NASA's Space Science and Applications Program

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N 67- 31 4_0

NASA'SSPACE

SCIENCEAND

APPLICATIONSPROGRAM

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION


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NASA'SSPACE SCIENCE

AHI"_ ADDI I/"_'A'rI#'%I4,1Cm-IllV m-II I blVr15 IVIN_

PROGRAM

A Statement Presented to theCommittee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences

United States SenateApril 20, 7967

BY HOMER E. NEWF'LLAssociate Administrator for Space Science and Applications

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, D.C. 20546


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ..............................Page

365

CHAPTER II--SPACE APPLICATIONS PROGRAMS ..... 395GEODESY .................................... 396COMMUNICATIONSAND NAVIOATION ........... ,. 399

CHAPTER I--PROGRESS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN SPACESCIENCE ....................................... 365

SPACE SCIENCE ............................... 365HISTORICAL I_RSPECTIVE ...................... 366TIME FOR DECISION........................... 369THE IMPACT OF SPACE RESEARCH ON SCmNCE .... 370

Geoscience ............................... 370New tools for geoscience .................. 370New areas of geoscience .................. 373Geoscience and the other planets .......... 379Partnership among geoscience, astronomy,and physics ........................... 381

Physics .................................. 383Astronomy ............................... 383Bioscience ................................ 385

THE IMPACT OF SPACE RESEARCH ON ACADEMICINSTITUTIONS ............................... 392

THE PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE OF SPACE SCIENCE. 392WHAT IS SCIENCE ............................ 392Tim IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE IN OUR SocreTY.. 393


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PageMETEOROLOGY ............................... 401EARTH RESOURCES SURVEY .................... 405SPACE APPLICATIONS SUMMER STUDY ............ 411SUMMARY .................................... 414

CHAPTER III--BUDGET REQUEST FORSPACE SCIENCEAND APPLICATIONS PROGRAM...... 414MISSION RECORD ............................. 415LEVEL OF ACTIVITY ........................... 415FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES ....................... 418PROGRAMPLANS AND PROGRESS................ 418Physics and Astronomy Programs ............ 418

Lunar and Planetary Programs .............. 420Voyager Program ......................... 424Spacc Applications Programs ............... 425Bioscience Program ........................ 428Manned Space Science ..................... 429Sustaining Univcrsity Program .............. 430Launch Vehicle Devclopment ............... 431Launch Vehiclc Procurcmcnt ............... 432Construction of Facilities ................... 433Administrative Operations .................. 434SUMMARY.................................... 435

APPENDIXESI. The Meaning and hnportance of Our National

Space Program ............................ 436II. Comparison of U.S./U.S.S.R. Space Science... 439III. The Story of Earth's Atmosphere ............ 469IV. The Solar Wind and the Earth's Magnetos-

phere .................................... 480V. The Planets .............................. 494VI. Planetology ............................... 502VII. Astronomy as a Space Science ............... 509VIII. Space Research and Progress in BiologicalScience .................................. 524IX. What is Science? .......................... 542X. A Brief History of Research in Electricity ..... 544XI. Practical Results from the NASA Space Pro-

gram .................................... 547


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NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968 365THE STATEMENT OF HOMER E. NEWELL, ASSOCIATE ADMINISTRATOR FOR SPACE

SCIENCE ANn APPLICATIONS, NASATIrE NATIONAL SPACE SCIENCE AND APPLICATIONS PROGRAM

lntroduct_o_I am pleased to have the privilege of addressing the Committee on Aero-

nautical and Space Sciences on the su'bject of our national space science andapplications program. In this tenth year of the Space Age there is much to re-port both on progress and on opportunities for the future.When we began our space program, we did so with a very limited capability.

We mounted, therefore, a strong effort to develop the technical and operationalcapability needed to accomplish our objectives in space. At the same time,with the strong support of the Congress and the country, we were able to under-take a substantial program in both science and applications.Now. after a decade of hard work, we have built up a substantial space

capability. Reliable space vehicles are available ranging all the way from smallsounding rockets to the Saturn I and Titan III class vehicles, with the stilllarger Saturn V imminent. Automated techniques of space exploration andapplication have matured while chalking up a long string of successes in Mariner,Ranger, Surveyor, Lunar Orbiter, Explorers, Geophysical and Solar Observa-tories, Tiros and Nimbus, Syncom, the Applications Technology Satellite, and..... _ ......... _ _,_v,,_,,_ u_ man to operate in space is emerging as Geminiwinds up a brilliant series of flights, as the Apollo program proceeds, and as westart work on the Apollo Applications Program.As a result of our hard-won gains, we can .begin to devote a greater proportion

of our space effort to practical applications and scientific and technological re-search. The future holds much promise of even greater returns on our invest-ment than the remarkable output of the past.

In the first decade of the Space Age, we have also hammered out a betterunderstanding of what space means to us, and how it can contribute in manyways to important national objectives. We have come to perceive the im-portance of challenging, broad, scientific and technologicaI efforts to the techni-caI health of the nation, and to appreciate the importance of the space effort inthis respect. Many countries have come to equate preeminence in space withtechnical leadership on Earth. As a result, scientific and technological prestigederived from successes in space have a definite influence at the negotiating table,and on where other nations seek guidance and ;buy technological products, serv-ices, and training. One of the most important returns from an overall spacecapability is our ability to control our own destiny in space and in the :Space Age,and to avoid a situation in which another country could restrict our use of spaceor our freedom of action in space. These points are developed at greater lengthin Appendix I.Our rapidly developing capability has enabled us to achieve many successes

in the past, and now affords us a wide range of choices of profitable missions toundertake in the future. I propose in Chapter I to discuss in bread perspectiveprogress and opportunities in space science. In Chapter III will discuss spaceapplications. In Chapter III I will review the Fiscal Year 1968 budget requestfor the Space Science and Applications Program.

CHAPTER I. PROGRESS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN SPACE SCIENCE

_pace scienceThe rocket, satellite, and space probe are powerful tools for scientific research.

With them the investigator has been able to tackle many important and funda-mental problems that could not be attacked effectively hitherto. With spacetechniques observations can now be made that are simply impossible at the sur-face of the Earth at the bottom of our obscuring and distorting atmosphere. Asa consequence, space science has had a major impact on many of the majorscientific disciplines, stimulating and enlarging their scope, and adding to thepower of their assault on the frontiers of ignorance. We shall discuss this pointat some length a little later.


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366 NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1 9 6 8

FIGURE09I n broad perspective space science includes two major areas of r e a r c h (a.109) Exploration of the solar system.Investigation of the universe.The first category includes the scientific investigation of our Earth and i tsatmosphere, th e Moon and planets, and the interplrinetnry medium. The natureand 1)c~h:iriorof the Sun and i ts influence on the so1:ir system, especially on the

E:irth, m e of prinie importance. With th e avail abili ty of space techniques, weare no longer limited in direct observations to a single body of the solar system,Init niny now send our instruments and even men to explore and investigate otherobjects in the solar system. The pnssibility of comparing the properties of t heplane ts in detai l adds grea tly to the pnwer of investigation of our own planet.Potentially f ar-rearh ing in i ts philosophical implications, is the search fo r life onother planets.The fundamental laws of th e universe i n which me live are th e most impor tantobjects of scientific search. Space techniques furni sh R most powerfill nieans ofprobing the natu re of the unir ersr, by furnishing the opportunity to olwrve andmeasure from above the Earth s atmosphere in wavelengths t hat canniiot penet rat eto the ground. There i n also the opportunity to perform experiments on th e scaleof the solar system using satellites and space probes to s tudy relativity, t o delveinto the na ture of frnvitation, including a sea rch for the existence of graviltationalHi s torical p erepect ivc

Seizing upon the opportunities hefore us, n the very first months and yearsof the Space Age, thi s country undertook as diverse a pmgram of space science,technology, and applications as it s limited capability would permit. In t he briefspan sine-e those years of ea rly decision, a ll of th e first generation missions un der-tnken in our national space flight program have been brnught to flight stage;esc-ept for the Orbiting Astmnomicnl Observatory (OAO) all have achievedsnrce.ssfu1 flighh, and we are on the verge of success with that project. It issigniflmnt th at th e OAO is in many respects the most difficult and most advancedof th e scientific missions und ertaken by th is country .

\\YiVBS.


