National Assessments of Educational Achievement Volume 5: Using the Results of a National Assessment of Educational Achievement

8/14/2019 National Assessments of Educational Achievement Volume 5: Using the Results of a National Assessment of Educa

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Wscef tbg Tgsuhts oa jEjtcoejh Jssgsslget oa

G`uijtcoejh Jibcgvglget

Ejtcoejh Jssgsslgets oa G`uijtcoejh Jibcgvglget

QOHWLG 7

Pboljs Mghhjfbje

Qceiget Frgjegy

P. Yiott Lurrjy


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3/188

Wscef tbg Tgsuhts

oa j Ejtcoejh

Jssgsslget oa

G`uijtcoejh

Jibcgvglget


4/188


5/188

Ejtcoejh Jssgsslgets oa G`uijtcoejh Jibcgvglget

QOHWLG 7

Wscef tbg Tgsuhts oa j

Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget

oa G`uijtcoejh

Jibcgvglget

Pboljs Mghhjfbje

Qceiget Frgjegy

P. Yiott Lurrjy


6/188

4>>3 Pbg Cetgrejtcoejh Djem aor Tgioestruitcoe je` @gvghoplget / Pbg

Vorh` Djem:2:2 B Ytrggt, EV

Vjsbceftoe, @I 4>099Pghgpboeg; 4>4-069-:>>>Cetgregt; www.worh`djem.orfG-ljch; agg`djimNworh`djem.orf

Jhh rcfbts rgsgrvg`: 4 9 0 :4 :: :> >3

Pbcs vohulg cs j proùit oa tbg stjaa oa tbg Cetgrejtcoejh Djem aor Tgioestruitcoeje` @gvghoplget / Pbg Vorh` Djem. Pbg e`cefs, cetgrprgtjtcoes, je` ioeihu-

scoes gxprgssg` ce tbcs vohulg o eot egigssjrchy rgfflgit tbg vcgws oa tbg Gxgiutcvg@crgitors oa Pbg Vorh` Djem or tbg fovgrelgets tbgy rgprgsget.Pbg Vorh` Djem ògs eot fujrjetgg tbg jiiurjiy oa tbg `jtj ceihu`g` ce tbcs

worm. Pbg doue`jrcgs, iohors, `geolcejtcoes, je` otbgr ceaorljtcoe sbowe oejey ljp ce tbcs worm ò eot clphy jey ku`fglget oe tbg pjrt oa Pbg Vorh` Djemioeigrecef tbg hgfjh stjtus oa jey tgrrctory or tbg geòrsglget or jiigptjeig oasuib doue`jrcgs.

Tcfbts je` ^grlcsscoesPbg ljtgrcjh ce tbcs pudhcijtcoe cs iopyrcfbtg`. Iopycef je`/or trjeslcttcef por-tcoes or jhh oa tbcs worm wctbout pgrlcsscoe ljy dg j vcohjtcoe oa jpphcijdhg hjw.Pbg Cetgrejtcoejh Djem aor Tgioestruitcoe je` @gvghoplget / Pbg Vorh` Djem

geiourjfgs `cssglcejtcoe oa cts worm je` wchh eorljhhy frjet pgrlcsscoe to rgpro-ùig portcoes oa tbg worm prolpthy.Aor pgrlcsscoe to pbotoiopy or rgprcet jey pjrt oa tbcs worm, phgjsg sge` j

rgqugst wctb iolphgtg ceaorljtcoe to tbg Iopyrcfbt Ihgjrjeig Igetgr Cei., 444Tosgwoo` @rcvg, @jevgrs, LJ >:349, WYJ= tghgpboeg; 362-67>-20>>= ajx; 362-67>-006>= Cetgregt; www.iopyrcfbt.iol.

Jhh otbgr qugrcgs oe rcfbts je` hcigesgs, ceihu`cef sudsc`cjry rcfbts, sbouh` dgj``rgssg` to tbg Oaig oa tbg ûdhcsbgr, Pbg Vorh` Djem, :2:2 B Ytrggt, EV,

Vjsbceftoe, @I 4>099, WYJ= ajx; 4>4-744-4044= g-ljch; pudrcfbtsNworh`djem.orf.

Iovgr `gscfe; Ejyhor @gscfe, Vjsbceftoe, @I

CYDE; 362->-24:9-6343-7gCYDE; 362->-24:9-6311->@OC; :>.:731/362->-24:9-6343-7

Hcdrjry oa Ioefrgss Ijtjhofcef-ce-ûdhcijtcoe @jtjMghhjfbje, Pboljs. Wscef tbg rgsuhts oa j ejtcoejh jssgsslget oa gùijtcoejh jibcgvglget / PboljsMghhjfbje, Qceiget Frgjegy, P. Yiott Lurrjy. p. il. (Ejtcoejh jssgsslgets oa gùijtcoejh jibcgvglget = v. 7) Ceihu`gs dcdhcofrjpbcijh rgagrgeigs je` ce`gx. CYDE 362->-24:9-6343-7 (jhm. pjpgr) CYDE 362->-24:9-6311-> (ghgitroeci) :. Gùijtcoejh tgsts je` lgjsurglgets. 4. Jibcgvglget tgsts. 9. Gùijtcoe je`stjtg. C. Frgjegy, Qceiget. CC. Lurrjy, P. Yiott. CCC. Pcthg.HD9>7:.M:23 4>>3 96:.414ì44 4>>3>>3370


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IOEPGEPY

AOTGVOT@ xc

JIMEOVHG@FLGEPY xccc

JDDTGQCJPCOEY xv

:. AJIPOTY JAAGIPCEF PBG WYG JE@ EOEWYG OA

EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP ACE@CEFY :

Pbg ohctcijh Ioetgxt oa j Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget 9

Jiiouetjdchcty 7

Pbg Zujhcty oa tbg Jssgsslget Cestrulget :7

Pypg oa Jssgsslget :6

We`grusg oa Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget Ace`cefs 4>

Ioeihuscoe 40

4. TGÔTPCEF J EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP;

PBG LJCE TGÔTP 43

Ioetgxt oa tbg Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget 9:

Odkgitcvgs oa tbg Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget 9:

Arjlgworm aor tbg Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget 94

^roigùrgs ce J`lcecstrjtcoe oa tbg Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget 94

@gsircptcoe oa Jibcgvglget ce tbg Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget 99

Iorrghjtgs oa Jibcgvglget 96

Ibjefg ce Jibcgvglget Ovgr Pclg 04

Ioeihuscoe 07

v


8/188

vc | IOEPGEPY

9. TGÔTPCEF J EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP; OPBGT

CEYPTWLGEPY PO IOLLWECIJPG ACE@CEFY 06

^roùit Ypgicijtcoe Ybggt 02

Drcgef Lcecstgrs je` Ygecor ohciy grsoeegh 03

ûdhcsbcef Yulljry Tgports 7>

ûdhcsbcef Pgibecijh Tgports 79

ûdhcsbcef Pbgljtci Tgports 71

Ygiurcef Lg`cj Tgports 71

Cssucef ^rgss Tghgjsgs 72

Boh`cef ^rgss Ioeagrgeigs 14

Ioeùitcef Ce`cvcùjh Drcgefs 19 ôstcef Vgd Yctg Tgports 19

Ljmcef Jssgsslget @jtj Jvjchjdhg 10

Otbgr @cssglcejtcoe Cestrulgets 11

Ioeihuscoe 16

0. PTJEYHJPCEF JYYGYYLGEP ACE@CEFY CEPO ÔHCIS

JE@ JIPCOE 13

Cestctutcoejh Ijpjicty to Jdsord je` Wsg Ceaorljtcoe 6>

Prustwortbcegss je` Tghgvjeig oa Ceaorljtcoe ^rovc`g`dy je Jssgsslget 6:

^roigùrgs to C`getcay Jpproprcjtg ohciy or Jitcoe

Aohhowcef je Jssgsslget 6:

@gtgrlcejtcoe oa j Yystglwc`g or Pjrfgtg` Cetgrvgetcoe 67

Iolphgxcty oa ôhciy Aorljtcoe je` @gicscoe Ljmcef 61

Ioeihuscoe 66

7. EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP ACE@CEFY, ÔHCIS, JE@

G@WIJPCOEJH LJEJFGLGEP 63

@gsircdcef Jibcgvglget 2>

@gsircdcef Tgsourigs 2:

Loectorcef Jibcgvglget 24

Tgvcgwcef tbg Gùijtcoe Yystgl 20

Aorluhjtcef Fgegrjh ohciy je` Jsscstcef ce

@gicscoe Ljmcef 20

Ygttcef Ytje`jr`s 22

^rovc`cef Tgsourigs to Yiboohs 3>

Yupportcef Iurrciuhul Tgvcscoe 34

Tgvcscef Pgxtdooms 30

Ioeihuscoe 37


9/188

IOEPGEPY | vcc

1. EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP ACE@CEFY JE@ PGJIBCEF 36

Pgjibgrs roagsscoejh @gvghoplget 32 Aoius oe Yiboohs je` Ihjssrool Pgjibcef :>2

Ioeihuscoe :4:

6. EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP ACE@CEFY JE@ ^WDHCI

JVJTGEGYY :47

Gxjlphgs oa tbg Wsg oa Jssgsslget Tgsuhts to

Ceaorl tbg ^udhci :46

Pbg Tohg oa tbg Lg`cj :43

@gvghopcef j Iolluecijtcoe Ytrjtgfy :9> Ioeihuscoe :94

2. POVJT@ O^PCLC[CEF PBG WYG JE@ QJHWG OA

EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEPY :97

Optclczcef tbg Wsg oa Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget Ace`cefs :96

@gvghopcef Ejtcoejh Jssgsslgets to Ceirgjsg Pbgcr Qjhug :93

Ioeihuscoe :01

TGAGTGEIGY :06

CE@GR :19

DORGY

:.: Cssugs oe Vbcib j Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget Ije Pbrow Hcfbt 4

:.4 Gvjhujtcef Jibcgvglget oe Hclctg` Gvc`geig 2

:.9 Pbg Egfjtcvg Gaagit oa Bcfb-Ytjmgs Jiiouetjdchcty Wsgs :>

:.0 Jsscfecef Jiiouetjdchcty aor Ytu`get Jibcgvglget :9

:.7 Ybcatcef tbg Dhjlg aor Yibooh Ajchurg :9

:.1 Pwo Wsgs oa @jtj arol je Cetgrejtcoejh Jssgsslget 4>:.6 Gxtget oa Wsg oa Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget Tgsuhts, Boe`urjs 4:

9.: Yulljry Tgport oa Chhceocs Ytjtg Frj`g 0 Ytu`gets Tgj`cef

Jibcgvglget Hgvghs oe tbg 4>>6 EJG^; Wectg` Ytjtgs 7:

9.4 Yuffgstcoes aor Jpphycef tbg ^CYJ Jpprojib to Pgjibcef

je` Hgjrecef Ljtbgljtcis; Crghje` 74

9.9 ^rgss Tghgjsg Gxigrpt, EJG^; Wectg` Ytjtgs 1>

9.0 Yjlphg Egws Tghgjsg; Wectg` Ytjtgs 1:

9.7 Vgd Yctg, Ljtbgljtcis Jibcgvglget ce ^rcljry Yiboohs;

Crghje` 109.1 Yctg Ljp, EJG^ Vgd Yctg; Wectg` Ytjtgs 17


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vccc | IOEPGEPY

7.: Wscef Jssgsslget Tgsuhts to ^rolotg Tgaorls;

@olcecije Tgpudhci 21

7.4 Lytbs jdout Gùijtcoe ce tbg Wectg` Ytjtgs 26

1.: ^hjig-Qjhug Ljtibcef Ctgl; ^jmcstje :>4

1.4 Wsg oa Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget Ace`cefs to Clprovg

Pgjibgr Gùijtcoe; Lcejs Fgrjcs, Drjzch :>1

1.9 Ljce Agjturgs oa j Pgjibgr Ce-Ygrvcig ^rofrjl Djsg` oe

Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget Tgsuhts; Wrufujy :>6

1.0 ôstgr Gxtrjit udhcsbg` jatgr Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget;

Wfje`j :>3

1.7 Ljtbgljtcis Ctgl :::

1.1 Tgiollge`jtcoes Aohhowcef j Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget ce

Ljtbgljtcis, Frj`g 7; Crghje` ::0

1.6 @csiusscoe Popcis; Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget Tgsuhts je`

Yibooh Gaagitcvgegss Qjrcjdhgs ::1


Pgjibgr Gaagitcvgegss Qjrcjdhgs ::1


Ce`cvcùjh Ytu`get je` Ajlchy Ajitors Jssoicjtg` wctb

Ytu`get Hgjrecef ::6

6.: Arggòl oa Ceaorljtcoe Hjws :41

6.4 Jfrgglgets oe tbg Tghgjsg oa Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget

Tgsuhts; Wrufujy :46

6.9 ^roigùrgs to Ljxclczg tbg Clpjit oa Ejtcoejh

Jssgsslget Ace`cefs :9>

6.0 Droiburg Iovgr aor Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget, Gtbcopcj :99

ACFWTGY

4.: Frj`g 0 Tgj`cef Ymchhs je` Ytrjtgfcgs je` Iut- ocet Yiorgs,

dy Dgeibljrm ocets, aor tbg Ioldceg` Tgj`cef Hctgrjiy

Yijhg, CTHY, 4>>: 97

4.4 ^grigetjfgs oa Ljhg je` Agljhg Ytu`gets Jibcgvcef

Ljstgry ce Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget, Frj`g 0, dy Iurrciuhul

Jrgj; Yrc Hjemj 92

4.9 ^grigetjfgs oa Ytu`gets Vjtibcef Pghgvcscoe aor Qjrycef

Jlouets oa Pclg, dy Fge`gr je` Jvgrjfg Tgj`cef

Yiorg; Muwjct 92

4.0 Tgfcoejh @caagrgeigs ce Jibcgvglget, Frj`g 0; Gtbcopcj 0>

4.7 Lgje Tgj`cef Pgst Yiorgs oa Ytu`gets ^hottg` jfjcest

Euldgr oa Dooms ce tbg Bolg, Frj`gs : je` 7; Crghje` 04


11/188

IOEPGEPY | cx

4.1 Prge`s ce Jvgrjfg Tgj`cef Yijhg Yiorgs aor Ytu`gets

Jfgs 3, :9, je` :6, EJG^, :36:4>>0; Wectg` Ytjtgs 09

4.6 Lgje ^griget Iorrgit Yiorgs aor Ljtbgljtcis Ioetget

Ytrje`s ce Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget, Frj`g 7, :333 je`

4>>0; Crghje` 00

4.2 Lgje ^griget Iorrgit Yiorgs aor Ljtbgljtcis Ymchhs ce

Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget, Frj`g 7, :333 je` 4>>0; Crghje` 07

9.: Jvgrjfg Tgj`cef Yijhg Yiorgs dy Tjig or Gtbecicty,

EJG^, Frj`g 0, 4>>7; Wectg` Ytjtgs 76

1.: Tgj`cef Yiorg @cstrcdutcoes oa ûpchs je` Pgjibgrs;

Qcgtejl :>4

1.4 Frj`g 7 Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget ce Ljtbgljtcis ce Qcgtejl;

Iorrghjtcoe dgtwgge Pgjibgr je` ûpch rovceicjh

Lgje Yiorgs :>7

1.9 Ajitors Pbjt Jaagit Jibcgvglget; Wfje`j :49

PJDHGY

:.: Tgjsoes aor tbg We`grusg oa Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget

Ace`cefs, Jitcoes to J``rgss We`grusg, je` Jfgets

Tgspoescdhg aor Jitcoe 44

4.: Lgje Yiorgs (je` Ytje`jr` Grrors) oa Doys je` Fcrhs ce j

Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget oa Hjefujfg je` Ljtbgljtcis 9>

4.4 Lgje Yiorgs (je` Ytje`jr` Grrors) je` Yiorgs jt Qjrycef

^grigetchg Tjems ce j Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget oa Yicgeig,

dy ^rovceig 9>

4.9 Lgje Jibcgvglget Yiorgs (je` Ytje`jr` Grrors) ce j

Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget J`lcecstgrg` jt Pwo ôcets

ce Pclg 9:

4.0 Iorrghjtcoe dgtwgge Lgje Yibooh Tgj`cef

Jibcgvglget Yiorgs je` Yibooh Ajitors ce j

Frj`g 7 Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget 9:

4.7 ^grigetjfgs oa Ytu`gets Yiorcef jt Lceclul je`

@gscrg` Hgvghs oa Ljstgry ce Hctgrjiy, Eulgrjiy, je`

Hcag Ymchhs Pgsts; Ljurctcus 90

4.1 EJG^ Ljtbgljtcis Jibcgvglget Hgvghs, Frj`g 0;

Wectg` Ytjtgs 90

4.6 Frj`g 7 Tgj`cef Ymchh Hgvghs ce Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget;

Qcgtejl 91

4.2 Lgje Yiorgs ce Ljtbgljtcis, Frj`g 2, dy Tjicjh Froup,

Youtb Jarcij 93


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x | IOEPGEPY

4.3 Lgje Yiorgs ce Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget oa Egpjhc Hjefujfg,

Frj`g 7, dy Tgfcoe; Egpjh 93

9.: Pgibecijh Tgport; Yuffgstg` Ioetgets 70

7.: ^grigetjfgs oa Yiboohs ôssgsscef Yghgitg` Djsci Yibooh

Ajichctcgs; Mgeyj 2:

7.4 ^grigetjfgs oa Yiboohs ôssgsscef Yibooh Ajichctcgs,

:33>4>>4; Ljhjwc 24

7.9 Yghgitg` Iouetrcgs Pbjt Wsg` Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget

Tgsuhts ce Tgvcgwcef tbg Gùijtcoe Yystgl 27

7.0 Tjemcef oa Frj`g 0 Ytu`gets Tjtg` jt or jdovg ^roicget

oe Ytjtg je` Ejtcoejh Jssgsslgets, 4>>7; Wectg` Ytjtgs 23

1.: ^grigetjfgs oa Ytu`gets Vbosg Pgjibgrs Tgportg`

Pbgy Vgrg Tgj`y to Pgjib Ljtbgljtcis, PCLYY @jtj,

Frj`g 2 :>>

1.4 ^grigetjfg oa Pgjibgrs Yiorcef jt Gjib Ljtbgljtcis

^roicgeiy Hgvgh; Lozjldcqug :>9

1.9 ^grigetjfg oa Ytu`gets Jeswgrcef Ctgls Iorrgithy ce j

Ljtbgljtcis Jssgsslget; Drctcsb Iohuldcj, Ijej`j ::>


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AOTGVOT@

xc

Lorg tbje ygjrs oa siboohcef, ct cs hgjrecefor tbg jiqucsctcoe oa iof-

ectcvg smchhstbjt clprovgs ce`cvcùjh proùitcvcty je` gjrecefs, wctb

fjces aor jffrgfjtg ceiolg ce tbg gioeoly. Ct bjs dgge sbowe, aor

gxjlphg, tbjt j oeg stje`jr` `gvcjtcoe ceirgjsg ce stu`get siorgs oe

cetgrejtcoejh jssgsslgets oa hctgrjiy je` ljtbgljtcis iolpgtgeicgs csjssoicjtg` wctb j 4 pgriget ceirgjsg ce jeeujh frowtb rjtgs oa F@^

pgr ijpctj.

Lgjsurcef stu`get hgjrecef outiolgs cs ceirgjscefhy rgiofeczg` js

egigssjry, eot oehy aor loectorcef j sibooh systgls suiigss dut jhso aor

clprovcef gùijtcoe qujhcty. Ytu`get jibcgvglget ceaorljtcoe ije dg

usg` to ceaorl j wc`g vjrcgty oa gùijtcoe pohcicgs, ceihu`cef tbg gscfe

je` clphglgetjtcoe oa profrjls to clprovg tgjibcef je` hgjrecef

ce ihjssrools, tbg c`getcijtcoe oa hjffcef stu`gets so tbjt tbgy ije fgttbg support tbgy egg`, je` tbg provcscoe oa jpproprcjtg tgibecijh jsscs-

tjeig je` trjcecef to how-pgraorlcef tgjibgrs je` siboohs.

Pbg usg oa jssgsslget rgsuhts ce or`gr to clprovg stu`get hgjrecef

cs j irctcijh ibjhhgefg aor `gvghopcef iouetrcgs. Agw oa tbgsg iouetrcgs

lgjsurg stu`get hgjrecef hgvghs oe j rgfuhjr djscs or ce j systgljtci

ljeegr, je` tbosg tbjt ò tge` eot to usg tbg rgsuhts to ceaorl tbgcr

gùijtcoe pohcicgs. Sgt dgttgr gùijtcoe pohcicgs bjvg tbg potgetcjh to

prolotg scfecijet ceirgjsgs ce iofectcvg smchhs. Ca `gvghopcef ioue-

trcgs jrg truhy to jibcgvg gùijtcoe aor jhh, tbgy wchh egg` jsscstjeig

dotb wctb lgjsurcef tbgcr stu`get hgjrecef hgvghs je` wctb e`cef


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xcc | AOTGVOT@

wjys to trjeshjtg tbcs ceaorljtcoe ceto gaagitcvg gùijtcoe pohcicgs je`

prjitcigs.

Pbcs doom wchh dg j vjhujdhg support to tbosg gaaorts. Ct drcefs

tofgtbgr, aor tbg rst tclg, luib oa tbg gxcstcef rgsgjrib oe wbjt jitu-

jhhy worms ce trjeshjtcef jtj arol ejtcoejh jssgsslgets ceto jitcoejdhg

ceaorljtcoe je` bow to drcef tofgtbgr stjmgboh`grs ce ioevgrsjtcoes

jdout tbcs ceaorljtcoe ce wjys tbjt wchh clprovg gùijtcoe qujhcty je`

stu`get hgjrecef. Pbg doom sggms to ljxclczg je jpprgicjtcoe aor tbg

vjhug oa ejtcoejh jtj oe stu`get hgjrecef je` to jsscst iouetrcgs ce auhhy

gxphoctcef tbg ceaorljtcoe tbjt tbgcr jssgsslgets ycgh`.

Ghczjdgtb Mcef

@crgitor oa Gùijtcoe

Bulje @gvghoplget Egtworm

Vorh` Djem


15/188

J tgjl hg` dy Qceiget Frgjegy (ioesuhtjet, Bulje @gvghoplget

Egtworm, Gùijtcoe Froup, Vorh` Djem) je` Pboljs Mghhjfbje

(Gùijtcoejh Tgsgjrib Igetrg, Yt. jtrcims Iohhgfg, @udhce) prgpjrg`

tbg sgrcgs oa dooms tcthg` Ejtcoejh Jssgsslgets oa Gùijtcoejh Jibcgvg-

lget, oa wbcib tbcs cs tbg atb vohulg. Otbgr ioetrcdutors to tbgsgrcgs jrg Yyhvcj Jijej (Wfje`j Ejtcoejh Gxjlcejtcoes Dojr`), ^rug

Je`grsoe (Justrjhcje Ioueich aor Gùijtcoejh Tgsgjrib), Agrejeò

Ijrtwrcfbt (Ijej`cje Ioueich oe Hgjrecef), Kgje @uljcs (Ytjtcs-

tcis Ijej`j), Ibrcs Argglje (Justrjhcje Ioueich aor Gùijtcoejh

Tgsgjrib), Bgw Foufb (Ytjtcstcis Ijej`j), Yjrj Bowcg (Wecvgrscty

oa ^rgtorcj), Fgorfg Lorfje (Justrjhcje Ioueich aor Gùijtcoejh

Tgsgjrib), P. Yiott Lurrjy (Ytjtcstcis Ijej`j je` WEGYIO Cestc-

tutg aor Ytjtcstcis), je` Fgrry Ybcgh (Gùijtcoejh Tgsgjrib Igetrg,Yt. ^jtrcims Iohhgfg, @udhce).

Pbg worm wjs ijrrcg` out ue`gr tbg cectcjh fgegrjh crgitcoe oa Tutb

Mjfcj, `crgitor oa gùijtcoe, bgr suiigssor Ghczjdgtb Mcef, je` Todce

Bore, ljejfgr, Bulje @gvghoplget Egtworm, Gùijtcoe Froup, jt

tbg Vorh` Djem. Todgrt ^routy cectcjtg` tbg prokgit je` ljejfg` ct

uetch Jufust 4>>6. Ljrfugrctg Ihjrmg ljejfg` tbg prokgit ce cts hjtgr

stjfgs tbroufb rgvcgw je` pudhcijtcoe. Vg jrg frjtgauh aor tbg ioetrcdu-

tcoes oa tbg gxtgrejh rgvcgwgr, Jh Dgjtoe (Dostoe Iohhgfg). J``ctcoejh

bghpauh iollgets wgrg provc`g` dy ^jtrcicj Jrrgfuc, Hucs Dgevgecstg,

Ljrfugrctg Ihjrmg, Ybodjej Yosjhg, je` Glchcjej Qgfjs. Vg rgigcvg`

JIMEOVHG@FLGEPY

xccc


16/188

xcv | JIMEOVHG@FLGEPY

vjhujdhg ceput je` support arol @jvc` Bjr`cef, Jc`je Luhmgge, je`

Lyrcjl Vjcsgr. Ypgicjh tbjems jrg gxtge`g` to Bchjry Vjhsbg oa tbg

Gùijtcoejh Tgsgjrib Igetrg wbo typg` tbg ljeusircpt je` to Ljry

Tobje wbo ajichctjtg` tbg worm.

Vg tbjem tbg aohhowcef pgophg je` orfjeczjtcoes aor pgrlcsscoe to

rgproùig ljtgrcjh ce tbg tgxt; Yyhvcj Jijej, Ljrtce Jimhgy, Jdùh-

fbjec Jh-Djzzjz, Jcsbj Jh-Tou`bje, ^jtrcicj Jrrgfuc, Gùijtcoejh

je` @gvghoplgetjh Ygrvcig Igetrg (Mjtbljeù), Gùijtcoejh

Tgsgjrib Igetrg (@udhce), Gtbcopcj Gùijtcoe Zujhcty Jssurjeig

je` Gxjlcejtcoes Jfgeiy, Gxjlcejtcoes Ioueich oa Hgsotbo, HuicgeAcegttg, [gwù Fgdrgmc`je, Hjurj Frgfory, Iyetbcj Futtlje, Yjrjb

Bowcg, Cetgrejtcoejh Jssoicjtcoe aor tbg Gvjhujtcoe oa Gùijtcoejh

Jibcgvglget, Pcrtb Mbjecyj, Ljurctcus Gxjlcejtcoe Yye`cijtg,

Ihju`cj LiHjuibhje, Lcibcfje Ytjtg Dojr` oa Gùijtcoe, Ejtcoejh

Igetgr aor Gùijtcoe Ytjtcstcis oa tbg W.Y. @gpjrtlget oa Gùijtcoe,

Ejtcoejh Gùijtcoejh Tgsgjrib je` Gvjhujtcoe Igetrg (Ioholdo, Yrc

Hjemj), Dod ^routy, Wectg` Ejtcoes Gùijtcoejh, Yicgetci je` Iuh-

turjh Orfjeczjtcoe (GAJ Fhodjh Loectorcef Tgport), Ljtsgmo I.

Tjlomogej, Tgdgiij Toss, Ljurgge Yibjagr, Dgrt Ytoegdgrf, Yj`cj

Pjyyjd, je` Bjes Vjfgljmgr.

Doom `gscfe, g`ctcef, je` proùitcoe wgrg ioor`cejtg` dy Kjegt

Yjssgr je` johj Yijhjdrce oa tbg Vorh` Djems Oaig oa tbg udhcsbgr.

Pbg Crcsb Gùijtcoejh Prust Aue`, Djem Egtbgrhje`s ^jrtegrsbcp ^ro-

frjl, Gùijtcoejh Tgsgjrib Igetrg (@udhce), je` Justrjhcje Ioueich

aor Gùijtcoejh Tgsgjrib fgegroushy supportg` tbg prgpjrjtcoe je`

pudhcijtcoe oa tbg sgrcgs.


17/188

IOEAGLGE Ioeargeig `gs Lcecstrgs `g hGùijtcoe gs ^jys

Jyjet hg Arjejcs ge ^jrtjfg

CGJ Cetgrejtcoejh Jssoicjtcoe aor tbg Gvjhujtcoe oa

Gùijtcoejh Jibcgvglget

LGJ^ Lcibcfje Gùijtcoejh Jssgsslget rofrjlEJG^ W.Y. Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget oa Gùijtcoejh rofrgss

^JYGI ^rofrjllg Jejhysg gs Yystlgs Gùijtcas g

IOEAGLGE

^CTHY ^rofrgss ce Cetgrejtcoejh Tgj`cef Hctgrjiy Ytu`y

^CYJ ^rofrjllg aor Cetgrejtcoejh Ytu`get Jssgsslget

YJILGZ Youtbgre je` Gjstgre Jarcij Ioesortcul aor

Loectorcef Gùijtcoejh Zujhcty

YCLIG Ycstglj `g Lg`cice g hj Ijhc`j` g hj Gùijice(Ibchg)

PCLYY Prge`s ce Cetgrejtcoejh Ljtbgljtcis je` Yicgeig

Ytu`y

JDDTGQCJPCOEY

xv


18/188


19/188

AJIPOTY

JAAGIPCEF PBG

WYG JE@ EOEWYG

OA EJPCOEJH

JYYGYYLGEP

ACE@CEFY

:IBJ^PGT

:

Pbg ljce odkgitcvgs oa j ejtcoejh jssgsslget, js sgt

out ce vohulg : oa tbcs sgrcgs,Jssgsscef Ejtcoejh Jibcgvglget Hgvghs ceGùijtcoe, jrg to `gtgrlceg (j) bow wghh stu`gets jrg hgjrecef ce tbg

gùijtcoe systgl (wctb rgagrgeig to fgegrjh gxpgitjtcoes, jcls oa tbg

iurrciuhul, je` prgpjrjtcoe aor aurtbgr hgjrecef je` aor hcag)= (d)

wbgtbgr tbgrg cs gvc`geig oa pjrtciuhjr strgeftbs je` wgjmegssgs ce

stu`gets meowhg`fg je` smchhs= (i) wbgtbgr pjrtciuhjr sudfroups ce tbg

popuhjtcoe pgraorl poorhy= (`) wbcib ajitors jrg jssoicjtg` wctb stu-

`get jibcgvglget= (g) wbgtbgr fovgrelget stje`jr`s jrg dgcef lgt ce

tbg provcscoe oa rgsourigs= je` (a) wbgtbgr tbg jibcgvglgets oa stu-

`gets ibjefg ovgr tclg (Frgjegy je` Mghhjfbje 4>>2). Ce pursuct oa

tbgsg odkgitcvgs, tbroufb proigùrgs gstjdhcsbg` ce tbg soicjh sicgeigs,

`jtj jrg iohhgitg` arol stu`gets je` otbgr stjmgboh`grs ce tbg gùij-

tcoe systgl. Yuib `jtj iohhgitcoe sgrvgs to ljmg tbg outiolgs oa

gùijtcoejh ljejfglget je` prjitcig lorg trjespjrget je` bjs tbg

uhtcljtg purposg oa provc`cef pgrsoeegh ce tbg systgl wctb ceaorlj-

tcoe `gscfeg` to clprovg tbgcr prjitcig (Agrrgr 4>>1).

