Natalie and John: A Narrative Perspective on the Future ... · organizational coaching WILLIAM BERGQUIST Building on a hypothetical case study offered in a previous article in this

Natalie and John: A Narrative Perspective on the Future Hopes and Fears Facing

Organizational Coaching

William Bergquist

This article first appeared in the International Journal of Coaching in Organizations, 2009 7(1), 66-80. It can only be reprinted and distributed with prior written permission from Professional Coaching

Publications, Inc. (PCPI). Email John Lazar at [email protected] for such permission.

ISSN 1553-3735

2009

© Copyright 2009 PCPI. All rights reserved worldwide.

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�� | IJCO Issue 1 2009

natalie and John:a narrative Perspective on the Future Hopes and Fears Facing organizational coachingWILLIAMBERGQUIST

Building on a hypothetical case study offered in a previous article in this issue of IJCO, Bergquist suggests ways in which the field of coaching—and the coaching relationship established between Natalie and John—might shift in coming years. The author traces out some of the implications associated with the world-wide challenge of hard economic times, the increasingly complexity of coaching problems being faced, the technological world of virtuality and simulation, and, in particular, the epistemological revolutions which clients and coaches like John and Natalie will be facing during the coming decade.

rEsEttInG tHE staGEWhatif NataliecontinuestocoachJohnpast2009?Thiswouldfirstof allprobablymeanthatNataliehasbeensuccessfulworkingwithJohn—whichisgoodnews.Theremayhavetobechangesinthecoachingstrategiesbeingemployed,however,becausethecoachingprocesshas“matured”forNatalieandJohn.Theyknoweach other better — including their strengths and weaknesses.Theyalsowillhavebuiltmutualtrust—inthecompetenciesbothexhibitintheirintentionsregardingthecoachingengagementand,hopefully,intheirsharedperspectivesregardingwhatisultimatelyimportant in the world and how best to find meaning in theirindividuallivesandcoachingengagement.Thereareotherreasonsforcontinuingtomodifytheircoachingengagement—andthesereasonsimpactonnotonlytheprofessionalrelationshipbetweenNatalie and John, but also the field of professional coaching ingeneral.Severalof thesereasonswillbeexploredinthisarticle.

WElcoME to EconoMIc Hard tIMEsThe world of economics doesn’t look very promising in most of the societies that currently supportprofessional coaching.Weareconfrontedwithfundamentalchallenges—eithertheflat,hotandcrowdedworldportrayedbyThomasFriedman(2008)orthecurvedand dangerous world of David Smick (2009). In either of theseworlds,professionalcoachingcannolongerbealuxury,benefitorevenaprimaryvehicleforavoidinglitigation.Johnisundoubtedlyexperiencingthefinancialchallengesfacinghisownhospital,giventhehealthcarecrisisthatisprevalentintheUnitedStates.

If weare experiencinghard times, thenprofessional coachingwillhavetobejustifiedwithharddatathatmatchesthehardtimes.Intermsof thediffusionof aninnovation,suchasprofessionalcoaching,wewillclearlybemeetingtheconcernsof theearlymajority.John©

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isnotaloneinbeingskepticalaboutthefaddishclaimsbeingmadebythosewhohavemarketedprofessionalcoachingduringthepasttwentyyears.Weneedmeasurementandaccountability.Doesthis mean that all (or most) coaching programs operating withinorganizationsmustdemonstrate aReturnon Investment (ROI)orat leastaReturnonExpectations (ROE)?Perhaps theydo.At thevery least, it means that the benefits of coaching will have to bedocumented.Weknowfromresearchoninnovationdiffusion,thattheearlymajoritywantsevidence.Thisdoesn’tnecessarilyhavetobe quantitative evidence — especially if this quantification resultsin trivializationof coachingoutcomes.Wecertainlydon’tneedanelaboratestrategyof measurementthatisbasedonfaultyinferencesorverysoftdata(“garbageinandgarbageout”).Inmanycases,theearlymajoritywillbeconvincedbyathoughtfullypreparedseriesof casestudies.Thismajoritywillbeconvincedbyanin-depthanalysisof notonlytheoutcomesof effectivecoachingbutalsosomeof thereasonswhyspecificcoachingstrategiesseemtobemostsuccessfulwhenappliedtospecificorganizationalissuesorwhenengagedwithspecificclientconstituencies.

WElcoME to a World oF ProBlEMs and MYstErIEs

Attheheartof thematterisaparticularlydifficultdilemmainthefieldof professionalcoaching.Thisdilemmaconcernsthenatureof theissuesbeingaddressedbycoachesandtheirclients(seeforexample, Lazar & Bergquist, 2007). In some cases, a coachingclientisaddressingissuesthatmightbedescribedasorganizational puzzles. These issues can be framed in a specific discipline(finances, personnel, marketing, etc.) and they usually operatein a domain over which a coaching client has control (internallocusof control).Accountabilitycanreadilybeassigned.Successor failure can easily be assessed (metrics) in the resolution of aspecific organizational puzzle. Natalie and John could certainlyframesomeof thechallengesbeingfacedbyJohnaspuzzles.JohncouldfocusonsettingupregularmeetingswithKurtasawaytoimprove relationships or could set aside one weekend a monthwhenhewoulddonowork,butwouldinsteaddevotetimetohisfamily.Coachingaboutpuzzlesisusuallyacaseof encouragingaclienttodomoreorlessof somethingtheyarealreadydoingorof beingmoreconsistentindoingsomethingthatisalreadyvalued.

