Napalm an American Biography by Robert M Neer

7/23/2019 Napalm an American Biography by Robert M Neer

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N a p a l m

r ob e r t m . n e e r

a n a m e r i c a n b i o g r a p h y



Npm





NpmA N A M E R I C A N B I O G R A P H Y

Rbt M. N

T Bknp ss v Unvsty ss

Cmbg, Msscustts • Lnn, Engn

2013



Cpygt © 2013 by Rbt M. N

A gts sv

nt n t Unt tts Amc

Lby Cngss Ctgng-n-ubctn Dt

N, Rbt M., 1964–

Npm : n Amcn bgpy / Rbt M. N.

p. cm.

Incus bbgpc ncs n nx.

IBN 978-0-674-07301-2 (k. pp)

1. Npm—sty. 2. Incny wpns—sty. 3. Incny bmbs—

Dsgn n cnstuctn—sty. 4. Unt tts—Am Fcs—Wpns

systms—sty. I. Tt.

UG447.65.N44 2013

355.8'245—c23 2012034926



For my ather, a healer





Cntnts

gu: Tng Bng Vg, ut Vtnm,

Jun 8, 1972 1

HERO

1. v’s Gnus 7

2. Annymus Rsc N. 4 29

3. Amcn Kmkzs: uc Bmb Bts 45

4. W’ Fgt Mcssy 52

5. T Amcn Cntuy 75

SOLDIER

6. Fm’s Func 91

7. Vtnm ynm 109

8. ng Is Bvng 126

9. Inct 134



viii Contents

PARIAH

10. Bby Buns 151

11. T F 165

12. T T tc 174

13. Jugmnt Dy 193

14. T Wpn Tt D Nt

pk Its Nm 208

Epgu: T W W Is Wtcng 223

Nts 231

Acknwgmnts 301Inx 305



Npm





1

Tng Bng, tty ms ntwst gn, su un -ty ss n t mnng Jun 8, 1972. It ws t t y

fc btt btwn Vt Cng n Nt Vtnms my nft-

ts, w sz t twn, n ut Vtnms my unts tt

suun tm. Rts tump. ps . Mcn

guns c n t stts. mk f t . n T i Km úc,

nn ys , u wt mt n t, unts, yung bt-

s, cusns, n ngbs, but tty vgs n , n tw ut-

bungs t tmp cmpx n t g twn. A gup gt t

tn ut Vtnms ss st wt tm. Cps msny

m nby bungs tt n t n ctt css t

cuty. On sv ccsns, npm bmbs f t uts

wt ms, n tun t nss t bungs . “F s ng

m vn!” t ugs mnt. A cnctn w bck n

Rut 1, t mn ntn gwy btwn gn n Cmb

wc pss w un ys t t sut, ct vst t c jm. Junsts wtc m just n nt t w. A by s c

cns.

Km úc’s my t t tmp t ngts , wn

Vt Cng ss tk v t m n bgn t g tunns un

Prologue

Tng Bng Vg, ut Vtnm, Jun 8, 1972



2 Prologue

t vng m. Fut tt ws mpssb. pu vt

cusn, cubby t-y- nm Dn, cs t . A gt n

bgn t unc tm.

At un 1:00 p.m. t n c n sptt pn tt

bn ccng t twn pp w n bst tw pspus ckts

nt n bn t tmp. Wt smk s t mk suspct

Vt Cng pstn. ut Vtnms tps n t nt gt t

cmpx n nt t cuty n tss c smk gns t

nct t wn pstn. Abut 150 ys spt t tw zns.uny, t ss c n unb pt mgt mk t tm-

p utbungs s tgt. “Gt ut! Evyby gt ut! Ty gng

t sty vytng!” ty scm. Km úc’s t n mt

pp t cn s t t bck. wst t fst: Km

“T T W.” Nn-y- n Ti Km úc, stpp by ms n

st bunng wt npm, uns m vg w by ut Vtnmsss n Jun 8, 1972. AP Photo/Nick Ut



Prologue 3

úc’s gnmt, unt n nn-mnt- bby, n t unt’s

tw t cn, ncung Dn. Cn nxt: Km úc n tw

bts. Fny, t st sbngs. “Run! Run st, yu w

!” y t ss, w w tmsvs n mtn. A wmn

gbb c zn wt . pnts m ug n m t

utbungs, css t cuty, tug t gt, n nt Rut 1.

A sw-mvng Amcn-m ut Vtnms c ky

pp pn pp. It ws by cus n m t

wt smk. Nntss, t pp ts bmbs. Ty w us. A

scn pn pp, vn m cus. It t s ts py.A qutt sv cnsts f wt npm jy tumb n snc

tw t gun, tn t wt unbvb sunnss n vcus

“pps.” Gnt wts m, spck wt bnt pspus s,

n cs tck wt n bck smk cv t gwy btwn

tmp n bck. A but wv t tt t k gnt

pn unc swpt v t junsts. A w scns t,

sm fgus bgn t pp m t smk.

Fms nvp Km úc. Bgp Dns Cng scb

wt ppn nxt: “ fst mmy t ngufng fs ws t sgt

ms ckng t m, w t ws n ugy bwns-bck

gb. t t bus t , ny t scm ut t t pn t bun

tt nw sp t t ns t n.” Npm cugt

s s n, n sptt v t upp t s by. It c-

bnz pny t, n s nck, bck, n t m. Cng

cntnu, “[A] tmnus tgu n wnss vtk , n s n

ntns t sm t t m t ns ut, s t spty

tsty.” scm nt t smk: “O, M, t’s t t, t t!’ ”

Assct ss ptgp uyn Cng “Nck” Ut cck

m t m s nju, tf cn n t t cckpnt.

Tn n t p. Km úc ws bun nk. Cng wt, “

by t t, n cunks pnk n bck s w png .”

In, skn ws st bunng n pcs. s n pts gv wt t nk n pu m n wuns. Tgcy, t u

ct wt t npm n pspus n skn, n nju t g

ut. Abut n t by ws s w: bck, cntnu-

ng t cst n t s, t bck nck nt n,



n t m. Dp buns m j spss cut nt gt m,

buttcks, n stmc. gt pm ws n pn wun m w

s sm t wt bunng g. Ut Km úc n unt,

s scc, nt s vn n v tm t spt n t nby

twn Cu C. “s, p tm,” s t t nus, tn cntn-

u t gn t v s fm. Km úc’s ptgp, tt “T

T W,” pp n nwspps un t w t nxt y,

wn Ut utz z bst spt nws ptgp t y, n

s pss nt gn s n cnc mg t twntt cntuy.

Npm ws bn but vs p. Its nvntn s cnc

scntfc scvy s s Ynk ngnuty n s mn s t

mty-cmc cmpx. Its sty umnts Amc’s sty, m

vcty n W W II, tug t n Vtnm, t ts cunt ps-

tn n gbzng w.

4 Prologue



HERO

Amc’s fst Inpnnc Dy W W II, Juy 4, 1942, wsyc t v Unvsty. On cmpus tnns cuts nst

btwn t cg scc f’s vnt gn n t gn m

t Busnss c by, pys n wts gt mnng

gms. Ty vy s unvsty mntnnc wks m wt

svs v, cut nt t f, n but ccu ppt t t

n sxty ys n mt. F tucks m t Cty Cmbg um-

b up, n mn t cc t mk w p u t nn

ncs p. Rvtns 22.2—“On c s t v st t t

. . . . An t vs t t t ng t ntns”—b

mut wtnss m pqu n nby bg css t Cs Rv.

By m-mnng, ws y t v n Emy ss

Ognc Cmsty Lus Fs, n t unvsty’s mst bnt

scs n “Annymus Rsc jct N. 4,” tp sct

w sc cbtn btwn t sc n t gvnmnt.

Fs v. ws ty-t-ys-, t, b, wt tcs t Wms Cg vsty tb nmn nc ws st psnt n

s bng. An ctt ssstnts w. qupp u t

yung mn wt bts, buckts, ng stcks, n gvs, n pstn

5



6 Hero

tm un t p. Wt ssstnc m t ts, gngy

ugg v svnty-pun npm bmb, bt ns wn n mt

stn, t t cnt t gn. A w n t cnt bx n y

gun. Fmn n gunskps k n. ys fty t wy

t ns.

Fs pp swtc. g xpsvs bst ncny wt

pspus nt ty-fv puns j gsn. A spctcu, b-

wng 2,100-g-Fnt f cu s v t f. Lumps

sng, mng npm sps nt t wt. Oy smk f t

. Assstnts pung nt t muck, sps wt n bunng bbs,n us t stcks t submg n xtngus g gbbts. Ty

nt t ctn n sz cunks, n scp svgb jy nt

buckts wgng. Tnns pys sctt.

W W II ws just svn mnts t Unt tts: cs,

n wy. Boston Globe nwspp ns tt y nnunc s-

pt btts t E Amn n Egypt n vstp n t Cm, n

n t utmb n bcyc cng t cnsv ubb, vs sugtns, n t stt t pnty ngs Gmn sbtus

st n Lng Isn. L’ Abn, n t cmcs sctn, xpn

wt t stugg ws but: “A w w n s g cn k

up t t mn just t snss t, n nt bcus t my b

pns up t cmng t bst ’m bt t t, w w

s t b s ws s s s pss, but, mny, w

w s ! Tt w s spp, unt w wn ts w.”

It nt cmpty spp. At 10:00 .m. tt mnng

cw gt t Bstn’s Cty , s t ts n tps, p-

t t O Gny Bu Gun n Tmnt tt, st ws

t t tmbstns Jn ncck n mu Ams, n cntnu

t t O tt us. On tny cn bcny nk by w

cvngs Engn’s n n uncn, n t t Dctn

Inpnnc, just s t t sm spt n 1776.

ss Fs’s fstm ws v n scns. unks g ss,ck, n . A pungnt m pspus, k gc bun-

ng mtcs, mx wt t y sm gsn, ung n t v

t f n mpty tnns cuts. Npm bmbs v n

t w.



7

v’s scc-f tst ws n t fst pgny t“mty-cmc” n “mty-nust” unns btwn c-

m, busnss, n t m cs ct t 1940 by t Ntn

Dns Rsc Cmmtt (NDRC). Vnnv Bus, cun -

mmnts gnt Rytn n Msscustts Insttut Tcngy

(MIT) ctc ngn, cncv t systm. snt Fnkn D.

Rsvt stbs t n Jun 27, 1940, wt bugt but $100

mn. In tn t npm, t cmmtt supvs ctn t

tmc bmb, , sn, pxmty uss, bzks, mpbus n-

ng ct, n sm 200 t pjcts. By t w’s n, fv ys t,

Bus mng tns tusns scntsts wt pctcy unmt

unng.

T “Gn yscs,” s Time mgzn c m n n Ap

1944 cv sty, ws t n tn, wt wy sm, cs-cpp ,

n un mss gsss. ws bn n 1890 n Evtt, Msscu-

stts, tn s nw wkng-css twn, n gut m TutsCg n M n 1913. At st s jb s tst ngn t

Gn Ectc— f sut wn t cty w wk—

tugt mnty mtmtcs t wmn “nt n t sgtst g

ntst,” n “smwt bsu” pyscs cus pmc

1

Harvard’s Genius



8 H e r o

stunts, tn n n 1915 n jnt v-MIT cmsty D

pgm. gt m n 1916 n, un fnnc pssu, wt

s tss n n y n cv s D n 1917. Dung W W I,

wk wt t Ntn Rsc Cunc— bnc t N-

tn Acmy cncs n Ntn Acmy Engnng s-

tbs n 1916 t cnt w sc—t vp mgntc

submn tct. Bus’s gup but wkng vc but buu-

ctc msmngmnt, n s stmtn, pvnt t m bng us.

“Tt xpnc c nt my mn ptty sy t cmpt ck

pp sn btwn t mty n t cvn n t vp-mnt wpns n tm w, n wt tt ck mnt,” wt

t. tugt t MIT t t w, m mptnt bktugs

t t t vpmnt ng cmputs, n s t bcm vc

psnt t nsttut m 1932–1938, pstn ugy quvnt

t c ptng c. In 1939, tun wn n t b MIT’s

psnt t t Cng Insttutn Wsngtn, sc n-

sttut tt m gnts bsc scntfc sc.

A t nv n n ptmb 1, 1939, n by m- Jun

1940 Gmn ms st tumpnt css n c tt sttc

m ntn Fnc t t vt nt. Bus gt ky s

t U.. scntfc sc stbsmnt, c wm pv-

usy mt nvuy n sm gups, cctv unc: Fnk

Jwtt, nwy ct psnt t Ntn Acmy cncs n

unng psnt B Tpn Lbts; Jms Bynt

Cnnt, cmst n psnt v Unvsty; K Cmptn,

pyscst n psnt MIT; n Rc Tmn, pyscst n

pss t t Cn Insttut Tcngy. “W w g,”

wt, tt Amc ws su t b wn nt t w, “tt t wu

b gy tcnc stugg, tt w w by n mns pp n ts

g, n fny n mst mptnty, tt t mty systm s t

xst . . . wu nv uy puc t nw nstumntts wc

w wu ctny n.” Unvsts, Bus bv, t b nt-gt nt t w t. A cntng cmmtt ws qu.

Bus bugt ts t cty Cmmc y pkns,

w ws n Rsvt’s csst vss n utspkn n s pp-

stn t t Nzs. pkns ws t ut fv cn pp-



Harvard’s Genius 9

ttc Gnn, Iw, nss st wn n s vuty Mtst w.

gut n 1912 m Gnn Cg. Mnu, pps, twn

n cg nmsk Js Gnn’s jutn t cmmunty s-

vc, pkns spnt t y pt s c wkng n Nw Yk

Cty sc w gnztns ncung t B C W-

n t Tubcuss Assctn. Lt, sv t Amcn

R Css n Nw Ons n Atnt. In 1921, bck n Nw Yk,

p stbs t Amcn Assctn c Wks, n ws

ct ts psnt n 1923. pkns cm t t ttntn Gvn

Fnkn Rsvt n 1931, wn ct Nw Yk’s TmpyEmgncy R Amnsttn unmpy wks. At FDR

ws ct psnt, t sc wk s tug Nw D buu-

ccs t t Wks gss Amnsttn, t ntn’s gst

mpy. Rsvt ppnt m scty cmmc n 1938.

ws swn n n Cstms Ev.

pkns mmty unst Bus’s pps mty-

cmc ptnsp. “W un tt w spk t sm ngug,” tCng Insttut’s ct wt. On Jun 12, 1940, t scty -

ng Bus t mt Rsvt. Btn’s spt vcutn ts

my m Dunkk ws just gt ys n t pst. Ity c w n

Fnc n Btn, n Nwy’s st vsn sun t t W-

mct tw ys b t mtng. T NDRC pn ws n u p-

gps n sng st. “T w unc st ss tn tn mn-

uts (y n ubt bn t b m). I cm ut wt my

‘OK-F.D.R.’ n t ws bgn t tun,” Bus c.

s mt ws pn-n. “T Cmmtt s ct n sup-

pt scntfc sc n t mcnsms n vcs w . . .

n my cnuct sc t ctn n mpvmnt nstumn-

tts, mts, n mts w,” ts stbsng .

Ostnsby, t by pt t t Cunc Ntn Dns, n

ssmby ct sm pups n August 1916 n cmps

t scts w, nvy, nt, gcutu, cmmc, n b.Ts sgntn m t pt t Excutv O c t snt,

wc un t. In pctc, snc t cunc’s wk n t

W W I n w knw ts cntnu xstnc, t gup pt

cty t Rsvt.



10 H e r o

“T w ts w ptst tt t ctn sttng up N.D.R.C.

ws n n un, gb by wc sm cmpny scntsts n ng-

ns, ctng uts stbs cnns, gt t utty n

mny t pgm vpng nw wpns. Tt, n ct, s x-

cty wt t ws,” Bus wt.

T un cs xcutvs n s wn mg. Cnnt, m -

v, gt spnsbty “Dvsn B,” n cg bmbs, us, gss,

n cmc pbms; Cmptn, m MIT, tctn, cnts n

nstumnts; n Tmn, m CTc, ms n nnc. Ty

sv s vunts, k Bus, n kpt t xstng jbs. Lymn J.Bggs, ct t Ntn Buu tns, s U-

num Cmmtt, wc supvs tmc sc, t t nw gn-

ztn. Bus s m ut pw v t wng y, n v

Cnnt, wm tugt ws m cmptnt, s t sgnfcnc

ts bcm ppnt. Atn cmmtt mmbs jn ex

of cio: Jwtt m t Ntn Acmy; t cmmssn ptnts;

t t Cmmtt n cntfc As t Lnng; n psn-ttvs m t my n nvy.

ps t mst xtny tu t nw cmmtt ws t

wy t pnn t ts wk. Rt tn y n gvnmnt bt-

s st by unm mmbs t mty, gnts t nvu

scs, s bn t pctc mty sc, t NDRC

pnn t cntct ts wk t unvsts n pvt nusty n

cst- pus bss. Bus cncv t nw mnsttv stuctu. “W

pps t cntct wt t unvsty ts, tus pcng n t t

spnsbty suc [busnss] mtts, n s gvng t t u-

tty ncssy pp pmnc. In tun w pps t py

ts v csts,” wt. v’s psnt Cnnt xpn t

cnsquncs: “Ctn t cmmtt mk t bgnnng

vutn . . . [n] s tnsmng ct n t tnsp

t unvsty t t gvnmnt. . . . T ssnc t vu-

tn ws t st n 1940 m xpnng sc n gvnmnt b-ts t pvt ntps n t us mny t suppt wk n

unvsts n scntfc nsttuts tug cntctu ngmnts.”

Acmc cts w xtnsv n scs nt qu

cv svc ctfctn, wc w w mnsttv stc-




tns n gt sp. Unvsty mnstts spn wt n-

tussm t t nw stuctu, wc w cuty mmbs t wk

n mty pjcts n t sp tm n, n sm css, pmtt

stunts t submt NDRC pjcts s tss vnc gs. -

vt nusty, t cmmtt un, ws ss ntst n cptn n

1940, wn bugts w tgt, tn t 1941 wn uns w m

y. Nntss, mny cmpns mptnt wk vn n t

y ys t NDRC.

Dsbusmnts w t nsttutn tns cmmtt

s. In ts fst y, ty-n scs cv 155 NDRC cntcts.MIT wt twnty, w by v wt ttn n t Unv-

sty Cn n nctn wt tn c. CTc n t Cng

Insttut c cv gt cntcts. Dvsn D, mng by Jwtt t

MIT, wc ws spnsb mng t pjcts, cv

just v uns: but $50 mn n ty’s s. Dvsn

B un Cnnt ws nxt wt but $17 mn. A tt twnty-tw

pvt busnsss cv fty-tw cntcts. Unum Cmmttpjcts gt just $2.8 mn n t fst y.

Cnnt pt nt ctn. v’s psnt ws ntng nt mb-

tus. Wn ws twnty-svn, t s w tt s gs w

t b t pm gnc cmst n t Unt tts, psnt -

v, n cbnt mmb. ws bn n Dcst, Msscustts,

n 1893, gut m v Cg n 1914 t t ys

stuy, cmpt t wk s D wt u cncnttn n -

gnc n ctcmsty n 1916, n cv s ctt n 1917. A

y wt tw ns nt cmc mnuctung ws unsuccssu:

Cnnt n n s ptns stt f tt bun wn t sm

bung ty nt n Quns; spt xpsn t k

t ptn, n nt mn. In W W I, n my Cm-

c W vc (CW) sc tm tt sc Lwst, t

“Dw Dt” psn gs, tn tun t v n 1919 s n s-

sstnt pss cmsty. Wt spct t gs w, wtt, t ws unc “wy tng mn’s guts ut by g-xpsv

s s t b p t mmng m by ttckng s ungs skn.”

As t cvn csuts, ty w “nt ny ncssy cnsqunc

bmbng, but n mgt mst sy n bjctv t ts bmbs



12 H e r o

ct by t Bts, t Gmns n t Russns, s w s by t

Amcns.” Ts pgy ws ppnt psnt v n 1933

t g ty n supvs swpng ms, m t us stn-

z pttu tsts n n mbc mssns bs n mt t

tn sc stnng, t mnztn t ungut cucuum

wy m Gk n Rmn csscs n tw t scncs.

Tu t s pncnt st ctn, by Jun 18, 1940—sx ys t

Rsvt’s OK t NDRC, n u ys t s wn ppntmnt

ws m c—Cnnt cut Rg Ams, c t Cms-

ty Dptmnt t t Unvsty Ins t Ubn-Cmpgn, nMIT pss Wn K. Lws s vc cmn Dvsn B. Ams

ws w Bstnn, scnnt snt Jn Ams, n

v cmsty D n m pss t t unvsty (s mv

t Ins ct t vcncy tt Fs f). Fnc cptut n

wk t, n t Btt Btn bgn tw wks t tt.

Cnnt n s cgus spnt t summ n y 1940 -

cutng cmsts t nw gnztn. It ws nt sy. “Appntyt w vy w cmsts n n ts cunty vng knwg

mty xpsvs, wc s qut nt subjct tn cmmc

xpsvs. nc t s bn ncssy gnc cmsts t n

smwt nw t,” t NDRC xpn n ts fst nnu pt. By

m-Octb, ty ct nug t stt. T Tptt ct

unc t Axs nc Gmny, Ity, n Jpn t t n

ptmb, n t Unt tts bgn t fst pctm t n ts

sty n t scn wk Octb. On Octb 23, Fs n but

twnty t tp cmsts gt n Ams’s Ins vng m t

bgn t wk Dvsn B.