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NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968 367Except for the extensive sounding rocket program, the record is set forth onthe table of figure 110. Scientific successes recorded in the table include dozens of

Explorers (atmosphere ; magnetosphere ; geodesy ; space environment), OrbitingSolar Observatories (Sun), Orbiting Geophysical Observatories (multidiscipli-nary studies covering ,the atmosphere, magnetosphere, Sun, and space environ-ment); many satellites launched for other countries in cooperative programs(atmosphere ; ionosphere; Sun ; space environment), the Ranger and Surveyorlunar missions (Moon), Pioneer deep space probes (space environment ), and theMariners to Venus and Mars (planets; space environment). As I mentioned inthe introduction, a later paper will discuss the very successful and productiveapplications program.Figure 111 lists the second round of missions undertaken in our spaceprogram since 1960. Many of these have also come to fruition. Eminently satis-fying has been the brilliant Gemini program, in which many scientific experimentshave been carried out (Earth and weather photography; space environment;astronomy; bioscience). The second generation missions include advanced Ex-

plorers, such as the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform, called IMP, (spaceenvironment), and the GEOS and Pageos geodetic satellites (Earth structure;mapping). Of the new international cooperative satellites, the second CanadianAlouette (ionosphere; cosmic rays) and the Italian San Marco (atmosphere)launches were highly successful. New and improved Pioneers even now areorbiting the Sun, sending back impo_ant data on solar activity and the inter-planetary medium. Spectacular pictures of the Moon from our _wo LunarOrbiters have appeared on front pages of newspapers around the world.The year 1966 saw a spectacular assault on the secrets of the Moon with Sur-veyor and Lunar Orbiter automated spacecraft. These achievements are beauti-fully symbolized by Lunar OrbiCer's memorable photograph of the Earth dom-inating the sky above the lunar horizon (fig. 112). While mission_ such as

NASA MISSIONS STARTED BEFORE 1 JANUARY 1961DATEOF TOTALSUCCESSESMISSION FIRSTSUCCESS TO 31 JAN 1967

VANGUARD _ 17 MAR 1958 2EXPLORER" 1 FEB 1958 ?5PIONEER** 3 MAR 1959 2ORBITING SOLAR OBSERVATORY 1 MAR 1962 2ORBITINGASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY .....ORBITING GEOPHYSICALOBSERVATORY I JUN 1966 lINTERNATIONAL 26 APR 1962 2RANGER 28 JUL 1964 3SURVEYOR 30 MAY 1966 1MARINER 27 AUG 1962 2ECHO 12 AUG 1960 2RELAY 13 DEC 1962 2TIROS I APR 1960 I0NIMBUS 28 AUG 1964 2MERCURY(MANNED) 5 MAY 1961 6LITTLEJOE 4 OCT 1959 1SATURN 21 OCT 1961 13CENTAUR"* 27 NOV 1963 7DELTA 12 AUG 1960 41SCOUT... 1 JUL 1960 39

PART OF IGY BEFORE CREATION OF NASA** STARTED BY USAF

**" STARTED BY ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT AGENCY.... INCLUDES LAUNCHES FOR DOD AND AEC

(ARPA)NASA S 67-1o37

2-1-671_0_ 110


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368 N A S A A U THOR I ZA T I ON F OR F I SC A L Y EA R 1 9 6 8NASA MISSIONS STARTED AFTER 1 JANUARY 1961

M I SSI O N DATE OFFIRST SUCCESS-ADVANCED EXPLORER 26 N O V 1963NEW PIONEER 16 DEC 1965NEW INTERNATIONAL 27 M A R 1964LUNAR ORBITER 10 AUG 1965APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITE 6 DEC 1966S Y N C O M 26 JUL 1963GEODETIC 6 N O V 1965ESSA 3 FEB 1966BIOSATELLITE - - -PEG A SU S 16 FEB 1965F I R E 14 APR 1964REENTRY 18 A U G 1964SERT 20 JU L 1964R A M - - -G E M I N I ( M A N N E D ) 23 M A R 1965APOLLO (MANNED) _ _ _LITTLE JOE I I 28 A U G 1963

TELSTARI NTELSATNON-NASA MISSIONS

10 JUL 19626 A P R 1965

* BUILT AND LAUNCHED BY NASA FOR ENVIRONMENTALSCIENCE SERVICES ADMINISTRATION

TOTAL SUCCESSESTO 31 IA N 1967323212243221lo4

_ _

- -_ _

23 (VehicleOnly1NASA 5 67- I6582-1-67

FIGURE11

SPACE SCIENCE AND APPLICATIONS

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NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968 369these were capturing most of the headlines as well as the public imagination,they were also being matched by equally significant progress in other areas,including pertinent and supporting ground-based research.The accomplishments of the past two years have clearly established thecapability of this nation to carry out successfully complicated automated science

and applications missions in space. We have made substantial progress in thedevelopment of a manned capability for similar purposes. A strong base hasbeen laid for continuing success in whatever space missions we may undertake.By way of comparison, the Russians continue to publish at an increasing ratein the area of space science, as is shown in the analysis of Appendix II, whichwas compiled by NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies. Nevertheless,the United States has maintained a lead through 1965. It will, however, beimportant to watch for what effects the recent increase in automated explorationof the Moon and cislunar space will have on both _he absolute and relativenumbers of Soviet space _cienee publications.Time /or derisionMany of our first and second generation projects have been completed or are

nearing completion. The space research effort has been abundantly fruitfulin answering first and second generation questions about our space environment,and in turning up a whole new generation of fundamental and important ques-tions, and potentially f.'_a,.'tfu! practical aoplications. To answer these newquestions and to continue advancing in this important field, It is time to _electnew missions x) replace old ones.The importance of this point may .be seen from figure 113. This chart shows theflight activity in the Space Science and Applications Program since 1960. Flightsto which we have committed ourselves are shown as launched or scheduled.They are subdivided into major missions requiring Agena, Centaur, or Saturnlaunch vehicles, and small spacecraft requiring the Scout or Delta launch vehicles.The number of scheduled missions is seen to decrease rapidly to zero in the early1970's. There is both the opportunity to _ntroduce new missions into the science

OSSA FLIGHT MISSIONSNUMBEROFMISSIONS

24-222O18161412108

6-:

o:CY 60 61

PLANNEDIN FY 68 B.UDET

62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75NA SA S 67-605

REV. 3-1-67

Fzevs_ 113


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370 NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968and application program, and the necessity to do so, to tackle the new problemswe now have before us, to keep in trim the magnificent team that we have puttogether, and to maintain our forward thrust. The Fiscal Year 1968 budget in-dudes funds to conduct work on additional missions as ind, icated in the chart.These missions, which include Voyager, will be discussed by Mr. Edgar Cort-right in a later paper.The proposed new work is selected from a wide range of choices now open tous, because of our growing space capability. When the Space Age began, we asa nation were constrained to responding to the challenge represented by Sput-nik I with whatever we could do in space. A decade later the situation is en-tirely different. The number of space goals that are now within reach is so greatthat we can set aside the question of what can we do and turn our attentionto what should we do.

The _mportance and value of options now open to us in science are discussedin the next section.The impact oi space research o_ scienceThe impact of space research on science has already been appreciable, inter-

na_ttonal in scope. With the Space Age, a new phrase came into use ; space science,meaning basic scientific research din or directly related to space. Space scienceis, however, not a new science or even a new scientific discipline. Rather, it isthe extension of numerous classical disciplines by the application of space tech-niques to the solution of important scientific problems. Therein lies the vitalityof space science, that it contributes in powerful ways to the bro_der_ing andstrengthening of science rigkt here on Earth.Let us illustrate the above point by discussing several specific examples. Itshould suffice to consider four major disciplines : geoscience, physics, astronomy,and bioscience. All of these disciplines are thoroughly involved in the pursuitof our objectives of exploring the solar system and investigating the universe.GcoscicnccThe impact of space techr_iques upon the geosciences, i.e., the study of our Earth,

has been truly dramatic. Through the space approach, geoscience has beenstrengthened and extended in four _tgnificant ways :

By providing powerful new tools.By opening up new areas of geoscience.By extending geoscience to other planets.By drawing geoscience, astronomy, and physics closer together.

Let us discuss these four paints in order.New tools 1or gcoscicnce

First, sounding rockets and satellites have furnished a powerful new lineof attack on old problems. One of these problems is the investigation of theEarth's upper a, tmosphere beyond ,the reach of aircraft and balloons. Thosefamiliar with this field are keenly aware of the struggles, starting in the early1900's and extending over nearly half a century, to glean information fromvarious indirect sources about the properties and behavior of the high at-mosphere. Some remarkably good detective work was done, but progress wasslow and very uncertain. There were simply too many parameters not subjectto direct measurement to permit achieving unambiguous answers.W_th the sounding rocket, and later the artificial Earth satellite, the pace

of definitive observation and meas_urement increased by orders of magnitude.The pressure and density of the atmosphere were determined to heights ofthousands of miles. Molecules and ions in the upper atmosphere were identified.It was found that in the middle ionosphere ionized oxygen a,toms appear (fig.114) instead of the neutral oxygen molecules found at sea level. S_till higheris a region dominated by helium, and even farther out a region of predominantlyhydrogen. Atmospheric motions, the aurora, and other high al,ti,tude phenomenacame under the revealing scrutiny of spaceborne instrumentation.