Inothercases,theissuesbeingaddressedareorganizational problems.Issuesof thistypearemulti-dimensionalandoftenrequiremulti-disciplinaryperspectives.Anorganizationalproblemmayinvolvefinances, personnel issues and marketing. John’s challenge couldbeviewedasamatterof gettingoutof the“can’tdo”roleandasamatterof reducinghisneedforcontrol,andasamatterof helpinghisexecutiveteamtoshifttheirdynamics,andasamatterof shiftingKurt’srole.

We are confronted with fundamental challenges — either the flat, hot and crowded world portrayed by Thomas Friedman or the curved and dangerous world of David Smick. In either of these worlds, professional coaching can no longer be a luxury, benefit or even a primary vehicle for avoiding litigation.


Accountabilityismuchmoredifficulttoassign,foranorganizationalproblem usually is partially under the control of the client andpartiallyunderthecontrolof otherstakeholderswithinandoutsidethesystem(amixtureof bothinternalandexternallocusof control).Johncandosomethingabouthisownroleinthecommitteeandabouthisneedforcontrol,buthecannotunilaterallydeterminethenatureof groupdynamicsinthecommitteeof whichheisamemberortochangetheroleplayedbyhispresident.Metricsaremuchmoredifficult toapply indeterminingtherelativesuccessor failure of the solution generated in addressing a problem.Organizationalproblemsbecomeevenmoreelusiveanddifficultto assess when they involve dilemmas, polarities and paradoxes— and this often is the case. John, for instance, might wish toworkwithNatalieonamajordilemma inhis life—namely thebalancebetweenworkandfamily.Hecouldscheduleawork-freeweekendeachmonth(apuzzle-basedsolution)orhecoulddelvemoredeeply into the issueby identifyingandexploringthepullbetweenworkandfamilylife(andperhapshisownpersonaltimeawayfromfamily).Hecouldalsoexploreasomewhatmoresubtlepullbetweenwantingpredictabilityandcontrolandwantingtobemoreof avisionary.Onesolutiontoanorganizationalproblemcreatesanewproblemoroneapproachtotheproblemnecessitatestheneglectof analternativeapproachwhichisjustasviable.Weevenfinddilemmasandparadoxesthatareembeddedinornestedinotherdilemmasandparadoxes—quiteachallenge!

Thereisathirdtypeof issuewhichoftenfacesanorganizationalleader and which sometimes is brought up during a coachingsession:organizational mysteries.Issuesof this typetypicallydefyalldisciplinarydescriptionsandareundernoone’scontrol(externallocusof control).Organizationalmysteriesoftenconcerneconomicrollercoasterrides,fickleorshiftingcustomerinterests,publicpolicyflip-flops,orthedramaof officepolitics.Wedon’tknowwhy“it”hashappenedorhowtofix“it.”Wearen’tevenquitesurewhat“it”isallabout.Inapostmodernworldof complexity,unpredictabilityandturbulence,wearelikelytofindmoremysteriesinourpersonalandorganizational lives—and fewerpuzzles that canbe easilyunderstoodandresolved.

ThereisafundamentalmysterythatJohnandhiscolleaguesatthehospitalface.Infact,itisamysteryformostmenandwomenworking inhealth care, legislatorswhoare trying to formulatenewhealthcarepoliciesintheUnitedStates(andinmostothercountries) and the patients who wish to receive high qualityhealthcareservices.Thismysteryconcernsthewoundednatureof contemporaryhealthcare.Whyisthehealthcaresystemsobroken?Howcanhealthcaresystemshealif theyarethemselvesdeeplywoundedandif thoseworkinginthehealthcaresystemarewounded(andareoftenwoundingoneanother)?Whatcanbedone inresponse to thecrisis inhealthcare?Atsomedeepandlingeringmanner,thismysteryunderliesatleastsomeof the

It would seem that the issues being faced by coaching clients are less likely to be puzzles and more likely to be problems or mysteries. For coaches like Natalie, this means that work will become even more challenging. Successful coaching is likely itself to be more of a mystery or at least a problematic enterprise.

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challengesbeingfacedbyJohn.Ishespendinglonghoursworking(evenwhileathome),becausesomehowhebelieves(oratleasthopes)thathecanhelphealthehealthcaresystem?DoesKurtofferavisioninordertoreducethedespairof hisemployees—andisthispartof thesourceof frustrationexperiencedbythoseinhisorganizationwhohavegrowncynicalandpessimistic?