Gvc`geig oe tbg jttjcelget oa tbg odkgitcvgs oa j ejtcoejh jssgss-

lget bjs clphcijtcoes aor jssgsscef clportjet jspgits oa bow je gù-ijtcoe systgl aueitcoes wctb rgspgit to jiigss, qujhcty, gaicgeiy, je`


20/188

4 | WYCEF PBG TGYWHPY OA J EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP OA G@WIJPCOEJH JIBCGQGLGEP

gqucty (Drjue je` otbgrs 4>>1) (sgg dox :.:). Pbg jssgsslget wchh

lorg tbje hcmghy e` tbjt tbg cssugs jrg cetgrrghjtg`. Ce ljey gùij-

tcoe systgls, how-jibcgvcef siboohs tge` to sgrvg stu`gets arol csj`-

vjetjfg` djimfroue`s or j lceorcty froup= to rgigcvg tbg howgst hgvgh

oa rgsourigs (aor gxjlphg, tgxtdooms ljy jrrcvg hjtg, ca jt jhh)= je` to

bjvg `caiuhty jttrjitcef tgjibgrs dgijusg oa csohjtg` hoijtcoe or aor

gtbeci or hjefujfg rgjsoes. Ihgjrhy, jey ceaorljtcoe tbjt j ejtcoejh

jssgsslget ije provc`g jdout tbgsg cssugs sbouh` dg oa cetgrgst to j

wc`g rjefg oa stjmgboh`grs; pohctcicjes, gùijtcoe ljejfgrs, tgjibgrs,

tgjibgr trjcegrs, iurrciuhul `gvghopgrs, pjrgets, glphoygrs, je` tbgfgegrjh pudhci.

Gjrhcgr dooms ce tbcs sgrcgs `gsircdg` bow ceaorljtcoe cs odtjceg`

ce j ejtcoejh jssgsslget; bow cestrulgets to iohhgit ceaorljtcoe oe

stu`get jibcgvglget je` jssoicjtg` vjrcjdhgs jrg `gscfeg`= bow j

sjlphg oa stu`gets cs sghgitg` to rgprgsget tbg jibcgvglgets oa tbg

gùijtcoe systgl js j wbohg (or j ihgjrhy `geg` pjrt oa ct, suib js

frj`g 0 stu`gets or ::-ygjr-oh`s)= wbjt proigùrgs sbouh` dg aoh-

howg` ce iohhgitcef je` ihgjecef `jtj= je` wbjt lgtbo`s ljy dg

usg` to jejhyzg tbg `jtj. Pbcs doom tures to tbg rgportcef je` usg oa

`jtj odtjceg` ce j ejtcoejh jssgsslget wctb tbg uhtcljtg odkgitcvg oa

Cssugs oe Vbcib j Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget Ije Pbrow Hcfbt

Jiigss. Odstjihgs to jttge`cef sibooh, suib js hclctg` jvjchjdchcty oa phjigs or

`cstjeig oa stu`gets bolgs arol sibooh.

Zujhcty. Pbg qujhcty oa ceputs to je` outputs oa siboohcef, suib js tbg

rgsourigs je` ajichctcgs jvjchjdhg to support hgjrecef (rgspoescvg iurrciuhj,

tgjibgr iolpgtgeig, tgxtdooms)= cestruitcoejh prjitcigs= hgjregr-tgjibgr

cetgrjitcoes= je` stu`get hgjrecef.

Gaicgeiy. Optcljh usg oa bulje je` ejeicjh rgsourigs, rgfflgitg` ce pupch-

tgjibgr rjtco, tbroufbput oa stu`gets, je` frj`g rgpgtctcoe rjtgs.

Gqucty. ^rovcscoe oa gùijtcoejh opportuectcgs to stu`gets je` jttjcelget oa

pjrcty oa jibcgvglget aor stu`gets, crrgspgitcvg oa tbgcr ibjrjitgrcstcis, suib js

fge`gr, hjefujfg or gtbeci froup lgldgrsbcp, je` fgofrjpbci hoijtcoe.Yourig;Jutbors djsg` oe Drjue je` otbgrs 4>>1.

DOR :.:


21/188

AJIPOTY JAAGIPCEF PBG WYG JE@ EOEWYG OA EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP ACE@CEFY | 9

clprovcef tbg qujhcty oa stu`gets hgjrecef. Ct cs cetge`g` aor two

prcljry rgj`grsbcps; (j) tbosg wbo bjvg rgspoescdchcty aor prgpjrcef

jssgsslget rgports je` aor iolluecijtcef je` `cssglcejtcef e`-

cefs je` (d) usgrs oa tbosg e`cefs.

Pbcs cetroùitory ibjptgr j``rgssgs vg topcis. Acrst, ct `gsircdgs

jspgits oa tbg pohctcijh ioetgxt ce wbcib j ejtcoejh jssgsslget cs ijrrcg`

out je` tbgcr clphcijtcoes aor uscef jssgsslget e`cefs. Ygioe`, ct `cs-

iussgs tbg cssug oa jiiouetjdchcty, wbcib cs j ljkor ioeigre ce ljey

fovgrelget j`lcecstrjtcoes je` oeg wctb wbcib ejtcoejh jssgsslget

jitcvctcgs bjvg dgge ihosghy c`getcg`. Pbcr`, ct eotgs tbjt tbg qujhcty oatbg cestrulgets usg` ce j ejtcoejh jssgsslget to odtjce ceaorljtcoe

rghjtg` to stu`gets hgjrecef (tbg meowhg`fg, smchhs, jttctu`gs, je` bjdcts

tbjt stu`gets bjvg jiqucrg` js j rgsuht oa tbgcr siboohcef) bjs clportjet

clphcijtcoes aor tbg usg oa e`cefs to clprovg hgjrecef. Aourtb, ct

ioesc`grs bow ibjrjitgrcstcis oa j ejtcoejh jssgsslget (igesus djsg`,

sjlphg djsg`, or cetgrejtcoejh) jaagit tbg wjy e`cefs ije dg usg`.

Acejhhy, ct outhcegs posscdhg rgjsoes aor tbg hjim oa usg oa ejtcoejh

jssgsslget e`cefs.

PBG ÔHCPCIJH IOEPGRP OA J EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP

Jhtboufb oeg ejtcoejh jssgsslget ljy hoom vgry luib hcmg jeotbgr

ce ljey rgspgits, tbgrg jrg, ce ajit, `caagrgeigs dgtwgge jssgsslgets

tbjt bjvg clphcijtcoes aor usg. @caagrgeigs ce `gscfe, clphglgetj-

tcoe, je` usg jrcsg arol tbg ajit tbjt jssgsslget cs j pohctcijh pbg-

eolgeoe (js wghh js j tgibecijh oeg), rgfflgitcef tbg jfge`j, tgescoes,cestctutcoejh eorls, je` ejturg oa powgr rghjtcoes dgtwgge pohctcijh

jitors. C`getcaycef tbg pohctcijh ioetgxt ce wbcib je jssgsslget cs

ijrrcg` out ije bghp gxphjce `caagrgeigs dgtwgge iouetrcgs ce tbgcr

gvjhujtcoe strjtgfcgs (Dgevgecstg 4>>4). Gvge wctbce tbg Wectg`

Ytjtgs, jiiouetjdchcty systgls `caagr arol stjtg to stjtg, rgfflgitcef

j`lcecstrjtcvg `gicscoes je` trj`ctcoes tbjt bjvg gvohvg` ovgr tclg

(Hcee 4>>7d).

Pbg rohg oa jssgsslget (je` gvjhujtcoe) ce tbg gxgricsg oa ioetrohje` powgr ce gùijtcoejh ljttgrs bjs sgvgrjh ajigts. Ce tbg rst phjig,

jssgsslget orcfcejtgs ce j pohctcijh proigss, oatge cespcrg` je` ajsbcoeg`


22/188


dy pohctcijh lotcvjtcoes. Ygioe`, tbg aorl oa je jssgsslget wchh dg tbg

rgsuht oa iolpgtctcoe jloef soicjh jitors wbo vcg to cefflugeig tbg

`gtgrlcejtcoe oa eorls je` vjhugs tbjt tbg stjtg wchh prcvchgfg. Pbcr`,

je jssgsslget ije jaagit soicjh rghjtcoes dgtwgge, aor gxjlphg, gùij-

tcoe ljejfgrs je` tgjibgrs or tgjibgrs je` pjrgets. Aourtb, ioetroh

ovgr tbg csposctcoe je` cetgrprgtjtcoe oa jssgsslget outiolgs scfecgs

jutborcty to cefflugeig pohciy, rgsourig jhhoijtcoe, je` pudhci pgrigp-

tcoes. Acejhhy, je jssgsslget ije cevohvg lgibjecsls aor rgfuhjtcoe

je` aor boh`cef soicjh jitors jiiouetjdhg, clphcicthy or gxphcicthy, aor

outiolgs (Dgevgecstg 4>>4).Pbg soicjh jitors wctb tbg jdchcty to cefflugeig tbg ejturg oa je js-

sgsslgetje` tbg wjys e`cefs jrg usg`jrg ljey. Bow powgr

pohctcis jitujhhy phjy out ce j iouetry wchh `gpge` oe j euldgr oa

ajitors, suib js tbg aohhowcef;

Pbg gxtget to wbcib `gicscoes rgfjr`cef gùijtcoejh provcscoe (aor

gxjlphg, ejeicef, iurrciuhj) jrg tbg aueitcoe oa igetrjh or `gige-

trjhczg` fovgrejeig

Pbg gxcstgeig je` strgeftb oa ceaorljh cestctutcoes, egtworms, je`spgicjh cetgrgst froups, dotb wctbce je` outsc`g fovgrelget

Pbg strgeftb oa tgjibgrs uecoes, wbcib ije phjy j mgy rohg ce pohciy

clphglgetjtcoe, ca eot ce pohciy aorljtcoe

Pbg rohg oa gxtgrejh (luhtchjtgrjh je` dchjtgrjh) jfgeicgs ce sgesctcz-

cef j`lcecstrjtcoes to j``rgss ioe`ctcoes ce tbgcr gùijtcoe systgl

je` ce provc`cef or supportcef `gvghoplget oa tbg ijpjicty to `gjh

wctb tbgl.

Pbg clphcijtcoes oa j pohctcijh stjeig aor j ejtcoejh jssgsslgetije dg chhustrjtg` dy two gxjlphgs (Dgevgecstg 4>>4). Ce Ibchg,

glpbjscs cs phjig` oe jiiouetjdchcty to tbg pudhci, tbgrgdy pro-

lotcef ljrmgt iolpgtctcoe, wbcib cs ceùig` dy pudhcijtcoe oa tbg

rgsuhts oa je jssgsslget aor ce`cvcùjh siboohs. Zuctg j `caagrget

stjeig cs rgprgsgetg` ce Wrufujy, ce wbcib tbg stjtg jiigpts rgspoe-

scdchcty aor stu`get jibcgvglget je` aor provc`cef tbg rgsourigs

rgqucrg` to support stu`get hgjrecefpjrtciuhjrhy tbjt oa tbg lost

ue`grprcvchgfg` sgitors oa tbg popuhjtcoe.J aurtbgr clportjet jspgit oa tbg pohctcijh ioetgxt ce wbcib j

ejtcoejh jssgsslget cs ijrrcg` out tbjt bjs clphcijtcoes aor tbg usg oa


23/188


e`cefs cs tbg gxtget to wbcib je gùijtcoe systgl cs opge or ihosg`.

Yolg systgls bjvg dgge `gsircdg` js gxihuscoejry. Ce suib systgls,

jiigss to clportjet ceaorljtcoe jdout jspgits oa tbg gùijtcoe sys-

tgl, ceihu`cef rgsuhts oa rgsgjrib, cs hclctg` to pohciy ghctgs or sgecor

`gicscoe ljmgrs, wbo ò eot pgrlct pudhci `cssglcejtcoe. Jt tbg

otbgr gxtrglg, ce lorg opge systgls, gaaorts wchh dg lj`g to jttrjit

tbg cetgrgst oa tbg lg`cj, to lodchczg pohctcijh aorigs, je` to fgegrjtg

`gdjtg jdout gùijtcoejh ljttgrs (Tgclgrs 4>>9). Je cetgrlg`cjtg

posctcoe rghgvjet to tbg usg oa ejtcoejh jssgsslget `jtj cs oeg ce

wbcib tbg icriuhjtcoe oa ceaorljtcoe jdout tbg gùijtcoe systgl,ceihu`cef stu`get jibcgvglget `jtj, wbchg eot totjhhy rgstrcitg`, cs

hclctg`. Aor gxjlphg, ce Wrufujy, stu`get jibcgvglget `jtj jrg ce-

tge`g` prcljrchy aor ioesulptcoe wctbce tbg gùijtcoe iolluecty

(Dgevgecstg 4>>4).

JIIOWEPJDCHCPS

Jiiouetjdchcty lovglgets, ce rgspoesg to pohctcijh, soicjh, je` gio-

eolci prgssurgs, bjvg ce rgiget `gij`gs jttjceg` ceirgjscef clpor-

tjeig ce fovgrelget j`lcecstrjtcoes ce ljey iouetrcgs. Pbcs sgitcoe

ioesc`grs jiiouetjdchcty ce tbg ioetgxt oa gùijtcoe je`, ce pjrtciu-

hjr, aoiusgs oe tbg wjys cetgrprgtjtcoe oa tbg ioeigpt jaagits tbg usg

oa ejtcoejh jssgsslget `jtj. Ct sbouh` dg doreg ce lce` tbjt luib

oa tbg `csioursg cs djsg` oe gxpgrcgeig ce tbg Wectg` Ytjtgs je`

aoiusgs oe tbg jiiouetjdchcty oa siboohs (Li@oeeghh 4>>7).

Pbg `gvghoplget oa jiiouetjdchcty lovglgets ce tbg pudhci sgi-

tor (ceihu`cef gùijtcoe) ije dg rghjtg` to j vjrcgty oa ajitors tbjt jrg

eot lutujhhy gxihuscvg, ceihu`cef tbg aohhowcef;

Pbg egg` to ljejfg ectg (je` ce solg ijsgs `girgjscef) rgsourigs

je` to ceirgjsg output aor j fcvge jlouet oa ceput.