It was possible to observe the solar spectrum at various altitudes, therebydetermining where the different solar wavelengths are absorbed in the atmos-phere. These data are critical to understanding the influence of the Sun uponour atmospheric environment.It is the word "environment" that is the key to the practical importance ofnmch of _,vpace science. Through the resul,ts of space research we understandbetter the nature and behavior of our environment, and its influence upon our


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N A S A A U T H O R I Z A T I O N FO R FI S C A L Y E A R 1968 371- - ." ---T A R I ITUENTSA L T I T U D E (KM]

1000 H

H e

0

100

I1 1 6 2 8 . 8 6

N A S A 367-1647M E A N M O L E C U L A R W E I G H T 2-14-67FIQURE14

lives. Wi th such knowledge we ar e better able to cope with the problems ofliving in t he Ea rt h environment and of using th e Eanth and space environmentto fu ll advantage.For example, understanding the lower atmosphere and its behavior is es-pecially significant a t th is time when we a re wrestling wi th the possibilities ofactually modifying weather to serve practical needs, such as enhancing watersupplies, decreasing lightning hazard, protecting crops from storm damage,and perhaps in th e more distant futur e even taming th e hurricane and t he tor-nado. The atmosphere affects the design of airplanes, missiles, and satellites;and has a ma jo r influence on va rious forms of radio communication, includingthe guidance and control of our own rockets, and the detection and interceptionof enemy missiles.The problem of atmospheric pollution, which affects us all, needs thoughtfuland searching attention. Urban smog is no longer an occasional phenomenon,but is a thr eat t o most large cities. The frequency of smog in the Los Angelesarea is well known (fig. 115). Smogs of London, New Po rk City, an d Pi tts-burgh have been highly distressing, even fatal to some. One solution to thisproblem would be to stop burning fuels for home and industry, stop drivingautomobiles, and forego those activities that inject contaminants into theatmosphere, and to understand thoroughly the behavior of our atmosphere, andwhat our activities do to it, so that we may devise ways of living and workingthat leave our environment unharmed.The above are obvious examples of t he dir ect practical application of knowl-edge about our environment. But there are hidden importances that mayescape attention until too lat e if we d o not continue to press for a clear percep-tion of man's environment and his role i n it. Let me cite two examples.The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased eight percentin the last 60 or 70 years. Over thi s period there ha s been a great growth inIndus trial activi ty and in the use of the internal combustion engine. Sincecarbon dioxide in the atmosphere absorbs heat radiated from the ground, in-creasing carbon dioxide content implies a gradually increasing temperaturea t t h e Earth's surface. I t would take only a few degrees riw in the average

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372 NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 196.8

FIQURE15temperature of the ntmosphere to cause profound chnnges in climnte, the melt-ing of the polar 'ice cap', wi th sufficient changes in sea level to inundate low-lying lnnd nin.sses such as Floridn. I t has been suggested that the melting ofArctic nnd Antarctic ice would soon lend to a n increase in the ICnrth's cloudcover followed hy incrensed nnd widespread snowfnll. Th is could be the s tar tof the next g r w t ice nge.Even more subtle is the influence we may ,be xerting on the ultimate sourcesof life-gidng oxygen in our ntmocfphere. I t was on* a favorite theme ofscience teticliers to point out thn t, although the atmosphere is not n chemicalcompound, nevertheless, t he proportions of th e major cons tituents like nitrogenand oxygen are nhsolutely unchanging. This point of view, however, is a n illu-sion fostered by the vastness of the ntmosphem and th e extreme slowness ofchanges. R u t , changes do occur, a s illustrated hy the previous example crfthe carbon d'ioxide content of (theair.The'fact is t hat oxygen is constan,tly being removed fmni th e air, for example,by oxidation of the rocks of th e Enrth's crust. This lorn is offset by the esstspeto the atmosphere of oxygen from the (we an s where oxygen is continually k i n greleased hy photosynthesis in marine plants. There are indications th at marinelife ' i s nbsorhing and being affected hy pesticides and herbicides that nre beingwashed into the weans. Rincp there is no known buffer or stabilizer for theequilibrium of oxygen in the photosynthesis-atmosphere cycle, t he nmoilnt ofoxygen in the atmosphere mny tn? expected to decrease as the hnlnnce of t h eplant and nnimnl ecology of the (weans is drastically disturhed. Eecnuse thereare now about a hnlf nill lion tons of oxygen per inhnhltant on Earth, nnd he-ca~r se ny chnnges mill appenr to l p quite slow, hnrmful long4.erm effects willnot be easily perceptible in the mitica l early stages. Th e concern is thn t hy thetime signifltant rhanges m e evident, it may already he too la te to remedy th esituation. Th e consequences of 'ignorance nr e potentially so drast ic tha t theinvestment in knowledge becomes n must. In thesefew Darngraphs I have no more than touched upon the subject. A more dtailed account is given in Appendix I11 : "The Story of the Earth's Atmosphere,

The sto ry of our atmosphere ia ns fnscinnting as it is important.


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N A S A A U W O R I Z A T I O N FOR FISCAL Y E A R 1 9 6 8 373written by Dr. Robert Fellows, Planetary Atmospheres Program Chief, Officeof Space Science and Applications, NASA Headquarters.The significance of the atmosphere in our lives is clear. Th e interplanetarymedium and the Sun have a related importance. The Sun l i t e r a l l y controls thestate and behavior of the Earths atmosphere (fig. 116) by transmitting pro-digious quantities of energy to E ar th through th e interplanetary medium. Thus,from the practical importance of scientific research on our local environment,we are inevitably led to the importance of investigating ou r space environment.Because of its importance i n assessing our investment in apace research, I havediscussed briefly the practical importance of thoroughly understanding our en-vironment. Let u s return now to the original point we were making, that spacetechniques have enabled geoscience to take a more effective approach to th e solu-tion of some long-standing problems. The investigation of the Earths atmos-phere, a significant part of our local environment, was o ne of those problems.Land and water, too, are important parts of our environment, that space tech-niques are helping us to investigate. By observing the effect of the Earths gravi-tational field on the orbits of artificial Earth satellltes, it has been posstbleto analyze the gravitational field to a high degree of accuracy, to deduce thestrength of the Earths upper mantle, t o describe in considerable detail the tru eshape of the Earth, and hence to improve our mapping capabilities. Earth pho-tography, like that from the various Gemini missions, adds new power and per-spective in studying geography (fig. 117), geology (fig. 118),hydrology (fig. 119),glaciology (fig. 120), oceanography (fig. 121), f o r e s t r y (fig. 122), and agriculture(fig. 123). The potential of these areas of science for practical returns istremenaous.

N e w areas of geoscienceThe second impact of space research upon geoscience is in the opening up ofnew, unsuspected areas in the discipline. Investigation of the Earths magneto-sphere is an entirely new aspect of geoscience, which began with James Van


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374 N A S A A U T H O R I Z A T I O N F O R F I S C A L Y E A R 1 9 6 8NEW CONSTRUCTION IDENTIFIED IN GEMINI 7 PHOTOGRAPHYILLUSTRATES USEFULNESS IN UPDATING BASE MAPS

iGEMINI 7 PHOTOGRAPH OF PORTION O f ORLANDO, MAHM CULTURE CHANGESCAPE KENNEDY, FLORIDA 1:250,000 IDENTIFIED FROM GEMINI 7 jDECEMBER 1965 SCALE MAP - PHOTOGRAPHY

REVISED 1962ALTITUDE: 165 WM PUBLISHED 1955.2-30 mm FOCAL LEI(GTW

NASA M YU.ISIU ioii-nASSELBLAO CAMERA

FIGURE17

Photograph of Omon taken Juno 5th. 1965 from Gemini I V at an altiludo of 100 naut ico l miles.The are0 shown on the photo i s about 100 milos on a side. The map comp iled by t he USGSi l lustrates the geological information available on a near vertical small scole photograph. Thissynoptic covorage facilitates recognition of mojor structures and of gross geologic provinces. andprovides a valuoblo and unique overall viow otherwise unobtoinoble.

HAM Ho 1166.11913tr r 9 . 2 1 4 6n cooperation with U. 5. Geological Survey

FIGURE18


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NASA AUTEEORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1 9 6 8 375DLRK STREAKS REPRESENT DISCHARGE Of COOL GROUND WATE R

1....4

4 Jl-.I

INFRAREO IMAGE [IN THE 4 5-5 5 MICRON RANGE! OF HILO. HAWAII,SHOWING ESCAPE OF FRESH WATER /COLD) INTO 1Ht U L E A N

WATER WELLS SUITABLY LOCATE0 COULD TAP THIS VALUABLE RESOURCE

mOWE 119

LATE SUMMER COLOR INFRARED PHOTO SHOWS EVIDENCEOF WASTAGE AT SOUTH CASCADE GLACIER

A. MELTWATER POND AND RIVULETS ON ICE SURF1B. CREVASSES AND FRACTURES RESULTING FROMGLACIER FLOWc. NEAR-VERTICAL ICE CLIFF AT TERMINUS

E. ICEBERG. DISPLACED FROM TERMINUS BY DOWNDRAINAGE WIND

IC E

-GLACIER

F. STREAM GAGING STATION. MEASURES OUTFLOW FROMGLACIER BASING. VEGETATION IRED) ACCENTUATES MORAINES INDICATINGh S l W010 S l Q l t l l R 1965

I,PAST POSITIONS OF GLACIER TERMINUS

P I I P r n 0 in c m m m !In 011 a d US65H. USGS HUT AND RESEARCH STATION

ILih 5 L 6 6 15490,9 66

FIGWE 20


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376 N A S A A U T H O R I Z A T I O N F O R F I S C A L Y E A R 1 9 6 8IR TEMPERATURE SENSING

1 1 (8u-14~)SCAN IMAGE OF AP O R T I O N OF WE GULF !ilRUM.T E M R R A T U R E O IF FE R EN T IA LABOUT 9 O F . O A R K A R E A SR EP RE SE NT W A R M E R W A T E R .SUCH A SNSOR HAS THEPO TENTI AL Of R E X K V l *SEA S UR FA CE T E M m R A N R ED I F R R L N C E S FROM SPACE OFS M A L L MAGNIIUM.N O T E ,COMPLEX STRUCTURE O F G ULFSIRFAM.