Itwouldseemthattheissuesbeingfacedbycoachingclientsarelesslikelytobepuzzlesandmorelikelytobeproblemsormysteries.ForcoacheslikeNatalie,thismeansthatworkwillbecomeevenmorechallenging.Successfulcoaching is likely itself tobemoreof a mystery or at least a problematic enterprise. On the onehand,coachesaremore likely tobevalued—forweallwouldlikesomeassistancewhenaddressingaproblemormystery.Ontheotherhand,itmaybemuchhardertodeterminethesuccessof coaching enterprises — precisely at a point when economichard times necessitates a careful and convincing evaluationof coaching outcomes. We are also likely to find more “soft”coaching that focuses on decision-making processes, personalvalues and even one’s spiritual core given the prominence of organizational problems and mysteries. The “hard” coachingthat focuses on personal performance becomes less relevant,for this typeof coachingprimarily addresses issues that canbeframed (appropriately) as organizational puzzles (for example,how does my client provide her subordinate with constructivefeedbackorhowdoesmy client increase activeparticipation inanupcomingmeeting?)Thisisaperfectexampleof thekindof nested dilemmas that face many coaching clients — yet in thiscaseitisthefieldof professionalcoachingitself thatisconfrontedwithasetof nesteddilemmas.Softcoachingismoreappropriate,because contemporary organizational leaders are more oftenfaced with difficult problems and mysteries than with puzzles.Softcoaching,however,ishardertomeasurethanhardcoachingandaccountabilityismoredifficulttoassign.Allof thisexistsinaworldthatisrequestingmoremeasurementandaccountability.

WElcoME to tHE tEcHnoloGIcal World oF vIrtualItY and sIMulatIon

Asseemstohavealwaysbeenthecase,whenhumankindhasmetanewanddauntingchallenge,anewtechnologyhasbeendiscoveredorinventedtosuccessfullyaddressthischallenge—andtoproducenewchallenges.Wecanpointtoanerainthedistantpastof widespreadglaciationsandtheresultantuseof firebyourPleistoceneforebearsasanearlyexampleof new-technology-matching-a-major-challenge.In our own era, we can point to the new digital technologies forpartialanswerstothechallengesof complexity,unpredictabilityandturbulence.Computer-basedtechnologies,oftencenteredontheuseof theInternetandothernonhierarchicalcommunicationstructures,have made the challenges of postmodernism at least seem lessdauntingandmorecontrollable.Hereenterstheprofessionalcoachandhereenterstheprospectsof newformsof coaching.

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More than most other human service endeavors, professionalcoaching isaproductof thenewtechnologies.Manycoachesdomost of their work over the telephone and through use of theircomputers.Itisalmostaprerequisitethatanarticlewrittenaboutcoachingincludeapictureof acoachsittingonherdeckinWyominglookingoverthemagnificentGrandTetonmountains,whilephone-coachingherclientinPittsburghorNewYorkCity.NataliecouldbeonvacationinWyomingorevenPeruandstillcoachJohn,justasJohncouldcallNatalieduringhistriptoahospitalinTokyo.TheseconditionscreatemajorboundaryissuesforbothNatalieandsJohn.WhenisNatalietrulyonvacation?Shouldn’tJohnconcentrateonthemajorcross-culturalchallengesheisfacinginJapanratherthanhidingoutinhisroomandcallingNatalie?

Technologyislikelytocontinueexertingitsinfluenceonprofessionalcoaching.Itmayevenprofoundlychangethecharacteranddynamicsof professionalcoaching.Wearelikelytoseenotonlytelephone-coaching,butalsovideophonecoachinginthenearfuture.Coachesare already making use of Skype and other computer-basedcommunicationtoolssothattheycannotonlyreducetransmissioncostsbutalsoseetheirclientandbeseenbytheirclientviainexpensivevideocamerasattached to theircomputer.WillNatalieandJohnsoonsubscribetoSkypeandpurchaseweb-camstosupplementtheirin-person and telephone meetings? As the speed of transmissionincreases,wecananticipateevenmoreextensiveandskillfuluseof video-coachingandvideo-conferencing.

Wewill alsowitness theexpandeduseof varioushand-heldcommunicationdevices,suchastheBlackberry,andtheconcomitantuseof brief text-basedinteractionsbetweencoachandclient.Thisalreadyoccursinthecontextof shadowcoaching:real-timequestionsto provoke in-the-moment reflections and adjusted actions. Atwitteringcoach?Wecananticipateaformof just-in-time-coachingthatwillbevaluedinparticularbyyounger,computer-savvyleaderswholiketoaddressandresolveissuesquickly.Theywantacoachattheirside(ontheirBlackberry)whocanmovejustasquicklyinengaging this issue-resolution process. Natalie and John may be“tooold”or toomuchoutof touchwith themega-fastworldof text-messaging;however,theywillcertainlyhavetobeconversantwith thesenew technologies if theyare towork successfullywithyoungerclients(Natalie)oryoungeremployees(John).

