

pre

fers

sh

allo

wer

wat

er; s

omet

imes

in fl

oode

d, ir

rigat

ed o

r dr

y fie

lds,

ric

e fie

lds,

sha

llow

wat

ers

of la

kes,

lago

ons,

de

ltas,

riv

ers,

est

uarie

s an

d se

wag

e po

nds

• Diet:

inve

rteb

rate

s, a

quat

ic b

eetle

s, s

mal

l mol

lusk

s su

ch

as m

usse

ls a

nd c

lam

s,

• Preferred habitats used:

mar

shes

, sw

amps

, lag

oons

, and

la

kes;

bre

eds

in tr

ees

in w

oode

d ar

eas

near

wat

er,

part

icul

arly

on

isla

nds

¡ -

Bre

edin

g si

te (

Mar

-Aug

)

11

1

GL

OS

SY

IBIS

(Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus), con’t.

Reg

ion

al A

bu

nd

ance

• 19

90s:

US

—11

,288

b (6

9 co

loni

es);

CA

N—

2b

• 19

70s:

US

—10

,882

b (6

1 co

loni

es)

• 4%

incr

ease

in r

egio

nal p

opul

atio

n

Reg

ion

al T

hre

ats/

Lim

itin

g F

acto

rs

• H

abita

t deg

rada

tion/

loss

due

to d

rain

age

and

terr

ain

alte

ratio

ns

• U

natte

nded

nes

ts s

usce

ptib

le to

pre

datio

n by

cro

ws

and

othe

r sp

ecie

s •

Dis

turb

ance

(i.e

. hum

an r

ecre

atio

n) a

t nes

ting

colo

nies

•

Pes

ticid

es, o

il sp

ills

• S

ever

e w

eath

er

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Nee

ds:

•

Sustainability

: 1.3

nes

tling

s/ne

st/y

r.

• Conservation Actions

: Inc

reas

ed in

tere

st in

wet

land

s pr

eser

vatio

n be

nefit

s po

pula

tions

; mai

ntai

n an

d pr

otec

t the

se d

iver

se h

abita

ts a

s ke

y to

ibis

con

serv

atio

n.

• Needs

: mon

itor,

man

age

dist

urba

nce

at n

estin

g si

tes.

•

Regional Population Goals

: res

tore

(in

crea

se)

to 9

,900

-12,

100b

.

• Habitat Goals

: Res

tore

/pro

tect

hab

itat i

n fo

llow

ing

prio

rity

com

plex

es: V

A-C

hinc

otea

gue

Gro

up, P

ocom

oke

Sou

nd; M

D-C

hinc

otea

gue

Bay

; DE

-Pea

Pat

ch Is

G

roup

; NJ-

Ludl

am B

ay G

roup

, Atla

ntic

Co

Coa

st.

11

2

YE

LL

OW

-CR

OW

NE

D N

IGH

T H

ER

ON

(Nyctanassa violacea violacea)

C

on

serv

atio

n S

tatu

s: A

bund

ance

(b=

bree

ding

, nb=

nonb

reed

ing,

t=to

tal i

ndiv

idua

ls),

Pop

ulat

ion

Impo

rtan

ce (

% r

efer

ence

pop

ulat

ion)

and

Con

serv

atio

n R

ank

Glo

bal

Nor

th A

mer

ica

BC

R 1

4 B

CR

30

Mid

-Atla

ntic

S

. New

Eng

land

G

ulf o

f Mai

ne

Mar

itim

es

85,0

00 –

16

0,00

0t

50,0

00 –

100

,000

b (8

8-94

% g

loba

l) 0b

(0

% N

A)

1,62

0b

(2-3

% N

A)

1,59

2b

(98%

MA

NE

M)

28b

(2%

MA

NE

M)

0b

(0%

MA

NE

M)

0b

(0%

MA

NE

M)

IUC

N-

Leas

t C

once

rn

NA

WC

P-

Mod

erat

e C

once

rn

M

oder

ate

Con

cern

NJ-

TS

2B; D

E-E

S1B

; M

D-S

2B; V

A-S

CS

2B, S

3N

MA

NE

M F

oca

l Sp

ecie

s S

tate

SG

CN

-NJ,

DE

,MD

,VA

NY

-S2;

CT

-SC

S1B

,SZ

N; R

I-

SC

S1B

,S1N

; MA

-S1;

VT

-no

info

S

tate

SG

CN

-NY

,CT

,RI

MA

-S1;

NH

-no

info

; M

E-n

o in

fo; N

B, N

S-

no

info

QC

-no

info

; PE

-no

info

; NB

, NS

- no

in

fo

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S #S#S#S#S#S#S

#S

#S#S#S #S

#S

#S#S#S#S

#S

#S#S#S

#S

#S#S#S

#S#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S#S

#S#S

#S

#S #S#S #S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S#S #S#S

#S#S#S

#S #S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S#S#S#S #S#S

Reg

ion

al O

ccu

rren

ce

• D

istr

ibut

ion:

bre

eds

and

mig

rate

s in

BC

R 3

0 R

egio

nal

Nat

ura

l His

tory

•

Nesting requirements: f

ree

from

pre

dato

rs a

nd d

istu

rban

ce;

• Arrival and egg dates: a

rriv

es

• Nestling period: c

apab

le o

f the

rmor

egul

atio

n at

XX

Xd;

•

Broods per year: 1

bro

od p

er s

easo

n; w

ill r

enes

t if f

irst f

ails

•

Territory size:

• Foraging requirements: f

orag

es a

long

wat

er m

argi

ns

incl

udin

g tid

al m

arsh

es, t

ide

pool

s, m

udfla

ts, b

each

es,

rock

y sh

orel

ines

, pon

ds, r

iver

s an

d cr

eeks

(0.

3-0.