Cnnt ut t pgm. scb t NDRC, summz

ts nnvtv cntctng systm, utn t W Dptmnt’s mst

pssng tcnc pbms, n xpn w c sc mgt

p. Entussm n g. Fs g t syntsz nw cmpuns

vutn s pssb xpsvs.

v ssgn m tw sct ms n t bsmnt t Cn-

vs Cmsty Lbty t 12 Ox tt n Cmbg ( D-

vnty Avnu n wtn muskt ng Mm , but t n

unvsty guts w ugt t Unn n t Cv W). A qu-




tt s gut stunts, n t y twnts, jn t ty-

n-y- pss s ssstnts. By t spng 1941, ty -

vp tw nw cmpuns m pwu tn TNT.

Lus Fs ws bn n Ap 7, 1899, n Cumbus, O. s t

ws n ngn w tc s ng t vg uts bg n

Gmny; s gnt, bnk n n-tm t Cumbus

sc systm, wn n pubs t fst Gmn-ngug nws-

pp n O. Lus ttn t pubc Est g c n pt

tw mtts t wc, wt ty-tw ys t, summz s

pspy: omnia possum (nytng s pssb) n labor omniavincit (wk cnqus ). Ts mbtus, nustus stunt gu-

t n 1916 n st t Wms Cg n ntwstn Ms-

scustts. tt n tb, bsktb, n tck, n n s s-

n y ws nmn n t unbtn 1919 vsty tb tm. In

1920, cct s cg pm n cntnu st t stuy cm-

sty t v. s nstucts ncu yung pss Jms Cnnt.

In 1922, t tw pubs cbtv pp. Fs cv s D sc n t subjct tw ys t. s stn uctn

tjcty cncu wt pstct y t Fnkut n Ox.

Fs bgn s c s n ssstnt pss cmsty t Byn

Mw Cg wmn n 1925. “Gs cn b vy stscty stu-

nts, vn sup ns; ty s cn v t quts pp-

ng t 26-y- m nstuct. I n v wt mmb my

scn css t Byn Mw,” wt. pubs sm twnty c-

mc pps ung s ys n nnsyvn. In 1930, v, w

Cnnt ws tn u pss, Fs pstn s n ssstnt

pss. My ts, s m stunt, nm bt pss

n pssn, w n n n t unvsty’s cmsty D

pgm. Ty w m n 1932. ts, wv, ws st by t

sxsm t v ptmnt—s ws nt w n t b-

ty wt m stunts n c t cnuct sc, wtut su-

pvsn, n t st bsmnt spt bung—n t tpgm t s cv MA g n 1936. wnt t wk s

n ssstnt t usbn.

At v, Fs cncntt n vtmn K, n vp nw

ntst n ccngns. In t m-1930s, wt My’s p, pubs



14 H e r o

t fst ss nunt txtbks. In 1937, bcm u p-

ss. In 1939, ws ppnt t t pstgus n Emy -

sssp, nnunc t fst succssu syntss vtmn K— p-

cu tt mptnt mc mpctns bcus t t

vtmn pys n b cttng—n cv n ny g m

s m mt Wms. Fs utmty ut 341 sc pps,

ncung ty wttn s s ut n tty-sx tt wt wt

s w, n ttn bks, mny s wttn wt s w, wc

fv wnt tug t tns. ws ct t t Ntn Acmy

cncs n 1940. Mny tusns stunts tk s csss ungs mst u cs t v.

Fs psnt s wk n xpsvs t n NDRC cnnc n C-

cg n My 28. tn stn, ntgu, s Cnnt scb mys-

tus ss xpsns t Dunt pnt cty. Wks t p-

uc vnyctyn, qu tt cu b mx wt pnt pgmntn wc st t tug, sv, ptctv fm wn xps t .

Msps t t pnt mp tt t mt ws xpsv n, snc

xygn ws xcu m t mnuctung pcss, pps spn-

tnusy cmbustb. Mty pssbts sm bvus. Cnnt

sk n nvstgt. Fs vunt s bty t tsk.

just t mn t jb.

Emnu Bnjmn sbg w s fst bt n Juy 28, 1908, n

Lynn, Msscustts, nt Bstn. s t ws smk w

t wn tbcc sp n t Bstn wtnt. E. B., s cm

t b knwn, ws mst nvntn wt D Vnc-squ ng

mcnc bty: “A mstu xpmntst n gnc cmsty,

ws s vs n ngnng, n mcnc wng, n cpnty, n

mcnng, n gss bwng, n n ptgpy, n nvnt

n cnstuct numb bty vcs wc t un w

us, xmp, t sbg st, t sbg stng mt,t sbg mtng-pt pptus,” Fs wt. cv g

n cmc ngnng m MIT n 1929, n s D n cmsty

m t nsttut n 1933, spnt y stuyng n Gmny n tvng




wsp, n jn Fs’s bty n 1934 n t pts t

pssn.

Fs put E. B., w ws s n Amy Cmc W vc

sv c, t wk n t Cnvs bsmnt. tn tv t

Dunt quts n Wmngtn, Dw, w pnt cmsts

b m n t xpsns n t mnuctung pcsss. In

Cmbg, t tw scs puc succssv btcs vny-

ctyn n xps t qu t n pns pc n t wnw

ws t bty, s m wn n psssby. Ty

wtc s t mt tnsm nt g tt ncs n vscstyv tm. T xpmnts pk t t pns wt stcks, n pp

stns n tm t ty t puc n xpsn f, but wtut ncu-

gng suts.

Bcus ty cun’t gt t gs t xp bun n t wn,

t scntsts t tmsvs. “At y’s n w usuy sty t

gs . . . by sttng f t tm wt mtc. . . . [T]y bun wt n

mpssv sputt n spk,” Fs wt.

Ts puc t cuc nsgt tt t npm. sbg t-

tbut t succss t s mnt’s nsptn. Fs wt tt t

mn t tgt. “W ntc s tt wn vscus g

buns t s nt bcm u, but tns ts vscus, stcky cnss-

tncy,” Fs wt. “T xpnc suggst t bmb tt

wu sctt g bunng gbs stcky g.”

sbg m sm mpvs bmbs m tn cns f wt

vnyctyn g pck un gunpw n t cmsts t

tm ut n mt sctn Evtt, “Cty , gss n s-

sbts,” just up t Mystc Rv m Bstn. Rsuts w pms-

ng: t stcky g gnt “wt sputtng, vcus-kng m,”

Fs mmb. “[T]s pbby w t fst xpmnts n

g us n ts cunty,” wt. As s cgu m t -

v Cmsty Dptmnt Rbt Ww t bsv F-

s’s scntfc pspy, “Lus, t pttypc mn ctn, wsmptnt sustn bstct tugt. Fcng ny pbm pptu-

nty, s nstnct ws t s nt t bty, t t sc nw

cts, sy bs upn ntgb xpmnttn—n Lus ws



16 H e r o

p xcnc mn t ct wtut sttn n s wys supby

bust nstncts.”

Npm s vsttng wpn bcus t s stcky n buns t n x-

tmy g tmptu. F, n cmc tms, s t pcss cm-

bustn, cmpx n gy nvsb squnc vnts tt ccus

wn mcus xygn cmbn wt ts. Ts ss t n

gt n ctns. T mst ntns tn tks pc nt wt-

v mt t cmbustn ccus upn (wc mks stcky ncn-s spcy ctv snc ty n ct cntct wt wtv

ty bun), tn upw, n fny, t t ss. F n mtcstck,

xmp, s ttst w t stck s bunng, tn bv n t t

ss t m, n fny bw t. Mcus bsb t ngy

unt ty c t tmptu t tnsmttng by cmbust

tmsvs, wcv cms fst. I nug ngy s s, vsb

ms pp n t mt s s t bun. Ts pcss ws fstxpn by t gtnt-cntuy Fnc scntst Antn-Lunt

Lvs w, s sut, s cns t un mn

cmsty.

tt tngs m ky t cmbust. Mcus bcm gtt

wn t, wc cuss gt numb t cm nt cntct wt

t suc t mt ty cmps n, n tun, gtns t

pbbty ty w cmbn wt xygn. As gn u, n ncs

n tmptu gtn gs Fnt ubs t cnc

cmbustn. C, xmp, w bun twc s st t gty-sx -

gs s t sxty-gt gs—n 500,000 tms st t 400 gs.

T stt f, pc n ncny n ct cntct wt wtv s t b

bun— bw nxt t t, n scnng pnc—n

nsu t s pnty xygn. Tus, t bst ncns gnt s-

y, bun t, n sty cs t t tgts.

A sm wpn suts m ts pcss. p n t nms f, s t cn nuc pnc: t ms n f-btng

mnsts cmmn ts. Amst vyn s xpnc buns,

s t pn bng bun t t s sy t mgn cmp wt

ss cmmn njus k but wun. Mst mptnty, f uss t




ngy cntn n tngs tmsvs t sty tm. Lg tgts

mn gt ptnt vsttn. Ccg’s Gt F 1871 s us-

ttv: cngtn tt v muc mtps ppx-

mty 324,000 pp stt, gy, wn Ms. Ctn O’Ly’s

cw knck v mp. As Gy Cuc wt wt nc t

ncnt qu ncns c “wf” n The Canterbury Tales,

“Tu yknst wmmns v . . . t w y/ T m t bnnt,

t m t t sy.” As 1961 U.. A Fc A Unvsty txtbk

xpn t Rsv O c Tnng Cps stunts, n W W II

“g tgts (s n nt cty) su m mg p tn [ncn-y] bmbs tn sm tgts, bcus fs m pptunty t

sp wy.” Expsvs, by cntst, cy t ngy wtn

tmsvs n sm cus mg byn t mmt

mpct. Nuc wpns cmbn mnts bt typs muntns

but, guby, nct t gtst mg tug t. Expsvs

mg, f nnts: stt stuctu cn pps b p,

but n ncnt cty, ts cntnts vpz, mt, wp, uc t s, s un.

A w y xmps gv sns t ntquty n xbty

ts wpn. In 1400–1000 BC, t bbc msn, ng t

fn tt s t-n-w gvn wy s w, “wnt n cugt

t un xs, n tk fbns, n tun t t t, n put

fbn n t mst btwn tw ts. An wn st t

bns n f, t tm g nt t stnng cn t stns,

n bunt up bt t scks, n s t stnng cn, wt t vn-

ys n vs” (t stns spn by bunng msn’s w

n t-n-w v). Nnt-cntuy BC Assyn s sw cm-

btnts fgtng wt mng ws n pts f wt bzng mt-

. In’s Mahabharata n Ramayana pcs, pbby ntt

un 800–750 BC, scb t us f ws, s s t myt

cus, w us bunng ws t k t y mnst n cm-

pt t scn s twv bs. Cns tst un Tzu stfv wys t ttck wt f n s cc 500 BC Art o War. Tucys

scb mtw n 424 BC: ngns m Bt, s,

ut n Atnn gsn wt bws-vn f pt wn ty

“sw gt g n , w t ut, n ftt [t] tgt gn



18 H e r o

k pp. Ty suspn cun m cns t n n, ttc

t n n tub tt pjct m t bm, t n cts t pt

t w m vns n tmb, nst ug bws nt t n

t bm, n bw. T bst pss nt t cun f wt gt

cs, suu n ptc, m gt bz, n st f t t w.”

Lqu n g ncns v n quy ncnt pvnnc. -

cus ws cnsum by mng st, wvn wt cntu b by s

u w, tt cu nt b xtngus mv. Mytc Gk

pncss Guk, ppuz by Eups n s 431 BC py Medea,

su sm t. Accng t t sty, Jsn pms t myM, pncss m Ccs, n mn Gg, s p m

wn t Gn Fc m mn. , n ty w, but

tn bnn Guk. M snt v butu cwn

n gwn, pps mpgnt wt ptum, wc ws cmmn n

suc psts n Bku n t ngbng tty nw knwn s

Azbjn. Wn Guk put n t gmnts n ppc n t—

pssby umnt by pn ms—s gnt. “T cpt gbut [snt] t wnus stm vnng m, m

bns t s kpt png bnt t gnwng ts sct

ugs, ’n s wn t pn-t wps ts ts ptc, sm

sgt t s,” Eups wt. M cby, n Atnn ttnnt t

Axn t Gt ws svy bun ung t Mcnn cn-

qust Msptm wn g, t t suggstn s nqustv

cmmn, t cv ms n naptha, ptum, n btus.

T cmbust—ms m nby mps, gn, my v spk

vt vps—n t vunt mst .

Rmns su t fst c mty ttck wt qu f. In

69 BC, t my cnsu Lucus Lucuus ttck t cty mst

n t Eupts n wt s nw sutstn Tuky. Accng t

ny t E, snts t cty pu maltha—mng mu—n

t ss. Ts substnc “s t vy s by wc t

tucs, n mv, wn tuc, t ws yu, yu ttmpt tscp m t. . . . It s vn st n f n wt. W n by xpnc

tt t cn b xtngus ny by t,” wt. (ny stngus

maltha m naphtha, wc s ws m qu n us t tt

Guk’s b). Fms g t gnns n t m, n bk

t ssut. Rm n’t cptu mst nt 141 ys.




Lgnns qucky ncpt ncny qus nt t s-

n, n cm t cns tm vn n gn. In t tnt cntuy,

mnnum t Lucuus, Byzntn mp Cnstntn py-

gntus t s sn tt Cnstntn t Gt, w u m 306 t

337 n mv t mp cpt m Rm t Cnstntnp, b-

tn t cp qu f cty m n ng. Fm wpns

w y, pygntus xpn, n t ws ntm—punsb

by gtnng stk—t scs t scts. Imp ms w

puc ncns, s, pctc “vn t.”

Byzntn ctsmn vp pump systm tt w t s-s t st “Gk f,” s-c n t n, nt t nms.

Cnstntnp ws cnt mcnc nnvtn un t mp.

pygntus, xmp, t gn t wt tfc bs

tt pp t wngs n sng, m n tt mv n ,

n jw y w wk, pw by cckwk. Aun 673, s

t Musm Ab ms t Umyy cpt vnc m t

sut n wst, ug nm Knks (“nsm wnn”) -v n t cpt m t yn twn ps. pt

pump, pps ub-ctn wt pump, s tt t cu b munt

n sp. A bunng stm st ut tug mvb pp, “s-

pn,” st nt t bw—tn ct k t mnst. As

t mp L wt t: “T nt pt t sp bnz

tub s ng tt t pp f cu b pjct w t

t t gt n s m t m bv. Ts tub ws munt

n [ptm] bv t ck. . . . T f ws twn t n t

nmy’s sps n t cs t ttckng tps.” Ts “s-f”

Knks, wc k ts pcsss cu nt b xtngus wt

wt (but ppnty cu b qunc wt vng un), -

sty t Umyy nvy n sv t kngm.

ubsqunt mpvmnts mntuz t tcngy s tt t

cu b c by ss n t f. L psz but “m

spns scg by n m bn n ss, wc cn-spns [n] v cnty bn mnuctu n u mnns.

F ts cn tw t pp f n t cs t nmy.” Ts

w vty vy ptns. “Fxb pptus wt [tf-

c] f, spns, n-spns . . . t b us, t n, gnst

ny tw tt my b vnc gnst t w bsg twn,”



20 H e r o

pygntus nstuct. Cmmns n t 1100s py bt-

pw systm. Ann Kmnn, ugt t mp Axs I

Kmnns, scb Byzntn ncny ttck n 1103 n sn

t n Rs: “Ts f ty m by t wng ts. Fm t

pn n ctn suc vgn ts nmmb sn s cct.

Ts s ubb wt supu n put nt tubs , n s bwn by

mn usng t wt vnt n cntnuus bt. Tn n ts mnn t

mts t f n t tp n ctcs gt n s k fy wwn

n t cs t nmy.” T cnny pncss n k mtt

ky ngnt: ptum. Wt ts tn, cp s cst cntmpy scy cnsnsus but t cmpstn Gk

f: “sm-qu substnc, cmps supu, ptc, ssv

nt n ptum b tgt n mx wt ctn ss mp-

tnt n m bscu substncs,” n t ws sc C. W. C.

Omn.

Ab ms s m xtnsv us qu ncns but us

ss, ctputs, tbucts (sngs pw by cuntwgts),t tn pump-pw jts, t v bzng muntns. pc

“npt tps,” c naatun, ptct by sbsts ctng n

m wt cpp naata f pts cmc n gns ccmp-

n c cps n Abbs ms m 750. Abs w bsg t

Gk pt nk n 904 t numus sm cmc pts bv

t v bn f gns. A 1200s wksp tt mnuctu sm

vcs ws un t t cty m n y. Fmtw tcn-

gy sp st t Cn m Ab un 919.

F ssuts ct t. T Fnc cus Jn Jnv

scb n Ab perronel ttck (ty, “stn tw,” pbby

tbuct), tt u bzng tubs Gk f ung t 1250 sg

tf cmp n t Egyptn cty A Mnsu: “Ts ws t

sn t Gk f: t cm n s b n nt s vng csk,

n t t f tt t bn t ws s bg s gt sp; n t

m suc ns s t cm, tt t sun k t tun vn.It k k gn yng tug t . uc bgt gt t

cst, tt n cu s v t cmp s tug t w y, by -

sn t gt mss f, n t bnc t gt tt t s,”

wt. Tt btt n wt t cptu t Fnc kng Lus




IX, t ts tns tusns Eu pns, n t cps t

vnt Cus.

Lqu ncns cn n mptnc t t m-1200s s

gunpw sp css t w m Cn. Expsvs mtcy

ncs t ng pjct wpns n m t cut mps-

sb t us ttn f wpns, wc t b v t -

tvy cs ng. t st, n nctv ncny cmp t

ptum-bs qus, ws t mst gunny cs cu s

n tntv. Rckts—us by Cns n Mngns m t m-

1200s—v bunng mts m stnc, but w nccutn unb. Gk f ws nt mntn n Byzntn ccunts t

1200, wc s sm t spcut t cp bn st, pps

bcus xcssv sccy. Ts sms unky snc t us sm

ncny wpns cs vyw t but t sm tm.

Engns ttmpt t bk ts pgm mnnum byncsng t ng f wpns. It ws nt unt 1805, wv, tt

Bts sgn Wm Cngv, nsp by Inn ckts ncun-

t n t 1767–1799 Ang-Mys Ws, nvnt ccu n s

munt n ftn-t wn p tt cu st bunng tty-

tw-pun “ccss” w but m n , by n wt

sm ccucy. F t fst tm n cntus, f wpns gt

ng tn ty. Engn st uns f msss t t Fnc

pt Bugn n Octb 8, 1806—t fst suc ttck—but mt

wt mt succss. In 1807, wv, Btn suppmnt ty

n gns wt ppxmty 300 ncny ckts ung t-

y bmbmnt Cpngn tt t tusns n n-

t t cty n ss. Ts c t sun vtuy t nt

Dns Nvy. R g m Bts ckts f t Btm’s Ft

Mcny n ptmb 13, 1814, nsp Fncs ctt Ky t cmps

wt s nw t U.. ntn ntm. In t sm y, s t Bt-m, U Bwn, n t st Amcn ncny ngns,

puc stm-pw mtw— mn vsn t m-

v Byzntn spn—n mnstt t t “vst cncus”

ctzns.



22 H e r o

Aty, wv, pgss vn st. Rng ns gun bs

nnc ccucy. cussn cps, wc spk n mpct, mnt

gntn systms tt n smng uss, n mpv bty.

F wpns, vn ts pw by ckts, cun’t kp up. Incn-

y pymnts mn .

Amc’s Cv W spu uy m sc but sm

sut: w pymnts. snt Abm Lncn ug ggssv

sc. In 1861, t my t p Nw Yk nvnt Rbt

L. Fmng vp pps fbmb. On Jnuy 14, 1862, t ps-

nt mt wt Lv t Bu, w cm t v scvt cp Gk f. t tst-f p ttn-nc ss t

tt mnt n t Eps, just sut t Wt us. Ty bw f

ty t fty t nt t , n cv fty-t us wt ms

tn mnuts.

Gn Gg McCn un t wpns bbc—“uc

mns stuctn y wtn t ctgy ts cgnz

n cvz w,” wt—but ts tugt m k Lncn.Gn Bnjmn But nvt t t spy s vcs v Bs-

tn Cmmn, n subsqunty pucs n un ss us

gnst Nw Ons. R Am Dv D. t nt pt s

my mnsn n t Dw Rv t t t puc “f

Gk F” n tn cyns t ncs ng n fv-gts n nc

n mt. tn tn gss (1,440) n us tm t bm-

b Vcksbug, Msssspp, n My 1863. Dns xpss utg

v ts nscmnt us f, spt t ct tt just t sgnf-

cnt cngtns sut. A “Gk f” ncny ttck n

Cstn n August 22–23, c ut n t ct Lncn

ms, puc smy sppntng suts. “My cnscnc w

nt pmt m t cmmn s gk f, wc I knw t b g

ntng,” t t wt t’s nvntn n tt t s mt.

W W I sustn t ssnt pgm t pvus gt

cntus, but bng tngs t cm. Gmn ngnsntuc gs-pw Flammenwerer (mtws) tt st gs-

n, u , tckn wt ubb but twnty ys. Aty

ss, nw qupp wt stms t nsu stgt scnt, cntn-

u n t ttn U.. Cv W f xpmnts. Zppn -




sps mt v Lnn n unc ncny bmbmnts. In

ts css, wv, pncp ws m mpssv tn pctc:

t wpns tvy tt mg.