Technologiesarealsomakingtheworldlesshierarchicalandmoreaccessible—inotherwords,Friedman’s(2005)“flatworld.”ThisinturnmeansthatcoachingwillbecomeevenmoreinternationalinscopewithcoachesnotonlylivingandworkinginWyoming,butalsolivinginSingapore,CapeTownandBogotá.ClientswillbeworkingnotonlyinPittsburghandNewYork,butalsoinLondon,Helsinki, Istanbul and Jakarta. Coaches may have to becomebilingual,trilingualorevenquadlingual;attheveryleasttheymustbecome increasingly sensitive to thenuancesof cultureand the

With the nonhierarchical nature of international networks of communication, there is greater need for clients to learn how to influence rather than control. The density of messages flowing through these nonhierarchical channels further suggests that clients must learn how to understand even if they can’t precisely predict.


differingwaysinwhichworkingrelationshipsareestablishedandbusinessesareconductedinothercountries(Rosinski,2006).Withthenonhierarchicalnatureof thenewinternationalnetworksof communication,thereisanevengreaterneedforclientstolearnhowtoinfluenceratherthancontrol.Thedensityof themessagesthatareflowing through thesenonhierarchical channels furthersuggest that clientsmust learnhow tounderstand, even if theycan’t preciselypredict,what is about to occur in their personalor work life. Coaches can assist clients engage in their difficultcognitiveandaffectivetransitions.

Topushevenfurtherintothefutureandintotheartof speculation,there is likely to be a new cluster of computer-based tools thatsignificantly increaseourcapacity toviewandanalysiscomplexsets of data (both quantitative and qualitative). We have seenthefirstversionsof thesepowerful tools in thecreationof suchsoftwareprogramsas“Dynamo”(andamorerecentversion:“I-Think”) and in a set of accompanying conceptual tools—beginningwithJayForrester’sIndustrialDynamics(1961),UrbanDynamics (1969) and World Dynamics (1971), continuing withthenoteworthyClubof Romestudycalled“LimitstoGrowth,”(Meadows and Others, 1972) and made even more accessiblethroughthewritingsof PeterSenge(1990).

WElcoME to tHE EPIstEMoloGIcal rEvolutIon(s)

While coaches likeNatalie and clients like Johnare in themidstof technological revolutions and economic challenges, they arealso confronting (or potentially could confront) several majorepistemological challenges — revolutions in the fundamentaltheories, conceptual models and frameworks which undergirdthe base of knowledge in many Western and Eastern societies.Whilethesechallengesaremultipleandwide-ranging,severalareparticularlysalientwithregardtothecoachingenterprise.

Neurobiological revolutionThefirstof theseistheneurobiologicalrevolution.Weareinthemidst of learning much more about ways in which our brainsoperate.Theolddebatebetweennatureandnurtureisnowover.Whoweareand thecompetenciesweexhibit everyday inourlife are determined by a complex interaction between genetics,life experiences, the environment in which we live, and theenvironmentthatexistedinourmother’swombduringthecriticalninemonthsof gestation (Rose, 2005).Thismeans for coachesandleadersthatwecanlearnandchange,butthatweenterthesedevelopmental initiatives with some very strong predispositions,some unique strengths and weaknesses, and a personality andpatternof behaviorwhichisnotreadilychanged.

Forinstance,wenowknowthattherearetwofunctioningmemorysystems.Oneof these (proceduralbrain)operateswhenweare

We are in the midst of learning much more about ways our brains operate. Who we are and the competencies we exhibit every day are determined by a complex interaction between genetics, life experiences, the environment in which we live, and the environment that existed in our mother’s womb during the critical nine months of gestation.


performinghabitualbehavior—suchasengagingthegaspedalandbrakewhiledrivingacar.Theother(expositorybrain)addressesnewconditionsthroughreasoning,problem-solving,andlearning—suchasdeterminingwhether theperson in the carnext tous isgoingtoturnintoourlane.Whenweinviteourclientstoadoptanewpatternof behavior,weareaskingthemtoperformaverydifficult task.Ourclientmustmovetheircorticalworkfromtheprocedural part of their brain which works easily and withoutmuchthoughttotheexpositorypartof thebrainwhichrequiresattentionandexertion.Ourpersonalitystyle,leadershipstyleandinterpersonalstylesaredeeplyembeddedintheproceduralbrain.Thisbraindoesnotappreciate the interferenceof acoachwhowants us to shift everything over to the expository brain, makesomemajorchanges,andengagethesechangesrepeatedlyforarather lengthyperiodof time (until anewbehavioralpattern isestablishedwhichmovesovertotheproceduralbrain).

Thenewbiologyof thebrainalsohasshatteredtheolddualisticdistinctionbetweenmindandbody.Wenowknowthatourentirebody is in some very important ways one large brain. We aremakingadjustmentstoourchangingenvironmentinallpartsof ourbodyandsimultaneouslyengageandinterweaveourcortical(digital) systemandourhormonal (analogic) system.Ourmoodandperspectiveeachminuteof ourlifeisstronglyinfluencedbyourphysicalstate—asdefinedbysuchbodilyfactorsasnutrition,physicalexercise,amountsandqualityof sleep,andlevelsof suchchemicalsasestrogen,progesterone,testosteroneandoxytocin.