Pbg usg oa phjeecef je` ljejfglget c`gjs tbjt jrg dorrowg` arol

tbg duscegss worh`, pjrtciuhjrhy oegs rghjtcef to qujhcty jssurjeig,

iustolgr sjtcsajitcoe, je` ioetceuous clprovglget (agjturgs oatbg Egw udhci Ljejfglget lovglget je` j iorporjtcst jpprojib

to j`lcecstrjtcoe). Yuib ioeigpts ljy, ce ture, cevohvg `gecef


24/188


pgraorljeig ce tgrls oa rgsuhts, sgttcef pgraorljeig tjrfgts, uscef

pgraorljeig ce`cijtors to `gtgrlceg tbg gxtget to wbcib tjrfgts

jrg lgt, clphglgetcef strjtgfci je` opgrjtcoejh phjeecef, je` djs-

cef rgsourig jhhoijtcoe oe pgraorljeig.

Pbg cetroùitcoe oa ljrmgt lgibjecsls oa cstrcdutcoe je` ioetroh

cevohvcef ceigetcvg sibglgs, iolpgtctcoe, ioetrjitcef, je` ju`ctcef,

je` tbg trjesagr oa powgr rghjtcoes ceto sgha-ioetroh lgibjecsls ce

je gaaort to lceclczg tbg egg` aor gxtgrejh survgchhjeig je` to ljmg

ce`cvcùjhs cetgrejhczg tbg eorls, vjhugs, je` gxpgitjtcoes oa stjmg-

boh`grs je` tbg lgetjhcty rgqucrg` to fovgre tbglsghvgs. J lovglget towjr` lorg gvc`geig-djsg` prjitcig. Yuib j lovg-

lget rgqucrgs `jtj to support ihjcls tbjt ce`cvcùjhs or cestctutcoes

bjvg pgraorlg` proagsscoejhhy je` gaicgethy, js wghh js `jtj oe

wbcib to djsg `gicscoes rgfjr`cef rgsourig jhhoijtcoe (sgg Dhjhoim

:333= Ihgff je` Ihjrmg 4>>:= @jvcgs :333= Bopljee je` Drcegm

4>>6= Mghhjfbje je` Lj`jus 4>>>).

J ejtcoejh jssgsslget ts wghh wctb ljey oa tbgsg ajitors dy provc`-

cef rghjtcvghy sclphg stjtcstcijh ceaorljtcoe (gvc`geig) jdout tbg gùij-tcoe systgl oe j tclghy djscs. Aurtbgrlorg, ct ije c`getcay sudfroups or

uects ce tbg popuhjtcoe tbjt lggt j spgicg` stje`jr` je` oegs tbjt ò

eot. Pbg ceaorljtcoe ije dg usg` aor phjeecef je` ljejfglgetce

pjrtciuhjr, aor `gic`cef oe tbg jitcoe rgqucrg` to clprovg qujhcty or

gaicgeiy. Ct ije jhso dg usg` to boh` soicjh jitors clphcicthy or gxphcicthy

jiiouetjdhg, tbus phjicef oe tbgl tbg oeus aor ibjefg or j`kustlget.

Pbg aoius oe jiiouetjdchcty vjrcgs tbroufbout tbg worh`, ueaoh`-

cef wctb `caagrget spgg`s je` clpjit (Bopljee je` Drcegm 4>>6). Ctcs tbus eot surprcscef tbjt tbg purposgs je` fojhs oa ljey ejtcoejh

jssgsslgetspjrtciuhjrhy ce `gvghopcef iouetrcgsor tbg wjys suib

jssgsslgets t ceto j systgl oa jiiouetjdchcty ljy eot dg vgry ihgjr.

Ce j sctujtcoe ce wbcib jiiouetjdchcty pohcicgs jrg eot wghh gvghopg`,

ejtcoejh jssgsslget e`cefs jrg uehcmghy to bjvg luib gaagit

(Bopljee je` Drcegm 4>>6). Bowgvgr, jt hgjst je clphcict rgiof-

ectcoe oa jiiouetjdchcty wouh` sggl to dg egigssjry ca usg cs to dg

lj`g oa jssgsslget rgsuhts. Otbgrwcsg, bow jrg gicscoes to dg lj`g

jdout tbg jitcoe tbjt egg`s to dg tjmge aohhowcef je jssgsslget je`

tbg ce`cvcùjhs or cestctutcoes tbjt wchh tjmg tbg jitcoe?


25/188


Jsscfecef jiiouetjdchcty to tbg ljey stjmgboh`grs cevohvg` ce j

systgl js iolphgx js gùijtcoe cs eot j trcvcjh ljttgr. Ycx qugstcoes

tbjt ije bghp ihjrcay tbg cssugs cevohvg` lgrct ioesc`grjtcoe ce tbcs

tjsmpjrtciuhjrhy wbge ejtcoejh jssgsslget rgsuhts jrg usg` to boh`

siboohs je` tgjibgrs jiiouetjdhg.

Ybouh` je Jiiouetjdchcty Yystgl Aoius oe Outiolgs?

J aoius oe tbg outiolgs oa gùijtcoece pjrtciuhjr, stu`get hgjre-

cefije dg jttrcdutg` to tbg aorljh rgiofectcoe je` ioeigre tbjtljey ibch`rge spge` j ioesc`grjdhg jlouet oa tclg ce sibooh wctbout

jiqucrcef usgauh meowhg`fg je` smchhs. Pbg egg` to gesurg tbjt ibch-

`rge jitujhhy hgjre js j rgsuht oa tbgcr gùijtcoejh gxpgrcgeigs wjs

bcfbhcfbtg` jt tbg Vorh` Ioeagrgeig oe Gùijtcoe aor Jhh bgh` ce

Koltcge, Pbjchje`, ce :33> (WEGYIO :33>) je` jfjce ce tbg @jmjr

Arjlgworm aor Jitcoe (WEGYIO 4>>>).

Po usg `jtj oe tbg outiolgs oa gùijtcoe js tbg sohg djscs oa

jiiouetjdchcty, bowgvgr, cs to hosg scfbt oa tbg ajit tbjt jspgits oa pro-

vcscoe (aor gxjlphg, sibooh duch`cefs, iurrciuhj, gùijtcoejh ljtgrcjhs,

tgjibgrs cestruitcoejh tgibecqugs, je` prgpjrjtcoe jitcvctcgs) jrg jhso

rghgvjet ce jssgsscef qujhcty. Pbgsg ajitors jrg clportjet ca aor eo otb-

gr rgjsoe tbje tbjt tbg qujhcty oa stu`get hgjrecef `gpge`s oe tbgl.

Ytu`gets ijeeot dg gxpgitg` to dgiolg proicget uehgss je` uetch

tbg ioetget je` proigss oa tbgcr ihjssrool cestruitcoe wghh prgpjrgs

tbgl to ò so (Bjgrtgh je` Bgrlje 4>>7; 4:).

Ybouh` je Jiiouetjdchcty Yystgl Aoius oe IofectcvgOutiolgs?

Lost pgophg wouh` prodjdhy jfrgg tbjt siboohcef bjs ljey purposgs

solg pgrsoejh (aor gxjlphg, stu`gets iofectcvg, lorjh, je` soicjh

`gvghoplget) je` solg soicgtjh (aor gxjlphg, prolotcef soicjh

iobgscoe or ejtcoe duch`cef). Lost wouh` prodjdhy jhso jfrgg tbjt

iofectcvg outiolgs jrg prgglceget je`, lorgovgr, tbjt gvghoplget

oa tbg hctgrjiy je` eulgrjiy smchhs lgjsurg` ce jhh ejtcoejh jssgss-

lgets cs egigssjry js j aoue`jtcoe aor stu`gets hjtgr gùijtcoejhprofrgss. Ct iouh` bjr`hy dg ioesc`grg` sjtcsajitory, bowgvgr, ca totjh


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rghcjeig oe tbgsg lgjsurgs aor jiiouetjdchcty purposgs wgrg to rgsuht

ce tbg egfhgit oa otbgr vjhug` outiolgs oa siboohcef rghjtg` to jttc-

tu`gs, vjhugs, lotcvjtcoe, jspcrjtcoes, sgha-ioeigpt, jdchcty to worm ce

froups, orjh prgsgetjtcoe smchhs, je` soicjhczjtcoe. Glphoygrs je`

gioeolcsts bjvg c`getcg` ljey oa tbgsg outiolgs (oatge `gsircdg`

jssoat smchhs) js vgry clportjet ce fjcecef glphoylget (Ibgef je`

Scp 4>>1).

Ybouh` je Jiiouetjdchcty Yystgl Dg Djsg` oe j YcefhgLgjsurg oa Ytu`get Jibcgvglget?

Ce lost ejtcoejh jssgsslgets, j scefhg tgst (tboufb ct ljy bjvg j eul-

dgr oa aorls) cs usg` to jssgss stu`gets iolpgtgeig ce j iurrciuhul

jrgj (aor gxjlphg, ljtbgljtcis, rgj`cef, or sicgeig). Pbus, j qugs-

tcoe jrcsgs; gvge ca stu`gets iofectcvg jibcgvglget cs jiigptg` js j

hgfctcljtg irctgrcoe oa tbg qujhcty oa siboohcef, cs ct rgjsoejdhg to djsg

tbg jssgsslget oa tbjt qujhcty (je` j posscdhg jsscfecef oa jiiouet-

jdchcty) oe j scefhg lgjsurg oa tbg pgraorljeig oa stu`gets jt oeg ortwo frj`g hgvghs?

Pbg jeswgr wouh` sggl to dg eo. J tgst ije provc`g oehy j hclctg`

jlouet oa ceaorljtcoe jdout stu`get jibcgvglget (sgg dox :.4). Je

jiiurjtg pciturg oa stu`get hgjrecef, wbgtbgr hgjrecef cs dgcef js-

sgssg` jt tbg ejtcoejh hgvgh or jt tbg hgvgh oa tbg ce`cvc`ujh sibooh,

rgqucrgs luhtcphg lgjsurgs oa jibcgvglget (Fuchaoyhg 4>>1).

Ca j tgst cs hclctg` to luhtcphg-ibocig ctgls, j``ctcoejh prodhgls

jrg hcmghy to jrcsg, dgijusg ct cs gxtrglghy `caiuht, uscef tbjt aorljt,

to lgjsurg bcfbgr-hgvgh iofectcvg smchhs.

Gvjhujtcef Jibcgvglget oe Hclctg` Gvc`geig

Jey systgl tbjt bcefgs tbg gvjhujtcoe oa je getcrg sibooh oe oeg tgst siorg

jvgrjfg arol oeg froup oa stu`gets jt oeg frj`g hgvgh ijeeot bopg to

jiiurjtghy jssgss tbjt sibooh.

Yourig;Fuchaoyhg 4>>1; :9.

DOR :.4


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Ybouh` Yjeitcoes Dg Jttjibg` to ^graorljeig oe j

Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget?

J mgy `gicscoe ce tbg usg oa ejtcoejh jssgsslget e`cefs cs wbgtbgr

sjeitcoes sbouh` dg jttjibg` to stu`get pgraorljeig. Jhtboufb solg

jttrcdutcoe oa jiiouetjdchcty, gvge ca eot gxphcicthy jimeowhg`fg`, lcfbt

dg gxpgitg` jatgr je jssgsslget, ct ògs eot egigssjrchy aohhow tbjt

sjeitcoes wchh dg jpphcg`. Ce solg ejtcoejh jssgsslgets, bowgvgr, sjei-

tcoes jrg jpphcg`, usujhhy to siboohs, tgjibgrs, je` ce solg ijsgs stu-

`gets. Gxjlphgs oa suib cestjeigs ije dg aoue` ce tbg jssgsslget oa tbg

ejtcoejh iurrciuhul ce Gefhje`, wbcib wjs cetroùig` prcljrchy js j

tooh oa jiiouetjdchcty, je` ce sgvgrjh stjtg-hgvgh jssgsslgets ce tbg Wectg`

Ytjtgs. Ce suib ijsgs, je jssgsslget dgiolgs j bcfb-stjmgs opgrjtcoe aor

siboohs, wctb j vjrcgty oa rgwjr`s or puecsblgets jttjibg` to stu`get

pgraorljeig. Yiboohs or tgjibgrs ljy rgigcvg rgwjr`s ce tbg aorl oa

loegtjry doeusgs, tgjibgrs ljy dg `cslcssg`, je` stu`gets ljy dg

`gecg` prolotcoe or frjùjtcoe.

J euldgr oa jrfulgets support tbg jttjiblget oa bcfb stjmgs to

stu`get pgraorljeig oe j tgst. Acrst, ct geiourjfgs ce`cvcùjhs (cepjrtciuhjr, tgjibgrs) to cetgrejhczg tbg eorls, vjhugs, je` gxpgitj-

tcoes oa stjmgboh`grs (ce pjrtciuhjr, tbosg oa tbg lcecstry oa gùij-

tcoe) je` to jiigpt rgspoescdchcty aor ioeaorlcef to tbgl. Ygioe`, ct

supports tbg opgrjtcoe oa ljrmgt lgibjecsls ce tbg gùijtcoe sys-

tgl, cevohvcef iolpgtctcoe, ioetrjitcef, je` ju`ctcef. Pbcr`, ct

sgrvgs to aoius tgjibgr je` stu`get ge`gjvors oe tbg fojhs oa

cestruitcoe je` to provc`g stje`jr`s oa gxpgitg` jibcgvglget tbjt

stu`gets je` tgjibgrs ije jspcrg to, tbus irgjtcef j systgl oa lgj-surglget-`rcvge cestruitcoe. Ce tbcs sctujtcoe, oeg lcfbt rgjsoejdhy

gxpgit stu`get pgraorljeig to clprovg ca cestruitcoe bjs dgge

ihosghy jhcfeg` wctb je jssgsslget cestrulget. Clprovg` pgraor-

ljeig, bowgvgr, ljy eot dg gvc`get wbge stu`get jibcgvglget cs

jssgssg` oe otbgr cestrulgets. Vbge tbg jibcgvglget fjces ovgr

tclg oe tbg W.Y. Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget oa Gùijtcoejh ^rofrgss oa

stu`gets ce stjtgs tbjt bjvg bcfb stjmgs jttjibg` to tbgcr stjtg-hgvgh

jssgsslgets jrg iolpjrg` wctb tbg fjces oa stu`gets ce stjtgs tbjt

ò eot bjvg bcfb-stjmgs tgstcef, tbg e`cefs jrg jldcfuous (Jlrgce

je` Dgrhcegr 4>>4= Drjue 4>>0).