Gmny fst ttck Fnc tps wt mtws t Mn-

cut, n ntstn Fnc nt Vun, n Fbuy 26, 1915. An

bsv ppu “T fy spnts wc, s sng ut t

t, ng n ssng n t nmy’s tncs n v m t

pcptt gt.” Tt summ, Bts f ms Jn Fnc

pt “A nw vc s bn pt by t nmy vng bun-

ng qu nt u tncs wt stng jt. . . . Mst t nntyccupyng ts tncs w vn bck, but t tmnt ws u

m t t sups n tmpy cnusn cus by t bunng

qu tn t t ctu mg nct.” A U.. Cmc W

vc c sty bsv, “At t nt t subs,

wv, A ss un tt t wn ccutus tncs p-

v tm wt qut ptctn, snc m tws t tt tm

cu nt pjct u un cns nt mst ungun ps-sgs.” It cncu, “T mxmum ng t ptb Gmn

wpn ws 20 ys; ts sm tnks w qucky xust u, n

ts pt, t fng, bcm pss tgt ut n N Mn’s Ln,

nsss n mp wt vy .” Ov 90 pcnt t u

bun n vst cus bck smk b t c ts tgt.

“Untckn u m gt sw,” t NDRC wt, “T

w mny w bv tt t mst s ct t ptb m

tw ws psycgc.” Bts, Fnc, n U.. ngns v-

p sm vcs n spns, but ty w us n ny nu

ccsns, n nv by U.. tps. At t w, t CW bn-

n t pgm n sty ts stck wpns. “In gn, t

ws nt cns succssu muntn,” t svc cncu

ts y mtws.

Gmn Zppn sps fbmb Lnn n My 31, 1915.

Bmbs, wv, w w—nnty ncns n tty xpsvsm sng gb n t fst ttck. Mny nt gnt, n f-

fgts sy cntn t cngtns tt sut. Gmn n-

gns t puc buckt-sp bmb tt cntn c

tmt ( mxtu pw umnum mgnsum n mt



24 H e r o

xs, tn n, tt bun wt-t t un 5,000 gs) pck

n cttn, us wt npt n t, n bun wt t p.

Fmng buts, nvnt n 1916 by t Bts n spns t t t-

tcks, wv, ctvy t t gbs. Bts, Fnc n

U.. scntsts s vp fbmbs—spctvy t “Bby Incn-

y” bmb f wt “Tmy” bn tmt n pw-

umnum; t Cn t, ntn t b pp m n

pn; n t Mk I n II bmbs n ts—but t sm vcs

py n nsgnfcnt n t cnct.

Apns st ncny wpns t t mv p pc. On Ap 26, 1937, t Gmn Cn Lgn, vunt c

tt suppt scst s t Nzs n t pns Cv W, m-

nstt mn f w wn t py ty-t pns t

p fty tns tmt ncns n xpsv bmbs n t

Bsqu twn Gunc. T muncpty, jmm wt pp n

mkt y, ws vstt: but t-quts ts bungs bun,

t st 300 pp , n tusns w nju. Times o London cspnnt Gg t scb t nw kn w: “Fst,

sm pts pns tw vy bmbs n n gns

v t twn, csng t n y sn. Nxt cm

fgtng mcns wc swp w t mcn-gun ts w n n

pnc m uguts, sm wc y bn pntt by

1,000 b. bmbs, wc mk 25 t. p.” cntnu, “Mny

ts pp w k s ty n. A g sp bng bugt

n t t mkt ws s wp ut. T bjct ts mv ws pp-

nty t v t pputn un gun gn, nxt s mny s 12

bmbs pp t tm ppng vy n ncny bmbs upn

t uns.” Jpns cmmns unn t pnt n August wn

ty ttck ng wt fbmbs n k tns tusns.

Tn, n ptmb 7, 1940, Gmny unc t fst sustn

ncny bmbng cmpgn n sty: t Lnn Btz. Dung t

Btt Btn s w, t Lutw pp but 23,500 custs tty-sx n-kgm mgnsum ss pck wt tmt.

Bmbs bun s t ty gnt t mgnsum csngs, wc

bun up t ftn mnuts n tw umps mtn mt up t




fty t. Ty cu nt b xtngus wt wt. Lg Gmn

fbmbs cmbn up t 500 puns tmt, , n mgnsum

svngs. Lutw bmbs ttmpt t t cts wt f wt

mny, t W W I, mgt b n wt psn gs.

A tptyc mgs m t p ustt t nw pgm.

b css pnt Guernica, gy-n-wt vsn t sst

tt b t cty, n Jun 1937. In ng, scus puck bun

bby m t ubb t mn wy sttn n st t, sbbng, by

tck. . . Wng snpp pt. Jpns utts g tt b-

cus t bby ws pc n pstn t pt ws nt tu pc-tn vnts. Its m, wv, ws nsputb. In Engn, nws

cms c gm pm mnst Wnstn Cuc n 1942 s

wk tug t c mns Cvnty Ct, gutt n

Nvmb 1940 by n ttck v 1,000 fbmbs. Bts nyss

t Lnn Btz cncu tt tn t nw ncns puc

but fv tms m mg tn t sm munt cnvntn g

xpsvs. Cuc g but t ptnt untn m t. “T Nvy cn s us ts w, but ny t A Fc cn wn t,”

s, just b Gmn bmbmnts bgn.

Gvn ts sty, t Bts w ntst n Fs’s sc n n-

cny gs. In August 1941, tw mnts t t Evtt tn-cn tsts,

Mj G Rmbut t A Mnsty, w p vp t

Unt Kngm’s mgnsum ncny, v t t Ox tt

bty vst. s ky pc vc ws t stbs msu-

mnt systm t w quntttv cmpsns btwn tntv gs.

“An bvusy sun suggstn,” Fs nt. v’s tm but

stuctu wt u upgt pcs w ttc t wn bs

n cnnct by tw css-pcs. mck cu t stn ms-

tu cntnt m t upgt pcs; ty us tupw, wc ws

sy t cut, t bs. Cmsts spns stn munt gm mf gs gun, st t pptus n n t wnw-

w tstng s, n t t ncny. At t f stpp, t sc-

ntsts scp t s cc m c pc w wt w



26 H e r o

bus n wg wt mn. “I us t cm m t ngt k-

ng k bckc cmn,” Fs c. T Cnvs Bunng

Tst ws y t vut ncns.

Rmbut’s psnc t t tp sct pjct ws sm xmp

t tgt cnnctns btwn Bts n U.. scntsts n t y

ys W W II. Btn mv fst. In t spt ys t

Dunkk wn t pp Gmny mgt nv Engn, Cuc

ppv mssn svn scntsts n mty cs, by cm-

st ny Tz, t pss t mp’s gtst mty scts t t

Unt tts. Rscs pck t tsus, ncung stunnngnnvtn tt vsty uc t sz vcs, n bck mt

s bx pucs n n Amy & Nvy st. yscst Ew Bwn,

ng ns ngn, ny st ts y “bck bx” n cus t

Eustn ttn. “Wt my uggg, t bx ws m tn I cu n-

, s I c pt n t m t t Lvp tn.

gbb t bx, put t n s su n s st tt (n

css cunty unn n st ptty ft) I gt cuty kpng upwt m,” c. “ gt w n t ny wy kpng

tck m ws t wtc t bx wvng ts wy tug t mss

s n nt.” Wn t v n t ptmb 1940, t mssn

“c t mst vub cg v bugt t u ss,” cncu

n c U.. gvnmnt sty. Amc cpct n sn n

Jnuy 1941 wn Cnnt tv t Lnn t pn t ny vss

c t NDRC. ws “ s mssng p,” s,

n mt wt vtuy t cunty’s tp sp, ncung t

kng n pm mnst.

Amc’s Cmc W vc (CW), wv, ws sw t

cgnz t tun ncny bmbmnt s vsttng wpn

t ts 800-y bsnc. Gs ws ts cus. At t n August

1941—t buuctc gnztn n Jun tt ct nw O-

fc cntfc Rsc n Dvpmnt t mng w-t

scntfc sc (Bus mv up t t nw gup, n Cnntws pmt t t tp jb t ts NDRC vsn)—mnstts

bupty t Fs t stp s wk n gs n stt nw pjct -

vt t bst gnts, “vscnts” n cmc pnc: psn gs. A

1934 my Onnc Dptmnt stuy xpn cnsnsus tnkng:




“vytng tt cn b ccmps by n ncny bmb cn, n

mst css t st, b ccmps s w btt by t smk

bmb wt wt pspus (W) mtn bmb

wt g xpsv.” nns gn 1936 wnng by Cumb

Unvsty pss cmsty n CW sv c Enqu

Zntt, w sv s 1918 U.. sn t t Fnc cmc bnc:

“T sm sz ts [ncny] bmbs my pp mst cu-

us, ptcuy t cnsng t tns gs tt qu t

puc t cncnttns; but cms t ssnt nc

btwn gs n ncns tt mks f m ngus t g cty. Gs sspts w f ppgts. Ec ts sm bmbs

wtn ts t vsttng pssbts Ms. O’Ly’s cw.”

“Ts ctn nt ps m,” Fs wt. Gs ws ntn

us sy gnst pp n bnn un t Gnv Cnvntn

1929—tug tt tty bn jct by t Unt tts n

Jpn, mng ts. It sm numn. “Futm, I ubt vy

muc tt vscnts wu b us n t w tt sm ncsngymmnnt, n I wu muc p t wk n smtng pctc

vu t t w t,” cnf n s mm. Nntss, t

cmst sww s ngs n tm v scs

t bgn psn gs stus.

Fs, wv, ws xpnc n t wys buuccs. z-

us vscnt sc qu nsttn vntt s n s

bty. sz t pptunty ct by ts y t ntt

suvy U.. ncny sc. Ot tn s wn pjct, s-

cv, t NDRC ny u ncny sc pgms: sm

ts t Bwn Unvsty n t Unvsty Ccg, n cntcts

mpv mtw nzz sgns n u mxtus ssu t

MIT n t Assct Fcty Mutu F Insunc Cmpns.

Nn m muc pgss. Amc just tw fbmb sgns

n 1941, bt wc n Bts pttyps: u-pun mgn-

sum s f wt tmt n substtut m st, wc nt gnt k mgnsum but ws cp n m y vb.

Fmtw tcngy ws uncng m 1918. Wn Fs vs-

t t quts t CW t Egw Asn n Egw,

Myn (nw pt t Abn vng Gun), n tt



28 H e r o

t gvnmnt’s nt ncny sc t cnsst tw mn:

n m svst n t t n c pt, ssgn t mpv

t tw xstng bmbs. A -zn cvn mmbs t CW st

pv pt-tm suppt.

v’s gnus ws nt mpss. “I suspct m t stt tt

t mtn n wu v tt pw t stt f n nc tt t

bmb ws p,” wt t tmt sgns. Mv, “N bun-

ng tsts bn pp n t ny bss vutn ws qut-

tv bsvtn t fng bmbs n t bsnc cmbustb

mt.” Egw’s ncny tm xpss ntst n s wk ngs n stnz f msumnt systm, but s stg

mnpw m t mpssb tm t w up n s sc.

Fs tpn Ams, s supvs, n Ins n mp t

m mmb s ptmnt t w m t vt s psn gs

bugt t ncny g sc: “I pp . . . pmssn t

us t nw mnpw n uns wk n ncns t tn

vscnts,” wt. Ams, pps w tt A Cps c ny“p” An ws cncn but pssb mgnsum stgs (n

ntgu by t pssbts g ncns t bfng by

Bus), ppv t pps n t spt.

Buucts cugt up w wks t. On Octb 7, t CW s-

gnt ncny w n c pjct t Dptmnt W.

Lt tt mnt, t NDRC w ts fst ncny sc

cntct—nt cuntng Fs’s jck psn gs pjct—t t tn-

O Dvpmnt Cmpny, vsn t gnt. Its cg

ws t puc sm fbmb f wt ptum puct.



29

F s’s tm ws y n unnng. T pss stpptcng n tw ms u tm nt ncny wpns v-

pmnt, st s “Annymus Rsc N. 4” n v’s g.

Unvsty uns p s sy. A $5.2-mn NDRC gnt, n ty’s

s, cv sc xpnss.

An mpv mtc ws t fst qumnt cmpnsv

nvstgtn. Rscs mv t bunng-tst pptus ut t

bsmnt wnw ws n nt gss-w m-wtn--m n

t Gbbs Cmsty Lbty n t t t sm bung.

yscst T W. Rcs sgn t cty t us pcsn

bncs tmc wgts—wk wc wn t 1914 Nb z

n Cmsty. “Incny mts n bmbs cu b w t bun

n t cmpt bsnc ts n t xpmnts cu b vw

m ss tug t gss wnws” tt ptct t scs, Fs

xpn. Rt tn t cc-scpng pcu, scn-

tsts cu nw cmp t wgt t nt tstng stuctu bn t f wt gt pcsn. “T nt wgt t stuctu

ss t wgt t c pcs gv msu t ncny

ctvnss t smp tst. Rsuts w pucb wt ccu-

cy,” t pss wt. s tm nm t wn m t

2

Anonymous Research No. 4



30 H e r o

“Gbbs Bunng Tst” n n ts nw m. Wks cut g

n t n nst pwu vnttn n.

An ntnsv pgm sc n g ncny wpns b-

gn. cntsts xmn numus cmpuns: ubb cmnts (w

ubb ssv n nnmmb svnts), ubb ssv n m-

mb qus k bnzn n gsn (t m suggst by Mj

Rmbut), vnyctyn, mgnsum, tmt, n mxtus t

mts n vus cncnttns. sbg sgn n but sp-

c pptus t msu t nsty n vscsty tckn smps

usng gss tub, cntug, n bsvtn t tm qu sm st b t btwn upp n w “vscsty mks.” Mg-

nsum, ty cncu, ws t bst ncny n n bsut sns, but

nt muc btt tn ubb-gsn gs, wc t vn-

tg bng stcky—n t m ctv t sttng fs—n

n pntu suppy. Rubbs m wt nw Mys, Inns,

n Lnk, t t pmy sucs w mt, wk

quy w, tug nt cncnttns c vty pucbst suts. Vucnz n cyc ubb, ntstngy, pv un-

stscty. Tmt pm tvy py.

F tsts cm nxt. CW cs pv tuck M-47

bmbss sgn must gs. Ty w mst u t t,

but gt ncs w, n m m tn st tt stt sy. A

mt bust tub but 1.5 ncs n mt f wt gunpw n

tug t cnt t bmb n scw nt n t tp. An

mpct us scw nt t bust. T us gnt t bust, wc

xp t s n sctt t vc’s cntnts v w .

Fs’s tm ss wt g n gunpw t t Gbbs Lb-

ty, pc t mpct uss wt ctnc tggs, v css

t Cs Rv, n tst t bmbs n ttc fs jcnt t t

v tum. Ty n xcnt vw t xpsns m t

tp t stum n c t stbutn, vg sz t

gbs g, n stmt pcntg bun t vus mutns. Itws, “n xctng n xpmnttn,” Fs c. cuty n

t pn fs n n ubn ngb ws nncnt: “ fm t b

swn t t mty t b t cuy mv n cc-

sn sm-by spctt,” t pss wt.



Anonymous Research No. 4 31

Rscs tnk wt ptm cncnttns ubb, gs-

n, n gunpw w wks unt ty w stsf. Tn ty

c fn tst n fm, pck mnsttn svnty-pun

M-47 n bx, n sptc Fs n t F Expss tn t t

CW quts n Myn. Wn t pss n s pc

t sttn pt t mn s, “It s vy nug t b bmb.”

Cmc cs ct qucky. On Nvmb 27, Tnksgvng Dy,

Fs cv c. Amy cs wnt t cp s fbmb

t f n ugnt spmnt 10,000 ss U.. cs t Mn

n t ppns cny. s nstuctns w smp: cut ubb ntstps n tm tug t n t ns t bmb. tn t

s n ts n n f t wt gsn unt t qu s 3 ncs m

t tp. cw n t bust tub n st t bmb n ts s. Rtt

180 gs t tms t n- t tw-u ntvs.

Evnts, wv, mv vn st. On Dcmb 7, 1941, Jp ns

c-bs ct ttck t U.. cfc Ft t ts pmy bs t

b n t w tty. Jpns tps qucky w upwt ttcks n Bts, Dutc, n U.. cn pssssns n psnt-

y Mys, Inns, n t ppns. A g ctn t

U.. ubb suppy ws cut . Mn’s bmbs nv v.

A w ys t t sups ttck, Fs ttn t pnng

CW bty t MIT. “Nw fn us smtng t us n pc ub-

b,” s Cn M. E. Bk, t c t Tcnc vc t

Cmc W vc. Rsc bgn t nxt mnng.

CW utts st stngnt qumnts t ubbss pc-

mnt ncny g. It t b m m wy vb, pby

nxpnsv, mts, smp nug t b pp n t f, tug

nug t wtstn n xpsv bst wtut ssvng nt mst,

stb nug t st ng ps, n b t wtstn tmp-

tus btwn t−

40 gs Fnt c g-ttu bmbby n t 150 g t tpc stg cty.

W bugt sug n t NDRC bugt n cspnng us

ntst n sc pptunts m pvt busnsss. In st ,

cmsts m t Atu D. Ltt cmpny n Cmbg, Dunt, t



32 H e r o

Nux ucts Cmpny Ezbt, Nw Jsy, n ts jn

tn O Dvpmnt (OD) s cpt ncny scs.

Gups qunt cntct wt c t n unvsty nvstg-

ts n xcng sm s n suts.

Fs’s tm t vy vb synttc ubb. Nn puc n

ctv g. T ny t cu ws t knwg tt ctn sps

v m umnum—s pps t t sum vtvs cmmn

n cmmc pucts, n tws nt t ssm m t

sps—ssv n ubctng t m gs. T suy tt m

ws nt tug nug, n t s ws nt stcky, but t stbs tpncp tt mgt b tckn n ts wy. An s Fs wt,

“t t mts n t cs.”

Atu D. Ltt scntsts suggst tt Fs’s gup xpmnt

wt umnum nptnt, k bwn stcky bypuct pt-

um fnng cmps numus mnts. Ts t cu nt b

ssv n gsn t m tmptu, but t Ltt scs

un tt t tw substncs m tug g t ws pp t umnum nptnt ws ws wt c b bng

t gsn. Nt pcu mt t f-fng qumnt st by t

CW, but Fs ws mpss tt t umnum nptnt cmpx

puc g sup t ny t smp sp mxtus s tm

ct. suggst ty ty t mx mutp sps wt gsn.

Gbbs Lbty f wt gs vus mt sps n gsn.

A substnc c umnum pmtt, m by t Mtsp Cmc

Cmpny sn, Nw Jsy, puc t mst ntgung sut.

On ts wn n gsn, t cmc y susy g. Wn um-

num nptnt ws , wv, tug n stcky g m t

m tmptu. An y mu c 5 pcnt umnum np-

tnt, 5 pcnt umnum pmtt, 1 pcnt swust, n gsn.

Fs cmbn t fst tw tts nptnt wt t fst u

tts pmtt n cstn t mxtu “npm.” pt

s fnngs t t NDRC n Vntn’s Dy 1942.

Rsuts m Cmbg cptvt cmc wpns cnnc

tn ys t t t Egw Asn. Wn cu t CW s

mnsttn? Tmw. tns utnm, twnty-fv-y-

cmsty D stunt wt cs-tmm bwn n w

sm, n Fs’s “w bys,” s t pss c s yung s-




sstnts, cugt n tnn umn m Bstn. Mtsp psnt-

tvs bugt twnty-fv puns umnum pmtt t t tn

wn t stpp t Nwk. Fs n s cyt f tn M-47 ss

t nxt y n t sn’s mk p N. 2 wksp.

Ty cmpttn. Nxt , n mk p N. 3, OD cm-

sts t wn bmbs wt wt ty c Fmu 122: bw

stc c, sn, cst , sum yx, wt, ksn, n

gsn. v’s mn svy ncknm t v g “ppsuc”

bcus ts s cnsstncy. Apns pp smp bmbs m

10,000 t nt Myn mu t wng y. Rsuts w ncn-cusv. T tms tun m.

Fs ntnsf s cus n umnum pmtt n sk vy

knwn mnuctu smps, n qut n 500 tns t

substnc— mnty mnmum buk puctn. Mtsp, Am-

cn Cynm, sw Cmc Cmpny, Mnckt Cmc

Wks, Amu n Cmpny— Who’s Who t U.. cmc nus-

ty n 1942—spn. Js smps pu n. cntsts mxbtcs m c. Mtsp’s pw, wv, ws t ny n tt

puc g: umnum pmtt m t t cmpns

y ny suy.

Fs t sn, just css t ssc Rv m Nwk.

Wt ws nt but Mtsp’s umnum pmtt, sk cm-

pny ngns? T nsw: t wsn’t umnum pmtt. Npm

ws ctuy m m n umnum sp v m ccnut tt

ws 48 pcnt uc c n just 8.2 pcnt pmtc c—sstns

n pckgng n nvcs ntwtstnng. tscty tntvs, t

tnsp, cu b puc m sps btn m pm kn

, n m cmmn ut Amcn bbssu pm ts.

