Arsenic in Drinking Water in Nepal

(NASC and ENPHO, 2004)

Arsenic Research & Dev. in NepalArsenic research and implementation has proceeded in 3 stages:

Stage 1: Background research, 1999-2003• Collect field data on water quality and socio-economic conditions• Gather information on over 50 arsenic removal options

Stage 2: Field technology studies, 2000-2002• Field tested 8 technologies against

performance, acceptance, and cost criteria• Invented the KanchanTM Arsenic Filter (KAF)• Recommended 3 technologies for further

testing

Stage 3: Pilot Study, 2002-2003• 3 to 12 months pilot in rural households• More vigorous assessment on technical,

social, and economic criteria• KAF found to be the best

KanchanTM Arsenic Filter (KAF)

MIT invention in collaboration with Nepali NGO-ENPHO and Canadian NGO -CAWST

KanchanTM Arsenic Filter • Developed by MIT and ENPHO (Nepali NGO) based on 7 years

of field research

• Open-source technology

• Effective removal of arsenic, bacteria, iron, turbidity, and odour

• Low cost (US$20 in Nepal)

• Require no external energy/material input for operation

• No replacement parts except nails

• Constructed by local technicians using local materials

• Environmentally safe disposal Gravel

Coarse Sand

Water

Fine Sand

Iron Nails

Diffuser Basin

Lid

Container

Pipe

Brick chips

We have developed 4 containment system for the KAF:1. Concrete Square2. Concrete Round3. Plastic Hilltake4. Plastic Gem505 (Local Plastic Design)

KanchanTM Arsenic Filter Design

KAF Contaminant Removal MechanismsArsenic removal mechanism:

1. After contact with water and air, iron nails in the diffuser basin will quickly rust

2. Arsenic adsorbed on iron hydroxide (rust) particles through surface-complexation processes

Microbial removal mechanisms:

• Physical straining • Attachment to other particles • Predation • Natural die-off

KAF in Nepal

0.35-0.40 increasepH

85-99% reductionTotal coliforms

80-95% reductionTurbidity

80-85% reductionPhosphate

90-95% reductionIron

85-90% reductionArsenic

Typical valuesParameters

Technical Performance (based on 1000+ filters in use for 1 year)

For ideal performance: Arsenic <= 0.5 mg/LPhosphate <= 5.0 mg/LpH <= 7.5

(Ngai, et al, 2007)

KAF in NepalImplementation status:

• 30,000 to 40,000 households in Nepal identified as arsenic-affected

• 7,000 households using KAF

• 5,000 households will be getting a KAF in the next 12-18 months

• KAF is promoted by the government, UNICEF, UN-Habitat, Finnida, Red Cross, and a number of local NGOs

(Ngai et al, 2006)

The Kanchan Filter has been recognized by various awards …•MIT IDEAS Competitions – (2002, 2003, 2005)

•World Bank Development Marketplace Competition (2003)

* Wall Street Journal Technology Innovation Award – Environment Category (2005)

* St. Andrews Prize for the Environment – 2nd Prize (2006)

* Kyoto Water Prize - Top Ten Finalists (2006)

KAF Expanding to Other CountriesBangladesh:

• KAF participating in the Bangladesh Gov’tEnvironmental Technology Verification (BETV)program• We expect verification results by the end

of April 2009

Cambodia• A 1-year laboratory and pilot study, funded

by the ADB, to verify the KAF in Cambodian waters

India:• Installed first KAF in November 2007 in

West Bengal• On-going monitoring by a local university

Mexico, El Salvador, Peru, Argentina, and Ghana

• Local organizations have expressed interest

Ghana – Ceramic Pot Filter

50% (0.9 million out of 1.8 million people) in Northern Region, Ghana currently use an unimproved source