Wenowknowthatacriticalroleisplayedbytheamygdalaandotherareasof themid-brainintheassessmentof newexperiences(astowhetherornottheyposeathreatoranopportunity),aswellasinthecollectionandorganizationof memories.Ouremotionsaretightlyinterwovenwithourretentionof information,withourstructuringandframingof retainedinformation,andwiththeretrieval(recognitionorrecall)of this information,andwithourdecisionmakingbasedonthisinformation.Thesecomponentsof ourbrainareevenveryeffectiveinmakingmanykindsof decisions—evenmoreeffectiveinsomeinstancesthantherational(buteasilyover-whelmed)prefrontalareas of the brain. (Lehrer, 2009) As coaches, we must come toappreciate this close partnership between cognition and affect, aswellasthebiggerpartnershipbetweenmindandbody.AsMichaelPolanyi(1969)notedmanyyearsago,wearealwaysattendingfromourbodytosomethingelseinourworld,andthisattentionalbasehasamajorimpactonwhatweeventuallysee,feelandthink.

Cognitive revolutionAcloselyrelatedepistemologicalrevolutionwhichwill(oratleastshould) influence future coaching engagements comes from thefield of cognitive psychology. We now know quite a bit morethanwedidtwentyyearsagoabouthowhumansthink.Wehavecome toappreciate the remarkableway inwhichadultsprocess


the complex information of our postmodern era. Cognitiveresearchers such as Robert Kegan (1994) and Carol Gilligan(1982)speakof multiplelevelsof cognitivecompetency—notingthatadultstendtomovefromarathersimplistic,dualistic(blackandwhite)frameof referencetoframesof referencethatembracerelativisticperspectives,interpersonalempathy,nestedinferencesandthecapacityof criticalandreflectivethinking(metacognition:thinking-about-thinking).Wearebecomingmore fullyawareof the cognitive challenge associated with postmodern complexity,unpredictabilityandturbulence.Weareoften“inoverourheads”(Kegan,1994)when facing these cognitive challenges andcanuse the assistance of a coach — especially if the coach is fullyappreciative of these challenges and has adopted coachingstrategiesthatnotonlyhelpaclientaddressthesechallenges,butalsobecomemoreskillfulthemselvesinmakingfulluse(withoutacoachbeingpresent)of thesemeta-cognitivefunctions.

As in the case of the neurobiological revolution, the cognitiverevolutionhasnotlefttheheartbehind.Theheadandheartareconstantlybeing“saturated”(Gergen,1991)withdifferentimagesof self (often manufactured to increase consumption). We haveeven learned how to “manage” our own feelings (Hochsheild,1983). Cognitive psychologists point to the remarkable ways inwhichweconvinceourselvesthatwearehappy(orunhappy)andtotheequallyremarkablewaysinwhichwedistortrealityinordertocometotheseconclusionsabouthappiness(aswellascompetence,empowerment,andmeaningfulness; seeGilbert,2007).Leadersare faced with the task of determining what their “real” and“authentic”self reallyis,howtheyarereallyfeelingaboutwhatishappeningtothemandaroundthem,andwhetherornottheychosetobehappy,powerfulorcompetent.Wearelikelytofindthatcoachesarebeingasked,withincreasingfrequency,toassistleaderswiththesetasks.Whatwillbethecoachingtoolsthataremostappropriatetotheidentificationof anauthenticsenseof self,anon-distortedappraisalof personalhappiness,oranaccurateassessmentof one’semotionalstate?

Revolution of complexity and chaosA third revolution that potentially impacts on the future of professional coaching is to be found in the physical sciences. Inrecent years, we have seen a turn toward an inter-disciplinaryperspectiveonthenatureanddynamicsof highlycomplexsystems.Theworldsof systemdynamics,energyconsumptionanddissipativestructures have been permanently realigned –as initiated by IlyaPrigogine (Prigogine&Stengers,1984)and the“chaos” theoristssuch as Mandelbrot and Lohrenz (Gleick, 1987) and bolsteredbytheexceptionalworkbeingdoneat theSantaFeInstitute--forexample,theworkof StuartKauffman(1996),andGeoffreyWest(Brown&West,2000).Wenowknowabouttheintriguingnatureof attractorbasins,thecriticalrolestobeplayedbyinitialconditionsandbifurcations,andtheirreversibilityof manydynamicsystems.


With regard to the relevance of these studies for professionalcoaching,wehaveonly to lookfirstataproposition thathighlycomplex systems (such as corporations) can not be effectivelymanagedthroughtheuseof hierarchicalstructures.Mostsuccessfulsystems that are highly complex operate in an nonhierarchicalmanner. In observing the flocking of birds, for instances, it hasbeendiscoveredthatthereisnoleadbird,ratherleadershipshiftsquickly based on the bird with the most knowledge about animpending challenge (suchas ahawk swooping in) or changingenvironmentalconditions (suchasashift inwindcurrents).Thebirds move gracefully and are constantly shifting their positionwithreferencetooneanother–producingahighlyadaptiveandresponsivesystem.TheflatworlddescribedbyThomasFriedmanis certainlycompatiblewith thisanalysisofferedby thephysicaland biological scientists. We have witnessed the emergence of veryflatinternationalnetworks,mediatedbytheInternet,andtheemergenceof aglobaleconomicmarketthatknowsneitherstartnorendtoadayof trading.