T tm “npm” tus n cmc mnng. It ws, Fs

wt, “nw sn t b nnscptv”: gnc ny ncny

m m tckn ptum. “T nm, cn by m, s v

m ‘Aumnum nptnt-pmtt’ n ctuy s msnm. Ount xpmnts utz mt mkt un t nm um-

num pmtt but, s w t n, ts ctuy cnsst t sp

t tt ccnut tty cs g uc cntnt. . . . ‘Nu’

wu v bn m ccut sgntn,” bsv. C t

tckp n ppng Bnc t gvnmnt’s W uctn



34 H e r o

B, v gvnmnt pss Wm Et, ssu n mm-

t t z suppy ccnut su cnt t sb

ns t sc tm.

Aumnum nptnt n t Mtsp ccnut sp nt mx

sy. cntsts qustn mt gn m v Cg

nng t cmbn t cmcs wt sm munt ksn.

Ty mx t spgtt-k stns tt sut wt gsn, tn

n t mxtu tug pump t st t. T my’s f-fng -

qumnt mn usv.

Nux ucts, bs uts Ezbt, Nw Jsy, un t f-n pc t t puzz. Ty mnuctu umnum nptnt n

vs Fs t cu b puc n pw m, t tn s t.

T cmsts suggst tt t ngnts npm cu b

ssmb s pws n tn mx wt gsn. mp mt

v n Ap 13, 1942: y bwns gns n j. Tps t

ubb t “f ” bcus ts smbnc t cv. A 12 pcnt

sutn n gsn, gtt wt sng st, puc unny, pu-b jy. A w us t, unttn, t mt n nt

tug, stcky g. It kpt ts cctstcs m −40 t 150 gs

Fnt, ws mpvus t vbtn, stb n stg, n puc

xcnt suts n t bunng tst. Npm ws bn.

A wpn, wv, s ny s ctv s ts vy systm. v’s

vtuss m t scn mj cntbutn t mn w wn

ty vs wy t sctt npm n cunks v w , n s-

mutnusy gnt t n cu f.

Fms t f tsts st m t tp t v stum -

v tt t M-47 bmbs wt gunpw busts tn xp n

n gu sn. Muc t g cnsqunty t gnt. m

pts t f bcm nns, w t s mn untuc.

A sgnfcnt munt g ws tn tpp n bmbs gmnts.sbg tz tt t gunpw xp t swy. Rt

tn bwng t vc pt n n nstnt, t w pssu t bu

up wtn t csng. s tn uptu ng sm n t npm

sput ut tug t sutng t, t tn n vy ctn.




pps t f t bust tub wt TNT, nt g xpsv,

t puc m vnt n mmt xpsn.

TNT, wv, pucs n m. sbg’s sutn ws t su-

un t cnt tub wt cntn wt pspus, wc

gnts wn t cms nt cntct wt . At cnsuttns wt

xpts t t U.. Bstcs Rsc Lbty n Abn, My-

n, n ctnny Asn n Nw Jsy, n mnuctung ssstnc

m Nbtt-pks Inusts n Cumbus, Inn, wc m t

bmb csngs, st sgn ss n busts v n Ox

tt. “T pmnc, m t stt, ws mst mpssv,” Fswt, “T g xpsv cuts t nn w nt bbns n pns t

csng wn t nt ngt. cs pspus vn nt t

g, n g, bunng gbs stbut vny v ccu

but 50 ys n mt. Extngus wt cbn x wt,

t pspus-cntnng g my t gnt.”

Ut sw-mtn fms st t 1,000 ms p scn by MIT c-

tc ngnng pss Egtn (t mus s wk wt stbscpc ptgpy tt puc mgs bn n

m-bust, n n pp bng st by but) cnfm t supty

sbg’s sgn.

Rscs tst u bmbs n Inpnnc Dy 1942. “Bmb 1,”

qupp wt TNT-wt pspus bust, squ gnst

“Bmb 2,” usng t gunpw-bs systm. Rsuts pv unm-

bguus. sbg’s s tw but 96 pcnt ts g cmp t

just 60 pcnt t sgn. Evn btt, but n-t t

npm bst by g xpsvs n g cunks tt tk t mn

un t p u mnut t xtngus, vn n wt. T bg stcky

bbs w sm ncns. A gunpw bust, by cntst,

spy fn ptcs g tt wnt ut s sn s ty t t wt.

Nt vyn ws gt by ts tump cmc ngnng.

On Juy 30, 1942, . C. McInts t Nvy uppy Cps c

wt t t n t Busnss c, “As yu w c, wwks g sm bmb xpmnts w c ut n t scc f.

A ccu mbnkmnt ppxmty 175 t n mt ws twn

up, wc mn but tw ys.” It ws mst unstscty:

“Ts n but n-ut t usss tt tm.



36 H e r o

As, t t xpsns, ttng vscnt ums cung t tt cn

t f sv ys. Ects ts ums w st vsb n t

ys n c sx ys t xpsu. In tn, sm svntn

cs qu ttmnt ung t ngt.” An gnst gutns:

“T scc f s bn sgnt by t Unvsty s f

t Nvy uppy Cps c, n mks pssb n mptnt

pt u nctntn. In tn t stunt by ppx-

mty sx un, tw cmpns Busnss c stunts stt

ptcptn n u ps n August 3. Ts numb cnnt b

ccmmt n t f unss ts nt xtnt s vb, n, x-cpt unys, s t f t ny y t wk.” Rsc

t cs: “It s cm t my ttntn tt ut xpmnts n ts

f cntmpt. I s, ty w susy mp t tnng n

ttc pgm t t Nvy uppy Cps c. It s nsty -

qust tt nt st ts tsts b sct.”

Fs p, “D Cptn Mcnts: I gty gt tt t bmb

fng xpmnts wc w c ut n Juy 4t n ctv mt Cmc W vc tk up sm t spc n t

f w ys.” ws skptc: “Yu cmmnts n t -

ctvnss n psstnc ums m t bmb my pssby p-

snt n ntstng cmmnty n t ccy ts nw muntn, but

I fn t cut t bv tt t cu v bn ct cnnctn

wt t sbng sm yu psnn. T w gt mn n

n my gup pts n w nt ny spnt t y n t m-

bnkmnt but n cty nt t wt-cv mmty t

c t u xpsns n spnt pctcy t w tm mkng

msumnts n cctns t t st t bmb ct. A numb

wks n fmn w xps t sm xtnt n t ws n n-

stnc ny nss wt ny ts nvus mng my p-

ts.” In ny vnt, t stuy ws cmpt: “As t utu, w v

n pns ut xpmnts cng t scc f n tus

su cus yu n ut cncn.” Cs cs.

Fs’s mn fns just n tm. Amnstts m t CW sc-

u fn qufctn ts g ncny wpns n Juy 11–




12, 1942, t t Jsn vng Gun n Msn, Inn. Amy

Onnc sz sv ms n sm vgs n ct snts

s tt t ppts— cnsct cuc, sts, bnk’s g

m, cckn cps, n pg pns . . . but n cts cmmc

bungs—cu b us s tgts. v’s g ws t c gnst

n tntv m by Dunt m gsn n custm cmc

cckt. Fs c t “Fgt t t Fns wt t Inuststs.”

sbg’s wt pspus bust ws s t b vw. Obsv-

s ncu psnttvs m t my, nvy, n mns, t O-

fc t C t CW, t NDRC, ncung bt Vnnv Busn Rg Ams, n t Bts A Cmmssn, mng ts.

Jugs squf tn O’s “ppsuc,” n t nty m

Estmn Kk bs n gun-up nwspnt, bcus nsu cnt

tugnss.

“W sm ucky ts n butu fs,” Fs pt t

Inn tsts. B-25 bmbs sc numus ct ts n t mpty

ms. In n cs ct t n g bn stt f tt squcky sty tw t bungs. In nt, npm bmb

pc by n ns us bun t bung t t gun n ss

tn t mnuts. “It s cut t mgn wt ppns wn 42 bs.

bunng g s pst v t ns stuy wn bn:

ms bustng ut t wnws, bstng pn t , bcng

t t t vs n tn tug t . In mtt mnuts wt

mn t stuctu cps nt bunng p,” t nvnt

wt. In n tst, t tm v twnty ms v ug s t b-

sv t tw cmptng ncns tc tw g bns ct nxt

t c t. Npm sty ts tgt, but t Dunt g puc

ny s gt n pwu bst. O cs cncu tt sm-

n gttn t tcknng gnt n tt t s must v

bn f wt pu gsn, wc wu ccunt t sut.

Dspt ts cuus ncnt, ssmb bss cncu tt Dunt

t btt puct. Autts s ppv tn O’s bmbsgn, t knwn s t M-69, n sbg’s pspus bust,

us n g wpns. cumnt cs sv mn

ss, n mns puns t Dunt ncny t f tm. N-

pm ws ut. Fs pck s bgs n tun t Cmbg.



38 H e r o

tn’s tm tk cmt n t knwg tt t sgn

nw ncny g bmbs ws n uncntst mstpc. Ts

wpn ws xgn st cntn nntn ncs ng n just

un t ncs w tt 2.6 puns jy n wg but

sx puns n tt. Its sp w “fc gts,” s Popular Science

scb t bmbs n 1945, t b stck k cs n nycmb.

Wn tmts pn t custs, pungs t t m t wpns

n guz stms un m t bcks t ss. Ts stb-

zng ts sv spc n wgt cmp t mt fns. Impct ct-

vt t- t fv-scn y us tt tgg n xpsvcg, tf wt mgnsum svngs, tt t t g (ttcy

t t bmb cm t st n ts s) n bst t 150 t m

t t t bmb. Ts y jctn ws cns ptcu

sgn mststk. “A znty mvng mng gb cv n-

musy m gun n sc tgt tn sttny mgnsum

bmb,” xpn yt tt, n MIT pss w ct NDRC

ncny wpns sc t 1943. m ms ncu smcup wt pspus t puc ns smk n mp ffgt-

ng. Wn tunn xpmnts n 20,000 tst sts m mt

munt n cn nt t u-sc pc Gmn uss t n

OD sc cty—c wt n ttc n uns bm, n

but wt st n t sty Rnn sncs, n wt

Cnt Gmn t , n n Estn Gmn sgn—w

sgns t pct t tcknss t csng, stm ngt, n

sm ts.

ssns t f pvntn n nsunc spcst Fcty Mu-

tu Rsc Cptn n Nw, Msscustts, n Bstn,

cus tn ncny bmb sc spcfcy n bms.

Engns bugt s muc pppt scnn untu s ty

cu fn n Bstn sts n uns tst cmb ppxmty

twv t by ftn t wt w ug, b n mttss, vnty wt

m n c, ss, n mcs. Ty cv t ws ncng wt gypsum b sy pcmnt, n st f bmbs by

t , un t n ss t b, n nxt t t m

cs n vnty. “At 6 mn ps, n xpnc f fgt n

p ttck t f wt stup pump, ppcng tug t

jnng m, w ncunt t n smk m t b-




m. I ws unsuccssu n ng wt t f t ws jug ut

cnt,” n c sty pt. v wt Cs pgs, ws

skn ws tugt mst csy t smb tt umns, sv s

subjcts n t stgs xpmnttn. As wt t Inn vg

tsts cnuct by t my, xpmnts tn O n Fc-

ty Mutu nt pp t v m nust cmmc

bungs.

sbg n xpntn t u t Dunt ncnyt t mt mus. scv tt t v g ws

c n st wt p ng p t unwnt syn-

ss: gsn spt m t g k wy m ygut t n g-

t. spcut tt vbtn m t ng tp v ug s

t t tst st puc ts ctn, n tt wn t gsn

xp t sty wtv wkn g mn n t bmb.

Ts pv t b xcty t cs. Tw t n 1942, Bts cs pt tt t g n mny t U.. ncny bmbs ty

cv stt t “tun t wt” n ws n ng ctv.

Amy pcumnt st qucky swtc puctn t npm, wc

tt vbtn, but nt b mny bmbs f wt ctv g

bn v by cnvy css t pus Nt Atntc t t

gt t Gmn submn w. Ts “nqut puctn cn-

t,” s n c NDRC sty pmtcy xpn t btc,

y ntuctn U.. g u ncny bmbs t Eup.

Jpn’s s pn ttck n t cntguus Unt tts, n ncn-

y stk, tk pc ung ts p, n ptmb 9, 1942. A tny

Jpns bmb unc m submn pp sng fbmb

n muntn sp n Bkngs, Ogn, just nt t C-

n stt n. It kn sm st f.A spt Jpns “Fu-G” “wnsp wpn” bn bm-

bmnt pgm btwn Nvmb 1944 n Ap 1945 s p-

pxmty 9,300 ygn bns m wt sm xpsvs nt

t jt stm tt w tw Nt Amc. Jpns scgs,

wt gv ns n fngns cut st, pnstkngy sn t



40 H e r o

sps m uns sts mnt pp, tn nm, n

tts n sum wstng s qustn t pups. Cm-

pt bns cv fn cqu v m t mnt juc

gn psmmns. Mns pp ptcpt n t pjct.

Abut 345 vcs m t t t Unt tts. Ty mg pw

ns m t Bnnv Dm n Wsngtn tt, wc supt

putnum puctn t ys t t n Engnng Wks,

n k sx Ognns n uny sc fsng tp: fv cn

g vn t utn, n Eys Mtc, t pgnnt twnty-sx-

y- w mnst. Rvn Mtc pp s pty nwnt t pk s c. W wtng, t cn un n tnt

bmb. Ts pp t b t ny ts m nmy ctn n t cn-

tnnt Unt tts ung W W II. N Gmn pns gt

wtn 1,000 ms t cunty.

Bts cs nt wy but U.. ncny bmbs, sm t nbty Dunt fngs t stt fs: t M-69, ty tugt,

ntwtstnng 20,000 mt tsts, ws t sm t pntt G-

mn s n upp s n c w vs— ctc qu-

mnt n ncny bmb. Ot spcsts gu vcusy tt

t Inn m uss n bns w s t gnt tn ctu n-

my bungs.

T sv ts cncns, t CW c t bu n fbmb

-sz pc Gmn n Jpns sncs t ts nw Dugwy

vng Gun n Ut, but svnty-fv ms sutwst t Lk

Cty. It ws g n btt wt tn Egw n Myn.

Amy cs cntct wt OD, wc xpnc wt pc

tgts m t mt sc, t bu t cty. Wks bk

gun n Mc 29, 1943.

A nz svn-wk cnstuctn p w ung wc

ngns sp n t xpns t cv utntcty. O cs Ec Mnsn n Antnn Rymn, nt ctcts w

pctc ys n Gmny n Jpn, spctvy, t sgn

t ms wn t t st t. Ttn wn pgs scu t

Jpns stuctus. Lgstcns ct spmnt Russn spuc,




sm t nk w us n Jpn, tn. OD -

vt t bt t n Fncsc, cmmn t cg, n tuck

t css t cntnnt t Ft Dx n Nw Jsy. Tcncns t cn-

tn tmb bt sts uss t mstu cntnt but 15

pcnt, sm t tt un n nmy mns, tn pbct

t bungs. “[A] n tucks m Dx n Jsy t t Ut vng

Guns,” c t uss wst, Rymn c. Ess mpys

css t cunty nsu tt vs, c wm qu spc

wtm tv pmt, cv u n c ssstnc. sns cn-

scpt m t Ut tt sn p bu t vgs, fv-mccss , n wt tw n just ty-u ys. s wt

t puttv ms wt ss t smut t msts Jpn n wnt

ns Gmny.

Rscs uns t ms wt qu ssuusnss. An OD

xcutv tv t w, n gg tusns ms vng

ng t cfc Cst, t cct ttn ttm stw mt ng

m tmps n pvt ms t Jpns wngs. Apnsus t wvn mts t Ut. O cs vn but t wn ttm c-

ty, t cv t bts. yw’s RKO tus pv sgns

utntc Gmn unsngs. CW cs pn cs un-

tu cty n upstt Nw Yk t puc pcs t qu spcfc-

tns. A zn uy uns upx Jpns uss n u unts,

typc ubn w us cnstuctn wks, n bck sx

ubn Gmn snt wngs, t n Rnn sty wt st

s n t Cnt Gmn sgn tpp wt ts, st

cmpt n My 15. As n tsts, t my nt m nus-

t cmmc bungs. A tt ws mssng ws pp.

Bmbs pun t uss wt M-50 n M-52 tmt bmbs,

n M-69 bmbs f wt npm, tugut t summ. Ts

ncsstt t cnstuctns t vgs t p mg. R-

suts w fntv. Npm ws vsttng wpn: quntum m-

pvmnt v tmt, t gnst wngs, n ptcuy -ctv gnst Jpns ms. Uncntb fs stt n m tn

n-t Gmn ms n m tn tw-ts Jpns

uss sptt wt g. O cs nvnt sc ncny c-

tvnss: “Any f byn cnt t w-tn n ppy



42 H e r o

qupp f gus n 6 mnuts ws cssf n A f; f wc

ws utmty stuctv unttn ws B f; n f jug

nnstuctv ws C f,” ccng t n c sty. Fn -

suts m “unctnng ts” w s ws:

Table 1. Rsuts m 1943 Dugwy Bmbng Tsts

F Css

Gmn uss Jpns uss

AN-M-50

(tmt)

AN-M-52

(tmt)

AN-M-69

(npm)

AN-M-50

(tmt)

AN-M-

(tmt)

AN-M-69

(npm)

A—Uncntb

wtn sx mnuts

% % % % % %

B—Dstuctv

unttn

% % % % % %

C—Nnstuctv % % % % % %

uc: Ntn Dns Rsc Cmmtt, U.. O c cntfc Rsc n Dvpmnt,

“F W: Incns n Fm Tws,” n Summary Technical Report o Division 11, NDRC, v. 3

(Cumb Unvsty ss, 1946), 77.

Nt: Du bmbs w xcu m ts suts.

Npm ws sgnfcnty m stuctv tn tmt, n Jp-

ns ms mst twc s vunb t ctstpc fs m t g

tn Gmn stuctus. CW stns xpn t cncusn: “Us-

ng t suts t Dugwy ts s bss, pns t bmbng

Jpn wt t AN-M-69 w wn up by t Amy A Fcs n t

1943.” Fw-up sc n xstng cty stuctus t Egn

F, n Vps, F, wc stt n Mc 1944; xp-

mnts tt utumn n spcy cnstuct nust tgt ms t

Egw Asn; n ts n y 1945 n m Jpns m

but n t 1944 t t Myn cty, cnfm t Ut fnngs.

Fs n s tm tun t v n tun t sct b-ty n Ox tt nt sgn cnt spc npm wpns

wty Jms Bn’s Q Bnc. T cnts w t O c t-

tgc vcs (O), pcss t Cnt Intgnc Agncy,

n t m svcs.




An nt succss cm n Nvmb 1942 wn t “v Cn-

” psn npm f stt—ntn wn pts ts

w t mk fs n t wnss—wn n Amy cmpttn.

T “cn” wnt nt puctn s t M-1 F tt. A “pckt

ncny” sn m npm pw, ksn, n mcnc

tm-y systm, pck nt bx but t sz ck cs,

mg n t spng 1943. btus cu st t n wk wy; t

O m tn 400,000. In t spng 1944, t cmsts

pct t uncbx- sz “Cty ck” sck gnt. O -

cs mgn ptsns cu s nt b tn s tvcs k tng ntns t gnt sps t tgts. Fs n

s w tv t Cn t supvs nt puctn. ubs-

qunt mfctns w us t vc n n s w s wt

n wn t nw c nm: t “u Rv.”

Atn nvntns ncu utn-gm pt npm

pw n cs tt ssv swy n gsn, n gss npm

n gn tt wk k Mtv cckt. btu gs sttnttnnts mgt sp t pt nt Gmn tnks n t wy t t

Russn nt, t ws tugt. Gsn sw t npm v w

ys n m bb tt jmm t ngn ng t ts pcmnt.

A sty vc t gss gn ws s ngnus t Unt tts

ssu ptnt t n 1950. Nntss, t mntu fbmb ws

m t sky bttf us.

Inpnnty, Fs wt Arson: An Instruction Manual t

O, n tv t Eup s mmb t Ass mssn tt

scu Gmny nmtn but ts nuc bmb pgm n t

st mnts b t Nz sun. ws m t tp, pps

ppstusy, wt swgg stck gvn t m by s w n m-

f by n O n t cnc tngu gg.

A msu t ntussm wt wc Fs ppc ts

pjcts cn b sn n t nm gv kttn cqu ung s

wk n npm. “W wnt t ssct t nw ms wt tsscvy, but t w Npm ws cssf mty sct. t

pg nm csn ws J. G. , wc t us mnt J Gs-

n . B ng J. G. bcm mf t Gg,” wt.

Ang smy gtt ns, t pss xpn npm cu



44 H e r o

b ctv gnst cbgss: spnk sm n t wn s

Bmnt, Msscustts m n gnt: Ws bun wy, n

w wks t ty gss gw bck tug t ss, sst.

Amy cs subsqunty ttbut t gnss npm t ts n-

ct. A cuus Assct ss pt sww t sty. “I

v cmsty pss n’t btt wt t cbgss n t

wn s sububn m, t mgt nv v bn t mnst f

s n Jpn’s gt cts, n my c scs ty,” pt

n Ap 1945.

v’s tm s nt pp t v scuss t mty f-bmb ttcks. “Ou tstng n u tnkng w n tms t bun-

ng stuctus, nt psnn,” Fs c n utbgpc

nt wttn un 1970 t ftt unn s Wms cg

css. nt ss t mpctns t my’s bmbng xp-

mnts, n cnc ny mt ccumstncs n wc npm mgt

ct pp, xmp s n ncnt cnsqunc n ttck n

tnk: “T b su, t ws u Anttnk Gn, gss j f wtNpm g n cntnng v ty znc, wc tks f wn

st b cuss t v n ws ccss . I t gn stks

nyw n t pwu ntk tnk, cmbustn ums w

b wn n t mk t tnk untnb.” Wt tt, s ntspctv

vw n.