570

FIGURE21

FIGURE22


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NASA AUTHORIZATION FO R FISCAL YEAR 1968 377

USE OF EKTACHRDME INFRAREDIMAGERY PROVIDES FOR RAPIDDETECTION OF BROWN SOFTSCALE AND BLACKFLY INFESTA-TION IN CITRUS ORCHARDHEALTHY TREES SHOW HIGHREFLECTANCE AND INFECTEDTREES APPEAR DARKER

, A , ,NEAR LA F E R l A LOWER R ID GRANDE VALLEY OF TEXAS

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Allens discovery of the radiation belts. Indeed, th e mwe tos phe re is new, coinedto designate that region of the interplanetary medium over which the Earthsmagnetic field has a dominating influence.Occupying a cavity carved out of th e solar mind by t h e Earths magnetic field,as shown in figure 124, he magnetosphere is enveloped on the sunward side byan immense shock wave t ha t sweeps around t he E ar th in much the same may t hata n aerodynamic shock wave accompanies a supersonic aircraft. The magneto-pause, or boundary of the magnetosphere, lies bh i n d the shock wave, whilewithin the magnetosphere itself are the trapped radiations that comprise theVan Allen Belts. These radia tion belts a r e a sort of no-mans land Rhere r adiationintensities are too high t o permit any prolonged manned operations.While th e magnetosphere reaches a distance toward t he Sun of 10 or 15 Earthradii from th e Ea rth , in the anti-solar direction the Earths field lines a re sweptout by the sola r wind t o great distances. The tota l extent of th is magnetospherictail, which some hav e likened to tha t of a comet, is still not known, although itclearly reaches well beyond the distance of the Moons orbit (fig. 125). ExplorerXX XI II has provided data on the magnetospheric tail from a distance of 76,000miles beyond the hfoons orbit. Moreover, instruments in the deep space probePioneer VI1 have detected some effects of th e Ear th on the solar wind a t morethan four million miles beyond the Earth.The study of the magnetosphere i s inextrica,bly interwoven with investigationsof the aurora, magnetic storms, and magnetic fluctuations, communications dis-turbances, and weather anomalies on the one hand, and of the interplanetarymedium and solar activity on the other. To understand the important relationsamong these various phenomena, me ar e nom investigating the dynamics of themagnetosphere. With such studies we expect to learn about the detailed mecha-nisms by which the Sun exerts its control on the Earths atmosphere.A discussion of the Earth s magnetosphere is given in Appendix I T : TheSolar Wind and the Earths Magnetosphere, by Dr. George Pieper, AssistantDirector for Space Sciences, Goddard Space Flight Center.The existence of an Earths magnetosphere immediately suggests the possi-bility of other planetary magnetospheres, the study of which may shed stillfu rthe r light on sola r-planetary relationships. The instruments on Marin er I1 andMariner IV, howerer, have shown that Tenus and Mars have weak magneticfields. if any, and hence do not have pronounced magnetospheres like that ofEarth. On the other hand, radio wavelength emissions from th e planet Jupiter

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378 N A S A A U THOR I ZA TI ON F OR F I S C A L Y EA R 1 9 6 8THE MAGNETOSPHERE O F EARTH

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NASAAUTHORIZATIONOR FISCAL YEAR 1968 379indicate that Jupiter has an extensive magnetosphere, reaching to millions ofmiles from the planet itself (fig. 126). It is clear, from the intensity of theseradio emissions, that the Jupiter radiation belts are at least a thousand timesmore intense than those of the Earth.It may even be correct to think of our Earth as revolving within a solar

magnetosphere. Perhaps interplanetary space divides into two regions: a solarmagnetosphere region enveloping the nearer planets, and the remote reaches ofthe solar system where galactic space conditions prevail. A challenging problemof space research is to find and prc_be the boundary between these two regionsand to enter and study _the true interstellar medium.Geoscience a_cl the other planets

The third profound impact that space activities are having on geoscience in-volves the planets. The domain of geoscience has grown to include many bodiesof the solar system. No longer must the geoscientist be content with only onesample of the solar system, namely, the Earth. Now automated instruments,and later men, can go to the Moon and planets (fig. 127), to ask of those otherbodies the same questions that the scientist has long been asking about theEarth. Thc theories, instruments, and skills needed and developed to study theEarth can now be applied to investigating the Moon and planets at firsthand(fig. 128). Conversely, improvements in instrtimentation achieved to further thestudy of the planets directly benefit the investigation of the Earth.The need for lighter, compact, reliable, and sensitive scientific instrumenta-tion and advanced techniques for observation and analysis from spacecraft andon the lunar surface has resulted in new designs and miniaturized instruments,such as mass spectrometers, gas chromatographs, differential thermal analyzers,diffractometers, spectrometers, radiometers, radar transmitters and receivers,

gravimeters, seismometers, and magnetometers. Many, if not all, of these willfind application to Earth problems, including the search for new sources. As anexample, the small X-ray diffractometer developed for use on a Surveyor space-

JUPITER FLY.BYTRAJECTORIES

NASA SL _6-t3608-2-66

9_ I_TURBULENT _ I " 'TRANSITION

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SSS _'Id S

SJ S

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J J CLOSE FLY-BYINTERMEDIATE I TRAJECTORYFLY-BY TRAJECTORY ( R e = 1.2Rj )(Rp= 5Rj )

SUN1FZ6URE 126


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380 N A S A A U T H O R I Z A T I O N FOR F I SCAL YEAR 1 9 6 8

MARINER'S MOSTSPECTACULARPHOTOGRAPHOF MARS

N&SA HO $1 61 7 8P t V 9 30 66

- _..A-

FIGUEE 28


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NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL PEAR 1968 381craft to make mineralogic determinations on the lunar surface appears to bemore effective than some much l arger laborator y instruments.Comparative studies of the planets and their atmospheres, ionospheres, andmagnetospheres, promise increased understanding of our own planet. The in-vestigation of solar-terrestrial relationships can now become the study of solar-planetary relationships. If it is true, as has been suggested, that the compositionof Jupiter is essentially that of t he primordial ma teria l from which th e solarsystem formed, the s tudy of Jupiter, fascinating and importan t in itself, shouldalso assist in probing into the origins of the solar system and our Earth.The importan t scientific problems tha t are involved in t he study of th e planets,and their bearing on o u r understanding of the Ear th , a r e developed at length inAppendix V : The Planets, by Dr. Robert J astro w, Director, Institute fo r SpaceStudies, Goddard Space Flight Center, and Dr. William Brunk, Program Chief,Pl anetary Astronomy, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA Head-quarters.Pwtnership am ong geoscience, astrononzy and phvsics

Finally, the fourth impact of space research on geoscience is the drawing to -gether of physics, astronomy, a nd the geosciences in the study of solar-terrestrialrelationships, and in th e comparative study of t he Ear th , Moon, and planets.The investigation of the Moon and planets has long been in the domain ofastronomy. Now, as inst ruments, and lat er man, reach these other bodies ofthe solar system, th e investigation of them extends into the geosciences.Modern garth-baaed t e k s c ~ ~ e eR V P ade it possible to view the Moon ingreat detail. However, the best photographic resolutions have beeu uii the or.erof a half mile, and visual resolutions only a li ttl e better (fig. 129). WhenRanger took its pictures of the Moon, figuratively speaking i t put into thehands of the astronomer a telescope a thousand times as powerful as anyhitherto available. Objects less than two feet in size could be resolved in thebest of the Ranger and Lunar Orbiter pictures (fig. 130). When Surveyorlanded, it provided the astronomer with still further improvement in resolu-

iTHE CRATER COPERNICUSAS SEEN THROUGH

GROUND BASED TELESCOPE i[LICK OBSERVATORY] i

it

L

FIGURE29


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I_ASA AUTI-IORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968 383tion, by another factor of one thousand (fig. 131). But at that point, becausethe spacecraft actually landed on the lunar surface and demonstrated theability to place equipment and instruments on the Moon itself, it broughtabout the fusion of astronomical and geoscience interests in lunar geologicinvestigations.The contribution of space science to planetary geology is reviewed in Ap-pendix VI: "Planetology," by Verl R. Wilmarth, Program Chief, Planetology,Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA Headquarters.In a similar way, studies of cosmic rays, plasmas, and magnetic fields inspace, and of their relationship to the Earth's magnetosphere, have broughtphysics and geoscience into a close partnership. The physicist finds in the

magnetosphere and interplanetary space a gigantic laboratory in which he canstudy plasmas and magnetohydrodynamics under conditions not afforded to himon the ground. He is even able to conduct some controlled experiments as wasdone in the generation of artificial radiation belts by high altitude nuclearexplosions, or as may be done by flying high energy particle accelerators, andthen using satellite instrumentation for measuring their effects on the magneto-sphere and upper atmosphere. But in pursuing these studies, the physicist is atthe same time tackling problems of great interest to geoscienee. These pointsare discussed in more detail in Appendix IV.PhysicsThe principal importance o space to the field of physics is in providingwhat amounts to a gigantic new laboratory for the conduct of research. Wealready touched upon this point briefly in mentioning the growing partnership

between physics and geoscience. The vacuum of interplanetary space is justnot attainable in the Earth-based laboratory. In this vacuum, the plasmas andmagnetic fields furnished by the Sun can be used to investigate magnetohydro-dynamics, collisionless shock waves, and other phenomena not possible to in-vestigate on the ground. Also, streaming through interplanetary space aregalactic cosmic rays of far greater energy than can be generated on Earth inany accelerator now in existence or contemplated. These particles are availableto the high energy physicist as research tools in his search for fundamentalparticles and the ultimate structure of matter.With satellites and space probes, experiments can be conducted on the scaleof the solar system. With our developing manned spaceflight capability, evenChose requiring the presence of man can be undertaken. Very dense artificial satel-lites carrying accurate nuclear clocks, can be used to check various aspects of thetheory of relativity. Such checks have been carried out on the ground, but the in-accuracies involved make it important to pursue other methods of investigationas well.The fundamental nature of gravitation is still not understood. The emplace-ment of high precision corner reflectors on the Moon, to be used with lasers on

the _arth to obtain a very accurate determination of the relative positions ofEarth and Moon, may permit us to use the Earth-Moon system as a detector ofgravitational waves. It is suggested that such waves may be generated by super-novae explosions, in which vast quantities of matter are destroyed by conversioninto energy. Or perhaps through other measurements we may be able to detectwhether the expansion of the universe has an effect on the value of Newton'sgravitational constant, which gives the strength with which matter attractsmatter.Astronomy