87 m

iles

fora

ging

dis

tanc

e); s

hallo

w w

ater

s in

tida

l cre

eks,

sur

f, sw

amps

and

man

grov

es; o

ccas

iona

lly in

upl

and

site

s (i.

e.

plow

ed fi

elds

, law

ns);

will

use

hum

an m

ade

aqua

tic h

abita

t lik

e sh

rimp

farm

s an

d se

wag

e tr

eatm

ent p

lant

s; p

refe

r m

arsh

es d

omin

ated

with

cor

dgra

ss n

ear

nest

site

s •

Diet:

• Preferred habitats used:

mar

shes

, sw

amps

, lak

es, l

agoo

ns,

and

man

grov

es; b

reed

s in

tree

s in

woo

ded

area

s ne

ar

wat

er

¡ -

Bre

edin

g si

te (

Mar

-Aug

)

11

3

Reg

ion

al A

bu

nd

ance

•

1990

s: U

S—

1,62

0b (

46 c

olon

ies)

•

1970

s: U

S—

512b

(31

col

onie

s)

• 21

6% in

crea

se in

reg

iona

l pop

ulat

ion

R

egio

nal

Th

reat

s/L

imit

ing

Fac

tors

•

Deg

rada

tion/

loss

of w

etla

nd n

estin

g an

d fo

ragi

ng h

abita

t •

Pre

datio

n at

nes

ting

colo

nies

•

Hum

an d

istu

rban

ce a

t nes

ting

colo

nies

•

Pes

ticid

es a

nd o

ther

env

ironm

enta

l con

tam

inan

ts lo

wer

rep

rodu

ctiv

e su

cces

s C

on

serv

atio

n N

eed

s:

• Sustainability

: 3.6

fled

ged/

nest

/yr.

•

Conservation Actions

: No

curr

ent m

anag

emen

t act

ions

; edu

catio

nal p

rogr

ams

initi

ated

to r

educ

e co

nflic

ts in

res

iden

tial a

reas

.

• Needs

: ID

nes

ting

site

s, m

onito

r, m

edia

te c

onfli

cts

with

pub

lic.

•

Population Goals

: mai

ntai

n (a

bove

min

imum

) at

1,6

00-1

,800

b.

• Habitat Goals

: Res

tore

/pro

tect

bre

edin

g ha

bita

t in

follo

win

g pr

iorit

y co

mpl

exes

: VA

-Poc

omok

e S

ound

, Ham

pton

Gro

up, C

hinc

otea

gue

Gro

up; M

D-M

id-

Che

sape

ake

Bay

; DE

-Pea

Pat

ch G

roup

; NJ-

Atla

ntic

Co

Coa

st.

11

4

Am

eric

an O

yste

rcat

cher

(Haematopus palliates)

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Sta

tus:

Abu

ndan

ce (

b=br

eedi

ng, n

b=no

nbre

edin

g, t=

tota

l ind

ivid

uals

), P

opul

atio

n Im

port

ance

(%

ref

eren

ce p

opul

atio

n) a

nd C

onse

rvat

ion

Ran

k

Glo

bal

Nor

th A

mer

ica

BC

R 1

4 B

CR

30

Nor

ther

n A

tlant

ic

34,0

00-

110,

000

Pop

ulat

ion=

11,0

00nb

i (

NA

) (

NA

) 3,

248b

; Con

tain

s hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of th

e br

eedi

ng p

opul

atio

n; r

egio

n is

ext

rem

ely

impo

rtan

t to

the

spec

ies

rela

tive

to th

e m

ajor

ity o

f oth

er r

egio

ns

IUC

N-

Leas

t C

once

rn

US

Sho

rebi

rd P

lan-

S

peci

es o

f Hig

h C

once

rn

NB

, NS

-; Q

C-;

PE

- ;M

A-;

NH

-; M

E-;

NB

, NS

- ; N

Y-;

CT

-SC

; RI-

; M

A-;

VT

-; N

J- ;

DE

-; M

D-;

VA

-; S

tate

SG

CN

-

Reg

ion

al O

ccu

rren

ce

• D

istr

ibut

ion:

bre

eds

in B

CR

30;

win

ters

in B

CR

30

Reg

ion

al N

atu

ral H

isto

ry

• Nesting requirements: f

lat a

reas

abo

ve th

e hi

gh w

ater

mar

k;

pref

ers

area

s w

ith li

ttle

or n

o ve

geta

tion

and

open

san

d,

shel

l, tid

al w

rack

, or

grav

el; n

est i

s a

shal

low

scr

ape.

•

Arrival and egg dates: a

rriv

es la

te M

arch

to e

arly

Apr

il; e

ggs

laid

late

Apr

il to

ear

ly M

ay; i

ncub

atio

n 24

to 2

7 d.

•

Nestling period:

chi

cks

prec

ocia

l; ru

n w

ithin

hou

rs o

f ha

tchi

ng; C

hick

s de

pend

ent o

n ad

ults

for

food

up

to 6

0 d;

fle

dgin

g at

35

d.

• Broods per year: 1

bro

od p

er s

easo

n; p

ossi

bly

rene

st if

firs

t fa

ils

• Territory size: d

efen

d ar

ea a

roun

d ne

st –

nes

t den

sitie

s ra

nge

from

0.7

pai

rs/h

a to

13

pairs

/ha.

•

Foraging requirements: f

orag

es 0

.6-1

.2 m

iles

from

you

ng a

t in

tert

idal

san

d or

mud

flat

s, o

yste

r or

mus

sel r

eefs

; fee

ds

alon

g re

cedi

ng ti

de; s

hellf

ish

beds

whe

n sh

ellfi

sh a

re s

till

subm

erge

d.

• Diet:

biva

lves

, mol

lusk

s, w

orm

s.

• Preferred habitats used:

bre

eds

in m

arsh

isla

nds,

upl

and

dune

, bea

ch, d

redg

e sp

oil,

and

rock

y sh

orel

ines

.

Imag

e fr

om: S

chul

te, S

., S

. Bro

wn,

and

the

Am

eric

an O

yste

rcat

cher

W

orki

ng G

roup

. 200

6. V

ersi

on 1

.0. A

mer

ican

Oys

terc

atch

er

Con

serv

atio

n P

lan

for

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

Atla

ntic

and

Gul

f Coa

sts.

Th

e d

istr

ibu

tio

n a

nd

ab

un

dan

ce o

f A

mer

ican

Oys

terc

atch

ers

win

teri

ng

in t

he

Eas

tern

U

nit

ed S

tate

s as

mea

sure

d w

ith

aer

ial s

urv

eys

in w

inte

r 20

02-2

003.

11

5

Am

eric

an O

yste

rcat

cher

(Haematopus palliates), con’t.

Reg

ion

al A

bu

nd

ance

b •

1990

s: U

S—

7,50

0 w

ith m

oder

ate

conf

iden

ce e

stim

ate

R

egio

nal

Th

reat

s/L

imit

ing

Fac

tors

•

Coa

stal

bea

ch n

estin

g ha

bita

t gre

atly

red

uced

and

at r

isk

• In

trod

uced

pre

dato

rs o

n is

land

s •

Hum

an d

istu

rban

ce o

f nes

ting

bird

s •

Flo

odin

g of

nes

ting

area

s du

e to

hig

her

than

ave

rage

tide

s

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Nee

ds:

•

Sustainability

: ? fl

edgl

ings

/suc

cess

ful n

est/y

r.