Ghanasco Dugout, Tamale, GhanaA typical “unimproved” water source

Ghanasco Dugout, Tamale

Credit: S.Murcott

Credit: Tamar Losleben

Ghanasco Dugout, Tamale

Ghanasco Dugout woman fetching water

Credit: Carl Allen

Ghanasco Dugout, Tamale

Credit: Tamar Losleben

View of dugout when it dries up

Unsafe Drinking Water at selected Tamale District, Ghana Dugouts

69012,797438Average

~12512,7671,400Vitting Dam, TD

~1,00019,150367Gbanyami Dam, TD

501,40850Libga Dam, SD

233,4170Diare Dam, SD

3005117200Bunglung Dam, SD

755000Libga Dam, SD

4004,540133Dungu Dam, TD

>2,00052,1101,650St. Mary's Dam, TD

3821,667100Bipelar Dam, TD

> 2,00013,475754Kaleriga Dam, TD

~1,6006,621169Ghanasco Muali Dam, TD

Turbidity(TU)

Total Coliforms(CFU per 100 mL)

E. coli(CFU per 100 mL)Location

Pure Home Water

• Social business founded in 2005

• Disseminating household water treatment and safe storage (HWTS) in Ghana

Pure Home Water’s 2 Goals: 1.Provide HWTS to communities in greatest

need of safe drinking water in Ghana

2.Social business approach aiming for financial sustainability & self-sufficiency

Childhood Mortality Stats

• Ghana’s average childhood mortality is 112 deaths / 1000 live births

• There are significant North/South differences The majority of Northern Region and the Upper West both have >155 deaths / 1000 live births.

• Africa’s is is 167 deaths / 1000 live births,

(http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/ghana.pdf)

WHO Ghana Country Fact Sheet

(i.e. diarrhrea reported in past 2 weeks)

Cases of Guinea Worm – 2008

http://www.cartercenter.org/healthprograms/ Guinea Worm Wrap Up #182, July 7, 2008

Currently PHW has 5 full-time +3 part-time Ghanaian staff, including

2 Ghanaian student interns

Shak Enyonam Bernice

We have a house for office, sales, residence, lab, stock,

with a small shop

We have 1 Delivery Truck

Since 2005, more than 30 MIT Master of Engineering, Sloan MBA and other students have conducted applied research and development, monitoring and evaluation, consumer choice and business assessment studies in Ghana in support of Pure Home Water.

Year 1Pure Home Water Products in Ghana

1 Safe Drinking Water Storage– Modified “safe storage” clay pots– Plastic “safe storage” containers

2 Filters– Ceramic filters

(i). Ceramic Pot Filters (“Kosim”)(ii) Michael Commeh’s ceramic candle filter(iii) Indian imported candle filter

– Biosand Filters3 Disinfection

– Household Chlorination (“Safe Water System”)– Solar Disinfection (SODIS)

Year 2 – Kosim Ceramic Pot Filter Since 2006, we have focused on disseminating the Kosim ceramic pot filter.

Why did we choose a ceramic pot filter?• Extremely high turbidity, even in dry season,

in the widely used surface water supplies

Turbidity Test (NTU)

Why did we choose a ceramic pot filter?• Culturally compatible – rural water in

Ghana is universally stored in large clay vessels

Also, because it works!AFTER BEFORE

Kosim Filter filled with dugout waterKosim treated water

Water Quality Tests

• Collected filtered and unfiltered samples• Tested for E. coli, total coliforms, H2S

bacteria and turbidity.(Johnson et al, 2008)

Water Quality Results: Filtered vs. Source Water

Traditional Households% Removal

Modern Households% Removal

E. coli 99.7% 85%

Total Coliform 99.4% 90%

H2S 87% 100%

Turbidity 92% 68%

(Johnson, 2007)

Health Impact Study

• Odds ratio calculations, chi-square tests for statistical significance

• Modern households with filters have 12% of the risk (76% less risk) of having diarrheal illness compared to households without filters

• Traditional households with filters have 31% of the risk (69% less risk) of having diarrheal illness compared to households without filters

(Peletz, R. 2006; Johnson,S., 2007)