One can predict an impact of space techniques upon astronomy as profound asthat upon geoscience. Throughout most of its past, astronomy was confined toobservations in the narrow visible window (fig. 132), augmented in the last fewdecades by observations in some of the radio wavelengths. A truly remarkableastronomical theory has been built upon these observational results. But thatvery theory emphasizes that some of the most important information about thegalactic medium and processes, such as the birth, evolution, and demise of celes-tial objects, is contained in the X-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths thatare prevented by the atmosphere from reaching the ground.This is not idle speculation. Already rocket observations have revealed dozensof X-ray sources on the celestial sphere (fig. 133). Such intense X-ray sourceswere not predicted by astronomical theory, and their discovery has raised nu-mereus difficult questions. The explanation of these sources is one of the majorastronomical problems of the day.


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384 NA SA AUTH O RI ZATI O N F OR F I SCAL YEAR 1 9 6 8

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

100 Mc 1 M c

I l l I I I I I I I I IWAVELENGTH IO II l(1 IO $ IO 11 noR A D I OV I O L I TG A M M A X - R A Y SR A Y S

VISIBLE

S O L A R I N T I N S I T YnNASA SGb4-503\

I \/ \ RlV.7-7-65\

I/ \

FIGURE32

SOUNDING ROCKETCELESTIAL MAP OF X-RAY SOURCES

RIGHT ASCENSION

FIGURE33


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NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968 385The discovery of X-ray sources by space techniques, and of the very puzzlingradio galaxies and quasars by ground-based techniques, underscores a very im-porta nt point. I n the fu tu re development of astronomy, both ground-based andspace techniques must and will become close partner s i n extending the frontiers

of knowledge about the cosmos. Peering some distance into the future, on e canvisualize an astronomical facility in orbit about the Earth. Like its ground-based counterparts, such as the Mt. Wilson or Mt. Palomar observatories, theorbit ing facili ty would consist of numerous specialized inst ruments (fig. 134)a large optical telescope for stellar and galactic research, some smaller stellartelescopes, solar inst ruments, and probably X-ray and radio telescopes. Thesetelescopes would be outfitted with spectographs, coronagraphs, and a varietyof detectors in various wavelength regions. The facility would be basically au-tomated, but man-tended. I n normal operation, it mould be controlled remotelyfrom the ground, and shared by astronomers in much the same way as our fa-cilities on mountain-top observatories. Fro m time to tim e astronauts wouldvisit the facility, to repolish telescope mirror surfaces, to accomplish routinemaintenance operations or make necessary repairs, to update equipment or addnew features, and sometimes to conduct photographic astronomical missions.For this last operation, photographic plates would be exposed, using one ormore of the telescopes, and then would be returned to Earth fo r processing a ndanalysis. Such a n astronomical facility, once established could remain one of thebasic tools of ast ronomical research for a long time to come.These points ar e eiaborated in d p ~ r ? d i xTI : Astronomy as a Space Science,by Dr. H enry Smith, Deputy Director, Physics and Astronomy Programs, O&eof Space Science and Applications, NASA Headquarters, in which Dr. Smithdiscusses th e important problems of astronomy today and how space astronomyhas contributed and is contributing to their solution.Bioscience

The last of the disciplines that wk sha ll use to illust rate th e impact of spaceresearch on science is in the li fe sciences. Space science enters upon the scene

I

III

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386 NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1 9 6 8at a time when some of the most fundamental questions about the physics andchemistry of life are yielding to th e penetr ating researchers of modern biolom.The fundamkntal roles of deoxyribonucleic acid ( D N A ) and ribonucleic acid(RNA) in biological materia ls and processes, th e genetic code, and the chemicalbasis for memory processes, a re becoming understood. In this climate the dis-covery of li fe on another planet of th e sola r system would serve to illuminateter restr ial bioscience researches, in addition to having a tremendous philosophicalimpact.Life on Eaith is ubiquitous. Virtually everywhere we search for it, we findit, often in microbial form. It shows up in the tlryest of deserts (fig. 135), ndin the hottest (fig. 136) and coldest (fig. 137) of climes. There a r e even wormsthat live in glaciers (fig. 138).Life has existed on E art h for eons of time. Fossils of bacteria h a re been dis-covered in specimens of chert ( a sedimentary form of qu ar tz ) (fig. 139) 3.1 bil-lion years old. Ot her fossil remains also suppo rt the conclusion that there havebeen living forms on Earth for billions of years.Life is re ry persistent. T he horseshoe cra b of today (fig. 140)bears a remark-able resemblance to the trilobites of half a billion years ago. Some bacterialforms of today appear to have survived through eons (fig. 141). Some formsthrive in what wc would regard as extremely hostile environments, such a s anatmosphere of ammonia. Thcb organism tardigrad? (fig. 142) can be completelydesiccated to look like a little flaky crystal, and upon being resupplied withwater revives and resumes it s normal life cycle.The chemistry of life is remnrktihly uniform. The nucleic acids and proteinsare invariably basic constituents of living matter. The very complicated DNAmolerule, deoxyribonucleic acid (fig. 143), urnishqs the means by whirh geneticin fo ma tion is stored in the rells of living organisms, and by means of which theirgrowth and specialized developinent a r e controlled. Many organic molecnleshave right-handed an d left-handed forms. It is a n interm ting fac t t ha t biologicalsubstances never use both right and left-handed forms of a specific snhstance.For example. all living species w e left-handed amino acids.

FROZEN SALT LAKE - 12,000 FEET~~ -

I ? - i 5-66

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387A S A AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1 9 6 8DEATH VALLEY

!

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388 NA SA AUTH O RI ZATI O N F O R F ISCAL YEAR 1 9 6 8S N O W W O R M S O N M T . O L Y M P U S G L A C I E R- - . .

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N A S A A U THOR I ZA TI ON F OR F I S C A L Y EA R 1968 389

FIGURE40

&MICROF OSSIL-GUNF LINT CULTURED SPECIMENCHERT 2.7 BILLION YEARS OLD HARLE CH CASTLE SOIL *A5


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390 NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1 9 6 81

~~

FIGURE42

- _ I .MOLECULAR

MODEL

FIGURE43


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NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968 391In sum, the chemistry of life on Earth is such as to suggest that given the

right environmental conditions and adequate time, life will inevitably re_sult.Furthermore, it appears highly likely that the basic chemistry of life will bethe same wherever it is found.This is the framework in which we are investigating the behavior of ter-

restrial life under space conditions. By sending various forms of life aloft insatellites and space probes, we can search into what are the relative roles ofchemistry and of Earth conditions, such as gravitation and the day-night cycle,in the evolution of life and life processes as we now know them.

This is also the framework of interest in the possibility that there may besome forn_s of life on Mars or Venus. Environmental conditions on Mars maywell have been adequate for the formation of life, although the apparent lack ofwater raises serious doubts in the minds of some scientists. The apparently highsurface temperature of Venus, above the melting point of lead, is too hot forlife. But some investigators suggest that improved temperature measurementsmay show that the surface is considerably cooler than most scientists now believe.Others suggest that mountains or perhaps the pol_s on Venus may provide atemperate environment. In either case, Venus might be capable of supportingthe development and preservation of life. Were life to be found on another planet,our experience on Earth suggests that it would be basically similar to terrestriallife in its chemistry. Having been formed under different conditiop_s from those--- _--._. I. ......... v_r_t_rr_a_triA] life may show some significant large-scaledifferences. The comparison of this similar, yet somewhat different, life with thaton Earth should prove most illuminating to biological research. Moreover, theremay be much to learn of the chemical steps toward life on a planet unmodifiedby the activity of living organisms. Hence, even if life is not found on Mars orVenus, the investigation of the state of evolution of the planet's chemistry willstill be important biologically.

Voyager is the long-term program for the exploration of the solar system withinstrument unmanned spacecraft. The systematic investigation of Mars is pres-ently a major objective of the Voyager program. The scientific objectives are di-rected particularly toward obtaining information on the nature and existence ofextra-terrestrial life, and the characteristics, evolution, and environment of theplanet. The first operational mission in this series is scheduled for the 1973 Marsopportunity. It is currently planned to place the spacecraft in orbit aboutthe planet and to land instrumented payloads on the surface. Subsequent mis-sions to Mars in 1975 and beyond are planned. Missions to Venus and to theother planets are also under consideration.In the Voyager program special emphasis is directed toward experiments

having biological relevance. Virtually all information concerning a planet willhave some biological relevance. For example, physical environmental factorssuch as the range in surface temperatures and the nature of the atmospheregovern the chemical species and reactions which may exist. Deviations frominorganic equilibrium, such as the presence of mixtures of chemical compoundswhich in the long run are thermodynamically improbable in the absence of lifeprocesses, are of extreme interest. The presence and distribution of atmosphericwater vapor and of ground water are of crucial importance. The detectionand identification _)f organic compounds in the surface and subsurface materialsmay provide vital clues to the chemistry of extraterrestrial life, extant orextinct.