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AJIPOTY JAAGIPCEF PBG WYG JE@ EOEWYG OA EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP ACE@CEFY | ::

siboohs jrg rjemg` ce tbg or`gr oa tbgcr pgraorljeig. Pbg gxpgitjtcoe

oa tbcs jpprojib cs tbjt ct wchh ceùig iolpgtctcoe jloef siboohs je`,

ce ture, clprovg stu`get jibcgvglget (Tgclgrs 4>>9). Pbg ceaorlj-

tcoe ije dg usg` to ceaorl pjrgets je` iolluectcgs, je` ce solg

sctujtcoes, pjrgets ije usg tbg ceaorljtcoe to ljmg ibocigs jdout

siboohs aor tbgcr ibch`rge. Gvge wbge sibooh ibocig cs eot je optcoe

or wbge pjrgets ò eot usg jssgsslget rgsuhts to ljmg suib j ibocig

(Qgfjs je` ^gtrow 4>>2), tbg lgrg pudhcijtcoe oa ceaorljtcoe jdout

tbg pgraorljeig oa siboohs ije prgssurg siboohs to clprovg tbgcr pgr-

aorljeig.Ce j``ctcoe to tbg j`vgrsg clpjits oe tgjibcef je` hgjrecef tbjt

bjvg jhrgj`y dgge hcstg` ce rghjtcoe to bcfb-stjmgs jssgsslget proig-

ùrgs, sgvgrjh otbgr prodhgls ije dg jetcicpjtg` wbge rgsuhts jrg ijh-

iuhjtg` je` pudhcsbg` aor ce`cvcùjh siboohs (Ihotaghtgr je` Hj``

:331= Mjeg je` Ytjcfgr 4>>4= Mghhjfbje je` Frgjegy 4>>:= Hcee

4>>>). Acrst, tbg pgraorljeig oa siboohs (je` tbus tbgcr posctcoe ce j

hgjfug tjdhg) ljy vjry gpge`cef oe tbg outiolg tbjt cs jssgssg` (aor

gxjlphg, rgj`cef or ljtbgljtcis jibcgvglget). Ygioe`, gvge rjem-

cefs tbjt jrg djsg` oe tbg sjlg lgjsurg ije vjry `gpge`cef oe tbg

irctgrcoe oa suiigss tbjt cs usg` (aor gxjlphg, lgje siorg or tbg

proportcoe oa stu`gets wbo odtjce bcfb siorgs). Pbcr`, tbg hjim oa

prgicscoe ce jssgsslget proigùrgs lgjes tbjt sljhh `caagrgeigs

dgtwgge siboohs (wbcib ije bjvg j hjrfg clpjit oe tbgcr rjem) wchh dg

ùg to ibjeig. Aourtb, jibcgvglget siorgs ije vjry arol ygjr to ygjr

dgijusg oa ajitors tbjt jrg outsc`g tbg ioetroh oa tbg sibooh (aor

gxjlphg, `caagrgeigs ce ioborts oa stu`gets). Yljhh siboohs jrg pjr-

tciuhjrhy vuhegrjdhg to tbcs prodhgl. Acatb, tbg jibcgvglgets oa stu-`gets ce j sibooh rgprgsget lorg tbje tbg gaaorts oa tgjibgrs, js chhus-

trjtg` dy tbg ajit tbjt sibooh rjemcefs djsg` oe jibcgvglget je`

soicogioeolci `jtj jrg jhlost c`getcijh (Qgfjs je` ^gtrow 4>>2).

Ycxtb, to tjmg jiiouet oa ajitors ovgr wbcib tbg sibooh bjs eo ioetroh

(aor gxjlphg, stu`get jdchcty, bolg gevcroelget), tbg lgje oa fjces

ce stu`get tgst siorgs ùrcef j ygjr ljy dg usg` js tbg ce`gx oa j

siboohs pgraorljeig. Bowgvgr, tbcs lgjsurg tge`s to sbow vgry hct-

thg dgtwgge-sibooh vjrcjeig je` bjs dgge tbgrgaorg aoue` uesjtcsaji-tory. Aurtbgrlorg, ct ogs eot tjmg ceto jiiouet tbg ajit tbjt tbg rjtg

oa stu`gets frowtb cs rghjtg` to tbgcr cectcjh jibcgvglgets. Lorg


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:4 | WYCEF PBG TGYWHPY OA J EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP OA G@WIJPCOEJH JIBCGQGLGEP

sopbcstcijtg` stjtcstcijh jpprojibgs, wbcib tjmg ceto jiiouet j rjefg oa

ajitors ovgr wbcib siboohs o eot bjvg ioetroh, ljy dg usg` ce ijhiuhjt-

cef sibooh fjce siorgs (vjhug-j``g` lo`ghs). ^rodhgls tbjt jrcsg wctb

tbgsg jpprojibgs jrg tbg iolphgxcty oa tbg j`lcecstrjtcvg proigùrgs

egg`g` to iohhgit tbg jtj, tbg hgvgh oa stjtcstcijh gxpgrtcsg rgqucrg` aor

jejhyscs, tbg `caiuhtcgs ce tbg ibocig oa vjrcjdhgs to dg ceihu`g` ce stj-

tcstcijh lo`ghs, je` tbg ajit tbjt j`kustlget aor prcor jibcgvglget ljy

rgsuht ce howgr gxpgitjtcoes aor how-jibcgvcef stu`gets.

Acejhhy, hgjfug tjdhgs cevctg iorrupt prjitcigs, suib js gesurcef tbjt

how-jibcgvcef stu`gets o eot tjmg pjrt ce tbg jssgsslget or aoiuscefoe tbg pgraorljeig oa dor`grhceg stu`gets to doost tbg lgje siorg oa

j sibooh. Ajhsg ceaorljtcoe oe ioe`ctcoes ce siboohs ljy dg provc`g`

(js oiiurrg` ce Ibchg) to ljecpuhjtg tbg soicogioeolci ijtgforczj-

tcoe oa tbg sibooh ca j how ijtgfory jttrjits dgegts.

Vbo Ybouh` Dg Tgfjr`g` js Jiiouetjdhg?

J ljkor jrfulget jfjcest jttjibcef bcfb stjmgs aor siboohs je`

tgjibgrs to stu`get pgraorljeig ce j ejtcoejh jssgsslget cs tbjt je

jssgsslget ògs eot c`getcay tbg jspgits oa jibcgvglget tbjt ije dg

jttrcdutg` to siboohs or tgjibgrs. Gvge j iursory rgfflgitcoe oe tbg wc`g

rjefg oa ajitors tbjt cetgrjit to jaagit stu`get pgraorljeig sbouh`

ijusg oeg to pjusg dgaorg jsscfecef jiiouetjdchcty. Pbg ajitors ije dg

c`getcg` js (j) ibjrjitgrcstcis oa stu`gets, ceihu`cef tbgcr gjrhcgr

jibcgvglgets= (d) ioe`ctcoes ce wbcib stu`gets hcvg, ceihu`cef ajlchy

je` iolluecty rgsourigs je` support= (i) gùijtcoe pohcicgs je` tbg

rgsourigs je` support, ceihu`cef iurrciuhj je` tgjibgr prgpjrjtcoe,tbjt jrg provc`g` dy tbg rghgvjet pudhci jutborctcgs= (`) sibooh ioe`c-

tcoes je` rgsourigs, ceihu`cef fovgrejeig je` ljejfglget= je` (g)

iolpgtgeig oa tgjibgrs (Mghhjfbje je` Frgjegy 4>>:).

Ct sggls rgjsoejdhg to gxpgit tbjt tbg ce`cvcùjhs or cestctutcoes

jssoicjtg` wctb tbgsg ajitors sbouh` dg bgh` rgspoescdhg je` jiiouet-

jdhg oehy aor tbg ljttgrs ovgr wbcib tbgy bjvg ioetroh. Pbus, rgspoe-

scdchcty cs sbjrg` dy (j) stu`gets= (d) tgjibgrs= (i) siboohs= (`) pohciy

ljmgrs, j`lcecstrjtors, je` ljejfgrs oa tbg sibooh systgl (jt ejtcoejh,stjtg, rgfcoejh, or luecicpjh hgvgh, `gpge`cef oe bow tbg gùijtcoe

systgl cs orfjeczg`)= (g) provc`grs oa support sgrvcigs (iurrciuhul


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Ljey ejtcoejh jssgsslgets, jt hgjst clphcicthy, rgiofeczg tbg rohg

oa ajitors outsc`g tbg sibooh ce `gtgrlcecef stu`get jibcgvglget.

Gvge ce bcfb-stjmgs jssgsslgets, tgst rgsuhts jrg oatge prgsgetg` sgp-

jrjtghy aor siboohs, `gpge`cef oe tbg soicogioeolci stjtus oa tbg

stu`gets wbol tbgy sgrvg. Ytu`gets siorgs ljy jhso dg j`kustg` to

tjmg jiiouet oa tbg ibjrjitgrcstcis oa stu`gets, suib js prcor jibcgvg-

lgets or tbg soicogioeolci stjtus oa tbgcr ajlchcgs. Lorgovgr, gvge

wbge bcfb stjmgs jrg jttjibg`, j``ctcoejh rgsourigs wchh usujhhy dg

provc`g` ce siboohs gxpgrcgeicef `caiuhty. Yuib jitcoe jiigpts tbjt

tgjibgrs wbo jrg eot pgraorlcef wghh ljy egg` jsscstjeig je` sus-tjceg` proagsscoejh `gvghoplget (Hcee 4>>>).

J ioesc`grjtcoe oa tbg vjrcgty oa stjmgboh`grs tbjt ije jaagit stu-

`gets hgjrecef supports tbg ioeihuscoe tbjt jssgsscef jiiouetjdchcty cs j

iolphgx ljttgr je` sbouh` eot dg djsg` oe tbg hclctg` stjtcstcis tbjt j

ejtcoejh jssgsslget provc`gs. Ce tbg ijsg oa tgjibgrs, jssgsscef jiiouet-

jdchcty rgqucrgs j ihcecijh ku`flget tbjt tjmgs jiiouet oa j rjefg oa aji-

tors, ceihu`cef tbg icriulstjeigs ce wbcib tbgy tgjib. Yuib ku`flgets

jrg dgst lj`g dy j proagsscoejh (j bgj` tgjibgr, cespgitor, or supgrvc-

sor). @gic`cef oe tbg jiiouetjdchcty oa otbgr stjmgboh`grs cs gqujhhy

iolphgx. ôhctcicjes jrg jiiouetjdhg to tbg ghgitorjtg ce j `gloirjtci

systgl, dut ct cs ajr arol odvcous wbjt prcorcty ictczges fcvg to gùij-

tcoe, luib hgss to tbg jibcgvglgets oa stu`gets, wbge tbgy ijst tbgcr

votgs. Gùijtcoe ljejfgrs jrg jiiouetjdhg to tbgcr supgrcors je`

pohctcijh ljstgrs aor tbg pgraorljeig oa tbgcr ùtcgs, dut jfjce ct cs eot

odvcous wbgtbgr stu`get jibcgvglget sbouh` dg j ioesc`grjtcoe. Pbg

rglotgegss oa gùijtcoe ljejfgrs arol tbg jitujh worm oa tbg sibooh,

ce ioetrjst to tbg posctcoe oa tgjibgrs, wouh` prodjdhy gesurg tbjt stu-`get jibcgvglget ògs eot phjy j rohg ce jssgsscef tbgcr pgraorljeig.

Frgjtgr ihjrcty je` trjespjrgeiy jdout tbg rgspoescdchcty je`

jiiouetjdchcty oa jhh ce`cvcùjhs je` cestctutcoes tbjt ioetrcdutg to

tbg outiolgs oa tbg gùijtcoe systgl (ceihu`cef stu`get hgjrecef)

sbouh` sgrvg to rglovg ljey oa tbg jldcfuctcgs tbjt gxcst ce iur-

rget jiiouetjdchcty systgls. Aurtbgrlorg, usg oa je jiiouetjdchcty

systgl tbjt ceihu`gs jhh ce`cvcùjhs, cestctutcoes, je` jfgeicgs tbjt

gxgricsg ioetroh ovgr tbg rgsourigs je` jitcvctcgs oa siboohs sbouh`sgrvg to aoius tbg gegrfcgs oa jhh cevohvg` oe pgraorlcef tbg tjsms

aor wbcib tbgy jrg rgspoescdhg (Ihgff je` Ihjrmg 4>>:).


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tbjt, ce ture, aostgr tbg `gvghoplget oa vjhug` meowhg`fg je` smchhs

(sgg Arg`grcmsge je` Iohhces :323).

Po sgiurg j`gqujtg rgprgsgetjtcoe oa j òljce or ioestruitor

oa odkgitcvgs or sudòljces (aor gxjlphg, ioetget strje`s or smchhs

ce ljtbgljtcis)j tgst sbouh` ioetjce je j`gqujtg euldgr oa

ctgls. Pbg sljhh euldgr oa ctgls ce solg ejtcoejh jssgsslgets lust

rjcsg qugstcoes jdout tbgcr j`gqujiy ce tbcs rgspgit. Aor gxjlphg,

tbg euldgr oa ctgls ce tgsts ce Hjtce Jlgrcije jssgsslgets (4>0>,

gxigpt ce Drjzch) lgjes tbjt ioetget iovgrjfg bjs dgge poor. Aur-

tbgrlorg, ct cs `caiuht to kustcay j vcgw tbjt ljstgry oa j spgiciodkgitcvg ije dg gtgrlceg` wctb oehy tbrgg or aour ctgls (Foezhgz

4>>4). Pbcs sort oa cej`gqujiy cs dy eo lgjes hclctg` to ejtcoejh

jssgsslgets ce Hjtce Jlgrcij.

Ygioe`, j tgst sbouh` jssgss meowhg`fg je` smchhs jt j hgvgh tbjt cs

jpproprcjtg aor tbg stu`gets wbo wchh tjmg ct. J prodhgl wchh jrcsg ca

j tgst cs djsg` sohghy oe iurrciuhul oiulgets ca tbg iurrciuhul ioe-

tjces uergjhcstci gxpgitjtcoes aor stu`get jibcgvglget. Ce tbcs sctuj-

tcoe, wbcib cs ajcrhy iolloe ce `gvghopcef iouetrcgs, tbg tgst wchh dg

luib too `caiuht aor howgr-jibcgvcef stu`gets je` wchh ajch to rgfcs-

tgr tbgcr jiiolphcsblgets. Pbg sohutcoe hcgs ce tjmcef ceto jiiouet ce

tgst `gvghoplget eot kust tbg stje`jr`s oa tbg cetge`g` iurrciuhul,

dut jhso wbjt cs meowe oa tbg jitujh jibcgvglgets oa stu`gets ce

siboohs. Ce prjitcijh tgrls, vgry sljhh proportcoes oa stu`gets sbouh`

fgt jhh tbg ctgls rcfbt or jhh tbg ctgls wroef. Pbcs rgsuht ije dg

jibcgvg` dy cevohvcef prjitcicef tgjibgrs ce tbg `gvghoplget je`

sghgitcoe oa tgst ctgls je` dy ijrgauhhy gh`-trcjhcef ctgls dgaorg tbg

ljce jssgsslget ce j sjlphg oa stu`gets tbjt spjes tbg vjrcjtcoe cesiboohs oa tbg tjrfgt popuhjtcoe.

J tbcr` ioe`ctcoe tbjt sbouh` dg lgt ca oeg cs to dg ioe`get tbjt

j tgst provc`gs vjhc` ceaorljtcoe oe stu`gets meowhg`fg je` smchhs ce

j pjrtciuhjr iurrciuhul òljce cs tbjt stu`gets pgraorljeig sbouh`

eot dg `gtgrlceg` dy tbgcr iolpgtgeig ce òljces otbgr tbje tbg

oeg tbjt tbg tgst wjs gscfeg` to jssgss (Lgsscim :323). Aor gxjlphg,

j tgst `gscfeg` to jssgss stu`gets jibcgvglget ce sicgeig or ljtbg-

ljtcis sbouh` eot ioetjce so luib hjefujfg tbjt pgraorljeig oe ct`gpge`s oe tbg `caagrgetcjh jdchcty oa stu`gets to rgj` rjtbgr tbje oe

tbgcr jdchcty ce sicgeig or ljtbgljtcis. Pbcs prodhgl oiiurs wbge ct


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AJIPOTY JAAGIPCEF PBG WYG JE@ EOEWYG OA EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP ACE@CEFY | :6

ijeeot dg jssulg` tbjt jhh stu`gets rgspoe`cef to tbg tgst possgss tbg

sjlg hgvgh oa smchh ce rgj`cef, wbcib prodjdhy wouh` dg tbg ijsg wbge

tbg hjefujfg oa tbg tgst `caagrs aor solg stu`gets arol tbjt wbcib

tbgy eorljhhy usg.