• Conservation Actions

: bas

ed o

n lo

cal/r

egio

nal n

eeds

. •

Needs: m

onito

r po

pula

tions

to d

eter

min

e po

pula

tion

tren

ds, p

rote

ctio

n ef

fort

s ne

ed to

focu

s on

bre

edin

g an

d fo

ragi

ng h

abita

t, co

nstr

uctio

n of

art

ifici

al n

estin

g pl

atfo

rms

in a

reas

whe

re h

igh

tides

are

a p

robl

em, p

reve

nt p

ollu

tion

of s

hellf

ish

beds

, ins

titut

e pr

edat

or c

ontr

ol r

egim

es a

t ear

ly s

igns

of p

reda

tor

pres

sure

.

• Population Goals

: und

eter

min

ed.

Fro

m :

Bro

wn,

S.,

C. H

icke

y, B

. Har

ringt

on, a

nd R

. Gill

s, e

ds.

2001

. T

he U

. S. S

hore

bird

Pla

n, 2

nd e

d. M

anom

et C

ente

r fo

r C

onse

rvat

ion

Sci

ence

s, M

anom

et, M

A;

Nol

, E. a

nd R

. C. H

umph

rey.

199

4. A

mer

ican

Oys

terc

atch

er (Haematopus palliatus)

. In

The

Bird

s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

No.

570

(A

. Poo

le a

nd F

. Gill

s, e

ds.)

. The

Bird

s of

Nor

th A

mer

ica,

Inc.

, Phi

lade

lphi

a, P

A;

The

IUC

N R

ed L

ist o

f Thr

eate

ned

Spe

cies

, ww

w.iu

cnre

dlis

t.org

116

Appendix G - Great Captains Island Volunteer Outreach Program: Sample Intern Job Description OUTREACH - Staff a visitor encounter station by the DEP interpretive sign along the road

leading from the main island to the rookery and lighthouse portions of the island.

- Inform/ask visitors about their knowledge of the heron / egret rookery - Set up spotting scope to offer view(s) of nesting herons and egrets - Offer information and handout(s) about the rookery and its importance in the greater NYC and

Long Island Sound regions - Explain how visitors can help to prevent harm to the nesting egrets

a) remaining quiet b) staying on path c) not traveling in large groups

- Inform visitors about the importance of foraging areas along both the NY and CT shorelines and the need to preserve them and protect water quality - Keep record of numbers of visitors encountered / contacted - Gather names, addresses of persons interested in more information about the rookery, Audubon Greenwich, volunteering, etc. Equipment / Materials needed: - binoculars for scanning the rookery area - spotting scope for public viewing (possible extra pair(s) of binoculars?) - field guide(s) to birds (and coastal organisms?) - looseleaf notebook with laminated pages providing information about the rookery, pictures of nesting herons and egrets, map of foraging areas, food web chart showing variety of foods used by herons and egrets, DEP fact sheets about each of the heron and egret species and their status in CT, information on Harbor Herons Project in NYC area - possible display board presenting highlights of information in notebook - handout sheets to give to visitors - DEP fact sheets - Information sheet about the Great Captains Island Rookery and foraging areas - Audubon Greenwich materials - cell phone for emergency contacts? - aluminum lawn chair - shady location nearby for shelter from sun and heat - possible observation blind in shaded area along W. side of tidal basin to permit longer term observation by visitors out of sun and out of view of herons

11

7

Ap

pen

dix

H -

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Go

als,

Co

nce

rns/

Th

reat

s an

d R

eco

mm

end

atio

ns

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Go

als

Go

al

Act

ion

R

elev

ant

Rep

ort

Sec

tio

n/A

ctio

n

1. In

corp

orat

e m

anag

emen

t act

ions

with

in th

e C

onse

rvat

ion

Are

a to

sup

port

an

endu

ring

and

heal

thy

bree

ding

pop

ulat

ion

of w

adin

g bi

rds

Car

ry o

ut th

e M

anag

emen

t and

R

esea

rch

actio

ns in

Sec

tion

9 S

ectio

n4.4

; Man

agem

ent A

ctio

ns in

S

ectio

ns 9

.1.1

and

9.1

.2; R

esea

rch

Act

ions

in 9

.2.1

2.

Fos

ter

com

mun

icat

ion

amon

g st

akeh

olde

rs in

or

der

to e

ncou

rage

bes

t man

agem

ent p

ract

ices

th

at w

ill s

uppo

rt th

e w

adin

g bi

rd c

olon

y as

wel

l as

inte

grat

e th

e is

land

’s m

ultiu

se o

bjec

tives

Car

ry o

ut C

omm

unic

atio

n an

d A

ctio

n in

Sec

tion

9.3

S

ectio

n 3.

1; S

ectio

n 6;

Com

mun

icat

ion

Act

ions

in S

ectio

n 9.

3

3. D

evel

op a

rob

ust e

duca

tion

com

pone

nt th

at

deliv

ers,

to s

take

hold

ers,

man

ager

s, a

nd th

e pu

blic

, the

impo

rtan

ce o

f and

enc

oura

ges

owne

rshi

p in

this

uni

que

hero

nry

and

asso

ciat

ed

impo

rtan

t for

agin

g ar

eas

Car

ry o

ut E

duca

tion

Act

ion

in S

ectio

n 9.

4 S

ectio

n 6;

Edu

catio

n A

ctio

ns in

Sec

tion

9.4

4. Im

prov

e th

e pr

otec

tion

and

heal

th o

f the

ove

rall

fora

ging

are

a ha

bita

t C

reat

e ed

ucat

iona

l mat

eria

ls w

ith

publ

ic to

cre

ate

an a

war

enes

s th

at a

he

alth

y w

ater

shed

sta

rts

in o

ne’s

ow

n ya

rd a

nd fo

ster

com

mun

icat

ion

with

th

e co

mm

unity

to e

ncou

rage

pr

otec

tion

for

fora

ging

hab

itat a

nd fo

r fo

rage

rs

Man

agem

ent A

ctio

ns in

Sec

tion

9.1.

4;

Res

earc

h A

ctio

ns in

Sec

tion

9.2.

4.,

Com

mun

icat

ion

Act

ions

9.3

.1.1

, 9.3

.1.2

; E

duca

tion

Act

ion

9.4.