Should life be found on Mars or Venus, this will virtually establish the highprobability of the formation of life whenever the environmental conditionsare appropriate, and make it highly likely that life exists in other solar systemsof the universe. Should life not be found on Mars or Venus, this will not estab-lish the opposite conclusion, but rather will simply leave the question still open.Both lines of research in space biology, i.e., the study of terrestrial life inspace and the search for extra-terrestrial life, have potentially far-reachingImplications. It is for this reason that, in spite of the deep importance, excite-ment, and interest of the problems under attack in Earth-based laboratories, asubstantial number of competent researchers in the life sciences have chosen todevote a sizable effort to space biosclence. A more detailed discussion of theobjectives and opportunities in this important field is given in Appendix VIII:"Space Research and Progress in Biological Science," by Dr. Orr E. Reynolds,Director, Bioscience Programs, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASAHeadquarters.


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392 NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968The impact of space research on academic institutions

Space science has become an important field of investigation in our universities.Because of the substance and importance of science problems that we can nowattack in the space program, it is essential that we strive to achieve a strong,working relationship, a partnership, with the scientific community. Competentfirst-rate scientists and their students are interested in and recognize the im-portance of space science. We are in a position to invest in their careers or ina substantial fraction of their careers.It is this that we need to do as a country. It is not enough to support an experi-ment now and then, or here and there. That will not produce the result I believewe seek. The result we seek is a substantial advaneenmnt in a number of impor-tal_t disciplines that are bound to underlie our approaches to solutions to prac-tical prol)lems of a technical nature, that will affect and assist us in how wetackle problems of all economic and sociological nature, that will also affect howwe view our.,_elves as we bargain around the political conference table.

The quantum of progress to seek is the reshaping of one generation's thinkinginto a new collection of concepts for the next generation to reshape in turn. Spacescience is doing just that in a number of important scientific disciplines asemphasized in the previous section.

BecaiL_e of the important challenges of space science, over 200 colleges and uni-versities have involved themselves in space research. The major fraction of ourspace science research is carried out in these institutions. At present, approxi-mately 1500 faculty members and over 2000 graduate students are actively en-gaged in space science and technology. In addition, under NASA's sponsorshipthere are at present some 3600 students now studying for doctoral degrees byworking on space-related problems in some 30 academic disciplines.This partnership with the scientific comnmnity contributes high-quality re-

search to the space program on the one hand, and enriches graduate education inscience and engineering on the other. The effect is also to _rengthen the nationalbase of knowledge and understanding, and living competence, which are the foun-tainhead of all practical technical applications.TI_c practical importa_wc of space scienceFollowing this presentation will come a review of practical applications ofspace knowledge and technology. The value of such al)plieations is clear in thevel'y telling of them. The imlx)rt of the investment in them is immediately under-standable in the direct way in which they meet human needs a_nl aspirations. Yetbasic researtdL of which space science is an important segment, is equally im-portant to the t,)tal well-being of our nation. 1 should like in the next two sectionsto develop this l)oint further to exlflain why we so urgently request your supportof a balanced, vigorous, space science effort as an essential part of our totalnational space program.Wllat is science?It is with considerable trepidation that I have attempted in the few pages of

Appendix IX to define what _ienee is. Many authors, themselves illustrious sci-entists, have undertaken this task. and have considered it necessary to devotewhole books to the subje(_t. It is a way of life, not always understood I)y thosewho do not live it. Yet, its influence rests upon all of modern society, being seennot only in the objects of everyday living but also in our concepts and imtterns ofthought.Science is a dynamic activity. It is not a static collection of facts and ideas.It ts the process by which scientists, individually and collectively, work togetherto devise a commonly accepted explanation of the universe about them. It involvesobservation and measurement, imagination, induction, hypothesis, generaliza-tion, deduction, test, communication, and mutual criticism, in a never endinground of assaults on the unknown or poorly known.The scientist observes and measures objects and phenomena of the physicalworld. To experimental results he applies imagination in an effort to discern orinduce laws of action or behavior of matter and energy. He generalizes from the

collection of observations and measurements, and relationships and laws, thathe has accumulated, to develop theories that can in some coherent way explainwhat is going on. Theories are then used to predict new phenomena and newlaws as yet unobserved, and these predictions serve as guides to new experimentsand observations.


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394 NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968but a mere beginning to a long list. In a very real sense the nuclear age is anextension of research into the nature of electricity.

Such stories could be told in other fields: mathematics, mechanics, physics offluids, states of matter, the geosciences, chemistry, and biology to name but afew. Similar lessons may be drawn from all these histories. Chapter X of ASHORT HISTORY OF SCIENCE, Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959, containssome very perceptive observations by Dr. F. Sherwood Taylor, Director of theScience Museum, South Kensington, London, England. I should like to quoteDr. Taylor :

"There is . . . always some time-lag between the discovery of a scientificprinciple and its use to satisfy human needs . . . Thus we shall find that it wasprincipally eighteenth-century science that was utili._ed by the industry of theearly nineteenth century, while the great discoveries of the time bore fruit onlyin the middle and later years of the nineteenth century."... the application of the first principles of the science of heat to the crude

pumping engines of the mid-eighteenth century had enabled James Watt, after1780, to produce efficient engines which could turn the wheels and shafts ofhundreds of machines. Just before the nineteenth century began the world cameto realise the possibilities of the steam-driven machine, and for fifty years after,the story of industry is making, improving and finding uses for steam engines.""We may say, indeed, that the electrical discoveries of the period 1800-1835

became fruitful only in the period 1870-1900.""Again, one of the greatest discoveries in physics, the demonstration that

light.., has the character of a transverse wave-motion, was made in the years1800-1820; but this discovery scarcely had any effect upon the optical industriesuntil the closing years of the century."

"In the years between 1803 and 1808 was made the greatest advance in thehistory of chemistry--the atomic theory of John Dalton . . . The atomic theoryled at once to the idea of chemical equivalents and formulae; these were thefoundation of the theory of chemical analysis, which made possible the scientificcontrol of the chemical industry... Yet... it was not until the 1850's . . . thatthe atomic theory had its triumph, serving in its new form to evolve the wonder-ful structure of organic chemistry, with its beneficent drugs, beautiful dyes--and destructive explosives."

A vigorous, balanced, national effort in basic research inevitably leads toa rich harvest of practical applications. Both the source and timing of those re-turns are not predictable in advance. It is usually a slow process for new knowl-edge and concepts produced by basic research to work their way into practicaluses. Nevertheless, all practical technical applications rest on a broad andfundamental understanding which only a healthy and continuing program ofbasic research can attain and maintain. History fully substantiates this point.In NASA, our Technology Utilization Program is designed not only to speed upthe feedback from space research into other areas of technical application, butalso to document the process and its results. By its very nature that programcan, at most, uncover only a small part of the total return. Yet, what it doesreveal is quite impressive.

For several years now, we in the Office of Space Science and Applications haveprovided a list of both factual and potential practical benefits from basic andapplied research throughout the NASA Program. While recognizing that wecannot predict with certainty, we have, nevertheless, permitted ourselves tospeculate on ways in which results from the various scientific disciplines maywell find their way into solving practical problems.

Our list for this year is contained in Appendix XI. The examples and ideascame from NASA Centers and other sources. We have listed the benefits underseveral headings : national security ; industry and manufacture ; construction in-dustry; communications; weather; power sources and public utilities; trans-portation and commerce; health and medicine; Earth resources; food and ag-riculture; science; education and welfare: social and political. I believe theCommittee Members will find Appendix XI well worth reading.

In particular, I should like to call attention to a letter from Dr. Edwin G.Schneider, Vice President-Engineering, Sylvania Electronics Systems. Dr.Schneider speaks from extensive experience with Department of Defense andNASA contracts. He writes in part: "It is my belief that the technology beingdeveloped under NASA and DoD contracts is being applied to commercial prod-ucts at a rate which is limited only by the ability of engineers to assimilate the


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NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968 395knowledge and abili*ty of industry to carry new product ideas all the way throughto the market place . . . The concern expressed by various groups over the ap-parent lack of transfer of technology from NASA and DoD appears to me to bebased on an imperfect understanding of the engineering process and an unwar-ranted expectation that much of _the transfer will be easily recognizable as hard-ware end items." Dr. Schneider identifies publication of new information in thetechnical literature, interchange of duties of commercial engineers between gov-ernment and non-government work, and the stimulation by government to in-dustry to support their own development of new and more capable devices as beingthe primary means of transfer. These comments confirm our belief that muchtransfer occurs that is not and can never really be identified. The listings devel-oped in ,the NASA Technology Utilization Program, and the examples includedin Appendix XI lend support to Dr. Schneider's position.Much of the harvest from today's investment in basic research will be reapedby our children and our grandchildren. In fact, what we are accomplishing inbasic research today constitutes a legacy which our descendants have a rightto expect from us. Just as today's technical capability rests on yesterday'sresearch, so will tomorrow's capability rest on today's research.As we give strong support to applied research and development, because we

can see clearly the practical return and expect to enjoy it soon, we must remem-ber to sow the seed for the more distant harvest. We must keep alive the umderstanding nf the vital, fundamental, indispensable role of basic research incontinuing technical strength, and sustain the patience needed to make and main-tain the necessary investments in basic research.The United States leads in science today. We lead in space science. It is aleadership that we have earned, and must earn again, and again, or lose it. It

is a leadership that is under constant challenge and can easily be lost throughapathy and undernourishment, and with it technological leadership.With your support I believe we can maintain our lead. But it will not be

easy. The Soviet pace in planetary exploration, and their mounting pace inexploration of the Moon pose a real challenge that we can meet only by maintain-ing the momentum we have built up in our own space program. We ask yoursupport of the President's budget that we may follow through on the good startthat the United States has made.