BIRT

Byzntn nv tps n t 1100s py Gk f gnst t t Tmst v. M kytzs /Biblioteca Nacional de España



A tbuct t 1200s qupp wt nsv stcks us f pt v

cst w. p’s Mgzn

Tps n t Wstn Fnt n W W I us mtws t ttck nmsn t st t t t. Nw Yk Tms /Library o Congress



A bby cs t ng’s ut ttn n August 28, 1937, t

Jpns ncny bmb ttck. Of ce o War Inormation/National Archives

m Mnst Wnstn Cuc vsts t uns Cvnty Ct n

ptmb 1941, sty by ncny bmbmnts n Nvmb

1940. Imperial War Museum/Library o Congress



“Gnss” suvys t uns Dsn t Bts ttck wt mgnsum

ncny bmbs n xpsvs n As Wnsy, Vntn’s Dy, 1945. AFP



v Unvsty’s n Emy

ss Ognc Cmsty Lus

Fs, t npm. Courtesy o the

Harvard University Archives

A v Cg nng mtgn scs npm nt stns b

t s mx wt gsn n spn

t n M-47 bmbs, gnysgn must gs.

Louis Fieser, T cntfc Mt , 30



A npm bmb stns n tst pn n t v Cg scc f, bnt Busnss c, b ts fst t n Juy 4, 1942. Tnns pys n wts

n t bckgun. Louis Fieser, T cntfc Mt , 37

Fst f tst npm bmb, v Unvsty, Inpnnc Dy, Juy 4,

1942. Louis Fieser, T cntfc Mt, 38



Assstnts xtngus gbs bunng npm n cct smps ppxmtyn mnut t tntn (nt mpty tnns cuts). Louis Fieser, T

cntfc Mt, 39

Wt pspus gnts npm bmb n pucs smkscn t

mp ffgts n 1942 tst. v’s tb stum s n t

bckgun. Louis Fieser, T cntfc Mt, 48



A cntmpy vw t v Cg scc f. Tnns cuts n

t bckgun (t bung n nt t Busnss c by’s tw ws

but t 1942). Photo by author



45

A pn t tun mns bts nt suc bmbs bng tny n-pm tm bmbs ws t mst spctcu t spc pjcts

t Lus Fs’s v bty. D. Lyt . Ams, nnsyv-

n ntst, pt, n nvnt cncv t wn but

t b ttcks n s wy m m vst t t bt-f

Csb Cvns n Nw Mxc. In t t 1920s, Ams ptnt

systm nnstp pckup m scks by pns usng wgt

cb n spc pckup p. gnz t systm s busnss,

n cugt t ttntn En Rsvt n 1938 tug wk n u-

Wst Vgn. In Jnuy 1942, t ntpnu c t Fst Ly

n cnvnc t pss mm tt scb s bt pn t FDR.

“[T] wst m s t BAT, ssct n sty wt t

unw n gns knss n v,” Ams wt t t ps-

nt. “Unt nw sns ts ctn v mn unxpn.

As I vsn t t mns bts tt v gs nbt u bs,

tunns n cvns w pc t by G t wt ts u t pyt pt n t scm umn xstnc, n t ustt ny t-

tmpt ts w sct u wy .” A f ttck by mns

bts, cntnu, “Wu n t Jpns pp mss n

t nusts usss, yt t nncnt cu scp wt t vs.”

3

American Kamikazes

uc Bmb Bts



46 H e r o

Rsvt ws ntgu. “Ts mn s not nut. It suns k p-

cty w but t s wt kng nt,” wt t O c tt-

gc vcs ct C n Wm Dnvn. “W B,” s t -

ct ws knwn, t mm t t Ntn Invnts Cunc

(NIC), cmmc ng t t Ntn Dns Rsc Cmmt-

t (NDRC) stbs by y pkns t t Dptmnt Cm-

mc, t NDRC ts, n t Amy A Fc. It wun up t t

Cmc W vc (CW)—wc smss t. Wt psp-

us ws t ny pctc ncny suc tsk, Cptn Wm

G. Ws, CW sn c t t NIC, cncu n My 1942. Ttcmc t b kpt n n xygn- nvnmnt unt gntn—

but bts qu xygn t v. QED.

Invnts Cunc ct Tms Ty nt ccpt ts jc-

tn. mn tt t CW vw t sn’s cncusn wt

t c Amy A Fc cmmnng gn p An. “It s -

qust tt ts c b nm yu s ny pssb us suc

muntn,” CW tcnc ct Cn W. C. Kbc utuywt t An n Jun 13. “Fntstc s t pps pn pps,

t mgt b tm n t utu wn t wu b sb t xcut

suc ssng mssns,” Cn . A. Cg spn m t gn-

’s c n Jun 25. n NDRC cmsty mnstt E t-

vnsn w up n Juy wt suggstn t t nvy tt bntng

bts mgt b tnspt t Jpn by submn n s just

t cst. umm tun t wnt, wv, n n cptn ncn-

y tm bmb mg m t CW. Fny, n Mc 1943 cs

t Egw pp t t NDRC ssstnc. tvnsn ssgn

Fs t t pjct.

v’s cmst n mmt sutn. A sc tm -

cut by Ams m t Ntu sty Musum Ls Angs

Cunty—t ntst qut s pgm n t Cty Angs,

w tvs— tmn tt t bst bt t jb ws

t tn- t vn-gm Mxcn -t vty. T nms cucy ftn- t gtn-gm py; mns mgt t Txs

c summ. Fs w n s pckt ncny wk t sgn tny

npm bmb n tm tt wg just 17.5 gms. “Ts w t b

ttc t bntng bt vcts wc wu b wn v Jpns



American Kamikazes 47

cts t ngt n pcut wn nt wm-, wn t bts wu

wkn n cy t bmbs nt nt gy cmbustb Jpns

uss,” wt.

An nt tst t systm ws scu My 1943 t t Muc

Amy A Bs (nw Ews A Fc Bs) uts Ls Angs. A

g y k n t bs, bc wt by t sun, wu, t ws

tugt, ctt bt cvy. tn yx, fm bs n

wstn Msscustts, pp 3,000 tny bmbs n f sm wt

npm. Tcncns t t Gbbs Cmsty Lbty t st

wt pspus, wc pucs ns smk, t cvy.Cnnctcut ty cmpny A. C. Gbt, mus ts Ect t bu-

ng kts, mnuctu t tms. An my tm t Wgt F n

Dytn, O, but spc gt tuck t c n tnspt

bntng bts, t wt bmbs n tms, n v t t Ls

Angs. A B-25 bmb ssgn t t tst w t Cn m Egn

F n F. Fs n tw CW cs m Egw v n

Ls Angs n Mny, My 17, n pc t Ams’s m nvnng vw b t tst scu t nxt y.

Ty scv g nn pty n pgss t t ntst’s s-

nc. Ams c t cbt pgss n s tp sct pjct

by nvtng g cctn ns n sscts. “W w -

f t fn tt Ams nvt g cmpny, ncung s, t

nn pty n cbtn t nttn f tsts n t Ams

n, suppsy gy sct pjct,” Fs c. Ws, m

t pspctv t stns, gt ny 150 tst bts,

t tn t g 3,000. It ws mtng ssn bts n Ls Ang-

s n ty w t ctc, t nvnt xpn.

Impvstn w. CW utnnt cn R. Buc Ep n

sm Ams’s st m t Ntu sty Musum Ls Angs

m n mgncy tp n t B-25 t nxt mnng t Csb n

Nw Mxc—st t pjct’s nt nsptn. Ty n t

nby my bs, qustn c, btn pmt m tks Dptmnt, cct gt g cts bts, n w bck t

Muc tt vnng. “ty t nn t bmb w n wt

skng, kckng bts,” Fs c. Exptns t

ctus nt t gt tuck n tun n t cng systm



48 H e r o

u bst. Wn t ccpny nt mns t w us, ty

wpp bcks c n tws n tuck tm n wt t bts, n

pstn ns t bw v tn cunks c stck un

t mmms. ks subs un mngt.

Rscs pnn t pck t bts nt fv-t-t st bmb-

ss t sz stn 500-pun bmb. Ec s ws f wt

ccu st tys but n n ncs t, subv nt

sm ctngu bt-sz ncs n ftt ups wn n n tp

t t. bntng bts wt npm bmbs ttc t t bsts

wt sugc cps—tugt t smut t tt bby bt—w tb pc n c cmptmnt. Tmng n sty ws cnnct c

bt t t ty bv n t t cmptmnt ws. tngs tw- t t-

ncs ng cnnct t tys. On s, pcut py n

mcnc vc jttsn t csng. Tys t t bttm t

cnnctng stngs k n ccn n s t tmng ws. As t

py bt bmb scn nt wm , t bts w xpct t

wk up, wgg ut t cubcs, n y wy—n t pcssmvng t sty ws n mng t bmbs. Ec s cu cy

1,030 bts. A twn-ngn B-25 cu cy twnty-fv ss: mst

26,000 nvu bt bmbs. A D M, Cn, cmpny wn

by nttn Bng Csby n s bt Ly ws cntct t

mnuctu t vcs.

Ams puc ny cb mckups, wv, t tst. Ts

sntgt s sn s st unc tm m t B-25. Fs, s

pt, n’t cmpt t sty mcnsm t mntu bmbs,

n t pt us t w tm n b. Tm mmbs cpp

wgts t t bts, n u bmbs, n tw tm ut t bmb

by n. A gun cw c t tm n jps n t k b. Ex-

pmnts s n nt btc tst subjcts t 2,000 t. Ty

pummt stgt t t gun n . “Fw ny t bts

cm ut bntn,” Fs wt. M ttu ws qu t

gv t nms nug tm t wk up. T pt cc g ng s t mn pm tsts t vus gts. Utmty, t

pn ws s g t ws cut t s m t gun. Rsuts sm

t b t sm n mtt wt t ttu. “Evntuy t bcm c

tt t bts w nt n bntn but ,” t v pss




wt. “Wt ppn ws tt nst zng tm t b-

ntn, w zn tm t t t ngt b,” mnt. A

scn tst ws scu t nxt mnt.

Fs n Ep c tt t bs t Csb, cs t t bt

cvs, ws t bst ctn t nxt xpmnt. On s pvus

vst, Ep ntc tt nw uxy nng f, cmpt wt

cnt tw, bcks, cs, ngs, n utbungs, just bn

cmpt t mt ctn n t bs. Fs n vst t cm-

mn. Ty cun’t xpn t mssn, ty s, but spy

t s mk “Tp ct.” T cn g t y nugu-tn t uxy f, gt tnng cty cncv

n ws cnstuctn supvs, w ys t w t

ctc sc.

T scn t ws m succssu. Tm mmbs cct

s st bts, c tm m gnty, n tm nt cm-

pt Csby cmpny s. Fs’s cntnu nbty t pct

sty mcnsm, s w s jucus cncn c cvns, ct us ummy bmbs t tn v ncns. Dpymnt tk

pc v gup bsvs tt ncu Mn Cps gn Lus

Dvn. Ep, ntwtstnng s nk s utnnt cn, n-

sst tt t bs cmmn, u cn, b xcu t mntn

sccy.

T bt bmb pp. Its pcut py t 4,000 t. “n

tny mts bgn t utt css t sky, yng n ctns, mst

bn ntw n uttng cump by t bz,” c tm

mmb Jck Cu, jun cptgst m t Ntu sty

Musum. Invstgts p nt jps n st t t nms t

g sp v ug cunty. Ty tck g gup ms t

t bn c nc, us nt s nt pc, n sk

ntc nytng unusu. “Lk bts yn’ ’un n b y-

gt? Unusu k tt?” nsw. Ty bgg sccy. “I gt

tw sns smw n Eup fgtn’ t un. I yu t m tt’s wty n’, wv mn s t ks t m, s mty sct,

nby’s gn’ t gt m t sy pp vn by puttn’ bmb spnts

un my fngns n gtn’ f t ’m,” s. gstu t

bt tt p wn m nc btwn cng bs just bv



50 H e r o

tm n t pc. It st ummy bmb. T vy systm

wk.

Tt wu v bn g pc t n t y’s sc. Ams,

wv, wnt t cnuct scn t t cnfm t fst suts.

Fs c t tk vntg ts pptunty t mnstt s

mntu npm tm bmbs mtn pctu n st ptgps

ssgn t cv t vnt by t Amy gns Cps.

Assstnts n m sx tp c bts wt bmbs ttc.

T y vc us csv cpp c t ssv tgg

w. A tck w puc ng y. Dmnsttn unts ftn-mnut ws. Fs cmnusy njct c nt n tm

t nt m g st n gss ypmc syng. As t cm-

s w n cck, cuy m sx bt bmbs.

Tn, n n nstnt, t mmms wk up n tk . A t Nw

Mxc sun vvf tm wt unxpct sp. m sps

pp wy nt t sky.

Cu xpn wt ppn nxt. “Excty ftn mnuts tmng, bcks bust nt ms; mnuts t t t tw upt

nt ug cn vsb ms. O cs n ngs w n

cspnng t t ntvs btwn Fs’s cmc njctns.” A

scn cnfmtn t bt pn’s vbty.

Untunty, t psv sccy, n bcus t pn ws t us

ummy bmbs, t tm m f qupmnt unncssy t t

mt ctn. By t tm t bs cmmn—t by pums

tck bck smk m s bn nw cty—v wt t f

ngns, t tm m msus ws pst. Fms jump

m bung t bung. Mny stuctus y n ss. Mv, t

gus—un Ep’s cmmn ung t tst—us t unck

t gts t cmmn. A t scussn nsu, wt t f

tucks n bs cmmn uts, n Lutnnt Cn Ep n-

s. Nt ny t jun CW c us t my s sccy

qumnts, sk t cn buz t z wtv mgtb t s cty t t fs bun ut. “W m tt mstk

ut t,” Fs s t n tk t gup ngns.

Amy cs c ty wnt n ut pt t pjct. Gn-

Dvn, wv, ws mpss by t vnt stuctv cp-




bty npm-m bts. Mns tk v t pgm n t utumn

1943, nm t “jct X-Ry,” n put Cn R. . “Dusty”

Rs n cg. O cs sgnt t Mn A ttn t E Cn-

t, Cn, X-Ry quts, pst m gus t t tw g-

st bt cvs n t Unt tts (n n Antn, Txs), n ssgn

twn-ngn Lck Lst pn u tm t t t. Invn-

t Ams, w nv n c , ws c ut.

Rs t systm pymnt. On Dcmb 17–19, t

mns tst t bt bmbs t t Dugwy Jpns n Gmn v-

gs. “T st twns st sv ms pt n t twsmpty Ut pn, k bnn mv sts pctung t tmt

vsttng pgu,” Cu c. Du cutn ws mpy. R-

s bts c ummy bmbs, nw gu cty t t nms.

Rscs tn pc tny npm bmbs by n n sm c-

tns. Rsuts pv pstv, spt wt w n c tmptus.

“T mn vntg t unts wu sm t b t pcmnt (by

t bts) wtn t nmy stuctus wtut t knwg tus f wtcs, tus wng t f t stbs ts b-

bng scv,” cncu Dugwy’s c ncny c. F-

s ttn ts scn Ut xpmnt n tmn tt npm

bmbmnt by bt ws but 3.7 tms m cnt tn by gvty.

Dsgn n tstng ws cmpt by Fbuy 1944. Mnuctus

n bt cctn tms st by t uf n xpct nt 1

mn bts, ncns, n tms. Tn, suny n wtut -

fntv xpntn— stc mysty st t b sv—t pj-

ct ws cnc t n xpntu but $24 mn n ty’s

s. “Unctnts nvv n t bv t nm,” NDRC

cmst s M. Cw bny wt, ct t mny unknwn

vbs.

Npm t y n m ttn vcts t c ts tgts.



52

Amcn sttgsts tt ntst n ncny wpns tW W I. Gs, s Lus Fs’s sc ctvs mn-

stt, ws m t wpn t utu. Fmtws sm

ptcuy pbmtc bcus pts n tb sks n mst

t u bun b t t ts tgt. “Tkn n , t m tw

ws n t gtst us mng t mny pmsng vcs t

ut n g sc n t w,” Cmc W vc (CW) c

Ams Fs wt n 1921. “[I]t s sy t s w svc n t [Gmn]

mng gun gmnts s ppnty m punsmnt,” . A

1934 nx my pubctns tt scuss cmc wpns

nt vn mntn mtws.

Cumb pss Zntt, ppsng vc n t mtt, ws

gn ys. In 1935, m gmnts n Itn mgnsum

ncny s—cv n Etp by New York Times cspn-

nt n pss t m nyss—t Egw Asn wt cm-

mnty but ts vnc cctstcs. In 1936, vst Engn,Fnc, Gmny, n Ity t CW n pt tt t tt tw

cunts munt mtws n m cs n gt tnks.

Nntss, “It s unst tt t ptb m tw w n

ng b us n nsv ptns, s t s bn un tt t csu-

4

We’ll Fight Mercilessly



We’ll Fight Mercilessly 53

ts t m tw psnn v bn xcssv,” cncu

cmpnsv 1937 my vw.

Evnts pmpt cng n pcy. tb mtws py n

mptnt n t stunnng cptu t mssv Bgn t Ebn

Em by Gmn ptps n My 10, 1940. “Ts twbcks t

mv w, t mtws, pn up gnst t mbsus.

T ngns mv w, yng, nt t fn ssut,” t my’s

Inantry Journal pt. Intgnc nysts scb tn

Gmn mtw pymnts n n n n. On August

12, nwy nst cty W ny tmsn sk t cmcsvc t vp ptb mtw. Rsc stt m z,

snc nn t W W I vcs bn sv. O cs

t Knc Cmpny Nw Yk—ncy, mnuctu f

xtnguss—t sgn t wpn. At w mnts, ngns p-

uc svnty-pun bmt ubb “E1,” xpmnt, tt

smb g um wt s n nzz. It ws munt wk-

wy n smp nss n wbb m s t s, wc css t mv t pnus mb.

Ent t NDRC. In Fbuy 1941 tm MIT ngns wt x-

pts n qu jts mpv t E1’s nzz. A spt CW gup,

vs by ncny xpts m t Assct Fcty Mutu

F Insunc Cmpns, m t wpn gt n stng. “M1”

mtws v n t summ 1941. Amy cs

1,000 just b b. ystms “tw u tnks wt sm

cyn ntgn fx btwn tm t pv pjctng pssu.

A s m t tnks t t b ( gun) wc t pt ,

n sm bust m s by tgg gnt t u s t st

m t nzz,” t cmc spcsts xpn. Atug t wg

but t sm s ts pcss, t ws s t cy n sgnfcnty

m b.

Fmtws us by Jpns ss gnst GI’s n t p-

pns y n 1942 ut cus U.. ttntn. In Mc, VnnvBus ct t A c Cmmtt n Fmtws wt psn-

ttvs m t NDRC, t CW, t Cps Engns, n t my,

nvy, n Mn Cps. In t sm mnt, t NDRC cntct wt

tn O n t Gbt n Bk Mnuctung Cmpny t



54 H e r o

vp g mtws tt cu b munt n tnks t

vcs.

W W I’s ssnt mtng ct, t m fng, wv, -

mn. CW stns xpn: “T u t t tm ws pn gs-

n, wc bust m t wpn s gt bw f-b m

n smk. Ts ws nt cns vy cnt snc stm m-

ng gsn ws gy bun up n ts wy t t tgt n t bst

ny mt ng.” Expts stmt t mxmum ctv ng

ptns gnst bunks ws sptng fv ys. Rcs U..

ttck n Jpns pstn t Mun Af n Nw Gg snn t ut cfc t 1:00 .m. n Juy 26, 1942, mnstt t n-

gus tctcs qu t utz ts qupmnt. “Wt 60-pun u

tnks n t bcks, t cs bckn wt t, n bck tp

cvng mt sucs n t wpns wc mgt ct gt n

spt tm t t nmy, t svn mn cw 75 ys m t bt-

tn cmmn pst t pstn n nt t Jpns bunks,” s

n t-ctn pt. It cntnu, “[]upptng nntymn mvup t wtn 20 ys t bunks, usng sm ms f t kp t

Jps btt up w t svn mn cw fv ys n.” In un-

sn, “Tw t m pts cng t m bunk f fst,

csscssng t f s s t bun ut t unbus n v t

gun pt xps. Tn t c btwn tm snt stm m

tug t nw gun pt nt t bunk. At t sm mmnt t

mn cvng t t tw bunks f t m tws n

nmy sstnc ws t n n.” A munctn un suc cntns

ws sstus. On Dcmb 6, 1942, n Nw Gun, xmp,

tm U.. ss st up cty n nt Jpns pbx.

Rmn pv cvng f w mtw pt pu

t tgg n s E1 vc. A ptu tn-t sputt mg.

Dns k mst t U.. ttcks. Rmkby, t m p-

t suvv.