12 (

#4, 5

, 6, 8

, 9,

10, 1

2, 1

3, 1

4, 1

5, 1

6, 1

7)

5. E

stab

lish

inve

ntor

y, m

onito

ring,

and

res

earc

h pr

ogra

ms

to a

ddre

ss th

e ga

ps in

info

rmat

ion

on

wild

life

spec

ies

othe

r th

an th

e ta

rget

spe

cies

, to

mea

sure

the

succ

ess

of m

anag

emen

t act

ions

, and

in

vest

igat

e qu

estio

ns r

egar

ding

the

targ

et s

peci

es,

thei

r m

anag

emen

t, as

wel

l as

othe

r w

ildlif

e sp

ecie

s

Con

duct

an

isla

nd in

vent

ory

and

carr

y ou

t Mon

itorin

g A

ctio

ns

Man

agem

ent A

ctio

ns in

Sec

tions

9.2

.2,

Mon

itorin

g A

ctio

n 9.

2.3.

5, a

nd F

orag

ing

Are

a R

esea

rch

9.2.

4.3

11

8

Co

nse

rvat

ion

Co

nce

rns

or

Th

reat

s

Co

nce

rn/T

hre

at

Res

olu

tio

n

Rel

evan

t R

epo

rt S

ecti

on

/Act

ion

HU

MA

N D

IST

UR

BA

NC

E

1. H

uman

dis

turb

ance

at n

estin

g ar

ea

Red

uce

hum

an d

istu

rban

ce b

y ei

ther

cl

osin

g th

e C

onse

rvat

ion

side

of t

he

isla

nd fr

om M

arch

to A

ugus

t or

supe

rvis

ing

and

limiti

ng th

e gr

oups

of

peop

le a

cces

sing

the

area

dur

ing

the

nest

ing

seas

on.

Sec

tion

5, S

ectio

n 9.

1.1

2. D

istu

rban

ce o

n fo

ragi

ng a

reas

E

duca

tion

with

in c

omm

unity

and

cr

eatio

n of

fora

ging

san

ctua

ries

Sec

tion

5; A

ctio

n 9.

1.1.

5 an

d 9.

1.4.

1

PR

ED

AT

ION

2.

Pre

datio

n by

gro

und

or a

eria

l pre

dato

rs

Res

earc

h pr

edat

ion

effe

cts

by g

roun

d an

d ae

rial p

reda

tors

; rem

ove

pred

ator

s if

war

rant

ed

Sec

tion

; Act

ion

9.1.

2 (9

.1.2

.1, 9

.1.2

.2,

9.1.

2.3)

HA

BIT

AT

IMP

AC

TS

3.

Hab

itat a

ltera

tion

incl

udin

g al

tera

tion

of is

land

an

d fo

ragi

ng a

reas

due

to s

ea-le

vel r

ise

Bi-r

egio

nal a

ppro

ach

to fo

ragi

ng a

rea

man

agem

ent a

nd p

rocu

rem

ent o

f la

nds

with

hig

h po

tent

ial t

o be

com

e th

e w

etla

nds

of th

e fu

ture

Sec

tion

5; A

ctio

n 9.

1.3.

2, 9

.2.4

.5

4. D

ecre

ase

of n

estin

g ha

bita

t and

/or

chan

ges

in

suita

ble

habi

tat

Mon

itor

and

map

isla

nd v

eget

atio

n;

dete

rmin

e an

y lo

ss o

f hab

itat;

crea

te

caut

ious

ly c

reat

e su

itabl

e ha

bita

t if

nece

ssar

y

Sec

tion

5; M

anag

emen

t Act

ion

9.1.

3.1,

R

esea

rch

Act

ion

9.2.

1.1,

Mon

itorin

g A

ctio

n 9.

2.3.

2

4. H

abita

t alte

ratio

n in

clud

ing

alte

ratio

n du

e to

A

sian

Lon

ghor

ned

Bee

tle m

anag

emen

t C

omm

unic

ate

with

US

DA

_AP

HIS

ab

out t

he im

port

ance

of t

his

isla

nd a

nd

dete

rmin

e if

alte

rnat

e ha

bita

t m

anag

emen

t str

ateg

ies

exis

t in

the

even

t of a

pes

t out

brea

k on

the

isla

nd

Com

mun

icat

ion

Act

ion

9.3.

2.1

11

9

LA

ND

SC

AP

E S

CA

LE

HA

BIT

AT

IMP

AC

TS

5.

Red

uctio

n in

alte

rnat

ive

nest

ing

area

s E

valu

ate

the

feas

ibili

ty o

f alte

rnat

ive

nest

isla

nds

such

as

Cal

f Isl

and

and

enha

nce

if ne

cess

ary

Res

earc

h A

ctio

n 9.

2.4.

2

6. R

educ

tion

in q

ualit

y fo

ragi

ng a

reas

F

orm

a b

iore

gion

al m

anag

emen

t te

am; r

esea

rch

of c

urre

nt fo

ragi

ng

area

s m

ay id

entif

y ga

ps in

qua

lity

Res

earc

h A

ctio

n 9.

2.4.

1, 9

.2.4

.3, 9

.2.4

.4,

9.2.

4.5;

Com

mun

icat

ion

Act

ion

9.3.

1.1

and

9.3.

1.2

7. Im

pact

s of

pes

ticid

e/ch

emic

al c

onta

min

atio

n R

esea

rch

into

exp

osur

e of

wad

ing

bird

s to

con

tam

inan

ts fo

und

on

fora

ging

are

as a

nd in

pre

y ite

ms;

re

duce

inpu

t of c

onta

min

ants

into

sy

stem

Res

earc

h A

ctio

n 9.

2.4.

1, 9

.2.4

.3, 9

.2.4

.4;

Edu

catio

n A

ctio

n 9.

4.1.

2 -

#16

and

#17

8. C

oast

al d

evel

opm

ent

Cre

ate

ince

ntiv

es fo

r co

asta

l la

ndow

ners

to r

esto

re a

nd p

rote

ct th

eir

beac

h fr

onts

or

wet

land

s;

com

mun

icat

e w

ith th

e P

lann

ing

and

Zon

ing

Boa

rds

the

impo

rtan

ce o

f he

alth

y w

etla

nds;

cre

ate

par

tner

ship

s to

acq

uire

rem

aini

ng c

oast

al

prop

ertie

s

Man

agem

ent A

ctio

n 9.

1.4.

2

12

0

9.1

Man

agem

ent

Rec

om

men

dat

ion

s

Rec

om

men

dat

ion

P

rio

rity

Lev

el

Co

mm

ents

/Info

rmat

ion

So

urc

es/C

on

tact

s (r

elev

ant

rep

ort

sec

tio

n)

9.1.1 Human disturbance

9.1.

1.1

Clo

sure

of e

aste

rn c

onse

rvat

ion

area

to

visi

tors

Hig

h

Red

uctio

n of

hum

an d

istu

rban

ce is

prio

rity

for

CT

DE

P a

nd

Aud

ubon

sin

ce th

e co

lony

is d

eclin

ing.