While Margaret Wheatley (2006) has written widely about theimplications of this finding for contemporary leaders, there aremanyadditionalimplicationstobedrawnforaprofessionalcoachlike Natalie in her work with leaders such as John. How doesNataliehelpJohntoleadthroughstrategiesotherthanthosethatrely on hierarchy — suggesting once again that contemporaryleadershipiseffectivenotasavehicleforcontrolbutratherasavehicleforinfluence.Thecentralquestionbecomes:howshouldsomeonecoachinandleadinasystemthatwillbesuccesstotheextentthatitisself-organizingratherthanbeinghierarchical.

We find the capacity of systems to self-replicate coming out of not only the analysis of complex computer-generated systemsbutalsotheobservationof naturalbiologicalsystem.Weadmirethegraphicbeautyof fractalsandcanobservehowanindividualpineneedlereplicates thestructureof thepineboughandeventheentirepinetree.Intheareaof organizationaltheorywefindgrowingappreciationforaconceptfirstpresentedbytheTavistockInstitute: subsystem mirroring. Widely dismissed or ignoredfor many years by most organizational theorists, this “wacky”proposition suggests that all parts of a system replicate somecentral,fundamentaldynamicthatwasestablishedatthemomentthissystemwasfoundedorthatiscriticaltotheongoingessentialoperationsof thesystem.

Thus,somedynamicthatwasestablishedwhenWilliamHewlettand David Packard began their work in a Palo Alto Californiagarageisstilloperatingineveryunitof theHewlett-Packardfamilyof corporations, just as the nature of the exchange that occursbetweenabanktellerandacustomerisreplicatedatalllevelsof thebank,andthetreatmentplanofferedeverydaytoschizophrenicteenagersisreplicatedatalllevelsandineverysubsystemof the

The role of the professional coach thus becomes one of helping her client identify the key leverage points. What about the redesign of organizations as self-replicating, highly efficient fractal networks? How might an organization be redesigned as an elegantly branching system?


agency that offers these mental health services. Each of theseorganizations operates like a set of fractals and resembles apinetreewithregardtothereplicationof specific,fundamentalstructuresandrelationshipsatalllevelsof theorganization.Theseorganizationsareamenable,inturn,tononhierarchicalstructuresandtoleadershipstrategiesthatemphasizeinfluenceratherthancontrolpreciselybecausethereisthisreplicationandduplicationin the system—theorganization is simultaneouslyverycomplexandunpredictable,andelegantlysimpleandredundant.

We can also look at the interplay between energy-use and thelifespanof organicsystems(Brown&West,2000).Apparently,systemsuselessenergyif designedasself-replicatingandbranchingnetworks (fractals) that enable both resources and informationto be transmitted with minimal effort. Organizations that arestructuredasfractalsratherthanashierarchiestypicallyaremoreefficientandhavealongerlifespan.For the professional coach, these recent findings regarding self-replicating systems pose a whole host of new questions andchallenges.Ontheonehand,if organizationsareself-replicating,then any change in the style or strategies of a specific leaderwouldbehard toeither initiateormaintain— formanyothersubsystemswouldhavetochangeinasimilarmanner,giventhatthesesystemsareallreplicatingoneanother.Ontheotherhand,if asmallchangecanbeinitiatedandmaintainedbyoneleaderinonespecificsetting,thenthiscouldsetoffachainof changesthatspreadthroughouttheorganization.Theroleof theprofessionalcoach thus becomes one of helping her client identify the keyleveragepoints(Gladwell’stippingpoint,BuckminsterFuller’strimtab).Whatabouttheredesignof organizationsasself-replicating,highly efficient fractal networks? How might an organization beredesignedasanelegantlybranchingsystem?Andwhatistheroleof anorganizationalcoachinadvocatingforandassistingwiththisredesign process? The coach must ultimately be in the businessof supportingandreassuringherclientthroughthesechallengingmomentsof leadership.Theleveragepointsarenoteasilyidentified.Changewillberesistedatalllevelsandinmanydifferentways(bothobvious and subtle) throughout all of the mirroring subsystemsof theorganization—justasthosewhobenefitbyoratleastfindsecurityinhierarchywillresistthefractalshift.

There is a third major contribution made by these pioneers of chaosandcomplexity:thiscontributionconcernsthemeasurementof complexphenomena.Complexsystemsaredifficulttomeasurebecause they are inherently unpredictable and vulnerable toslight shifts in initial conditions (the so-called“butterfly”effect).However,thisisn’tthewholestory.Complexsystemshavemanynooks and crannies that are not easily measured; furthermore,therearesomanydifferentwaysinwhichmeasurescanbetakenandsomemanydifferentwaystointerpretthedatathathavebeen


gathered.Wecan’tmeasure,letalonepredict,theexactamountof “real”moneythatislostduringaspecificstockmarketdownturn,norcanwedeterminewhetherornotglobalwarning(orglobalclimateinstability)isareality.