Npm wugt vutn. Fs pss n s st gsmps t t MIT NDRC b wkng n mtws. Insttut n-

gns scv tt n tn t ts t mkb ppts, t

nw g quf t g pssu. Tus, t cu b st tug nzz

s qu, gnt, n tn, k scnc fctn mnst, m ts

nt sm-s s t tv tug t . “Npm g s nn-




Nwtnn mt,” xpn my cmc ngn E. W. ng-

swt. “Ts mns tt t vscsty t g vs wt t t

s. . . . A npm g vng j-k cnsstncy n sttc stt, s

vscsty mst cmpb t tt ubctng wn t s c t

g vcty tug pps pumps.” Evn btt my pupss,

mng npm tv ppxmty twc s tug t s

ungnt g, pbby bcus t upts t gnt n, p-

ps, bcus jt cts m bunng gss. “It su kncks t

ut my bstcs tnng,” s n ty c w tns t

t CW.

T sut ws “ pnmn ncs n ng v ny us,”

ccng t Fs, tt tp t ng ptb mtws t

fty- t svnty-fv ys, n ncs t munt bunng jy

v nt tgt mst tn-, m just 10 t u 90 pcnt

t mt scg. A spy tckn ws pc by

bunng u tt st t ngt tb f m, sptt

nt wtv t t, n stuck tgt t v 2,000 gs Fnt. Itws n ppctn “ wc w nt vn m,” t v

cmst n s cgus wt t, n n wc gsn tckn

wt ubb, n Dunt’s ncny g, cu nt mtc. “Ts ‘u’

W W I bcm n t mst ptnt wpns n t cfc

ptns. . . . It ws Npm wc ts,” v y Tumn’s

scty w Rbt ttsn. Wtn mnt ts scvy,

tn O pt t M1 npm. It ws stnz s t

M1A1 n Dcmb 1942, n buk, n spp t t nng

tms Optn UKY, t nvsn cy n Juy 1943.

Amc’s vst nust mcn wnt nt ctn. Mnuctus

m Nw Jsy, O, n Cn xpmnt wt vus wys

t puc ncny g, wc ws tck tn xpct. “[C]n-

tcts mst nvby bv tt t puctn npm wu

b tvy smp mtt, muc k t mnuctu cmmc

sp. In ts ty w mstkn . . . npm t v stn cm-pnnts n w mstu,” n c sty xpn. Gvnmnt

mnstts p btn cu m Vnzu n Aub, wc

ws ptcuy c n nptnc c, n nsu tt pucs -

cv su cnt suppy cp (b n ccnut): suc

ccnut tty c. Ts bcm t fn s t w pgss snc



56 H e r o

t ws s us cvn pucts, n mny ccnut pnttns

w n w zns. Wks t t Unt W p Cmpny mf

wpp cnvys t cy g quntts npm tug t

yng ms, cbt t ccunt g summ umty. R-

scs t Cumb n tn Unvsts, n pvt busnsss

ncung Estmn Kk, p t CW n NDRC sv st-

mnut puctn pbms. In Jnuy 1943, ny n puctn c-

ty ws n u ptn, but by t n t y nn cts m

npm. It v n ty fv n n-qut, ftn n t-quts,

n 100- pun mtcy s pckgs, t fst tw gnyspp vss, n t tt v t sns n cts tt

mnuctu ncny bmbs. uctn ncs m 500,000

puns pw n 1943 t 8 mn n 1944 n 12 mn n 1945.

Npm sw cmbt t fst tm n cy n August 1943. Amcn

tps, n n ctn mnscnt msn’s mng xs, ncnt wt f bv t st Gmns. In t cfc, t fst npm

mtws c tps n Juy. s us tm t fst tm

n Dcmb 15, 1943, wn ty bun ns ut cv n ,

tny sn t cst Nw Btn, ntst pu Nw Gun.

A bmbmnts w n st . Amn mx t pw

wt vus cmbntns n gsn, w wt pspus

ncny gns t bs uxy u tnks, n ct “f-

bmbs” (stngus m t mss-puc “ncny bmbs”).

Ts “gv gt pms succss,” c R Am y W.

. tn O’s M-69 npm bmbs sw cfc cmbt t fst

tm n Fbuy 15, 1944, wn t vnt A Fc ttck t us

twn np, cpt t pnymus Mcnsn sn. It s

2,500 ms sutwst w n 1,800 ms ntst Aust.

A tt 118 tns bmbs t t sn, bypss by U.. tps s

pt t “sn ppng” sttgy, v t nxt vn ys.

Rqusts xp s cmmns bsv npm’s ctvnss.

Bmbs qucky, n pmnnty, supss mtw qustns.

In Eup, 13,000 M-47 npm bmbs, mx wt xpsvs, gutt

Fck-Wu ct pnt t Mnbug n Est uss n Octb 1943;

nt npm ttck t sm mnt ctcy mg b-bng




pnts t cwnut. Utmty, m tn 500,000 t bmbss

tst t v, c bng but ty puns npm, n

Gmny: pps 20,000 tns ncny g. By Dcmb ncn-

s, ncung npm, ccunt 40 pcnt U.. bmbs

pp n Eup. Npm fbmbs sn m spsb ux-

y ct gsn tnks, tu t t pms, pv t b “n x-

cnt tctc wpn t us gnst suppy umps, tp cncnt-

tns, cnvys n vcs,” ccng t n c sty.

Dmn pv s ntns tt by t summ 1944, cs ut

supps npm pw cty m t Unt tts t Nmnybcs n pts t sv tm. pc “xpts” sttn t cu-

c pnts n t suppy n nsu tt g kpt mvng t t nt.

A cmc cs w sugt supps t Amcn Egt A

Fc n wstn Eup cnvss t Nnt A Fc n Nt Ac,

n t Twt A Fc n t Mtnn—ny t scv tt

t m ws y tyng t gt npm m t tt. uppy -

cs vt 50,000 gns mtw u t t cs. D-mn utstpp suppy unt t bgnnng 1945 wn xpn

U.. vs, cmbn wt stbutn tn f mxng

unts, gy sv t ssu.

Npm stks ssst t Juy bkut m t Nmny bcs,

pty t Gmn tps tpp t Fs n y August, n

sptt t quts F Ms Gunt vn Kug t t

n t mnt t Vzy, mng mny t ttcks. In August 1944,

t CW v 20,000 gns, mx t Bts cty, t t

Egt A Fc. In ptmb, cmmns sk 600,000 g-

ns. In Nvmb, ty pttn 1 mn gns. U.. pns

pp 157,000 gns npm n Nmny btwn Jun n Au-

gust 1944, n nt 199,000 gns v t nxt tn wks n t

g Ln n t tgts; 460,000 gns t n t G-

n Estuy n Fnc. Npm “ws xtnsvy mpy by tctc

cs n t Eupn Tt n py n mptnt n tutmt bk tug t wstn nss Gmny,” wt st-

ns t t O c cntfc Rsc n Dvpmnt.

Cmmns n t cfc pv quy cptv t t nw mun-

tn. On Juy 17, nvy c vst cnty cnqu pn n

sw fm npm fbmbs t tps but t nv nby



58 H e r o

Tnn. “Entussm ts nw wpn ws nstntnus,” pt

n c cnc. n cs n mmt qust

mst u tns npm t Am Cst Nmtz, t cmmn

n c Amcn cs n t Cnt cfc. A w ys t,

scn nvy c v wt sm smp pw—but t wng

cp. T smpcty Fs’s nvntn st t tps n g

st. “W t usng Jp vtn gsn, but tt gv t muc f

ct. Tn w t Jp mt gs n , wt t npm pw, n

t ws qut succssu,” wt squn cmmn. Utmty, t

mn puc nug t f nnty-n u tnk bmbs. Rsuts tTnn m bvs bsvs. “T fst mnng ty put t wn,

I wnt up t t nt n n ts pns cm n v u s t

sm t m k but un t n t . . . . [Ty] t g t

npm bmbs gt v u s . . . myb tw t un

ys n nt us. It ws vy vsttng tng n ptcuy t t

m t Jpns,” c n nvsn cmmn.

By 1945, tusns npm bmbs xp mns gns t g n Jpns tps m t ut cfc t t ppns

n Oknw. In n ssut n t sttgc Ip Dm uts Mn n

My 1945, xmp, uns pns pc 50,000 gns n

ns n n y, tn tun t nxt wt nt 62,500 g-

ns. An bsv scb t ttck: “200 t 250 5t AF fgts cm

n w, wv t wv, u t gt bst . . . wt c succssv

wv ppng ts bmbs n t n s t busts m t wv tt

pc t. T fgt-bmbs w c t t 10- t 15-scn

ntvs. A-20’s tn cm n, swng t wt pgs n

wnng up wt tug stfng.”

Fmtws pv pnpnt vy. T pcsn pv

nvub gnst Jpns ppnnts w tk ug n cvs n -

us t sun. “N wpn pv s ctv gnst ts typ

tgt s t mtw,” t c ngn t my’s Myn

cmc cnt pt suc suc ppnnts. tb m-tws ct t c my vsn n t cfc ncs m 141

n Jun 1944 t 243 n Fbuy 1945.

Eupn us mtws—mt, n cntst t cfc sns,

by tn tt v w mvmnt n ns w qunty




tt wn pss—ws spng n cmpsn. Wm tpc c-

mts, wc m npm tvy s t gnt tn n c t-

tus, nc ngns vp b gtng mcnsms, my v

p t tv pputy. Amy mnstts utmty snt

4,769 ptb mtws t t cfc—wc st v 1 mn

gns npm—n 3,100 t Eup.

Tnks pv ptcuy vsttng vy systm. Dvp-

mnt n Amcn mcn t ncknm “tn” stt t n

t w s wnss npm’s quts sp tug t m

svcs. In Eup, U.. tps n Bts n Cnn mmuntngs tt st vty us up t 200 ys. Ts cu b

gy ctv. In n spctcu ssut mnscnt n ttck by

f-btng gns, U.. bttn by p mn tnks

ftt wt Bts “cc” mtws cptu sxtnt-

cntuy ct t Jüc, Gmny. Attcks bst npm css t

cst’s mt n v t ws t c t ns ungun.

Ty tn ms t mn gt, m st, wt g xpsvsn pu f nt t cuty ns. A gu s U..

tps nt t bunng stng. A tf us ncunt

n t wy t t Rn su sm t. “Tunng t , t

m tnk umb css t f n w up cs t t us.

t gunn pnt t nzz s m tnk nt t wnws t

gun n snt n cu t cu f. Tt ws tt ws

n,” t Cmc Cps sty.

In t cfc tt, t my, nvy, n Mn Cps n w

mf zns tnks t st npm, bs n Cnn sgn.

Mcncs cmpt mnsttn mcn n Ap 15, 1944. It ws

“unnmusy pt,” ccng t cn w p supvs

t pjct, n us t cmbt tps. A tt twnty-u npm

tnks ttck pn n Jun n Juy; mny zns m sw ctn n

Iw Jm n Oknw. Ty w “t mst mptnt sng wpn

vb t ts Dvsn,” wt t cmmn t Ft MnDvsn, wc sustn t gst csuty t mng U.. cs

n Iw.

T ws n ns nc ts mytc t cm wtn ng.

“Tug t bts t Egw Asn t t vp sm



60 H e r o

kn ns gnst m ttck, nn ws un,” U.. xpts wt.

“A -typ msk ws but, cpb wtstnng 1,000 gs

Fnt n mnut; st sng ws sgn pbx

ptus; fp ctng n wt g n spy xtnguss w

t n t ttmpt t bck t fy qu t m tw. Ts

msus, wv, cu uc by ny sm g t ctv-

nss t m tw. T wpn, nc t c ts tgt, ws

mst nvncb.” A sgn t wpns cncu, “T ny

tuy ctv ns gnst mtws s t pvnt tm m

gttng wtn ng.” Jpns tps, w gy ck tnks, vyty, n pns—qupmnt Gmn ss cu tn

summn—pv ptcuy vunb.

Ts gm ty, cmbn wt t ppng cnsqunc bng

bun v, puc t. “T Jpns n Tnn, t xpnc-

ng sv f bmb ttcks, bk m t pstns upn t p-

pc fgt pns wt by tnks n n n ctn tt ws

t gt ngs t t gt t pns,” nt n c sty.“[W]n t fs xp n Jpns pstns, t usuy stc

ccupnts smngy st cutn n nt t pn, sy tgts

t ms ttck,” bsv n my ccunt t Btt Ip

Dm. At npm ttcks t Ip, wt n c U.. sty, “s-

tns n t wc wtst nnty ttcks mst wk,

w tkn t ny b sstnc n mnm csuts.”

Fmtws sm ct. Innty w ssut pbx

n Lyt Isn n t ppns wt npm n bzk un tt

“by bun n mz Jpns tt sstnc.” N-

pm ws “ vy mptnt ct n vcmng t nmy’s nnt

w t sst,” tps pt Jpns ppnnts. An nct m

t 1944 cmpgn gnst t g Ln n Gmny, vy -

tf nsv systm, c ts fnngs: “T fgt v, vt

nsn csuy spy t mbsus t pbx gn n t

mpty s m tw n uc ts wgt. mk bgn t sp mt mbsus, n sm ms mmuntn t xp ns t p-

bx. A mmnt t tn Gmns pus pn t t sun.”

Incny w’s butty, wc ws t p s ts ctvnss,

ct qunt cmmnt. Rbt , vtn t U.. cmpgn




n Oknw, scb n 1945 nggmnt: “T tnk mv up t

st stms npm nt t cv. . . . Jpns ss w n

m t unc w squt wt npm—wc, wv, t

gnt. On t tnks sw t tt wt tc but, tunng ng

mn nt tc—wc pmpt tty c m t ptn. . . .

[W] c tt ncby b sgt, t bunng nt u-

mn. Wtv t justfctn, w’ bcm svgs t.”

In tt n W W II, U.. cs pp un 37,000 t

mpvs u tnk fbmbs bng mns puns npm.

O ts, but tw-ts n t cfc n t st n Eup—nnmus ppnnc t stn tt gvn ts sgnfcnty

sm sc tn t w n Eup (A pns pp 656,400

tns bmbs n t cfc W, cmp t 2.7 mn tns bmbs

n Eup).

A wc ws just pu, m t pspctv npm’s s-

ty, t ttcks n Jpn tt bgn n nst n Tky t n t

ngt Mc 9, 1945.

Amc w sttgy t c “pcsn bmbng” mst

W W II. Apns ttck n ygt, t mpv ccucy, m

g ttu, t v ns, n us bmbsgt s vnc y-

s vw t ptct t wt t vs. Rsvt fn t m bss

ts ppc n ptmb 1, 1939, wn Gmny nv n

n t cn W W bgn. “T utss bmbng m t

cvns n untf cnts pputn ung t cus t

stts wc v g n vus quts t t n t pst

w ys, wc v sut n t mmng n t tusns

nsss wmn n cn, s puny sck t cnscnc

umnty,” t psnt s. “I st s t ts st numn

bbsm ung t p tgc cngtn wt wc t

w s nw cnnt, uns tusns nncnt umnbngs, w v n spnsbty , n w nt vn mty

ptcptng n, t stts wc v bkn ut, nw w s

t vs,” cntnu. “I m t ssng ts ugnt pp

t vy Gvnmnt, wc my b ngg n stts, pubcy t



62 H e r o

m ts tmntn tt ts m cs s n n vnt n un

n ccumstncs untk bmbmnt m t cvn pp-

utns untf cts, upn t unstnng tt t sm

us w w b scupuusy bsv by t ppnnts,”

cncu Amc’s cmmn n c.

O cs cus n pctc justfctns t ctn. “T

ntnw ctn t t stunnng scvy tt t sucs t

cunty’s pw t sst n sustn ts, bng ntssy -

sty, cn y t b csv,” tctcs n sttgy ct

Mu Fc wt n 1939 sttgc vw. “It s gny ccpttt bmbng ttcks n cv ppuc uncnmc n unws,”

n su b cns tctc s, sn cmmns p

An n I Ek wt n 1941. “T mst cnmc wy -

ucng g cty t t pnt sun, bkng ts w t ss-

tnc,” ty , “s nt t p bmbs n ts stts, but t sty

t pw pnts wc suppy gt, t wt suppy, t sw

ns. . . . umn bngs nt pty tgts xcpt n ctn sp-c stutns.” In pctc, vnts mnstt tt U.. bmbng ws

pcs tv ny t vn m nscmnt ms ttck. As just

n xmp, t’s psn Rc Cncy quts—st

s pvt ptmnts n t ungun Führerbunker w

cmmtt suc—mn stnng unt t n t w, spt

bng spcfcy tgt by zns A bmbng ttcks.

Jpns, Gmn, n Bts cs, by cntst, unc ns-

cmnt “” ttcks gnst ubn cnts wt xpsvs n ncn-

s, usuy t ngt, m y n t w. Bts ttcks n v

700 pns us mgnsum ncny bmbs n Optn Gm-

t ncnt gt squ ms Gmny’s scn-gst cty,

mbug, n t ngt Juy 27, 1943. A mn-m f ucn, t

w’s fst “fstm,” ct “bzz snwks” tt s

tmptus n t cty t 1,500 gs Fnt, mt spt

stts, gnt wns up t 150 ms p u tt bw ut s,sms wnws, n tw pp t t gun, n k n st-

mt 44,600 pp. “On mn ws bsv t . ws but t

pu ms up wt s ns wn ms w sn t nvp s bck

n ws bun wtn fv mnuts wtut cngng s pstn,”




pt Gmn ct. O sts xmn t t ttck,

wt, “Bs w qunty un yng n tck, gsy bck mss,

wc ws wtut ubt mt t tssu. . . . A w sunkn s

tt cts pp t b t g. Ts bs w Bombenbrand-

schrumpeichen (‘ncny-bmb-sunkn bs’). . . . Mny bs-

mnts cntn ny bts ss n n ts css t numb c-

suts cu ny b stmt.” Appxmty sxty-gt U.. B-17s

cntbut tw ys stks gnst t cty’s ug spys, n

pw pnt.

Ry A Fc (RAF) mgnsum bmbs puc sm nnn Dsn n Vntn’s Dy 1945—As Wnsy, s t ppn.

Gmny’s svnt-gst cty ws n mptnt cnt n

tusns wks t mty sgnfcnt cts, gny ct

n sububn s. It ws s mtps xtny buty

n gb cutu sgnfcnc f wt ugs m Gmny’s c-

psng stn nt. “Ty-!” t fst Bts pt c nt s

s stt t ttck. A fstm v ttn squ ms t cnt cty tgt by t Bts, n k n stmt 25,000

pp. uvv Mgt Fy c, “T my t I suny s

wmn. I cn s t ts y n s nv gt t. cs

bun n ms. It s bby. uns, s s, n t c s n

n c nt t f.” Rscus cnnt gm scn. Fy cntn-

u, “Fm sm t bs pk ms, s, gs n stt

skus. T sttc wt-tnks w f up t t tp wt umn

bngs.” Rugs w jump nt ffgtng sv n t cty

cnt scv t t t n xt : uns cw t c

t unt ty suct wn, suun by ms. U..

bmbs tgt t cnt cty, ys, n nust tgts

wt xpsvs n ncns n tw ygt ttcks, t scn

“bn” p tug tck cus.

Dsn’s stuctn, t n t w wn t utcm sm c,

pmpt ctcsm ncny bmbng nt t t tm mbug’s ncntn. “It sms t m tt t mmnt s cm

wn t qustn bmbng Gmn cts smpy t sk n-

csng t t, tug un t ptxts, su b vw. . . .

I m t pnn tt mty bjctvs must ncw b m



64 H e r o

stcty stu,” m Mnst Wnstn Cuc wt n sct

st mm mnt t, s ctcsm t ttck pss n -

mnt. “I nt psny g t w t mnng cts

Gmny s wt t bns n Bts Gn,” spn A

C Ms Atu s, t Bts Bmb Cmmn.

Cuc wtw s cmmnts tw ys t. In mut nt

t Ap 1, cncu: “W must s t t tt u ttcks

n m m t usvs n t ng un tn ty t t nmy’s

w t.” Btn cntnu “” ttcks unt t n t w, n

gnst Dsn n ptcu tw m mnts.

Its “pcsn” sttgy ptct t Unt tts m sm -

cmntns. In pctc, wv, b wt, nccut sys-

tms, n vgu tgtng ctvs tn m t pcy m t-

tc tn . “[R] bmbng ws btt tn n bmbng,” n

c c sty tngy stt. “Appxmty 80 pcnt

Egt A Fc n 70 pcnt Ftnt A Fc mssns ung

t st qut 1944 w cctz by sm mpymnt bn-bmbng vcs,” t sty cntnu. “Wn cu cv v

Gmny m pcsn bmbng mpssb (ny t tm) t

UAAF cnuct bmbng t tn n bmbng,” summ-

z stn Tms . Ony sgty m tn n-t

bmbs pp ung ts p by t U.. Egt n Ftnt A

Fcs, spnsb Ntn Eup n t Mtnn, -

spctvy, wtn 1,000 t t tgt.

Nvtss, Amcn cmmns pugncusy jct ny quv-

nc btwn “” n “pcsn” bmbng. In August 1944,

xmp, gns us Bts nvttn t jn gnt ttck

n Bn tt cu puc 275,000 csuts. uc “bby kng

scms” wt Cs Cb, bg gn n tp vs t

An, “wu b bt n t sty t A Fc n t U..

W su stngy sst bng suck n t ny suc vntu. It gvs

u n t t bs mnts u pp. . . . [N] mn v . . . cnccut cgnz cumbng m.” C ptz, cmmn

U.. A Fcs n Eup, g: “[T] s n ubt n my mn tt

t R.A.F. wnt vy muc t v t U.. A Fcs t wt t

m bmbng tmt wc w w b tfc,” wt t




An. RAF s pstpn t pps TUNDERCLA

bmbmnt.