S

take

hold

ers:

Tow

n P

arks

and

Rec

reat

ion

(Joe

Sic

liano

),

Con

serv

atio

n C

omm

issi

on (

Den

ise

Sav

agea

u), A

udub

on

Con

nect

icut

(P

atric

k C

omin

s), A

udub

on G

reen

wic

h (T

om

Bap

tist)

and

CT

DE

P (

Jenn

y D

icks

on a

nd/o

r Ju

lie V

icto

ria)

Optional actions 9.1.1.1A & 9.1.1.1B

Opt

iona

l act

ions

are

rec

omm

ende

d if

the

Tow

n co

nsid

ers

Act

ion

9.1.

1.1

to b

e in

con

flict

with

the

isla

nd’s

mul

tiuse

m

anag

emen

t obj

ectiv

es; h

owev

er, a

ll op

tions

sho

uld

be

carr

ied

out t

o be

st m

inim

ize

dist

urba

nce.

9.1.

1.1A

Res

tric

t acc

ess

and

enfo

rce

buffe

r zo

nes

arou

nd k

ey n

estin

g ar

eas

on th

e co

nser

vatio

n si

de o

f th

e is

land

H

igh

Req

uire

s di

scus

sion

with

sta

keho

lder

s as

abo

ve.

Fun

ding

: re

quire

d fo

r bu

ffer

of fe

nces

and

tree

s. T

own

to

cons

truc

t and

fund

. M

ay b

e ab

le to

get

ass

ista

nce

from

Boy

S

cout

s. A

udub

on G

reen

wic

h m

ay b

e ab

le to

get

don

atio

ns

of tr

ees

from

loca

l nur

serie

s.

9.1.

1.1B

Lim

it vi

sito

r gr

oup

size

Hig

h

Req

uire

s di

scus

sion

with

sta

keho

lder

s as

abo

ve.

9.1.

1.2

Pos

tpon

e m

owin

g in

con

serv

atio

n ar

ea

Hig

h S

take

hold

ers:

Tow

n P

arks

and

Rec

reat

ion

(Joe

Sic

liano

, C

raig

Whi

tcom

b) a

nd C

onse

rvat

ion

Com

mis

sion

(D

enis

e S

avag

eau)

.

Optional Action 9.1.1.2A

9.1.

1.2A

Con

duct

mow

ing

on a

lim

ited

basi

s

Sta

keho

lder

s: T

own

Par

ks a

nd R

ecre

atio

n an

d C

onse

rvat

ion

Com

mis

sion

as

abov

e.

12

1

9.1.

1.3

Incr

ease

sig

nage

aro

und

the

isla

nd

Hig

h

Sta

keho

lder

s: C

TD

EP

for

“Bird

nes

ting”

sig

ns a

nd T

own

Par

ks a

nd R

ecre

atio

n an

d C

onse

rvat

ion

Com

mis

sion

. F

undi

ng: $

400

to $

800

per

kios

k pa

nel a

nd k

iosk

s ar

e us

ually

2 to

4 p

anel

s (a

s pe

r N

YD

EC

). T

he T

own

Par

ks a

nd

Rec

reat

ion,

Con

serv

atio

n C

omm

issi

on, A

udub

on

Con

nect

icut

, and

McK

inne

y R

efug

e m

ay b

e ab

le to

co

llabo

rate

and

des

ign

kios

ks in

tern

ally

.

9.1.

1.4

Enf

orce

acc

ess

deci

sion

s w

ith a

sea

sona

l in

tern

/bio

logi

cal t

echn

icia

n/ed

ucat

or

Hig

h

Sta

keho

lder

s: A

udub

on G

reen

wic

h an

d T

own

Par

ks a

nd

Rec

reat

ion

and

Con

serv

atio

n C

omm

issi

on.

Fun

ding

: P

ossi

ble

for

Aud

ubon

Gre

enw

ich

to fu

nd s

easo

nal

and

co-s

uper

vise

with

Tow

n P

arks

and

Rec

reat

ion

and

Con

serv

atio

n C

omm

issi

on.

Aud

ubon

to p

rovi

de tr

aini

ng,

rese

arch

mat

eria

ls, h

ousi

ng o

ff-si

te; T

own

to p

rovi

de

tran

spor

tatio

n, w

orks

pace

on

the

isla

nd, a

nd a

ssis

t with

ot

her

mat

eria

ls.

9.1.2 Predator effects and monitoring

9.1.

2.1.

Rac

coon

and

mus

telid

s H

igh

Con

duct

ed b

y is

land

mai

nten

ance

per

son

or s

easo

nal

inte

rn/w

arde

n/re

sear

cher

/edu

cato

r (A

ctio

n 9.

1.1.

4)

Dis

cuss

pos

sibi

litie

s w

ith P

arks

and

Rec

reat

ion

and

Con

serv

atio

n C

omm

issi

on.

Req

uire

s tr

aini

ng b

y C

TD

EP

(Je

nny

Dic

kson

) or

Aud

ubon

pe

rson

nel.

9.1.

2.2

Gre

at H

orne

d O

wl a

nd c

row

s H

igh-

Mod

erat

e

Effe

cts

of a

vian

pre

dato

rs m

onito

red

by s

easo

nal p

erso

nnel

(f

undi

ng a

nd h

iring

as

disc

usse

d in

Act

ion

9.1.

1.4.

) R

esea

rch

plan

req

uire

s di

scus

sion

bet

wee

n C

TD

EP

(Je

nny

Dic

kson

/Jul

ie V

icto

ria),

Aud

ubon

Gre

enw

ich

Sci

ence

C

omm

ittee

, Con

nect

icut

Aud

ubon

(M

ilan

Bul

l), a

nd T

own

of

Gre

enw

ich

Con

serv

atio

n C

omm

issi

on.

9.1.

2.3.

Rat

s H

igh

Effe

cts

of g

roun

d pr

edat

ors

mon

itore

d by

sea

sona

l pe

rson

nel (

fund

ing

and

hirin

g as

dis

cuss

ed in

Act

ion

9.1.

1.4.

).

Res

earc

h pl

an r

equi

res

disc

ussi

on a

s ab

ove.

12

2

9. 1. 3 Nesting habitat

9.1.

3.1.

E

nhan

ce a

nd c

reat

e ne

stin

g ha

bita

t on

the

isla

nd in

are

as fu

rthe

st fr

om d

istu

rban

ce.