Itseemsthatthetoolbeingusedtomeasureacomplexphenomenonmayhaveasgreatanimpactontheoutcomesof themeasurementprocessas thenatureof thephenomenonbeingmeasured.Theveryactof choosing tomeasureaphenomenonchanges it inafundamental way — because we have chosen to attend to thisphenomenon. For instance, if we measure something up close,weobtain aquitedifferent outcome then if wemeasure it at adistance: we can predict with considerable accuracy how manypeopleintheUnitedStateswillchoosetoeatCheeriosforbreakfasttoday,butwecannotpredictwithanysuccessif aspecificperson(GeorgeSmith,forinstance)willchoosetoeastCheeriostoday.If weaskGeorgewhetherornothewillbeeatingCheerios,thenthisquestionwillitself influencehisdecision(atrivialvariationontheso-called“Heisenberg”effect).

Fortheorganizationalcoach—confrontedwiththedemandforaccountabilityandhearingthewhispersaboutorovertdemandsfor“return-on-investment”—thesefindingsabouttheficklenatureof measurementmustcomeasapainful,cosmicjokeandparadox:wearebeingasked tomeasurewhatwedopreciselyat apointinourhistorywhentheveryfoundationsof measurementtheoryandpracticearebeingchallengedandtornapart.Furthermore,itisnotjusttheprofessionalcoachwhoisunderthisparadoxicalgun—itisalsothemanagersheiscoaching.LeaderssuchasJohnmustdemonstrate their own effectiveness during an era of economicdownturn.Yet,howiseffectiveness(orefficiency)tobemeasured?Andwhatisthejustification(ROI)forJohnusingcorporatemoneytopayforNatalie’scoachingservices?Newsystemically-sensitivetools must be developed for the measurement of impact andcomparisonbetweenexpectationsandoutcomes.Thesetoolswillbecriticaltothesuccessof notonlythecoachingprofessionbutalsotheclientsbeingservedbythesecoaches.

Cultural anthropological/linguistic revolutionNatalie and John might consider themselves fortunate, giventhattheybothcomefromthesamesocial-economicbackgroundand from the same (Midwest American) culture. Yet, both of thesepeoplewillbeconfrontedincreasinglywithdiversityintheworkplace—notonlybecausemanypeople aremoving to theUnited States from other countries, but also because they willbothbenetworkingwithpeoplefromthroughouttheworld.WithSkypeandrelatedcomputer-basedcommunicationtoolsattheirdisposal,Nataliecanbuildaninternationalnetworkof clientsandco-workers,whileJohnmaybegintomanageoperationsinEurope,Asia, Africa or South America. Cross-cultural understandingbecomes critical for Natalie and John – and this understanding

We see the world differently from men and women in other cultures, not only because we have had different past experiences, but also because our language influences the ways in which we see and think (cognition) and, therefore, the ways in which we interpret and engage in our world.


moveswellbeyond learninga fewwords inanother tongueorpicking up a few of the rituals in another society. It includes afuller appreciation of the underlying assumptions, values andperspectivesinanothercultureandclearerinsightintothevariousdifferencesandsubculturesthatexistwithinthemajorculturesof aspecificcountry(Rosinski,2006).

Whatweareseeinginour21stCenturyworldisanewappreciationof the interplay between culture, language and cognition. Weseetheworlddifferently frommenandwomeninothercultures,notonlybecausewehavehaddifferentpastexperiences,butalsobecause our language influences the ways in which we see andthink(cognition)and,therefore,thewaysinwhichweinterpretandengageinourworld.Agentleman-scholar,BenjaminWhorf,notedmanyyearsagothatlanguageinfluencescognition(StrongWhorf Hypothesis) or at the very least reflects differences in cognition(WeakWhorf Hypothesis)withinspecificcultures.Forinstance,wetendtobemuchmorespecificindesignating(labeling)phenomenathatwetendtovalue.Whorf usestheexampleof themanywordsfor snow inmanyInuit (Eskimo)cultures.Wecansimilarlypointto themultiplewords for love (e.g.,“agape,”“eros”and“philia”)inGreekcultures,ascomparedtotheuseof asingleword(“love”)inEnglish.Does thismean thatEnglish-speakingpeople tend toplacelessvalueonlovethanmembersof GreeksocietiesorthattheGreeksseesomethinginthedynamicsof lovingrelationshipswhichweinEnglish-speakingsocietiesdon’tsee?Oraretheseconventionsof languagemerelybyproductsof twodifferent linguisticsystemsthathavecreatedwordstodescribedifferingsocialconditions(forexample,agreateremphasisinGreeceonfriendshipsorreverencefor some deities (Cole, 1996)? Put simply, which comes first, thewordorthephenomenonbeinglabeled?