Ts gumnt gw t sustn s t w pgss. On

Jnuy 28, 1945, ptz n Bts cmmns nnunc nw tgt

pts. O nsttns cm fst; “ttck Bn, Lpzg, Ds-

n n ssct cts w vy ttck w cus gt cnusn

n cv pputn m t Est” nk scn. On Fbuy 3, n

mssn nvsn by ptz s “bn” -gu ttck n n-

tn t “ncs[] xstng pnmnum sutng m vt -

vncs,” ccng t An’s tp ssstnt Lunc Kut, m tn900 bmbs ssut Bn. An stmt 25,000 cvns . On

Fbuy 22, Optn CLARION sptc tusns pns

m t Egt, Nnt, n Ftnt A Fcs, n t RAF, t bmb

n st tnspttn bjctvs n “tgts pptunty” css

Gmny, Aust, n Ity, ncung suc sm cts s bg,

Göttngn, n Bn-Bn. “Ts s t sm bby kng pn

t gt-c quck psycgc bys, ss up n nw Kmn,”Cb wt n s cpy t mssn pn.

Amcn cmmns stv t psnt t pcs t t pubc

s ntng cng. Wn Assct ss junst w

Cwn, xmp, pt n Fbuy 18, 1945, t t Dsn

fbmbng, tt “A bsss v m t ng-wt c-

sn t pt bt t bmbng t gt Gmn pputn

cnts s utss xpnt t stn t’s m,” ccng t n

RAF bfng c, U.. cs n t sstn. An ntn

quts mmnum ssu t y t sty pp, sgn

by ptz n b Amy A Fc cmmnng gn An,

vs s st: “(A) t bn n cng n pcy; (B) t Unt

tts ttgc A Fcs wys ct t ttcks gnst

mty bjctvs n wu cntnu t s, n (C) t cns

pss t sty nusy.” “pc c su b tkn,” ptz

s gns n Fbuy 21, wt spct t CLARION, “gnstgvng ny mpssn tt ts ptn s m, pt m, t c-

vn pputns ntn t tz tm.” cty W

tmsn t pts n Fbuy 22, “u pcy nv s bn t

nct t bmbng n cvn pputns.”



66 H e r o

tmsn’s cm nty ws s tu n t cfc s n Eup. Ov

tm, wv, U.. cmmns, ustt by t nbty “pc-

sn” bmbng t cv suts n t c png cu cv n

cntnuus jt stm wns v Jpn; b t ttck wt ncsng

s s Nppn’s nss cumb n gsn stgs gun

ts fgts; n u t cst n nvsn, w t “”

sttgy us by t Bts n Gmns. Npm ws t mns t

ts n.

Jpn’s vunbty t f ttck ws w knwn t t U.. mty.

“Ts twns but gy w n pp t sst t vst-tns tquks n m t gtst tgts t w s

v sn. . . . Incny pjcts wu bun t cts t t gun

n st ,” my gn By Mtc, tn cns t un-

ng nsptn t U.. A Fc, sst n 1931. In t vnt

w, my c st Gg Ms t pts n sct

bfng n Nvmb 15, 1941, “w’ fgt mcssy. Fyng Ftsss

w b sptc mmty t st t pp cts Jpn n f. . . .T wn’t b ny sttn but bmbng cvns.” A wy ccu-

t 1942 tc n Harper’s mgzn cncu, “In sm t sum

sctns Kb n Kyt w t n cns t sung tt

n ncny ttck wu cus s tb t cntmpt. But t ct

mns tt ts s t cpst pssb wy t cpp Jpn. It wu

stn t w by mnts vn ys n uc Amcn n A-

sss by tns tusns.”

In ct, spt Ms’s ppcy n t suggstn by Harper’s,

t Unt tts nty us “pcsn” tctcs gnst Jpn. Bmb-

ng bgn n Jun 1944 m bss n Cn, n xpn n Nvmb

wn mns cptu t sns pn, Tnn, n Gum n t

Mns. Int tgts, ccng t t utttv pstw Unt

tts ttgc Bmbng uvy, w “ct cts, sns, c-

tncs pnts, fns, n fns mty gs, stuctn

wc cu b xpct t wkn t cpbts t Jpns mcs t sst t t Kyusu bcs n Nvmb 1945.” Wn ms-

sv B-29 uptss bmbs ttck Tky t fst tm n N-

vmb 24, t Mussn ct pnt ws t pmy bjctv.




Jpns ns ttmpt t sst but w vwm s t

w cntnu. Antct btts ptct mj cts but pv

ss ctv tn cmpb nss n Gmny. Fgts swm

y n t cnct, but ck u gun mny s tm pss. As

y s Mc 1945, pts ttmpt t spt xpnt kmkz

mmng. “[A] n, gg B-29 ws v n by swm fgts.

uny, t ws n xpsn: fgt mm t gnt bmb-

’s t wng -n. T sm pn, nk t ts vctm by bbn

wt smk, zgzgg wn n cs n t cty; t bg, mng

Amcn b st ttu, m w spt ts t s gn, tnsuny v n wnt wn, pbby n Tky By,” Fnc

junst Rbt Gun, w wtnss t n t w n Tky,

pt. Evn ts ws nsu cnt t tun t t btt.

Wn n cus pv gt pbm t Unt tts.

“Ov n [Eup] w n’t knwn nytng but jt stms, but nw

t fst tm w n nt tt cus jt stm t cfc. g

wns, smtms t tw un m.p.. Yu cu g n v, tyngt gt up t tgt n suc wn. An yu wnt css-wn, yu

bmbsgt wun’t tk c t t yu . I yu cm n wn-

wn, yu n’t v tm t gt pp un n t tgt. Ts ws

y tug ppstn t ck,” wt c gn Cuts LMy,

w ct t fn ttcks gnst Jpn n 1945. Jt stm wns

“sctt u bmbs k cntt v t tn,” s t pt

t Nvmb 24 ttck. It .

Ws tn t wn, ns wnt cus su t m sns

t-quts t tm. “Wn I spk svn ys mnt

bmbng vsuy n Jpn, tt ws cmpt mx. T vg mgt

v bn t u ys mnt,” LMy wt t t w.

Nw B-29 bmbs, py ny n t cfc, pv tmpmn-

t, spcy un t stn n-cntnuus g-ttu ptns

cnuct v gt stncs. “B-29s s mny bugs s t ntm-

gc ptmnt t mtsnn Insttutn. Fst s ty gt tbugs ck, nw ns cw ut m un t cwng,” LMy -

c. “T smtng k 55,000 pts n B-29; n qunty

t sm tt myb 50,000 tm w gng wng t nc.”



68 H e r o

Npm sutn. In t summ 1944, t jnt cs -

cnvn n “Incny ubcmmtt” f xpts, tcngsts,

ntgnc nysts, n svc psnttvs t vw t pspcts

ncny bmbng. In ptmb, n gn n t mnts,

t gup tt pvus cncusns: Jpn’s cts w nmusy

vunb t f.

Npm’s ctvnss ws by tn w knwn. Its bty t ncn-

t g cty, wv, nt bn tst. At t n 1944, C

Cnnut “Fyng Tgs” m cnvnc U.. cmmn

Cn Abt Wmy t ct gnst nkw—mn Wun—v pt n t st-cnt pt t cunty. On Dcmb 18 L-

My, w t t tm ws spnsb ptns n In n

Cn, snt nnty-u pns t ttck t cty’s cks ung t

y wt 511 tns npm bmbs. F, n cntst t xpsvs, m

mpcsn unmptnt. “Evytng ws u up t . . . pp

pp n t wng squnc, smk bscu t pmy s, n

s n. But tt ws n ncny ttck, n vytng wc ws tbun k czy. An I tnk t ws vst smty t t typ

cnstuctn n Jpn,” sums. uccss: nkw bun, spt

t pz tgtng. Amc n nsw t t wn n cus

Jpn. Lus Nst, puty c st t Amy A Fc

quts n Wsngtn, n c st t Twntt A

Fc— spc unt un An’s ct cmmn stbs t

mng B-29 ttcks n Jpn—suggst un-bmb m

ssut n t ky nust pt cty Ngy s n “ugnt qu-

mnt” utu pnnng.

yw ns, cmmn t XXIst Bmb Cmmn n

1944, t mn ptn unt t Twntt A Fc, wv, -

mn cmmtt t “pcsn” bmbng. “wt gt cuty

mpnt t pncp tt u mssn s t stuctn pmy t-

gts by sustn n tmn ttcks usng pcsn bmbng mt-

s bt vsu n ,” ptst t An m pn. T p-cy ws “bgnnng t gt suts” cntnu, n nt wnt t

vg m t. B-29s cntnu t m “pcsn” ttcks wt g

xpsvs n ncny bmbs tug ns cus n g wns.

On Dcmb 22, ns n ncny ttck n Ngy—but




tgt spcfc Mtsubs ct pnt. Rsuts sppnt.

Lsss munt.

Fny, n Jnuy 3, 1945, ns ccpt Nst’s “” p-

ps. Npm ws t t cs t jb. It ws t muntn’s

fst g-sc us gnst Jpn. Cws nnty-svn B-29s wt

237 tns M-69 custs n bmb Ngy ung t ytm m

g ttu, wtut spcfc tgt. Dtmn ffgts mt

t bz tt sut t n ncnsqunt t cs. ns -

tun t “pcsn” ttcks cus n ct cts.

In tn t ts sttgc mpctns, ck bmbng suts ptnty buuctc cnsquncs. “T Nvy, nv n

t B-29 pgm t Amy A Fcs n gn, ws fny n t

vg puncng. Wsn’t t tm, t Ams w syng, t c -

ty n tun t B-29s v t t Ft s tctc suppt m?” wt

Rbt Mgn, n t mst xpnc n cbt U..

bmb pts, w ugt n bt Eup n t cfc.

On Jnuy 7, Nst mt LMy n Gum n m t -v ns s t XXIst Bmb Cmmn. s mssg, c-

cng t LMy: “Yu g n gt suts wt t B-29. I yu

n’t gt suts, yu’ b f. I yu n’t gt suts, s, t’

nv b ny ttgc A Fcs t cfc. . . . I yu n’t gt -

suts, t w mn vntuy mss mpbus nvsn Jpn, t

cst pbby mn m Amcn vs.” On Jnuy 9,

svnty-tw B-29s m wt xpsvs ft tm t sty

t Mussn pnt n Tky. Amc st sx pns; t Jpns,

n wus. LMy ssum cmmn bmbmnt p-

tns gnst Jpn n Jnuy 19.

T mn w tk t Unt tts nt nw w ntmt vn

ts n s wn s. “Wt s jwy, scwng c, s tck k ,

n smng gz, gv mny t mpssn tt unnng bmbngcmpgn wsn’t qut stmutng nug m, tt wun’t mn

tkng pt w Qunst uts wt s b ns. s spkng sty—

by ub sntnc gmnts mumu tug cnc tt—

nc s u s bn scpt,” Mgn c.



70 H e r o

Amc’s nw cfc cmmn ws pctc. s upbngng,

k s bmbng, w n btwn ns n vss, n w

t cknwg sympty n t bstct w t n ptn .

Cuts Emsn LMy, st svn cn, ws bn n 1906 n

cttg n Cumbus, O—svn ys t Lus Fs ws v-

n t sm cty. s t wk jbs— wk n

O, n mng Mntn fs tcy, mng t pstns—

n mv t my qunty. “Usuy w nug t t,” L-

My wt n s mm. A ssn m s y c: “It sn’t

ny g t k tng, t k n bnft. W v t c tcts t wy ty , nt t wy w ws ty w. . . . A c cn-

cs wnss t xct cntn, t xct pbm wc cs n

nvu, s s bst wpn cpng wt t.” In 1915, t g gt,

vst t nm-cfc Exbtn Intntn Expstn n n

Fncsc n wtc t stunt pt Lncn Bcy, mus bmb-

ng t Unvsty Cn t Bky stum wt tb w

ss n tn cn, n yng w ss s wmn.s ’s cus ws st m tt mmnt n, s: wnt t y.

In t mntm, wv, t sus, nustus fst sn unt

spws wt BB gun n s tm t n y ngb wt

ungy ct t fv cnts b. LMy pucs nwspps n buk,

s tm t pp bys, n nvst t cpts n bcyc, wc

us t gt wk vng pckgs n Wstn Unn tgms.

tnk wt spts qupmnt n guns, n f s wn mmu-

ntn n s sp tm. Wn gt , wk s n nwk

ung summ vctns. s mt wk s uscn wn

t my’s mny gt st.

O tt cg uctn. LMy wk ngts, n c-

csn unt 3:00 .m., t t Bucky t Cstng Cmpny t py s

tutn. Wn scv t Rsv O cs’ Tnng Cps,

jn gt wy—n, t tt, t Ntn Gu—t fnnc s

stus n gn n g pt’s cmmssn. “Wt m t ws yngfst n bng n t vc scn,” wt. In 1928, ws p-

pv s yng ct t st-nscnt Amy A Cps.

W W II psnt pptunts sp n vnc-

mnt. Mj LMy tw ms nt t tsk. cmmn




squn B-17 bmbs v Gmny, wc m m m wt

vy mnt ttck m mntnnc t nsv mmnts

n bmb by ptns. In Mc 1944, t g tty-svn, bcm

t yungst mj gn n t U.. Amy. In August, ws gvn

cmmn t XXt Bmb Cmmn t Twntt A Fc,

wc w B-29s m In v t mys t Cn ttcks n

Jpns tgts t n n t sutnmst pt Jpn.

Cntns n In w cut. In Cn, wck by nvsn n

by suppss cv w, n t t n t ngst suppy n

n sty, ty w vn ws. LMy s t t cng. Amycws btn 102 ptn us p bmb p mnt n

t Unt tts, n 81 us p bmb vss. In Cn, t

yung gn cv 92 ptn us p mnt n vg

s uptsss.

LMy, wv, n btt tn ns wt “pcsn” stks

n Jpn. On Jnuy 23, snt svnty-t B-29s t ttck t sm

Mtsubs pnt t Ngy s pcss t sty. Onytwnty-gt pns cu fn t tgt bcus vy cus, n

t ws t by n m tn u bmbs n w ncns. Dmg

ws sgt. A stk n Tky u ys t w fc sstnc. M-

gn mmb, “T Zs [Jpns fgts] t us k n m-

ts. T must v bn uns tm, swpng n wv t

wv cs-ncunt ttcks. Ou sss w t wst t cfc

cmpgn t t—nn uptsss st wn n mny m

mg. T Zs w us t w’ t t cst, styng n u

ts fty sxty ms ut v t cn.” By t t wk Fbu-

y, “U.. pts wn m tn 2,000 mssns v Jpn, wt

n csv mg t ny tgt,” t vtn pt pt. cfc Is-

n bmb bss, cqu t t cst s mny mn vs, pp

pctcy usss.

quts nysts cncu tt ns’s Jnuy npm t-

tck gnst Ngy bcus t bmbs w nt cncnttnug, n nt bn m t t mst mmb pt t cty.

On Fbuy 3, sxty-nn bmbs ttmpt t cus mst 160 tns

ncns, pus sv m tns gmnttn bmbs t t

ffgts, n t mst cmbustb Jpn’s sxt-gst cty,



72 H e r o

Kb: ts snt stct. ubsqunt pts sw sv mg

t bt t tgt n n jcnt nust zn. In Wsngtn,

An pmt ubn- ncny ttcks t scn bmbmnt

pty n Fbuy 19, supss ny by ct ngn pnts. x ys

t, 172 B-29s pp m tn 453 tns npm n xpsvs n

snw-cv Tky. “T t fv scns t t bg fccks

t, ty g . An xpsv cg vnty jcts scku g

wc buns ntnsy,” t c pt n cnfnt sty.

Ts tm, css f stt tt bun n squ m t cty

n sty mst 28,000 bungs. nwks bck wt s.An ppc tt wk ws t n. T u ubn ncny

bmbng, m w tt s fn mnty—mst cnty

tug “mutuy ssu stuctn” v by ntcntnnt

bstc msss m wt ygn bmbs— v t

Unt tts: LMy n s st sv upn mssv npm

ttck gnst t nmy cpt.

T mxmz s mpct, “T Cg,” s LMy ws ncknm, -c t ttck t ngt t w ttu. stpp nsv wpns

n cws, xcpt sng t gunn, m t uptsss t

w tm t cy m bmbs, n mnt mtns, wc tk

tm n u t cnt. Jpn’s tvy nxpnc pts—

tn py tn t n t w bcus t stg gsn—

cun’t fgt ctvy t ngt, gmb, n sups ttck t n

unxpct tm mgt ctc tm n t gun. s suspct

tt ntct guns cbt g ttus cun’t tgt w-

v pns. An bnft n ttck t 5,000 t tn 25,000

t ws tt t sv u bcus ss cmbng ws qu; uc

ngn stn bcus t ws tck; n mpv ccucy.

Ts mfctns ncs pys by n-t n w t

346 B-29s scu t ttck t cy m bmbs tn 1,000 t

B-17s us gnst Gmny.

Rsks bun n t nw sttgy. “T pspct gv m ng . I mmb t w-v mssns tt bn t ut n

Eup, n t suts—w squns B-17s bwn ut t

sky,” wt vtn pt Mgn. “Fk xpts, mst t mn, t

m wu s svnty pcnt s pns v Tky snt




tm n t tt ttu,” cct XXIst Bmb Cmmn pubc

tns c t. C McKwy: “t fv t sx tusn t, t

B-29 s wnuy bg tgt.” LMy mmb: “I tk t vy

w t bys but ts, n stu t ctns. m tm

tugt t wu b O.K. t vutnz u w pcss n g v

Jpns tgts t w ttus. Ots s, ‘G. Tt wu b

sugt,’ n ty w uy cnvnc tt t wu b.” mgn

tts m t mts pts. “T mt wts yu tt,

n s sys: ‘D Gn. Ts s t nnvsy my sn Ncky b-

ng k v Tky. Yu k m, Gn. I just wnt t mn yu t. I’m gng t sn yu tt c y n t sm t, t nn-

vsy s t, t mn yu.’ ”

W s xpcty nvsn cvn csuts: “Empymnt t

scs w pnts tugut Tky n nvns wu b cty -

ct by csuts, mvmnt wks ut t , us mnpw

n cnstuctn, n pbby w wk m,” stt t tgt

nmtn st stbut t bmb cws. Jpn’s gn mbz-tn t sst t xpct U.. nvsn, wc ncu wmn n c-

n, n ty tt t nmy’s nust systm n wy s-

ps m mnuctung ptns— jug ncct by t pstw

ttgc Bmbng uvy— justf t pn sm. But t stgg

vn vtns. “T pcnt ts ws . . . n 11.8-squ-m

mng cts, uss, n sps,” Mgn wt. “I w succ,

t vsttn wu bgg nytng tt gn b. In umn

tms, t pspcts w ny untnkb. Cvns w gng t

n ts un, by t tns tusns. Ws, ty w gng t b

st n mss.” As RAF c ms Atu s, cmmn

n c Bts bmbs m 1942–1945, t bsv, “[A]tug

ty gy t t ty, nt wys t t pctc, p-

csn bmbng cts n Eup, ty us gnst Jpn xcty t

sm mt vsttng g nust cts by ncny bmbs

s ws us n Eup by Bmb Cmmn.”

LMy wcm t v m bsutst m cmbt. “T

w pups sttgc w s t sty t nmy’s ptnt t

wg w. . . . I w n’t btt t, w wu w subsvnt t

t,” wt. “I tnk nw tt y wz but t stup mn



74 H e r o

w ws nt bscy cu— ws just w-mnng. T guy w

cut t g’s t n nc t tm s tt t wun’t ut s muc,”

jk. Lss ttcy, ns s’s ungvng ssss-

mnt t tv vu vs css btt ns: “[T] wy but

t morality wt w w ng—Nuts. A s s t fgt. W

ugt. I w ccmps t jb n ny gvn btt wtut xtm-

ntng t mny u wn ks, w cns tt w’ ptty

g y.” mkng cg n wtng suts n t ptns

cnt m t 2:00 .m. n Mc 10, LMy, spkng Jpn’s gn-

s, t McKwy, “I n’t tnk cn kp s cts m bngbun wn—wp gt t mp.”

Ognztn ptcs, wv, ws n tt mt nunc.

LMy nt sk An’s vnc ppv s c st n stt-

gy. T sn, s, ws t ptct s cmmn n cs t ms-

sn . “[I] I n’t t m, n t’s u, n I n’t puc

ny suts, tn cn f m,” xpn. “I m t csn. I

wg t s. I knw t s w n my v. But st, t ws sm-tng nw. I cu v st t pp, pp t b n t,”

wt. Nntss, t ttck ws y sct: Twntt A Fc

c st Nst ws n Gum wn t bmbs tk . It “my b

n utstnng sw,” cb pubc tns st n Wsngtn.



75

Awnstm pp t sks v Tky n t ngt Mc 9,1945. Gusts sxty ms p u tug nw stts

n v wn uss tt st t cty’s mns. Bsts s t

gty ms p u s mngt ppc.

F t s, snts n Jpns nvy sps t uns

U.. bmbs s ty w nt t w ttus. R sttns n t

Bnn Isns, 600 ms sut Tky, s tct t ttcks.