Mod

erat

e

Sta

keho

lder

dis

cuss

ion:

CT

DE

P (

Jenn

y D

icks

on/J

ulie

V

icto

ria),

Aud

ubon

Gre

enw

ich

Sci

ence

Com

mitt

ee, T

own

of

Gre

enw

ich

Con

serv

atio

n C

omm

issi

on a

nd P

arks

and

R

ecre

atio

n D

epar

tmen

t, T

own

of G

reen

wic

h In

land

Wet

land

s an

d W

ater

cour

ses,

P

arks

and

Tre

es D

ivis

ion

(Bru

ce S

pam

an),

and

Con

nect

icut

A

udub

on (

Mila

n B

ull).

9.1.

3.2.

Ero

sion

of i

slan

d M

oder

ate

Sta

keho

lder

dis

cuss

ion:

CT

DE

P, T

own

of G

reen

wic

h C

onse

rvat

ion

Com

mis

sion

, Par

ks a

nd R

ecre

atio

n D

epar

tmen

t, D

epar

tmen

t of P

ublic

Wor

ks (

Chi

ef E

ngin

eer-

Dav

id T

hom

pson

), A

rmy

Cor

p of

Eng

inee

rs

9.1.4 Foraging areas

9.1.

4.1

Pro

activ

e la

ndsc

ape

plan

ning

and

zon

ing

by

tow

ns.

M

oder

ate

Sta

keho

lder

dis

cuss

ion:

Tow

n of

Gre

enw

ich

Pub

lic W

orks

- P

lann

ing

and

Zon

ing

Boa

rd, I

nlan

d W

etla

nds

and

Wat

erco

urse

s C

omm

issi

on, a

nd C

onse

rvat

ion

Com

mis

sion

. N

ew Y

ork

plan

ning

boa

rds

and

land

use

com

mis

sion

s in

in

clud

e W

estc

hest

er C

ount

y P

lann

ing

Dep

artm

ent a

nd

Dep

artm

ent o

f Par

ks, R

ecre

atio

n, a

nd C

onse

rvat

ion,

the

New

Yor

k D

EC

, and

Aud

ubon

New

Yor

k.

Fun

ding

: Priv

ate

foun

datio

ns, S

tate

of C

onne

ctic

ut

9.1.

4.2

Pro

tect

fora

ging

are

as.

M

oder

ate

Dep

endi

ng o

n st

ate,

sta

keho

lder

s in

clud

e: T

own

of

Gre

enw

ich

Pub

lic W

orks

- P

lann

ing

and

Zon

ing

Boa

rd,

Inla

nd W

etla

nds

and

Wat

erco

urse

s C

omm

issi

on, a

nd

Con

serv

atio

n C

omm

issi

on; S

ave

the

Sou

nd

In N

ew Y

ork

plan

ning

boa

rds

and

land

use

com

mis

sion

s in

clud

e W

estc

hest

er C

ount

y P

lann

ing

Dep

artm

ent a

nd

Dep

artm

ent o

f Par

ks, R

ecre

atio

n, a

nd C

onse

rvat

ion;

the

New

Yor

k D

EC

; and

Aud

ubon

New

Yor

k.

Fun

ding

: LIS

S,

12

3

9.1.

4.3

Red

uce

dist

urba

nce

on fo

ragi

ng a

reas

; es

tabl

ish

fora

ging

are

a sa

nctu

arie

s M

oder

ate

Dep

endi

ng o

n st

ate,

sta

keho

lder

s in

clud

e: T

own

of

Gre

enw

ich

Par

ks a

nd R

ecre

atio

n, In

land

Wet

land

s an

d W

ater

cour

ses

Com

mis

sion

, and

the

Con

serv

atio

n C

omm

issi

on.

In N

ew Y

ork

stak

ehol

ders

incl

ude

Wes

tche

ster

Cou

nty

Dep

artm

ent o

f Par

ks, R

ecre

atio

n, a

nd C

onse

rvat

ion;

the

New

Yor

k D

EC

; and

Aud

ubon

New

Yor

k.

9.2

Res

earc

h A

ctio

ns

9.2.1 Research potential causes for the colony’s decline

9.2.

1.1

Nes

ting

habi

tat

Mod

erat

e

Res

earc

h co

nduc

ted

afte

r th

e br

eedi

ng s

easo

n.

Stu

dy c

ould

be

cond

ucte

d by

Aud

ubon

Con

nect

icut

, a

grad

uate

stu

dent

, or

a no

t-fo

r-pr

ofit

orga

niza

tion

in

colla

bora

tion

with

the

Tow

n of

Gre

enw

ich,

Aud

ubon

G

reen

wic

h S

cien

ce C

omm

ittee

, and

CT

DE

P.

F

undi

ng:

Sou

rces

nee

ded

9.2.

1.2

Dis

turb

ance

to th

e co

lony

Hig

h

Res

earc

h co

nduc

ted

durin

g br

eedi

ng s

easo

n.

Stu

dy c

ould

be

cond

ucte

d by

Aud

ubon

Con

nect

icut

, a n

ot-

for-

prof

it or

gani

zatio

n, o

r be

par

t of a

gra

duat

e st

udy

in

colla

bora

tion

with

the

Tow

n of

Gre

enw

ich,

Aud

ubon

G

reen

wic

h S

cien

ce C

omm

ittee

, and

CT

DE

P.

9.2.

1.3

Influ

ence

of g

roun

d an

d av

ian

pred

ator

s H

igh

Res

earc

h co

nduc

ted

durin

g br

eedi

ng s

easo

n.

Stu

dy c

ould

be

cond

ucte

d by

Aud

ubon

Con

nect

icut

, a n

ot-

for-

prof

it or

gani

zatio

n, o

r be

par

t of a

gra

duat

e st

udy

in

colla

bora

tion

with

the

Tow

n of

Gre

enw

ich,

Aud

ubon

G

reen

wic

h S

cien

ce C

omm

ittee

, and

CT

DE

P.

9.2.2 Monitor island resources

9.2.

2.1

Dev

elop

a s

tand

ardi

zed

prog

ram

for

mon

itorin

g w

adin

g bi

rds.

M

oder

ate-

high

C

T D

epar

tmen

t of E

nviro

nmen

tal P

rote

ctio

n

9.2.

2.2

Mon

itor

and

map

nes

ting

vege

tatio

n an

d an

y en

hanc

ed n

estin

g ac

tions

.

Mod

erat

e-lo

w

9.2.

2.3

Mon

itor

inva

sive

pla

nt s

peci

es.

Lo

w

12

4

9.2.

2.4

Mon

itor

for

Dou

ble-

cres

ted

corm

oran

ts.