This interplay between language, cognition and culture isrelevant not only for our understanding of cross-culturalcommunicationproblems,butalso forourbetterunderstandingof thecommunicationchallengesbeingfacedwithin21stcenturyorganizations.Therearehighlyinfluentialsub-culturesoperatingwithin our organizations and each of them uses language in adifferent way. Their use of language reflects and reinforcesimportant differences in the perspectives and values held bythosewho liveandwork in these sub-cultures (Bergquist,Guest&Rooney,2004;Bergquist&Brock,2008:Bergquist&Pawlak,2008).Furthermore,aswecometorealize(inpostmodernfashion)thatorganizationsarereallynothingmore(andnothingless)thanextended conversations and conversational networks reflectinginterrelated setsof sharedcare, commitmentsandcoordinationof action, the role to be played by language and its impact oncognitionbecomesevenmoreimportant.

Natalie would do well to serve John by focusing on his use of language and on the assumptions, perspectives and values that

Professional coaches will become our personal philosophers. They will ask us penetrating questions. Instead of assisting us in setting the agenda for an upcoming meeting, our coach might invite us to reflect on why the meeting is being held in the first place and about ways in which decisions are made to convene such a meeting.


underliehisuseof language.Itisverydifficultforanyof ustoreflectcriticallyonourownlinguisticandcognitiveworld,forwecanonlyreflectonthisworldfromwithintheworld(whatisoftencalledthe“hermeneuticparadox”).AcoachlikeNataliecanbeof greatvalueinthisregard—thoughNatalieisinanawkwardplacebecauseshedwellsinaworldthatisverymuchliketheoneinwhichJohndwells.Howdoesshestepoutsideherownassumptiveworld?WouldJohnbebetterservedbyacoachwhocomesfromadifferentcountryorforwhomEnglishisasecondlanguage?Mightsuchapersonofferamorecriticalanddetachedperspective—andultimatelybeof greaterbenefittoJohn?Doesn’tthischallengetheassumptionthatatrustingrelationshipbetweencoachandclientrequiresasharedperspective (as well as mutual trust in competency and trust incommonintentions)?Wearenowinaplace—withprofessionalcoachingbecomingaglobalenterprise—toaskthisquestionabouttherelativevalueof local (parochial)versusglobal (cosmopolitan)coachingservices.

conclusIonsSomeof themoreobviousshiftsoccurringinearly21stsocietieshavebeenidentifiedandseveralimplicationshavebeendrawninthisarticleregardinghowtheseshiftsmightimpacttheprofessionalcoaching enterprise. Each of these shifts requires an expandedsenseof self, of organization,of societyandevenof theentireglobalcommunity.Wemightevenwanttoreachoutbeyondourownworldtoconsidertherecentfindingsinastrophysicsregardingouruniversebeingmuchlargerandmoredynamicthanwehadpreviously believed. And what will happen during the next fewyearswhennewtelescopeswillbeabletoreachacrossvasttimeandspacecontinuatoactuallywitnessthecreationof theuniverse(the“bigbang”).RudolphOtto(1923)wrotemanyyearsagoaboutthereactionsof humanbeingswhenconfrontingthe“numinous”(unstructured experience of the massive reality that confrontsus every day). How do we address the “awe-ful-ness” of ourexpandinguniverse?Asoneof mycolleaguesrecentlymentioned,our imageof God (or someotherguidingprinciple) isgoing tohavetogrowmuchlarger,giventheimmenseandexpandingsizeof ouruniverse.

Atapersonallevel,whataretheconvictionsthateachof usholdsdeeplyaboutourownlife (whichisseverely limited intimeandspace)andthemeaningtobefoundinlivingthislife?If weareassistedbyaprofessionalcoach,willthispersoninsomemannerbecomeaspiritualguideorcompanionormuse?Isthisoutsidetheboundsof professionalcoaching?Attheveryleast,wemightfindthatprofessionalcoacheswillbecomeourpersonalphilosophers.They will ask us penetrating questions, not about why we areanxious,butaboutwhattheterm“anxious”meanstous,andtothedecisionswemakeandactionswetakeinourworld.Insteadof assistingusinsettingtheagendaforanupcomingmeeting,ourcoachmightinviteustoreflectonwhythemeetingisbeingheld


inthefirstplaceandaboutwaysinwhichdecisionsaremadetoconvene such a meeting. Our coach may even challenge us toexamine underlying assumptions regarding why we choose todefinecertainotherpeopleinourorganizationas“recalcitrant,”“unmotivated” or even “our enemies.” While these kinds of questionsmayinitiallycontributetothepostmoderncomplexity,unpredictability and turbulence in our lives, and may increaseratherthandecreasethepaininourlives,theyalsokeepusaliveandvitallyengagedintherealworldaroundus.Theyhelpprepareus for the extraordinary world that will play out in front of usduringthecomingdecadesof the21stCentury.

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aBout tHE autHor

William Bergquist, Ph.D.

Phone: 207-833-5124Email: [email protected] (for PSP): www.psychology.edu

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Natalie and John: A Narrative Perspective on the Future ... · organizational coaching WILLIAM BERGQUIST Building on a hypothetical case study offered in a previous article in this