CHAPTER II. SPACE APPLICATIONS PROGRAMSIt is very clear to many of us that the fundamental scientific knowledgeevolving from the National space program will have a profound effect on the

life of man in the future. There is in addition a very great potential for theimmediate application of space, satellites, and man in space to solve some of theproblems which man faces here on Earth today---or will face very shortly. It isthis area of NASA's activities that we refer _o as the Space Applications Pro-gram.To paraphrase Socrates speaking about 400 B.C. : "We who inhabit the E_rth,dwell like frogs at the bottom of a pool. Only if man could rise above the summitof the air could he .behold the true Earth, the world in which we live." ("Phaedo"by Plato, E. P. Dutton & Co.) Socrates could hardly have understood howprophetic his statement of 2400 years ago was, for it has only been in the lastfew years that we have been able to rise above our atmosphere and fully ap-preciate the power of observing our own Earth from that vantage point.I'm sure that most of us have .become familiar with some of the p_rential usesof satellites in the fields of communications and meteorology, but we have justbegun to appreciate the real potential in these fields, as well as the possibilities!n many others such as geodesy, geology, hydrology, cartography, navigation, airtraffic control, oceanography, and even geography.I should like to review $or you briefly some of the more apparent potentialpractical uses of space. Figure 144 categorizes the applications into four majorgroups: Geodesy, Communications and Navigation, Meteorology, and EarthResources Survey. I will speak to each of these in turn, but would like at thistime to call your attention to the fact that there are many applications orservices that can be provided by satellites under these four general headings.Note, for instance, the many kinds of communications services listed, each re-quiring unique consideration and a varying challenge in technological develop-ment. This list is for your reference and is intended to point up the fairly large


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396 NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968SPACE APPLICATIONS

OGEODESYWORLD GEODETIC REFERENCESYSTEMDEFINE GRAVITY FIELDeCOMMUNICATIONS & NAVIGATION

POINT-TO-POINT INTERCONTINENTALSMALL TERMINAL MULTIPLE ACCESS

NAVIGATION-TRAFFIC CONTROLDATA RELAY: EARTH - LUNAR - pLANETARYVOICE BROADCAST

COMMUNITY TELEVISIONTELEVISION BROADCAST

OMETEOROLOGYDAY & NIGHT CLOUD COVERCONTINUOUS OBSERVATIONS

ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTUREFOR LONG RANGE FORECASTSOEARTH RESOURCES SURVEY

GEOGRAPHY & CARTOGRAPHYGEOLOGY & MINEROLOGY

AGRICULTURE & FORESTRYWATER RESOURCES & POLLUTION CONTROLOCEANOGRAPHY

NASA SA 67-20172-27-67

FI(IURE 144

numher of very practical potential applications of space which are currentlyunder some degree of consideration. I am sure that it is by no means a completelist _)f possible s]i)ace applications, for use of the vantage point of space is stillin its infancy and we have yet to visualize many of its potentials. Perhaps, asSocrates suggeste


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NASAAUTHORIZATIONOR FISCAL YEAR 1968 397SIZE,SHAPE,ANDGRAVITYFIELD,OFEARTH

THROUGHSATELLITEGEODESYPOLAR AND EQUATORIAL" _ PEAR SHAPE ANDFLATTENING _ _ _ / FLATrENINGVALUEVANGUARD_. _--// _\_ / VANGUARD,

SPUTNIK 2 & 3 _ / f _ _ / VANGUARD IIISYNCOM >%// \',.._le,EARLY BIRD

__ .... _j_ GRAVITY ANOMALIES DOWN_\ \ .,_ / // TO 1500MILE WAVELENGTH

\\y //// VANOAR,,*.,_ , / /./_ EXPLORER IXPOLAR FLA_ENI NG II,oCKET

NEWTON 1680 / v GR_B.-_,_SATELLITE 61281TRANSIT SATELLITESSPHERE

GREEKS/600 8C

NASA SA 67-75212-15-66

FIGURE ]45

L.

GEODESY MAJOR WORLD DATUMS

F_UURE ]46


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398 NASA AUTHORIZATION FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968tributions of satellite geodesy has been the determination of the large scalefeatures _)f this force-field. The primary result of this determination has beento raise questions. Through attempts at answering these questions, satellitegeodesy has had an appreciable impact on the direction of scientific investigationin many areas of the Earth Sciences. As an example: one of the first resultsof satellite geodesy was an improved value for the flattening of the Earth whichwas determined to be significantly greater than that derived from the besttheory available. Suggested explanations have ranged from a gradual decrease inthe Earth's speed of rotation to a lag in the Earth's adjustment to the endingof the last ice age. The resolution of this inconsistency between the measuredand theoretical _alues has important implications with respect to the presentstructure and strength of the Earth's interior and its past history.

Our spaee operations, too, are dependent upon the accurate description of thegravity field. As this descril)tion improves, we improve orbit predictions andorbit control. We will also be able to know more precisely the position of oursatellites in space and how to separate the effe('t of gravity on the satellite fromother effects of the environment such as those of air drag and solar radiation.

We are well on our way toward the establishment of a World Geodetic Ref-erence System with an accuracy of 10 meters. By using such satellites as EchoI and II, Pagees, and GEOS-I, a great deal has been accomplished toward thisgoal over the past year. We have established the relative positions of 12 of therequired 75 control points (fig. 147) around the Earth with the required accuracyand expect to establish several more with the data obtained in 1967.

We have also in 1966 made strides in geodetic instrumentation accuracy whichshows pr(_mise for the future. This improved accuracy might be of appreciableassistance if applied in the future in the determination of the s'hape of the ocean

OBJECTIVE 1(ESTABLISH A WORLD REFERENCE SYSTEM)

RELATIVE POSITION OF 12 CONTROL POINTS DETERMINED

tNASA SA 67-1225

12-13-66Fi(_um 147


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N A S A AUTHORIZATION F O R FISCAL YEAR 1968 399surface, th e tracking of land motions (E ar th tides), and in the support of ourEa rt h Resources Survey an d Ea rt h Sciences Programs.The geodetic program is not only a cooperative effort between many agenciesof our government but, i n addition, geodesy has tradi tionally Served as a #basis orinte rnat iona l cooperation. Sate llit e geodesy has furthered t hat tendency. Throughsuch organizations as the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics(IUGG) and the Committee on Space Research (COSPA R), many nations ar econtinuing to work together to set d m equirements, plan observational pr+grams, a nd s har e results.Cmmltnications and na.c-igation.

We are all familiar with the fact that me have already established the tech-nology fo r the use of satellites for large volume point-tepoint or intercontinentalcommunications. The current satellite systems are bringing about healthy com-petition with the older conventional systems such as cables; this is evidencedin recently reduced cable and combined rates, a long-term saving that comes backdirectly to the individual citizen. We ar e proud of th e role th at NASA ha s playedin t he development of th is new indust ry and me are continuing to support t helaunches required by th e Communications Satel lite Corporation as stipulated inthe Communications Sate llit e Act of 1962.But the potential uses of satellites in the broad area of communications a remnny (fig. 148) the ultimate and complete potential is probably beyond o u rability to predict. We ai;, ??!?wPver.oresee the extension of th e advantages ofsatellites for communication between smaller anti sma??erp m n d t erminal s inlarger a nd lar ger numbers. Today, economic use of satellites is restricted to largevolume traffic through a rather small number of very large ground terminalswhich cost millions of dollars. Foreseeable increases in satelli te size and powerwill permit economical direct participation 'by even larger num'bers of smallertraffic-producing areas in satellite systems. Achievements of large-scale multip leaccess to relatively small and inexpensive Earth terminals could ultimatelymake it economical for many more areas and nations to have their own Earthterminals. This direct access to a global satellite system mould eliminate theneed to crosspolitical boundaries and terr itor ies for such access.