Acejhhy, ca jssgsslget rgsuhts jrg to dg usg` to loector ibjefg ovgr

tclg, tbg jssgsslget cestrulgets lust dg iolpjrjdhg. Po jibcgvg tbcs

rgsuht, tbg sjlg tgst, wbcib sbouh` dg mgpt sgiurg dgtwgge j`lcecs-

trjtcoes, ljy dg usg`. Ca `caagrget tgsts jrg usg`, sijhcef wctb Ctgl

Tgspoesg Pbgory jhhows rgsuhts to dg prgsgetg` oe tbg sjlg pro-

icgeiy sijhgs (sgg vohulg 0 ce tbcs sgrcgs). Dgst prjitcig cevohvgs ijr-rycef j sudsgt oa ctgls ovgr arol tgst to tgst to provc`g j stroef lgjes

to hcem tgsts. Ct cs jhso gssgetcjh tbjt stu`get sjlphgs je` tbg proig-

ùrgs aohhowg` ce j`lcecstrjtcoe dg gqucvjhget. Ca gxihuscoe irctgrcj

(aor gxjlphg, aor stu`gets wctb hgjrecef `caiuhtcgs) vjry arol oeg

jssgsslget to jeotbgr, or ca ioe`ctcoes ovgr wbcib j`lcecstrjtors ò

eot bjvg ioetroh (aor gxjlphg, rgspoesg rjtgs) `caagr, suib ajitors

sbouh` dg tjmge ceto jiiouet wbge iolpjrcsoes jrg lj`g dgtwgge

stu`gets jibcgvglgets jt caagrget pocets ce tclg.

PS^G OA JYYGYYLGEP

Pbg potgetcjh aor usg oa tbg ceaorljtcoe `grcvg` arol je jssgsslget

`gpge`s oe tbg ibjrjitgrcstcis oa tbg jssgsslget. Pbg usg tbjt ije dg

lj`g oa jssgsslget rgsuhts vjrcgs aor (j) igesus-djsg` jssgsslgets, ce

wbcib jhh (or lost) siboohs je` stu`gets ce tbg tjrfgt popuhjtcoe

pjrtcicpjtg (js, aor gxjlphg, ce Drjzch, Ibchg, je` Gefhje`)= (d)sjl-phg-djsg`jssgsslgets, ce wbcib j sjlphg oa stu`gets or siboohs tbjt

jrg sghgitg` to dg rgprgsgetjtcvg oa tbg totjh popuhjtcoe tjmg pjrt (js

cs tbg prjitcig ce lost iouetrcgs)= je` (i) cetgrejtcoejhjssgsslgets, ce

wbcib j euldgr oa iouetrcgs aohhow sclchjr proigùrgs to odtjce

ceaorljtcoe jdout stu`get hgjrecef.

Igesus-Djsg` Jssgsslget

J ejtcoejh jssgsslget ce wbcib jhh (or egjrhy jhh) siboohs je` stu`gets,

usujhhy jt spgicg` frj`g or jfg hgvghs, pjrtcicpjtg cs tgrlg` igesusor


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popuhjtcoe djsg`. Ct bjs tbg potgetcjh to provc`g ceaorljtcoe oe stu`get

jibcgvglget aor (j) tbg gùijtcoe systgl ce fgegrjh, (d) sgitors oa tbg

systgl, (i) siboohs, (`) tgjibgrs or ihjssgs, (g) ce`cvcùjh stu`gets, je`

(a) ajitors jssoicjtg` wctb jibcgvglget. Dgijusg ceaorljtcoe cs jvjch-

jdhg jdout jhh siboohs, poorhy pgraorlcef siboohs ije dg c`getcg`, je`

`gicscoes ije dg lj`g jdout posscdhg cetgrvgetcoes, suib js tbg provc-

scoe oa tgjibgr proagsscoejh `gvghoplget ioursgs, supphglgetjry sgr-

vcigs, or j``ctcoejh rgsourigs. Pbg jssgsslget wchh dgiolg bcfb stjmgs

ca sjeitcoes jrg jttjibg` to sibooh pgraorljeig or ca ceaorljtcoe jdout

tbg pgraorljeig oa ce`cvcùjh siboohs cs pudhcsbg`.

Yjlphg-Djsg` Jssgsslget

Dgijusg tbg wbohg popuhjtcoe ogs eot pjrtcicpjtg ce j sjlphg-djsg`

jssgsslget, ct ije, uehcmg j igesus-djsg` jssgsslget, provc`g ceaor-

ljtcoe oehy oe stu`get jibcgvglget aor (j) tbg gùijtcoe systgl ce

fgegrjh, (d) sgitors oa tbg systgl, je` (i) ajitors jssoicjtg` wctb

jibcgvglget. Jhtboufb tbcs aoius hclcts tbg usg tbjt ije dg lj`g oa

tbg jssgsslgets e`cefs, ct bjs j euldgr oa j`vjetjfgs. Acrst, j sjlphg-

djsg` jssgsslget cs ioesc`grjdhy hgss gxpgescvg to j`lcecstgr tbje cs

j igesus-djsg` oeg. Ygioe`, ct cs eot egigssjry to jssgss jhh stu`gets to

lggt tbg djsci odkgitcvg oa j ejtcoejh jssgsslget, wbcib cs to provc`g

vjhc`, rghcjdhg, je` tclghy ceaorljtcoe oe tbg opgrjtcoe oa tbg gùij-

tcoe systgl je`, ce pjrtciuhjr, oe tbg qujhcty oa stu`get hgjrecef.

Pbcr`, dgijusg pjrtcicpjtcef siboohs jrg eot c`getcg`, j sjlphg-djsg`

jssgsslget ogs eot bjvg tbg egfjtcvg clpjit oe siboohs je` hgjrecef

oa j igesus-djsg` jssgsslget ca sjeitcoes aor siboohs, tgjibgrs, or dotbjrg jttjibg` to pgraorljeig. Acejhhy, sjlphg-djsg` jssgsslgets ije

dg j`lcecstgrg` lorg argqugethy, tbgrgdy jhhowcef suiigsscvg jssgss-

lgets to aoius oe glgrfcef cssugs. Yolg ejtcoejh jssgsslgets jrg

j`lcecstgrg` oe je oefocef djscs to rohhcef sjlphgs oa stu`gets, tbus

fcvcef gùijtors jiigss to jssgsslget `jtj oe j ioetceuous djscs.

Cetgrejtcoejh Jssgsslget

Jeotbgr `cstceitcoe tbjt cs rghgvjet ce ioesc`grcef tbg usg oa jssgss-

lget `jtj cs wbgtbgr tbg jssgsslget cs j stje`-jhoeg opgrjtcoe or cs


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AJIPOTY JAAGIPCEF PBG WYG JE@ EOEWYG OA EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP ACE@CEFY | 4:

jvjchjdhg jdout tbg optcljh usg oa e`cefs or jdout tbg gaagits

oa djscef pohciy `gicscoes oe tbg e`cefs. Pbcs hjim oa e`cefs

ljy eot dg j trug rgfflgitcoe oa jitujh usg, oa ioursg, dgijusg ceaor-

ljtcoe rghjtg` to usg dy fovgrelget do`cgs ljy eot dg pudhcihy

òiulgetg`.

Pbg gvc`geig tbjt cs jvjchjdhg ce`cijtgs tbjt tbg usg oa ejtcoejh

jssgsslget e`cefs cs eot wc`gsprgj`, `gspctg tbg potgetcjh tbjt

ceaorljtcoe `grcvg` arol je jssgsslget bjs aor spjrmcef rgaorl je`

`gspctg tbg gxpgesg ceiurrg` ce odtjcecef suib ceaorljtcoe. Pbcs

odsgrvjtcoe bjs dgge lj`g, aor gxjlphg, ce tbg ioetgxt oa `gtgrlce-cef spgici pohcicgs je` `gicscoes (sgg Jrrgfuc je` LiHjuibhje

4>>7= Bcllgh :331= Ohcvjrgs :331= Tokjs je` Gsqucvgh :332) je`

suffgsts tbjt tbg usg oa ejtcoejh jssgsslget `jtj cs vgry sclchjr to

tbg usg oa tbg e`cefs oa otbgr pohciy-rghjtg` rgsgjrib (sgg ibjptgr

0). J `gsircptcoe oa tbg Boeùrje gxpgrcgeig cs prodjdhy typcijh oa

gxpgrcgeig ghsgwbgrg (dox :.6). Bowgvgr, tboufb c`getcaycef j spg-

ici usg oa jssgsslget `jtj lcfbt eot bjvg dgge posscdhg ce tbjt

ijsg, tbg ajit tbjt tbg `jtj cefflugeig` pudhci opcecoe je` rjcsg` ioe-

sicousegss cs ctsgha scfecijet.

J vjrcgty oa rgjsoes ljy dg j`vjeig` aor tbg ue`grusg oa ejtcoejh

jssgsslget e`cefs (tjdhg :.:). Acrst, e`cefs jrg hcmghy to dg ue`gr-

usg` wbge tbg ejtcoejh jssgsslget cs ioesc`grg` to dg j stje`-jhoeg

jitcvcty, sgpjrjtg arol je` wctb hctthg ioeegitcoe to otbgr gùijtcoejh

jitcvcty. Pbcs sctujtcoe cs hcmghy to jrcsg wbge ejtcoejh jssgsslget

Gxtget oa Wsg oa Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget Tgsuhts, Boeùrjs

Pbgsg prokgits bjvg proùig` j frgjt jlouet oa `jtj je` ceaorljtcoe

`gsircdcef stu`gets gùijtcoejh jibcgvglget= tbgy jrg rgsgjrib gaaorts wbcib

bjvg j scfecijet clpjit oe pudhci opcecoe dut . . . bjvg eot ioetrcdutg` to

ljmg tbg gùijtcoejh systgl lorg gaicget je` gaagitcvg. Pbg rgsuhts jrg

sijrighy usg`= tbgy bjvget dgge j rgjh lgibjecsl aor ioetroh je` jiiouetjdch-

cty= je`, to `jtg, tbg ceaorljtcoe fgegrjtg` ògset sggl to bjvg bj`

lgjecefauh ioesgqugeigs dgyoe` ceaorlcef, sgesctczcef, je` rjcscef ioe-

sicousegss.Yourig;Loeij`j je` otbgrs 4>>9; 69, js rgportg` ce Jrrgfuc je` LiHjuibhje 4>>7; 1.

DOR :.6


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jitcvcty cs egw or wbge ct cs ijrrcg` out dy gxtgrejh jfgets or jt tbg

rgqugst oa òeors. Tust (:333), aor gxjlphg, bjs pocetg` out tbjt ce

Yud-Yjbjrje Jarcij pohciy òiulgets jrg oatge pgrigcvg` dy hoijh

durgjuirjts js dghoefcef to tbg òeor jfgeiy je` js sgpjrjtg arol

hoijh pohciy ljmcef.

Ygioe`, ue`grusg oa ejtcoejh jssgsslget e`cefs cs hcmghy to oiiur

wbge pohciy ljmgrs, gùijtcoe ljejfgrs, je` otbgr stjmgboh`grs wbo

jrg ce j posctcoe to jit oe e`cefs bjvg bj` hclctg` or eo cevohvglget

ce tbg `gscfe je` clphglgetjtcoe oa je jssgsslget.

Pbcr`, ct cs surprcscef, fcvge tbg ajit tbjt jssgsslgets ioevgy clpor-tjet ceaorljtcoe, tbjt tbg rst stjfg oa usgtbg iolluecijtcoe oa

ceaorljtcoe to rghgvjet jitors suib js pohciy ljmgrs, provc`grs oa

tgjibgr trjcecef, je` oeorscs eot jhwjys iolphgtg` ce j sjtcsajitory

ljeegr, tbus ihgjrhy hclctcef tbg potgetcjh aor usg. Pbcs prodhgl ljy

dg ùg to j ajchurg to du`fgt aor tbg `cssglcejtcoe oa e`cefs. Ce j

sctujtcoe ce wbcib lost oa tbg jvjchjdhg prokgit tclg je` rgsourigs jrg

rgqucrg` aor tbg `gvghoplget je` j`lcecstrjtcoe oa cestrulgets je`

jejhyscs oa `jtj, eotbcef ljy bjvg dgge hgat aor tbg proùitcoe je`

`cssglcejtcoe oa ceaorljtcoe proùits je` sgrvcigs.

Aourtb, tbg `gicgeicgs oa ljey jssgsslgets ce cestrulgetjtcoe,

sjlphcef, je` jejhyscs ije rjcsg qugstcoes jdout tbg vjhc`cty oa tbg

`jtj tbgy provc`g, ijuscef potgetcjh usgrs to pjusg dgaorg jitcef oe

e`cefs or to `cslcss tbg e`cefs jhtofgtbgr.

Acatb, ca j ejtcoejh jssgsslget c`getcgs soicogioeolci je` gùij-

tcoejh cegqujhctcgs jssoicjtg` wctb gtbeci, rjicjh, or rghcfcous froup

lgldgrsbcp, tbcs rgsuht ljy dg j sourig oa gldjrrjsslget to pohctc-

icjes, hgj`cef to jttglpts eot to ljmg e`cefs pudhci.Ycxtb, jpproprcjtg pohciy je` ljejfgrcjh `gicscoes jrg uehcmghy to

gesug arol j ejtcoejh jssgsslget ca proigùrgs je` lgibjecsls jrg

eot ce phjig (j) to ioesc`gr tbg e`cefs ce tbg ioetgxt oa otbgr pohciy

je` ljejfgrcjh jitcvctcgs je` (d) to `gtgrlceg jitcoe oe tbg djscs oa

jssgsslget e`cefs.

Acejhhy, ejtcoejh jssgsslget e`cefs jrg hcmghy to rgljce ue`grusg`

uehgss jhh stjmgboh`grs wbo jrg ce j posctcoe to jit oe e`cefs (j) jrg

j`gqujtghy ceaorlg` oa tbg e`cefs, (d) jssgss tbg clphcijtcoes oa tbgjssgsslget e`cefs aor tbgcr worm, je` (i) `gvcsg strjtgfcgs `gscfeg`

to clprovg stu`get hgjrecef. Aor gxjlphg, ce tbg ijsg oa siboohs je`


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tgjibgrs, uehgss stgps jrg tjmge to arjlg ejtcoejh jssgsslget e`cefs

ce j wjy tbjt rghjtgs to tgjibgrs ioeigresje` uehgss aue`s jrg pro-

vc`g` to irgjtg lgibjecsls dy wbcib tgjibgrs ije usg tbg ceaorlj-

tcoe `grcvg` arol je jssgsslget to fuc`g rgaorltbge tbg ioursg oa

hgjst rgscstjeig aor sibooh pgrsoeegh ljy dg jt dgst to cfeorg tbg ej-

tcoejh jssgsslget je` jt worst to ue`grlceg ct.

Pbgsg odsgrvjtcoes sbouh` sgrvg to ijutcoe jfjcest bjvcef uergjhcs-

tci gxpgitjtcoes aor tbg pohciy ibjefgs tbjt ije aohhow je jssgsslget.