M

oder

ate

CT

Dep

artm

ent o

f Env

ironm

enta

l Pro

tect

ion;

Aud

ubon

G

reen

wic

h; A

udub

on C

T; C

T A

udub

on

9.2.

2.5

Mon

itor

bree

ding

and

mig

ratin

g pa

sser

ines

an

d m

igra

ting

shor

ebird

s.

Mod

erat

e A

udub

on G

reen

wic

h; A

udub

on C

T; C

T A

udub

on

9.2.

2.6

Bio

logi

cal s

urve

y o

f isl

and

reso

urce

s

1.

bird

s (d

urin

g br

eedi

ng a

nd m

igra

tion)

,

Mod

erat

e M

ay b

e ab

le to

enh

ance

con

serv

atio

n an

d re

crea

tion

–sid

e to

ben

efit

bird

s A

udub

on G

reen

wic

h; A

udub

on C

T; C

T A

udub

on

2.

ter

rest

rial i

nsec

ts

Low

In

vest

igat

e w

ith P

eabo

dy M

useu

m fo

r po

tent

ial r

esea

rche

rs

3.

inv

erte

brat

e ho

st s

peci

es a

nd th

eir

plan

t hos

ts

Low

In

vest

igat

e w

ith P

eabo

dy M

useu

m fo

r po

tent

ial r

esea

rche

rs

4.

aqu

atic

inve

rteb

rate

s Lo

w

Inve

stig

ate

with

Pea

body

Mus

eum

for

pote

ntia

l res

earc

hers

5.

rep

tiles

Lo

w

Inve

stig

ate

with

Pea

body

Mus

eum

for

pote

ntia

l res

earc

hers

6.

sm

all m

amm

als

Mod

erat

e N

eed

to k

now

gro

und

pred

ator

s.

Stu

dy c

ondu

cted

by:

inf

orm

atio

n ne

eded

. F

undi

ng:

sour

ces

requ

ired.

7.

veg

etat

ion

Mod

erat

e A

veg

etat

ion

map

will

hel

p de

ta

9.2.3 Foraging area research

9.2.

3.1

Iden

tify

impo

rtan

t for

agin

g ar

eas

Hig

h-M

oder

ate

Gra

duat

e st

uden

t; A

udub

on G

reen

wic

h; A

udub

on C

T; C

T

Aud

ubon

9.2.

3.2

Pro

tect

and

enh

ance

Cal

f Isl

and.

H

igh

U

S F

ish

and

Wild

life

Ser

vice

McK

inne

y R

efug

e

9.2.

3.3

Res

earc

h on

pop

ulat

ion,

ava

ilabi

lity,

and

he

alth

of p

rey

popu

latio

ns.

M

oder

ate-

high

S

ave

the

Sou

nd?;

CT

Dep

artm

ent o

f Env

ironm

enta

l P

rote

ctio

n (F

ishe

ries)

9.2.

3.4

Con

tam

inan

ts r

esea

rch.

M

oder

ate-

high

Lo

ng Is

land

Sou

nd S

tudy

; CT

Dep

artm

ent o

f Env

ironm

enta

l P

rote

ctio

n; g

radu

ate

stud

ent

9.2.

3.5

Mod

el th

e ef

fect

s of

sea

leve

l ris

e on

fora

ging

ar

eas

and

proc

ure

prop

ertie

s th

at m

ay b

ecom

e al

tern

ativ

es to

cur

rent

fora

ging

are

as.

M

oder

ate

C

onne

ctic

ut C

oast

al M

anag

emen

t Dep

artm

ent;

New

Yor

k D

epar

tmen

t of E

nviro

nmen

tal C

onse

rvat

ion;

US

E

nviro

nmen

tal P

rote

ctio

n

12

5

9.3

Co

mm

un

icat

ion

Act

ion

s

9.3.1 Establish a bioregional approach to foraging area managem

ent.

9.3.

1.1

Hos

t a b

i-reg

iona

l con

fere

nce

Mod

erat

e

Tow

n of

Gre

enw

ich

with

New

Yor

k D

epar

tmen

t of

Env

ironm

enta

l Con

serv

atio

n; L

ong

Isla

nd S

ound

Stu

dy; C

T

Dep

artm

ent o

f Env

ironm

enta

l Pro

tect

ion;

Wes

tche

ster

P

arks

, Aud

ubon

CT

and

Aud

ubon

NY

9.3.

1.2

Invo

lvem

ent i

n a

bi-s

tate

man

agem

ent p

lan

with

man

ager

s of

key

fora

ging

are

as

Hig

h

Tow

n of

Gre

enw

ich

with

New

Yor

k D

epar

tmen

t of

Env

ironm

enta

l Con

serv

atio

n; L

ong

Isla

nd S

ound

Stu

dy; C

T

Dep

artm

ent o

f Env

ironm

enta

l Pro

tect

ion;

Wes

tche

ster

P

arks

-Jef

f Mai

n, A

udub

on C

T a

nd A

udub

on N

Y

9.3.2 Other Communications

9.3.

2.1

Com

mun

icat

e w

ith U

SD

A-A

PH

IS r

egar

ding

co

ntro

l of A

sian

Lon

ghor

ned

Bee

tle.

H

igh

Tow

n of

Gre

enw

ich;

Aud

ubon

CT

; US

DA

-AP

HIS

9.4

Ed

uca

tio

n A

ctio

ns

9.4.1 Develop educational programs on and off the island.

9.4.

1.1

Cre

ate

an in

tern

ship

or

seas

onal

pos

ition

on

the

isla

nd.

Hig

h

Aud

ubon

CT

; Aud

ubon

Gre

enw

ich

9.4.

1.2

Edu

catio

nal p

rogr

ams.

H

igh

1. E

duca

tiona

l wor

ksho

p fo

r T

own

empl

oyee

s

A

udub

on C

t; M

anom

et C

ente

r fo

r C

onse

rvat

ion

Sci

ence

s;

CT

Dep

artm

ent o

f Env

ironm

enta

l Pro

tect

ion

2. C

ondu

ct b

ird w

alks

to th

e ob

serv

atio

n ar

ea o

r bo

at

trip

s ar

ound

isla

nd to

vie

w c

olon

y w

ith k

now

ledg

eabl

e pe

rson

nel,

A

udub

on G

reen

wic

h; A

udub

on C

T; S

ound

wat

ers

3. A

bird

blin

d an

d pl

atfo

rm s

ituat

ed a

t som

e po

int n

ear

the

dirt

roa

d in

to th

e co

lony

or

on th

e w

este

rn e

dge

of

the

tidal

wet

land

may

allo

w fo

lks

to v

iew

the

bird

s w

ithou

t dis

turb

ance

.