S A TE L L I T E C O M M U N I C A T I O N S C A P A B I L I T I E S

I

N A S A SA 67-20182-28-67

FIGUBE48


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400 N A S A A U T H O R I Z A T I O N FOR F IS C A L YEAR 1968If me carry this small station capability one step fu rther and combine it withn position de termination capability using th at sanie satellite system, we can fore-see the development of an air and sea navigation and traffic control satellitesystem in coinbination with normal communications functions. Such a capabilityis already needed on the Sorth Atlantic air routes to permit :t closer and safer

spacing of aircraft within the optimum nir lanes and to provide up-to-dateweather and sea sta te inforniation to pilots and ship captains ir i order to improrethe economy, comfort, and safety of their journey. In the caw of accidents orother emergencies, this communications and location capability could be of greathelp in ale rting rescue forces to the eiiirrgency and in tlirecting them accurate1;rand expeditiously to th e scene for rescu~~perations.IVe have alrendy moved a long stt.1) forward in our ability to coniniunicaatr withsniall t~rniinals nd with ai rc ra ft with tlie ttvluiology l)c>ing lerelolwl in o u rcurrent Applications Technology Rntellite ~)rogmui.ATS-I is being used i n PX-periin~ntnlprograms to develop our iiiultiplr riccess c~oni~iiunicntiorisapabilitgant1 our :ibiIity to co~nniuniciitewith aircraft, :is sho\rii in figure 14!). Sin e coni-Iricrchl nirliiies, both foreigu and domestic, ns well ns tlie Federril AviationAgc.nc*yant1 thc. 1 k~ ~: ir tn ie ntf Defcnse, are participatiiig in this par t of the ATSprogr:ini, and are tlcveloping thtxir o\rn nircrrift equipment nntl tec*hniques forworking with sritt'llites.I t i s also quite lilrely as we go to Inore sophistirated yncecraft in our spaceprograiii fo r lunar exploration, an d interp1:inc~t:iry and ga1:ictic esp1or:ition. thatire shrill need the help of data relay sattlllitrs to provide for tlie high comluuni-cations c:lI)acities required. .t data rtblny satellite syctclm about the E:irth couldniininiize the requirenients for continuing rxpc~is ir t~i~ijor dtlitions to the globalnetwork of trnrking, command, and data acquisition stations. I t coiild prwlud ethe necessity fo r carry ing on lvxird satell ites th e dnta recorders which are cur-rently necessary bemuse many sate llites a re out of sight of dat a readout stationsfor a large percentage of thei r orbits. Such recorders have been a constant re-liability probleni in our current srientific and npplic*ntions satellites, rind h areoften been th r limiting fnctor in useful sate llite lifetiuie.


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NASA AUTI-IORIZATI01_T FOR FISCAL YEAR 1968 401Lunar and planetary orbiting data relay satellites could provide for continuous

communications with orbiters and landers when they are obscured from theEarth, and could minimize power required on board the research spacecraft orlander for communications over the interplanetary distances back to Earth.As our ability to fly larger spacecraft and carry more power into space pro-

gresses, it will be possible to provide for television transmission for communityservices, i.e., to specially designed receivers at costs that might be practical foruse by schools, or for viewing by groups of people, or perhaps in villages wheresuch services are sorely needed. The capability could be achieved without themany ground transmitter stations required today to cover large areas.As we progress further, ,the direct broadcasting of voice or eventually eventelevision through a satellite to conventional radio or television sets in the home

may be possible. The satellite size and power requirements for the latter dictatethat such systems cannot be made available until near the end of the next decade.We recognize the many policy problems involved in many of these applications

of space, such as broadcasting. The United States is studying and developing thep_tential and the technical possibilties in these areas and is seeking technicalsolutions to minimize problems of international and political concern. In thisregard, NASA plays an active role in advising other agencies of the Governmenton these applications.

In addition to being of potential economic benefit to the United States and theother advanced nations of the world, exploitation of this application of spacecould result in important political and social benefits to developing nations. Avoice or TV direct broadcast capability could bring the advantages of modernmass communications to regions lacking adequate broadcasting networks for edu-cational and informational programs. This could provide modern .teaching tech-niques to these areas, provide education in elementary health and hygiene, andencourage tendencies toward regional cohesion, especially toward the use of acommon language in areas where many languages or dialects are currently inuse. In pursuing the development of such a capability the United States coulddemonstrate to the world the vigor of our space research and development effort,and our willingness to use our strengths on behalf of those developing nationswhich are currently unable to participate in space activity.

Finally, an important aspect of our effort in space communications is to deter-mine how we can conserve one of the Nation's and the world's most valuable re-sources---the radio frequency spectrum. The spectrum is, after all, absolutelylimited by physical laws. With space systems we may be _ble to use effectivelyareas of the spectrum not usable with Earth-based systems. By more effectiveutilization of those frequency bands in which the space systems are efficient, wecan minimize the Earth-based System use demands on the spectrum. As a matterof fact, in some cases we have found it possible with our satellite systems toshare frequencies with Earth-based communications services. Thus we can makedual use of areas of the spectrum without interference between ground and spacesystems. NASA works closely with the Office of Telecommunications Manage-ment of the Office of Emergency Planning, and it_ Interdepartmental Radio Ad-visory Committee; and the Federal Communications Commission on _hese matters.MeteorologyMeteorology is another major field that has already utilized the vantage point

of space in an operational system. This operational system provides daily obser-vation of the global cloud cover (fig. 150). This cloud cover is the most visibleand dramatic indication of the dynamic state of the Earth's atmo,_phere. Inaddition to a determination of large scale atmospheric circulations, delineationof jet streams, mountain lee waves, and wind shears ; such presentations revealstorms and the type of the storm, and permit monitoring the progress of stormsfrom creation to dissolution, thus providing a sound basis for issuing warnings.One of the most striking ,benefits accruing from our current satellite view fromabove is our ability to observe the birth, progress, and death of the kind ofmajor storms that leave .major disaster in their wake when they are unforeseen.

In 1966 we saw the esta'bli.shment of the operational satellite system for theEnvironmental Science Services Administration (ESSA) based on satellites andinstruments developed in _ae TIROS and Nim_bus .research programs. The roleplayed by the operational system in weather forecasting is indicated schematic-ally on figuTe 151. This chart indicates the relations_aip between storm size andthe period over which its behavior can be predicted and indicates by the stippledarea the capabilities of our current operational s_vstems including the TIROS


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402 N A S A A U T H O R I Z A T I O N F O R F I S C A L Y E A R 1 9 6 8

ESSA-3 24-HOUR WORLD CLOUD COVER,OCTOBER 31, 1966

NORTH AMERICA EUROPE ASIA

FIGURE50SATELLITE CONTRIBUTIONS TOWEATHER PREDICTIONPERIOD OFPREDICTA BlLlTY

2 WEEKS .

1 WEEK .4 DAYS -3 DAYS .2 DAYS

1 DA Y12 hrs6 hrs

STO RM SIZEW I LES)hr

TORNADO THUNDERSTORM CYCLON IC PLANET ARYCLOUD SYSTEM COMPLEX HUR RICA NE STORM DISTURBANCEN A S A SA 67-1937

2 - I -b7

FIGURE51


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N A S A A U T H O R I Z A T I O N FO R FI S C A L Y E A R 1968 403Operational Satellite (TOS) or ESSA satellites. Th e extension of these capabili-ties as indicated by the barred and cross-hatched areas will be discussed later.The current systems permit forecasting th e behavior of larger scale weatherphenomenon including storms of the scale of hu rricanes and cyclones over aperiod of one or two days.

The quality of the predictions wibhin bhis stippled area will be improvedgreatly when nighttime cloud cover observations become available. The periodbetween observations of a particular area would then be reduced from 24hours with the curre nt day light cloud cover Observations to 12 houm with both aday and a night observation. The changing characteristics and behavior ofstorms could be more closely monitored and their fu tu re beharior predicted.Such a nighttime cloud cover observing capability was developed in the Ximbusprogram and will be incorporated i n th e nex t generation of operational metero-logical satelli tes towards th e end of this decade.The curren t operational system supplies only periodic observations of a givenlocation. However, many of the most violent but small scal e storms such as torna-does and thunderstorms have durations of only a few hours, and can develop,wreak havoc, and diss ipate without being observed by such satellites. To provideadequate warn ing of these storms, there m ust be a capability fo r continuous obser-ration of localized phenomena. A satellite in synchronous orbit offers the poten-tiality for the required continuous obser rations and would pe rmit short term fore-casting of these events as shown in the barred area of the chart . Dramatic prog-ress was made toward developing this capability in 1966 with an ApplicationsTechnology Satellite, ATS-I. Th_c~amerfi ystem used was a spin scan varietyand provided frequent pictures of the whole Earth's disc. Piccures iaz 5c t&ecwith this camera system every 20 minutes, if necessary, to watch and measurethe progress of the weather. A sequence of pictures taken 23 minutes apart onJanuary 24,1%7, is shown on figure 152. Although the general features appea r tohe unchanged, a detailed examination of these pictures reveals that some changesa re ta kin g place, e.g., the clouds are decreasing to th e right of th e center of themajor storm located in t he upper left of th e photographs, star ting with the one

VINGS WEATHERI U R f S OF TH E PIClllC O N )IN Z I , l PB?n c w i in i o c i i i i i f i i i i i YI S

+e* -

I F I O ~ E52


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404 N A S A AUTHORIZATION FO R FISCAL YEAR 1 9 6 8THE WEATHER CHANGES-DAY BY DAY

S E P U l l C l 01 #IS-1 P ICTURES OF THE PkC1111

FIQURE53labeled On:&? A.M. Though this type of dntn is very new, sonie progress hasbeen made townrd determining wind speed and dirwtion from such pictures.Another nspect of these pictures nplirrcinbly mor(. obvious to th e untrnined eyeis the mentlier chnngrs thnt occur day-by-dny 11s sliown in figiirc. lX7. Thissequence clearly shows mnjor menthcr pnt terns inoving, disappearing, nnd reform-ing on n daily bnsis. The great potential viiluc~of observations such n s theselins beri rerognizetl nnd forms the basis for phiis fo r tlitl estnblishnient of nsynchronous operational inctrorologiral satell ite systt,ni.

While the shor t range predictions of the wea ther are important t o our dailyiictivities nnd in th e saving of lives n n d property, the utility of th at se rric ewould hare a many fold increase if siich predictions could he rxtc'ntlcd o w rlo

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