Egvgrtbghgss, tbcs doom trcgs to sbow tbjt jssgsslget jtj ije provc`g

fuc`jeig to pohciy je` `gicscoe ljmgrs dy ghjdorjtcef oe tbg jitcoes`gscfeg` to j``rgss ue`grusg tbjt jrg hcstg` ce tjdhg :.:. Vbge pos-

scdhg ct ictgs gxjlphgs, fjregrg` arol j hjrfg euldgr oa iouetrcgs, oa

jitujh usg dotb to jrousg pudhci cetgrgst je` ce tbg cectcjtcvgs oa poh-

ciy ljmgrs je` ljejfgrs. Hgss gvc`geig cs jvjchjdhg jdout tbg irctcijh

je` lorg iolphgx jrgj oa usg oa ejtcoejh jssgsslget e`cefs ce ihjss-

rools to clprovg stu`get hgjrecef.

IOEIHWYCOE

Pbg usg tbjt ije dg lj`g oa tbg e`cefs oa j ejtcoejh jssgsslget

`gpge`s oe j euldgr oa ajitors. Pbg pohctcijh ioetgxt ce wbcib tbg

jssgsslget cs ijrrcg` out wchh bjvg j stroef dgjrcef oe usg. Tgiofec-

tcoe tbjt tbg jssgsslget ctsgha ljy dg ioesc`grg` j pohctcijh jit

rgfflgitcef tbg powgr, c`gohofcgs, je` cetgrgsts oa soicjh jitors ije

sgrvg to ljmg tbg jssgsslgetje` `gicscoes djsg` oe ctlorg

trjespjrget.Dgijusg tbg cestrulget usg` to lgjsurg stu`gets jibcgvglget cs

tbg ioregrstoeg oa j ejtcoejh jssgsslget, cts qujhcty wchh jaagit tbg usg

tbjt ije dg lj`g oa e`cefs. Aor optclul usg, tgst cestrulgets sbouh`

provc`g ceaorljtcoe jdout stu`get jibcgvglgets (j) tbjt cs jiiurjtg

je` iolprgbgescvg, (d) tbjt lgjsurgs j rjefg oa jibcgvglgets, (i)

tbjt provc`gs fuc`jeig aor rglg`cjh jitcoe, je` (`) tbjt cs sgesctcvg to

cestruitcoejh ibjefg. Pbg tgsts usg` ce ljey ejtcoejh jssgsslgets `o

eot lggt tbgsg ioe`ctcoes. Pbgy ljy dg hclctg` to lgjsurcef howgr-or`gr hgvghs oa meowhg`fg je` smchhs, tbgy ljy eot ioetjce j suaicget

euldgr oa ctgls, je` tbgy ljy dg too `caiuht, wctb tbg rgsuht tbjt


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Vbge j stjtg jòpts tbcs posctcoe, `gtjchg` jejhyscs oa tgst rgsuhts

wchh dg rgqucrg` to `gsircdg stu`get jibcgvglgets je` to c`getcay

sibooh je` tgjibgr prjitcigs tbjt gebjeig tbosg jibcgvglgets. Aoh-

howcef tbcs, e`cefs sbouh` dg wc`ghy `cssglcejtg`, rgsourigs je`

tgibecijh jsscstjeig sbouh` dg provc`g` to bghp siboohs c`getcay prod-

hgls tbgy jrg gxpgrcgeicef, je` ioetceucef support sbouh` dg pro-

vc`g` aor j proigss oa sibooh clprovglget.

Pbcs sgrcgs oa dooms bjs dgge wrcttge prcljrchy to sgrvg tbg egg`s oa

ce`cvcùjhs ijrrycef out j sjlphg-djsg` ejtcoejh jssgsslget. Bowgvgr,

tbg ioetget oa otbgr vohulgs, gxigpt tbg loùhg oe sjlphcef je`solg oa tbg stjtcstcijh jejhyscs loùhg, cs jhso rghgvjet to clphglgetj-

tcoe oa j igesus-djsg` jssgsslget. Luib oa tbg prgsget vohulg cs jhso

rghgvjet, tboufb j euldgr oa cssugs jrg eot (aor gxjlphg, c`getcij-

tcoe oa siboohs ce egg` oa jsscstjeig aohhowcef j sjlphg-djsg` jssgss-

lget). Pbg prgrgqucsctgs aor gaagitcvg usg oa tbg e`cefs oa j ejtcoejh

jssgsslget tbjt wchh dg ioesc`grg` jrg rghgvjet to dotb sjlphg- je`

igesus-djsg` jssgsslgets je` ceihu`g tbg aohhowcef;

Cevohvcef pohciy je` `gicscoe ljmgrs ce tbg `gscfe oa tbg jssgsslgetto j``rgss cssugs tbjt tbgy bjvg c`getcg` js oa prgsscef cetgrgst

Iolluecijtcef rgsuhts ce j tclghy ajsbcoe je` ce j aorl tbjt cs

cetghhcfcdhg to mgy usgrs

Ceiorporjtcef jssgsslget ceaorljtcoe ceto gxcstcef durgjuirjtci

struiturgs je` trjeshjtcef suib ceaorljtcoe ceto pohciy, strjtgfcgs,

je` pohciy cestrulgets (aor gxjlphg, lje`jtgs, ijpjicty-duch`cef

strjtgfcgs, ceùiglgets, je` bortjtory pohcicgs to lotcvjtg jitcoe)

Gesurcef tbjt jssgsslget e`cefs cefflugeig tbg prjitcig oa ihjssrooltgjibgrs, wctb tbg odkgitcvg oa clprovcef stu`get hgjrecef

^rovc`cef ioetceucef pohctcijh support to usg tbg e`cefs to drcef

jdout ibjefg je` to `gvcsg lgibjecsls tbjt support tbgcr jpphcij-

tcoe ce rgaorl jt tbg ihjssrool hgvgh.

Pbroufbout tbg vohulg, js tbg ljey jitcvctcgs tbjt j ejtcoejh jssgss-

lget ije spjwe jrg `gsircdg`, rgagrgeig cs lj`g to igesus-djsg` je`

cetgrejtcoejh stu`cgs wbge tbgy provc`g cescfbts to usg or wbge tbgy

`gsircdg prjitcigs tbjt jrg rghgvjet to j sjlphg-djsg` jssgsslget.Ibjptgrs 4 je` 9 `gsircdg tbg typgs oa rgports tbjt jrg egg`g` to

ceaorl usgrs oa tbg e`cefs oa je jssgsslget. Ibjptgr 0 outhcegs


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TGÔTPCEF

J EJPCOEJH

JYYGYYLGEP; PBG

LJCE TGÔTP

4IBJ^PGT

Pbcs ibjptgr outhcegs tbg iolpoegets oa tbg ljce

je` gssgetcjh cestrulget aor rgportcef tbg e`cefs oa j ejtcoejh jssgss-lget. Pbgsg iolpoegets sbouh` ceihu`g eot oehy tbg e`cefs dut jhso

tbg proigùrgs aohhowg` tbroufbout tbg jssgsslget so tbjt rgj`grs

ije ku`fg tbgcr j`gqujiy je` rghgvjeig. Pbg rgport wchh jhso aorl tbg

djscs oa jeichhjry lgjes oa iolluecijtcef tbg e`cefs (aor gxjlphg,

drcgef eotgs, prgss rghgjsgs, j rgport aor siboohssgg ibjptgr 9).

Pbg ljce rgport oa j ejtcoejh jssgsslget sbouh` ioetjce j `gsircp-

tcoe oa tbg aohhowcef iolpoegets; (j) ioetgxt oa tbg jssgsslget,

(d) odkgitcvgs oa tbg jssgsslget, (i) arjlgworm tbjt fuc`g` tbg `gscfe

oa tbg jssgsslget, (`) proigùrgs aohhowg`, (g) gsircptcoes oa jibcgvg-

lget ce tbg ejtcoejh jssgsslget, (a) iorrghjtgs oa jibcgvglget, je`

(f) ibjefgs ce jibcgvglget ovgr tclg (ca jpproprcjtg jtj jrg jvjchjdhg

arol j euldgr oa jssgsslgets). Pbg jlouet oa `gtjch prgsgetg` ce tbg

ljce rgport `gpge`s oe wbgtbgr j sgpjrjtg tgibecijh rgport cs prg-

pjrg`. Lost rgj`grs wchh bjvg hclctg` tgibecijh meowhg`fg je` jrg

cetgrgstg` oehy ce wbjt tbg rgport clphcgs aor tbgcr worm. Luib oa tbg

tgibecijh `gtjch ije dg jsscfeg` to tbg ljce rgports jppge`cxgs.

Jt tbg outsgt, lgldgrs oa tbg ejtcoejh jssgsslget tgjl je` mgystjmgboh`grs sbouh` fgegrjhhy jfrgg oe bow to `gscfe tbg ljce rgport,

43


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9> | WYCEF PBG TGYWHPY OA J EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP OA G@WIJPCOEJH JIBCGQGLGEP

iohhgit tbg `jtj, je` rgport tbg rgsuhts. Tgjibcef jfrgglget jdout

rgportcef rgsuhts ije dg ajichctjtg` dy rjatcef j sgrcgs oa dhjem or ully

tjdhgs je` `csiusscef tbg prgicsg vjrcjdhgs je` `jtj jssoicjtg` wctb gjib

tjdhg. Pjdhg 4.: cs j dhjem tjdhg usg` to chhustrjtg bow ejtcoejh stu`get-

hgvgh `jtj lcfbt dg prgsgetg` dy iurrciuhul jrgj je` fge`gr. Pjdhg 4.4

suffgsts bow provceicjh-hgvgh rgsuhts lcfbt dg prgsgetg` to jhhow pohciy

ljmgrs to iolpjrg hgvghs oa jibcgvglget jloef how-jibcgvcef stu-

`gets (tbosg jt tbg 7tb pgrigetchg) je` bcfb-jibcgvcef stu`gets (tbosg

jt tbg 37tb pgrigetchg) ce gjib provceig. Pjdhg 4.9 iolpjrgs stu`gets

hgvgh oa jibcgvglget jt two pocets ce tclg. Pjdhg 4.0 cs `gscfeg` toc`getcay rghjtcoesbcps dgtwgge stu`get jibcgvglget je` j euldgr oa

vjrcjdhgs oa cetgrgst to pohciy.

PJDHG 4.:

Lgje Yiorgs (je` Ytje`jr` Grrors) oa Doys je` Fcrhs ce j Ejtcoejh

Jssgsslget oa Hjefujfg je` Ljtbgljtcis

Hjefujfg Ljtbgljtcis

Doys Fcrhs Doys Fcrhs

Lgje

Ytje`jr` grror

Yourig;Jutbors rgprgsgetjtcoe.

PJDHG 4.4

Lgje Yiorgs (je` Ytje`jr` Grrors) je` Yiorgs jt Qjrycef ^grigetchg Tjems ce

j Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget oa Yicgeig, dy ^rovceig

^rovceig LgjeYtje`jr`

grror^grigetchg siorg

7tb 47tb 67tb 37tb

:

4

9

0

7

1

Ejtcoejh

Yourig;Jutbors rgprgsgetjtcoe.Eotg;Pbgsg `jtj ije dg usg` to prgpjrg j dox je` wbcsmgr-typg phots.


49/188

TGÔTPCEF J EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP; PBG LJCE TGÔTP | 9:

IOEPGRP OA PBG EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP

Ce `gsircdcef ioetgxt, oeg ljy stjtg tbg clportjeig oa odtjcecef

ceaorljtcoe oe stu`get hgjrecef js j djscs aor pohciy je` ljejfglget

`gicscoes. J ioesc`grjtcoe oa gvc`geig arol gjrhcgr stu`cgs oe stu`gets

jibcgvglgets (ca jvjchjdhg) wchh dg rghgvjet.

ODKGIPCQGY OA PBG EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP

Pbg ljce odkgitcvg sbouh` dg stjtg`; aor gxjlphg, to provc`g gvc`geig

oe stu`get hgjrecef ce tbg gùijtcoe systgl. Lorg spgici odkgitcvgsljy jhso dg stjtg`; aor gxjlphg, to gstjdhcsb tbg iurrget rgj`cef

PJDHG 4.9

Lgje Jibcgvglget Yiorgs (je` Ytje`jr` Grrors) ce j Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget

J`lcecstgrg` jt Pwo ôcets ce Pclg

Acrst j`lcecstrjtcoe Ygioe` j`lcecstrjtcoe

Ytjtcstcijhhy scfecijet?Lgje Ytje`jr` grror Lgje Ytje`jr` grror

Yourig;Jutbors rgprgsgetjtcoe.Eotg;Oeg lust tjmg ceto jiiouet tbjt dotb lgjes jrg sjlphg djsg` ce ijhiuhjtcef tbg scfecijeigoa tbg `caagrgeig dgtwgge tbgl.

PJDHG 4.0

Iorrghjtcoe dgtwgge Lgje Yibooh Tgj`cef Jibcgvglget Yiorgs je` Yibooh

Ajitors ce j Frj`g 7 Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget

Qjrcjdhgs r

Jvgrjfg ihjss sczg, frj`g 7

Jvgrjfg euldgr oa tgxtdooms pgr stu`get, frj`g 7

^grigetjfg oa stu`gets wbo ije dg sgjtg` ùrcef wrctcef ihjss, frj`g 7

Euldgr oa ihjssrool tgjibgrs ce sibooh

Euldgr oa rgfcstgrg` stu`gets ce sibooh

Euldgr oa ygjrs oa tgjibcef gxpgrcgeig (frj`g 7 tgjibgrs)

Hgvgh oa tgjibgr qujhcijtcoe (frj`g 7 tgjibgrs)

Euldgr oa ihjssrool rgsourigs

Yourig;Jutbors rgprgsgetjtcoe.


50/188


stje`jr`s oa aourtb-frj`g pupchs= to iolpjrg stu`get jibcgvglgets

ce prcvjtg je` pudhci siboohs= to loector trge`s ce stu`get hgjrecef

ovgr tclg= to `gsircdg sibooh rgsourigs= to gxjlceg sibooh, bolg

djimfroue`, je` pupch ajitors tbjt ljy dg rghjtg` to rgj`cef jibcgvg-

lget= je` to provc`g j djscs aor auturg jssgsslgets.

ATJLGVOTM AOT PBG EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP

J arjlgworm cs je ovgrjhh phje or outhceg tbjt `gsircdgs wbjt cs dgcef

jssgssg` ce tgrls oa meowhg`fg, smchhs, je` otbgr jttrcdutgs je` bow ct

cs dgcef jssgssg`. Pbg arjlgworm fuc`gs tbg gvghoplget oa tbg jssgss-

lget je` ljmgs tbg jssgsslget trjespjrget, rst, aor tbosg wbo ioe-

struit tbg jssgsslget cestrulgets, dut jhso aor tbg wc`gr ju`cgeig wbo

wchh rgj` tbg rgport oa tbg jssgsslget. Ibjptgr 4 ce vohulg 4 ce tbcs

sgrcgs `gsircdgs bow to `gvghop je jssgsslget arjlgworm (Je`grsoe

je` Lorfje 4>>2).