Pure Home Water Filter Sales

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

FY 06 FY 07 FY 08

569 1,224

9,000

In Fiscal Year – 2008, PHW sold about 9,000 filters, with 7,800 filters to three big NGOs: UNICEF, Oxfam and CLIP

Estimated Population Served (July ’05 to July ’08)

107,11010,793TOTAL2,00010200International

4,60040115Free – Schools & Clinics

94,110109,411Rural6,40061,067Urban/Retail

Population Served

People per HH

Units Sold

Flood Distribution•5,500 filters sold by PHW to UNICEF and Oxfam in Nov. 2007

•2000 Distributed to end user by PHW, remainder by NGO or Government (Jan. –April, 2008)

•All given to users free of charge

•PHW has monitored > 1,000 filters in households (June –Aug, 2008) (Credit: M.Stevenson)

The flood distribution has included guinea worm

villages in the Northern Sector

Woman from Yesapi, Central Gonja, with bandage covering guinea worm-infected foot

Pure Home Water’s Challenges

Demand Generation –through education & awareness, social marketing & networking

Local Capacity to Buy & Sell Filters

Proper Cleaning & MaintenanceBehavior Change

Gender Roles

Local manufacturing ?

Transportation & Fuel Costs

Ceramic Breakage in Transport

Breakage in Households

Implementation StrategySale vs. Free Distribution?

Direct Sales Free Distribution by Large NGOs

Future Plans

Reach 1 million people

in Northern Sector Ghana in next 5 years

Future of Science with HWTS serving 1+ B at Bottom of Pyramid

• HWTS - recent innovation - cluster of technologies with potential to provide safe drinking water to 1+ billion low-income people.

• HWTS reduce or eliminate bacteria, protozoa, guinea worm, arsenic, fluoride and other microbiological and chemical contaminants

• Core HWTS technologies - proven to reduce diarrheal diseases from 6 – 50%

• HWTS - lowest cost option to reduce water-related diseases • Currently reaching millions • Scale up to 1+ billion within our reach!

Future of Science Methodology:A Systems Approach• Technical • Socio-cultural acceptability• Behavioral• Financial sustainability• Inter-disciplinary• Focus on women & children

References• Haller, L, Hutton, G., and Bartram, J. Estimating the costs and health benefits of Water and

Sanitation Improvements at the Global Level. Journal of Water and Health. WHO. (05) 4. 2007.

• Johnson, Sophie. 2007. “Health and Water Quality Monitoring of Pure Home Water’s Ceramic Filter Dissemination in the Northern Region of Ghana.” Masters of Engineering Thesis. MIT Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Cambridge, Ma. June, 2007. http://web.mit.edu/watsan/std_thesis_ghana.htm

• NASC/ENPHO, 2004. The State of Arsenic in Nepal - 2003. National Arsenic Steering Committee, Environment and Public Health Organization. Kathmandu, Nepal. ISBN 99933-895-4-4

• Nath, K. J., Bloomfield, S., and Jones, Martin. Household Water Storage, Handling and Point of Use Treatment. International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene, Kolkata, India, 2006.

• Ngai, T.K.K., Murcott, S., Shrestha, R.R., Dangol, B., Maharjan, M. Development and Dissemination of KanchanTM Arsenic Filter in Rural Nepal. Water Science & Technology: Water Supply Vol 6 No 3 pp 137–146 © IWA Publishing 2006

• Peletz. Rachel. 2006. “Cross-Sectional Epidemiological Study on Water and Sanitation Practices in the Northern Region, Ghana.”. Master of Engineering Thesis. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department. Cambridge, Massachusetts. June. 2006. http://web.mit.edu/watsan/std_thesis_ghana.htm

• UNICEF/WHO. 2008. “Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation. Special Focus on Sanitation.” New York and Geneva.

• WHO, 2004. http://www.who.int• WHO, 2006. “Preventing Disease through Healthy Environments”

http://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/preventingdisease/en

More information on MIT Water and Sanitation in Developing

Countries Project“Clean Water for 1 Billion People”

is available on our Web Site:http://web.mit.edu/watsan