T

own

of G

reen

wic

h; A

udub

on C

T

12

6

4. C

ondu

ct p

re-b

reed

ing

seas

on ta

lks

abou

t wad

ing

bird

s, th

e un

ique

ness

of t

he c

olon

y to

Con

nect

icut

as

wel

l as

the

Nor

thea

st, c

onse

rvat

ion

of w

etla

nds,

and

ot

her

sim

ilar

topi

cs,

A

udub

on G

reen

wic

h; A

udub

on C

T; C

T A

udub

on; B

ruce

M

useu

m; S

ound

wat

ers;

Nor

wal

k A

quar

ium

5. O

rgan

ize

a ce

lebr

atio

n su

ch a

s th

e C

rane

Fes

tival

in

New

Mex

ico

to h

eral

d in

the

wad

ing

bird

s an

d ot

her

mig

rant

s. T

he fi

rst f

estiv

al s

houl

d be

the

dedi

catio

n of

th

e is

land

as

an Im

port

ant B

ird A

rea,

A

udub

on G

reen

wic

h; A

udub

on C

T; C

T A

udub

on; B

ruce

M

useu

m; C

T D

epar

tmen

t of E

nviro

nmen

tal P

rote

ctio

n; U

S

Fis

h an

d W

ildlif

e S

ervi

ce M

cKin

ney

Ref

uge

6. T

alks

and

exh

ibits

at t

he B

ruce

Mus

eum

in to

wn;

ta

lks

and

wal

ks a

t the

sat

ellit

e ce

nter

on

Gre

enw

ich

Poi

nt fo

r fo

ragi

ng b

irds

and

impo

rtan

ce o

f for

agin

g ar

eas,

B

ruce

Mus

eum

7. A

web

cam

from

the

Bru

ce M

useu

m’s

Sea

side

C

ente

r on

Gre

enw

ich

Poi

nt,

B

ruce

Mus

eum

8. A

n ex

hibi

t at M

ariti

me

Aqu

ariu

m in

Nor

wal

k to

rea

ch

peop

le fr

om o

utsi

de th

e ar

ea,

N

orw

alk

Aqu

ariu

m

9. O

utre

ach

to th

e pu

blic

at P

layl

and

Par

k in

W

estc

hest

er C

ount

y,

W

estc

hest

er P

arks

; NY

Dep

artm

ent o

f Env

ironm

enta

l C

onse

rvat

ion

10. E

duca

tion

of c

hild

ren

via

a sc

ienc

e cu

rric

ulum

de

sign

ed fo

r pu

blic

sch

ools

from

the

New

Hav

en

Sou

nd S

choo

l, \

T

he S

ound

Sch

ool,

New

Hav

en, C

T

11. G

rant

and

fee-

base

d ed

ucat

iona

l cru

ises

on

the

Sou

ndw

ater

s sc

hoon

er c

an b

e an

effe

ctiv

e ou

trea

ch

tool

for

scho

ol c

hild

ren.

Trip

s ar

ound

the

isla

nd o

n th

e sc

hoon

er c

ould

teac

h ch

ildre

n ab

out b

ird p

opul

atio

n an

d m

igra

tion.

Sou

ndw

ater

s is

als

o in

tere

sted

in

prov

idin

g le

ader

ship

opp

ortu

nitie

s fo

r st

uden

ts in

in

vasi

ves

man

agem

ent o

r ot

her

man

agem

ent p

roje

cts,

S

ound

wat

ers

12. O

utre

ach

to la

ndow

ners

adj

acen

t to

fora

ging

are

as

rega

rdin

g th

e im

port

ance

of t

he w

etla

nds,

hea

lth o

f the

w

etla

nds,

effe

cts

of m

anag

emen

t act

ions

suc

h as

law

n ar

e on

wat

er q

ualit

y an

d w

ildlif

e,

G

reen

wic

h P

ublic

Wor

ks; G

reen

wic

h H

ealth

Dep

aert

men

t; A

udub

on C

T; C

oalit

ion

for

a S

afe

and

Hea

lthy

Con

nect

icut

?;

13. O

utre

ach

to b

oate

rs, b

oth

mot

or a

nd n

on-m

otor

bo

ats,

reg

ardi

ng d

istu

rban

ce to

fora

ging

wad

ing

bird

s by

boa

ts,

12

7

14. I

ncre

ase

awar

enes

s on

the

fora

ging

gro

unds

. C

os

Cob

Har

bor

offe

rs a

uni

que

educ

atio

nal o

ppor

tuni

ty

with

its

know

n fo

ragi

ng a

rea,

clo

se p

roxi

mity

and

vi

sibi

lity

to th

e pu

blic

. S

easo

nal t

alks

and

wal

ks a

t G

reen

wic

h P

oint

and

Cos

Cob

Har

bor

coul

d ce

nter

on

the

site

and

on

the

impo

rtan

ce o

f the

par

ks a

s fo

ragi

ng

area

,

B

ruce

Mus

eum

on

Gre

enw

ich

Poi

nt; F

riend

s of

Gre

enw

ich

Poi

nt; G

reen

wic

h P

oint

Con

serv

ancy

; Aud

ubon

Gre

enw

ich

15. I

ncre

ase

educ

atio

nal s

igna

ge in

the

fora

ging

are

as

in a

dditi

on to

on

the

isla

nd.

An

agre

emen

t bet

wee

n A

udub

on a

nd S

tarb

ucks

may

su

ppor

t suc

h si

gnag

e,

16.

Edu

catio

n fo

r la

ndow

ners

and

man

ager

s on

m

inim

izin

g pe

stic

ide

use,

Sam

e as

#12

17.

Aud

ubon

at H

ome

(http

://w

ww

.aud

ubon

.org

/bird

/at_

hom

e/)

educ

ates

and

in

volv

e th

e co

mm

unity

in c

reat

ing

heal

thy

habi

tats

by

redu

cing

pes

ticid

e us

age

on th

eir

yard

s, c

onse

rvin

g w

ater

, pro

tect

ing

wat

er q

ualit

y, a

nd r

emov

ing

exot

ic

plan

ts a

nd r

epla

cing

with

nat

ive

plan

ts.

Thi

s pr

ogra

m

prov

ides

tool

s fo

r re

side

nts

in a

var

iety

of h

ousi

ng

situ

atio

ns to

mak

e a

diffe

renc

e in

the

qual

ity o

f the

ir re

side

nces

for

both

thei

r fa

mili

es a

s w

ell a

s w

ildlif

e.

A

udub

on C

T