Pbg ^rofrgss ce Cetgrejtcoejh Tgj`cef Hctgrjiy Ytu`y (^CTHY) pro-

vc`gs je gxjlphg oa j `gsircptcoe oa tbg ioestruit jssgssg` ce cts stu`yoa tbg rgj`cef jibcgvglgets oa eceg-ygjr-oh`s (Luhhcs je` otbgrs 4>>1=

sgg jhso vohulg : oa tbcs sgrcgs, Frgjegy je` Mghhjfbje 4>>2; jppge`cx

D4). Tgj`cef cs `gsircdg` ce tgrls oa two purposgs(rgj`cef aor hctgrjry

gxpgrcgeig je` rgj`cef to jiqucrg je` usg ceaorljtcoe) je` aour pro-

igssgs(aoiuscef oe je` rgtrcgvcef gxphcicthy stjtg` ceaorljtcoe, ljmcef

strjcfbtaorwjr` ceagrgeigs, cetgrprgtcef je` cetgfrjtcef c`gjs je` ceaor-

ljtcoe, je` gxjlcecef je` gvjhujtcef ioetget).

J arjlgworm jhso `gsircdgs tbg cestrulgets usg` to jssgss jibcgvg-lget. Ceihu`cef gxjlphgs oa tbg typgs oa ctgl usg` ce tbg jssgsslget

cs usgauh to provc`g rgj`grs wctb je c`gj oa tbg ejturg oa tbg tjsms

cevohvg`. Oa ioursg, tbgsg ctgls sbouh` eot ceihu`g tbosg phjeeg` aor

usg ce auturg jssgsslgets.

^TOIG@WTGY CE J@LCECYPTJPCOE OA PBG EJPCOEJH

JYYGYYLGEP

Bow je` wbge `jtj wgrg iohhgitg` sbouh` dg `gsircdg`. Pbcs

`gsircptcoe wchh ceihu`g c`getcijtcoe oa tbg popuhjtcoe oe wbcib


51/188

TGÔTPCEF J EJPCOEJH JYYGYYLGEP; PBG LJCE TGÔTP | 99

tbg jssgsslget wjs djsg`, sghgitcoe oa siboohs or stu`gets aor pjr-

tcicpjtcoe, je` `jtj oe gxihuscoes je` eoepjrtcicpjtcoe.

@GYITC^PCOE OA JIBCGQGLGEP CE PBG EJPCOEJH

JYYGYYLGEP

Ce `gic`cef bow to prgsget tbg e`cefs oa j ejtcoejh jssgsslget, ct cs

clportjet to dgjr ce lce` tbjt tbg ceaorljtcoe provc`g` sbouh` dg

rghgvjet to pohciy ljmgrs je` gicscoe ljmgrs egg`s je` sbouh` jsscsttbgl ce j``rgsscef pohciy prodhgls ioestruitcvghy. Pbg ibocig oa j

scefhg ce`gx oa stu`get jibcgvglget (aor gxjlphg, j totjh ljtbgljtcis

siorg) or luhtcphg ce`gxgs (aor gxjlphg, sgpjrjtg siorgs aor iolputj-

tcoe je` prodhgl sohvcef) ljy dg rghgvjet. Jhtboufb pohciy ljmgrs

ljy fgegrjhhy prgagr sulljry stjtcstcis, rgportcef oehy j scefhg ce`gx oa

jibcgvglget wchh lost hcmghy lcss clportjet ceaorljtcoe, tbgrgdy hcl-

ctcef tbg djscs aor jitcoe aohhowcef tbg jssgsslget (Mupgrlcetz je`

otbgrs :337).

Ceirgjscefhy, j `gsircptcoe oa pgraorljeig ce tgrls oa proicgeiy

hgvghs cs dgcef usg` to prgsget tbg rgsuhts oa j ejtcoejh jssgsslget.

Pbg proigùrg cevohvgs sijhg jeiborcef, wbcib bjs two iolpoegets;

(j) j stjtcstcijh iolpoeget tbjt c`getcgs ctgls tbjt `csirclcejtg

dgtwgge suiigsscvg pocets oe tbg proicgeiy sijhg uscef spgici ctgl

ibjrjitgrcstcis (aor gxjlphg, tbg proportcoes oa suiigssauh rgspoesgs

to ctgls jt `caagrget siorg hgvghs) je` (d) j ioesgesus iolpoeget ce

wbcib c`getcg` ctgls jrg usg` dy iurrciuhul spgicjhcsts to provc`g

je cetgrprgtjtcoe oa wbjt froups oa stu`gets jt, or ihosg to, tbg rghjtg`pocets meow je` ije ò (Dgjtoe je` Jhhge :334). Pbg hgvghs ljy dg

hjdghg` (aor gxjlphg, sjtcsajitory/uesjtcsajitory= lceclul/`gscrg`=

djsci/proicget/j`vjeig`), je` tbg proportcoe oa stu`gets jibcgvcef

jt gjib hgvgh c`getcg`. Pjdhg 4.7 prgsgets jtj arol j ejtcoejh jssgss-

lget ce Ljurctcus.

Pjdhg 4.1, wbcib `gsircdgs hgvghs oa ljtbgljtcis jibcgvglget ce

tbg W.Y. Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget oa Gùijtcoejh ^rofrgss (EJG^), fogs

dgyoe` tbg typg oa `jtj ce tjdhg 4.7 ce provc`cef `gectcoes oa pgraor-ljeig jt j rjefg oa proicgeiy hgvghs. Pbg pgrigetjfg oa stu`gets (ce

pudhci siboohs) jt gjib hgvgh rjefg` arol 00 pgriget jt tbg djsci hgvgh,


52/188


53/188


to 9> pgriget jt tbg proicget hgvgh, to 7 pgriget jt tbg j`vjeig` hgvgh.

Pbus, 63 pgriget oa stu`gets pgraorlg` jt or jdovg tbg djsci hgvgh

(^grcg, Frcff, je` @coe 4>>7).

Pbg jpprojib to gstjdhcsbcef proicgeiy hgvghs `caagrs ce tbg 4>>:

^CTHY. Iut pocets wgrg `gtgrlceg` rst dy spgicaycef tbg pgrigetjfg

oa stu`gets ce gjib dgeibljrm ijtgfory je` tbge dy gxjlcecef tbg

rgj`cef smchhs je` strjtgfcgs jssoicjtg` wctb gjib hgvgh (furg 4.:).

Qcgtejlgsg pohciy ljmgrs, wormcef wctb otbgr cetgrgstg` pjrtcgs

suib js iurrciuhul `gvghopgrs, c`getcg` scx hgvghs oa stu`get jibcgvg-

lget ce rgj`cef aor frj`g 7 stu`gets uscef stjtcstcijh ceaorljtcoe je`tbg ku`flgets oa gxpgrts (tjdhg 4.6). ôhciy ljmgrs usg` tbg `jtj to

ljmg ejtcoejh, provceicjh, je` otbgr iolpjrcsoes oa jibcgvglget.

Ce ljey ejtcoejh jssgsslgets, vjrcjeig ce stu`get jibcgvglget cs

pjrtctcoeg` ceto dgtwgge- je` wctbce-sibooh iolpoegets. Pbcs pro-

igss cevohvgs ijhiuhjtcef tbg cetrjihjss iorrghjtcoe iogaicget (rbo),

wbcib cs j lgjsurg oa tbg bolofgegcty oa stu`get jibcgvglget wctbce

siboohs. Ct tghhs bow luib oa tbg vjrcjtcoe ce jibcgvglget cs dgtwgge

stu`gets wctbce siboohs (wctbce ihustgrs) je` bow luib cs dgtwgge

siboohs (dgtwgge ihustgrs). J how cetrjihjss iogaicget lgjes tbjt

ACFWTG 4.:

Frj`g 0 Tgj`cef Ymchhs je` Ytrjtgfcgs je` Iut-ôcet Yiorgs, dy Dgeibljrm

ôcets, aor tbg Ioldceg` Tgj`cef Hctgrjiy Yijhg, ^CTHY, 4>>:

Dgeibljrm Tgj`cef smchhs je` strjtgfcgs

@gloestrjtg jdchcty to cetgfrjtg c`gjs je ceaorljtcoe.

^rovc`g cetgrprgtjtcoes jdout ibjrjitgrs agghcefs je` dgbjvcors wctbtgxt-djsg` support.

Cetgfrjtg c`gjs jiross tbg tgxt to gxphjce tbg droj`gr scfecacijeig or tbglgoa tbg story.@gloestrjtg ue`grstje`cef oa ceaorljtcoejh ljtgrcjhs dy cetgfrjtcef ceaorljtcoejiross vjrcous typgs oa ljtgrcjhs je` suiigssauhhy jpphycef ct to rgjh-worh` sctujtcoes.

@gloestrjtg jdchcty to ljmg ceagrgeigs je` rgiofeczg solg tgxt agjturgs cehctgrjry tgxts.Ljmg ceagrgeigs to `gsircdg je` ioetrjst ibjrjitgrs jitcoes.

Ljmg ghglgetjry cetgrprgtjtcoes.Hoijtg spgicaci pjrts oa tgxt to rgtrcgvg ceaorljtcoe.

Ljmg odsgrvjtcoes jdout wbohg tgxts.

Tgtrcgvg gxphcicthy stjtg` `gtjchs arol vjrcous hctgrjry je` ceaorljtcoejh tgxts.

Iut-pocetsiorgs

Pop :> %

Wppgrqujrtgr

Lg`cje

Howgrqujrtgr

1:7 je`jdovg

76> je`jdovg

7:> je`jdovg

097 je`jdovg

Yourig;Ofhg je` otbgrs 4>>9; furg 7.


54/188


PJDHG 4.6

Frj`g 7 Tgj`cef Ymchh Hgvghs ce Ejtcoejh Jssgsslget; Qcgtejl

Ymchh hgvgh Jibcgvglget^griget oastu`gets

Ytje`jr`grror

: Ytu`get ljtibgs tgxt jt wor` or

sgetgeig hgvgh, jc`g` dy pciturgs. Ymchh

cs rgstrcitg` to j hclctg` rjefg oa

voijduhjry hcemg` to pciturgs.

0.1 >.:6

4 Ytu`get hoijtgs tgxt gxprgssg` ce sbort,

rgpgtctcvg sgetgeigs je` ije gjh wctb

tgxt uejc`g` dy pciturgs. Pypg oa tgxt cs

hclctg` to sbort sgetgeigs je` pbrjsgs

wctb rgpgtctcvg pjttgres.

:0.0 >.42

9 Ytu`get rgj`s je` ue`grstje`s hoefgr

pjssjfgs. Ytu`get ije sgjrib djimwjr`

or aorwjr` tbroufb tgxt aor ceaorljtcoe

je` ue`grstje`s pjrjpbrjscef. Je

gxpje`cef voijduhjry gejdhgs

ue`grstje`cef oa sgetgeigs wctb solg

iolphgx struiturg.

49.: >.90

0 Ytu`get hcems ceaorljtcoe arol caagrget

pjrts oa tbg tgxt. Ytu`get sghgits je`

ioeegits tgxt to `grcvg je` ceagr

`caagrget posscdhg lgjecefs.

4>.4 >.46

7 Ytu`get hcems ceagrgeigs je` c`getcgs

je jutbors cetgetcoe arol ceaorljtcoe

stjtg` ce `caagrget wjys, ce `caagrget

tgxt typgs, je` ce `oiulgets wbgrg

tbg lgssjfg cs eot gxphcict.

40.7 >.93

1 Ytu`get ioldcegs tgxt wctb outsc`g

meowhg`fg to ceagr vjrcous lgjecefs,

ceihu`cef bc``ge lgjecefs. Ytu`get

c`getcgs je jutbors purposgs,

jttctu`gs, vjhugs, dghcgas, lotcvgs,

uestjtg` jssulptcoes, je` jrfulgets.

:9.: >.0:

Yourig;Vorh` Djem 4>>0, voh. 4; tjdhg 4.:.

siboohs pgraorl jt iolpjrjdhg hgvghs, wbchg ceirgjscef vjhugs oa tbg

iogaicget ce`cijtg ceirgjscef vjrcjtcoe dgtwgge siboohs ce stu`get

jibcgvglget (^osthgtbwjctg :337). Pbg e`cefs oa cetgrejtcoejh stu`-cgs (aor gxjlphg, ^CTHY or tbg ^rofrjllg aor Cetgrejtcoejh Ytu`get

Jssgsslget, meowe js ^CYJ) ce`cijtg tbjt ioesc`grjdhg `caagrgeigs


55/188


gxcst dgtwgge g`uijtcoe systgls ce tbg vjhug oa tbg cetrjihjss iorrghj-

tcoe. Aurtbgrlorg, systgls ce wbcib tbg ejtcoejh hgvgh oa jibcgvglget

cs how tge` to gxbcdct frgjtgr `caagrgeigs dgtwgge siboohs ce tbgcr

jibcgvglget hgvghs.

IOTTGHJPGY OA JIBCGQGLGEP

J ejtcoejh jssgsslget usujhhy iohhgits ceaorljtcoe oe `glofrjpbci

je` otbgr djimfroue` ajitors to jhhow iolpjrcsoes to dg lj`g dgtwggetbg jibcgvglgets oa sudfroups ce tbg popuhjtcoe. Pbcs ceaorljtcoe,

wbge rghjtg` ce stjtcstcijh jejhysgs to stu`get jibcgvglget, ije jeswgr

qugstcoes tbjt jrg igetrjh to tbg rohg oa j ejtcoejh jssgsslget, suib js

tbg aohhowcef;

Cs tbg systgl ue`grsgrvcef jey pjrtciuhjr froup?

Jrg fjps dgtwgge froups ce pgraorljeig hjrfg geoufb to wjrrjet

rglg`cjh jitcoe?

Vbjt ajitors jrg jssoicjtg` wctb how jibcgvglget?

Ce tbcs wjy, dy rghjtcef outiolgs to ceputs tbjt jrg provc`g` je`

proigssgs dgcef usg`, j ejtcoejh jssgsslget sbows wbjt cs. Bowgvgr,

ct ije jhso sbow wbjt lcfbt dg dy `gloestrjtcef tbjt solg sgitors

ce tbg systgl jrg jibcgvcef lorg gscrjdhg outiolgs (bcfb jibcgvg-

lget) je` dy jttglptcef to c`getcay tbg ajitors jssoicjtg` wctb

rghjtcvg suiigss.

Ca sjlphg sczgs ce j ejtcoejh jssgsslget jrg suaicgethy hjrfg, gvc-

`geig ije dg provc`g` oe jibcgvglget dy fge`gr= rgfcoe (aor gxjlphg,provceig)= hoijtcoe (urdje or rurjh)= lgldgrsbcp oa gtbeci or hjefujfg

froups= je` typg oa cestctutcoe jttge`g` (pudhci or prcvjtg). ^rolptg`

ce pjrt dy tbg iurrget glpbjscs oe fge`gr gqucty ce tbg G`uijtcoe aor

Jhh je` Ajst Prjim Cectcjtcvg profrjls, ejtcoejh jssgsslgets usujhhy

gxjlceg jibcgvglget `caagrgeigs dgtwgge doys je` fcrhs. Acfurg 4.4

sulljrczgs Yrc Hjemjs ejtcoejh jssgsslget rgsuhts aor tbg pgrigetjfgs

oa ljhg je` agljhg stu`gets jibcgvcef ljstgry ce tbgcr rst hjefujfg,

ljtbgljtcis, je` Gefhcsb.J ejtcoejh jssgsslget ce Muwjct jhso c`getcg` fge`gr caagrgeigs ce

rgj`cef jibcgvglgets (furg 4.9). Ce tbcs ijsg, fge`

Documents

National Assessments of Educational Achievement Volume 5: Using the Results of a National Assessment of Educational Achievement