Wnngs s, but t ws unc xcty w t pns w

gng. It ws nt unt just t mngt tt snts n tny sns

n t cpt t tun pps n “Mj

n Tky.”

tfn bmbs c t cty mnuts t, yng t but

5,000 t: w nug t s nvu bungs, pks, n stts.

cgts , ntct guns n sps n t b n n

btts bm, n w zn fgts scmb. T t. T

tfns pp un-pun M-47 bmbs pnt gy-bun bn n pup t nct t ncny pys—twns

t ss tst n Bstn t ys —n bun mng

css but u ms by t nt t t t cty. “[W]tn ts

tgt ppxmty 10 squ ms, t vg pputn

5

The American Century



76 H e r o

nsty s 103,000 pp p squ m, n vg pbby nt x-

c n ny t mn nust cty n t w,” pt cw

nmtn sts. Mnttn’s Lw Est mmgnt ngb-

, by cmpsn, pk nsty 106,240 pp p squ

m n 1910. Cmmnng gn Tms w st s bmb

t 10,000 t n cc s “Mst Cmns” Optn

MEETINGOUE, wng Bts tcnqu vp n ngt

ttcks n Gmn mtpss.

v bmbs w n n tt sttc uns ms

bck v t s. Fnc junst Rbt Gun wt t up-tsss, “T ng, gntng wngs, sp s bs, cu b sn

tug t bqu cumns smk sng m t cty, suny -

ctng t f m t unc bw, bck sutts gng tug

t fy sky t pp ut n, snng gn gnst t k

vn gttng bu, k mts, n t scgt bms spy-

ng t vut m zn t zn.” As ty pss, un 6,500

custs tn O’s M-69 bmbs pp m t bs, busts ty , n sctt un qut mn nvu “M-

tv w bskts,” s t Jpns c tm. Bgt gn ty-nc

stms unu t pnt t bmbs wn fst. Ty sms

tug s t sptt bzng npm n bc tck cus wt

pspus. “[C]yns sctt kn mng w tt sktt

ng t s, sttng f t vytng t sps n spng

ws ncng ms vyw,” Gun cunt. Abut

690,000 puns npm n ss tn n u.

Wns wpp n cmbn tns tusns fs. In ss tn

ftn mnuts, t ms bgn t csc n vnt: mn-m

f ucn, fstm. A supntu pn cmny ms n

smk s 18,000 t v t cty. G-c wns sug t gun

v s t ms n t pu xygn up t cumn. Tky “cugt

f k st pn ts” wt U.. bsvs, pc g bv.

“T mg nss ts tusns mtu fmn—b jts n-pump wt, wt mts n sn t b twn n t bmbs

wn n cu gt cs nug t t tb t—w cmpty

nqut. Rs cps un t bmbs’ mpct n wtn mn-

uts t uss w n pp w m, gt m t



The American Century 77

ns k pp ntns,” Gun cntnu. “Tu t s n m

mtns n w,” w c t, “but t stuctn I wt-

nss tt ngt v Tky ws s vwmng tt t t tmn-

us n stng mpssn n m.”

uvv pts cct t by junst Ewn yt vv

c t ngt. umk Mkw ws twnty-u-y- m-

mk wt u-y- sn n twn gt-mnt- gs. us-

bn ws pst smw n Jpn. As t fs bgn, ngbp tm t pk. “Atsuk, Ryk, v ptnc,” s t t

twns. “Kc, Mt w nt yu n n un,” s s t

sn. uss n ts bun un tm s ty . In t pk,

ty us t p. umk wt nt t bcks t c-

n. “It’s t!” sk Kc. s jckt n cttn

w bunng. us tm n u n t wt wt c-

n. T nn w cs. Fms pu m t wnws nbybungs. p jmm nt t p, n f t un t.

F n smk gw st cs, tck, n tt. A b ms t

Kc n t . “Mt, t’s t!” scm. wt

ntcy. “Mt, t’s t!” Kc pt, n cs s ys.

“ng n, ng n. Dn’t g t sp. W cn s Ft vy sn,” s

mp. tpp m ntcy n t ck. But ny

s ys, tn sump v. T twns w . “Kc, Kc, n’t

v m n,” s bgg, n nt. Wn s cm t n k

un, t p ws y. Kc ws st btng, but nty. sv-

. c m n ms n wk t t s t p.

Cyng ystcy, s sk gvnss m ugts, n

cv tm wt mp jckt. A n’s us ws cgg wt

ugs, but ty un qut . wpp Kc n t. A g

gv cup t t. umk tk sm n mut, c t n

tn, k b, tck t nt s mut. Kc pn s ys ttn s “Mm,” tn sump v, .

Tsk gskw ws twv n t st fv cn.

just tun t Tky t pp g sc t gt mnts

s n vcu n t cuntys. Wn t bmbng bgn, mt



78 H e r o

ss t cn n bggy tuss n s n snt tm

t st n t gn. Ts w usuy sw pts cv wt

bmb s n tn y t. As t npm bmbs n t

bungs un tm bgn t bun, t c ty su

t nby sc n t p tt t bung wu pv

st. “W u tug t stts, jnng t ng cw.

Bungs w bunng vyw. . . . It ws vy scy n t t

wn m t fs bun u cs. . . . W cu s t bmbs cm-

ng ut t pns; smtms ty xp n t stt n nt

us. T ws f vyw,” s mmb. “I sw n psncugt by t cws t f gn. . . . cts just wnt up n

ms. Ant tw pp w cugt, n bun up. T bmbs

just kpt cmng. Ft ws cyng my tt bt n my sst

by t n. W cm t t sc.” It ws y n mpvmnt. “In

t sc’s ntywy wvs pp, n t nt, pus n

sv. . . . N n cu mv, ty w s tgty jmm n. nc

vp.” cu pp sutng: “Gy. p! It’s t!Mm! Uw!” “Dy! It uts! p!” n t’s

bckpck. Tn, sst: “Ft’s c gt st n t cw.” ss-

t Utk n s “w wnng n t wv pp. Up bv t

f ws s b yu cun’t bt. I n’t knw w ng ts wnt n.

I t nt.” sst sy, “O sst. N cn,” but cu

nt s . “! !” Utk c. Tsk tugt, “I cn’t cw

ut . I m sgn, my ys csng.” Tn, “I w ty n

m tm t cw ut . . . . A! I v scp!” “N cn,”

Utk c m un muntn bs, “I m v !” Tsk

c tt sst, n scu .

Ty m t wy tug t bunng cty t n vcutn cnt.

T, ncby, t gs un t mt n t sst. Tsk

cntnu, “Mt n st Kzuy w tkng. st Kzuy s,

‘[Bby] Ktsub s bcus m. I m fns.’ s, ‘Ktsub

ws scmng n my bck wn w w unnng wy, but I cun’t nytng m.’ ” T mt s, “Kzuy, yu n’t k Ktsub,

n’t guty.” Ktsub, w ws just n y n svn mnts ,

ws . v vy st , Tsk ct. T t n

bt s ps.




N n ws sp. z smt ws ttn ys . sw

wmn, ss n kmn wt g n sv ts n

g obi ss, wt tus bssm n , pps gs,

sz by t fstm, wpp n twst n t , n gnt:

umn tc. A pc kmn sw tug t n pp

t s t. “In t ns smk, w t wn ws s t t s t

ungs, pp stugg, tn bust nt ms w ty st. T

fy ws bwn wn tw t gun n t ws tn t u-

gs’ t tt bgn bunng fst: t mn’s putts n t wmn’s

tuss cugt f n gnt t st t ctng,” cuntGun. A ngb Cyk kmt ws n t st stgs pg-

nncy: “As ty t t f t w gn nt b. wy tug

t bt pcss s bgn t . ws tby bun n cyng

ut n u us vc b s . T c ws bn fty

n bun n t c but v; t t swpt t up n n vct,

cutc t t m, n sv t.”

Jmm bgs bcm un pys. Cv gu cmmn Kn-suk Wkbys n s ugt, s by cnct wus,

sw tusns “stmng tw t um Rv bgs, n png

nt t v, cts n vn t bs m. n bt bnks

t v w cgg wt bs. T bgs w s t tt ny-

n w tuc bt n st ws s k bcn n g.” On

t Ktt Bg, nt c, “T st gw wt-t n

pp w tuc t mt w s k stks n bbqu.”

Wt pv n n. Rvs wn ugs, k tm m

yptm, n sm css b tm v. “As pnc bugt v

s wvs pp pssng nt t nw stps [pn] n,

ts n nt w pus sstby tw t v; w ws

scmng umnty tpp v n spp nt t p wt,”

Gun pt. Fs suck xygn m t , n suct

sm ugs s ty swm. “[I]n sm t sm cns t wt

ws ctuy bng m t ntns t,” cunt U.. gvn-mnt t-ctn pt. s n pns vpz.

m t fst pts but npm’s cts n umn bngs

mg m t stc ngt. yt c t xpnc

wn Mstk Obt wn cust bmb t but tn t



80 H e r o

wy: “[O]n ncny bmb t s m t cust n ws ung

t m, xpng n s c. T mt tt ws supps t ptct

m unn t c t xpsn cty gnst s jw.” Obt

uncnscus. Tn, “ wk, nt knwng w ng bn

ut. s t ut, n k t tm. s ss bun up n s

ts mt. s ms n ns ut; ty w bun bck n

knw t-g buns. s ctng ws st bunng n

spts. cu nt us s ns, n s v n v t put

ut t ms.” Ots w uck. Ngb f pvntn c

ys Inu n pn, tn “t smtng c p n sskn. It ws nt but t ws y.” ws cv n ungnt npm.

Bmb cws xpnc t wn ts. On Gum t mssn

bgn t 4:36 p.m. wn gnt uptsss, t sts t n -

mst n un t ng wt wngspn 141 t, bgn t

wn t unwy vy ty-fv scns. Ty kpt tkng -

mst n u: fty-u pns n tt. As sks kn, ty mt

scn gup 121 pns m t U.. bs n Tnn. Fny,bt gups n up wt 162 B-29s m pn t ct gmmng

cn tt nt tw t mp cpt 1,500 ms wy.

Fys sw ng ss m fgtng n Iw Jm s ty pss t

sn, n tun n t Jpns sttn tt bcst Wstn musc

wn ty ppc Tky. “mk Gts n Yu Eys” w by

“My O Fm” n “I Dn’t Wnt t t t W n F,” pmpt

nvus sncks m n cw.

Ac pt Rbt Mgn scb n nn wn s B-29 v

v Tky: “Ot B-29s un us w utns n ng m t

gt gunfs. uns scgts swpt my css t

sks, t bms msty tn up by smk, k sm s yw

pm ngt wn t. . . . Dbs, gt jgg sps bunng

tngs, t upw tw us ng wt t smk. T smk

must v c fv ms nt t sttsp b t tnn ut.”

A vst mtps ws pstt: “Mst t Jpns Zs n Gngfgts st st, sm tm mt, n t stps. O ts tt

mng t gt nt t , t tm wnstms wpp up by

t fs tss tm but t sks k pss kts. As t gun

ty f, t ws msty ncnsqunt. . . . T guns w c-




bt t wng ttus.” Tus, “W w bmbng wt mn n

mpunty.”

Upts pp sm t gnt pns, n bunc ts up

t m n scns. “T upts bugt wt tm sckn-

ng , n tt I w nv b b t gt cmpty ut my

nsts—t sm stng umn s. I t n tt sm p-

ts n cwmn ggg n vmt n ctn t ts stnc, n tt

w pss ut,” Mgn wt. Cst Ms, nt ttck

ptcpnt, cnfm tt “At 5,000 t yu cu sm t s bun-

ng. I cun’t t nytng tw t ys. Yu knw t ws nus-tng, y. W just s ‘Wt s tt I sm?’ An t’s kn swt

sm, n smby s, ‘W tt’s s bunng, t b.’ ”

Mgn sw t sm scns n t bgs m bv s Jpns

scb bw. “On bg spnnng t Kkt Rv, mb -

ng n n ctn c wt mb tw tm. . . . vn

tns s fbmbs ncnt t w vst ,” wt. “It

ws cm, n t ys, tt scms cu b b sm t B-29s tng n t 7,000 t,” t vtn cntnu. nt n -

pn by bmb bys bst. Lgt m t ms ws s bgt t

ppc ygt, n pts mst u ms n t cu

t wtcs. T gunns sw gw m t bunng cty 150 ms

wy n t gt m.

Act tun just t wn. O t 325 pns tt stt t

mssn, 279 m t t Tky. Amc st utn, mst m qup-

mnt us. T bnc tun t t bss. Enmy fgts

nt st wn ny.

Dmg ws pcyptc. A tt ftn squ ms t t cnt

n t w’s gst cts y n ss, n mst u tms

g tn tt t sty by t fst tmc bmb. O c tbu-

tns c 87,793 pp m t fstm, 40,918 nju,

v 1 mn mss n c wt, 267,171 bungs wck, n

18 pcnt Tky’s nust n mst tw-ts ts cm-mc stct sty. Tky’s F Dptmnt stmt 97,000

k, t c 124,711 ts. It tk suvvs twnty-fv ys t -

mv t m t ubb. I c w n ts vum s mgn s

psn, t bk s ugy f wt m tt ngt t Tky.



82 H e r o

D. gn Kubt, pss mcn t t Imp Amy

c Mcn n ct Amy Rscu Unt 1, spnsb

Tky xcpt t Imp c, scb s tvs n zng

tmptus tug t vstt just b wn n Mc 10:

“T ws n n t scu. I yu tuc n t st bs,

t s wu cumb n yu n. umnty ws uc t ts

cmc ppts, tun nt cbn.” At t um Rv, -

c, “Bun bs n gs bckn t suc t v s

s t y cu s. . . . T bs w nu, t cts vng

bn bun wy, s t ws n wy t t mn m wmn n vncn.” As wt t tmc ttcks, sss tt sut m t

bmbs vg suvvs. numn, n ptcu, ct ts wt

ung njus cus by ntn smk n supt . R

Tky c t “sugt bmbng” n cmp LMy t t

Rmn mp N.

Gu cmmn Wkbys n s ugt wk m

tug ss n t mnng. Wn ty gt t t stt w tus st, ty sw ny c uns. s ugt sptt

ty b yng c wn, cv wt cc, n wstn tt

bn bm. pck m up, n bust nt ts: n pw ws

bun .

In Wsngtn, Gn An ppu. “Cngtutns. Ts ms-

sn sws yu cws v t guts nytng,” cb LMy. It

ws “t gtst sng sst ncu by n nmy n mty s-

ty. . . . T w m csuts tn n ny t mty ctn n

t sty t w,” cncu mssn cmmn w. “It s

t mst vsttng n t sty w,” LMy wt n

s y. Ty knw t busnss: Mc 9 t Tky mns t sng

st ngt n w’s ng sty. Npm’s pw ws stbs.

Int pubc pts scb vsttn wtut t: t wsn mntn csuts, ny ppty mg. “M tn 1,000 tns

ncny bmbs n t cty’s cnt n ts -ut ncny t-

tck, n ts us wn n sctn w t nsty ppu-

tn s 100,000 t t squ m n w vy nust sctns,

snt ngbs, n ws n t stcts jn,” New




York Times pt Buc R wt n Mc 10. “CITY’ EART

GONE; Nt Bung Is Lt Intct n 15 qu Ms. ts w A

MILLION OMELE,” t nwspp n t nxt y.

“Imgn Mnttn m Wsngtn qu ntw t xtt

tt pus t Bug , By Rg, Gnpnt, Wmsbug n

Futn tt sctns Bkyn, Lng Isn Cty n Ast

n ttn Isn bun ut s nt tp s vsb n t pctu

bcms c t wst by t Amcn bmbs yst-

y mnng,” xpn cspnnt Wn Mscw. Jpn’s gv-

nmnt smpy stt tt fs w ut by 8:00 .m. n t 10t.

It tk unt My 30 cmpt pctu npm’s pw t b -

v. On Mc 16, Jpns mtt tt tusns pp

bn bun v n Tky, Ngy, n Osk. A wk t, t

mp pt mmns mg t snt s. “Dmstc B-

csts Rv Rugs n Mns,” U.. ns. Fny, t pss

bfng m tn tw mnts t s fst gt npm ttck, LMy

ptgpc p: fty-n squ ms Tky bn n-nt. “Appxmty 4,500,000 Tky’s 7,000,000 pp,” nc

v n t , cunt pt Mscw, “Nn tm cu b

vng n tt nw t pctus t t sty. . . . [I]t s pssb

tt 1,000,000, myb vn twc tt numb t Emp’s sub-

jcts, ps.” Amc st fty-n pns n t twv-wk ncn-

y cmpgn.

At Tky, Amcn bmbs ttck Jpn’s gst cts wt n-

pm tn ys, bgnnng just twnty-nn us t t st pn

tun m t cpt, unt supps n ut n Mc 19, 1945. At

t-wk pus t stck, ncny bmbmnts stt gn

n Ap 13, n cntnu unt t n t w. “It wu b pss-

b, I tugt, t knck ut Jpn’s mj nust cts ung

t nxt tn ngts,” LMy wt t t Mc 9 Tky fstm. “It my wng cmmns tt I p ty’ b b t stt Ngy

n t vnng Mc 10t.” A m “Nw w’ n busnss,”

sp tug t cmmn, wt pubc tns c McKwy.

As , npm bmbs bun ut tw squ ms n t cnt

Ngy n Mc 12. Incny g uc gt squ ms



84 H e r o

Osk t smkng ubb tw ys t. In t tn ys wng Mc 9,

1,595 B-29 sts pp 18.7 mn puns npm n xp-

svs n mj Jpns cts, n uc tty-n squ ms n

t cunty’s u gst cnubtns t cns. “W put wn vy

M-47 n M-69 n M-76 w t. Excty gtn un n

fty-gt tns scng cmcs. W cun’t munt nt ncn-

y ttck mst u wks,” LMy s.

It ws “ntng st wnu,” Lus Nst wt s gn

n Ap 3: pbby t gtst mg v “nct upn ny pp

n sng gt-y p,” t t Wsngtn pss cps. Wnnw npm v, nnc cs us t cty m suppy

sps t bmbs, just s t cuntpts n n Eup. Dung

t fv mnts unt t n t w v 33 mn puns npm

n but 13 mn M-69 bmbs, ng wt npm n t bmb-

ss, xpsvs, n t ncns, wst t 106 squ ms

n Jpn’s sx gst cts, n sty mg 169 squ ms n

sxty ts gst mtpss.

“[T] psnt stg vpmnt t w gnst Jpn ps-

nts t AAF t fst tm wt t pptunty pvng t pw

t sttgc m. . . . [F] t fst tm sttgc bmbmnt

cs stutn n wc ts stngt s pptnt t t mgntu

ts tsk,” LMy wt t Nst n Ap 25. As c cty gnt, -

yw spc cts ngns w puc pt tnng fms -

pc tny bungs wt mntu uns. “Ou fm tn wu wys

k xcty t wy t tgt wu pp t t cws gng n n t

nxt un,” c vc-v nt Rn Rgn. Atm bmbs, by

cmpsn, ncnt 4.7 squ ms n sm n 1.45 ms n

Ngsk, t quvnt mg m 2,100 n 1,200 tns npm

n xpsvs spctvy, ccng t t ttgc Bmbng uvy.

By t tm t w n, un 42 pcnt Jpn’s ubn nus-

t bn bun n 330,000 cvns k. Bng bun

ws t ng cus t cvns. Jpn’s sxty-sx gst ctssv Kyt, sp cutu n ptc sns, cs t xst s

mty bjctvs. At t npm ttcks bgn, but n-qut

Jpn’s ubn pputn, n stmt 8.5 mn pp, t

ms. Lts pp m t by U.. cs st cts t b




sty—mpszng by mpctn t wknss nss—

n ncug t mgtn. Tky snk m v 5 mn s-

nts n Jnuy 1, 1945, t but 2.3 mn n August 1.

In tn t t ctvnss, ncny ttcks pv

s U.. cs tn bmbmnt sttgs. Btwn Jun

1944 n Mc 9, 1945, t Unt tts st but n un B-29s,

wt tt t sw t csuts. Npm s m Mc 9 t 19

vsttng mpct n cst Amc just twnty-u up-

tsss. On t st y t w, n spns t c by An “s

bg fn s pssb,” 1,014 ct—828 B-29s n 186 fgtscts—puvz Tky wt npm n xpsvs wtut ss. In

, but t bmbs pp n Juy n August w M-69 ss

f wt npm. Ot ncns, g xpsvs, n gmnt-

tn bmbs m up t bnc. Jpns cv ns cuntm-

sus suc s t cnstuctn f ns n mgncy wt s-

vs, n stbutn ffgtng qupmnt t t gn pputn,

pv nqut.

“Funmnty t tng tt bugt but t tmntn t

mk pc ws t png bmbng by t B-29s,” s m Jp-

ns pm mnst pnc Fumm Kny. ws nt n n s

ssssmnt. “I mys, n t bss t B-29 s, t tt t cs ws

pss,” s Am Knt uzuk, w sv s pm mnst

Jpn m Ap 7 t August 17, 1945, n ngtt t fn sun.

U.. xpts g. “Jpn wu v sun vn t tmc

bmbs nt bn pp, vn Russ nt nt t w, n

vn n nvsn s bn pnn,” wt t uts t U.. t-

tgc Bmbng uvy. “In t suppy ncns t t bss

n t Mns nt un st t 21st Bmb Cmmn mgt ps-

sby v bugt Jpn t sun b t August s n -

sm n Ngsk,” cncu t O c cntfc Rsc n

Dvpmnt. “A gt mny wts c tt ty tugt w

ws smwt butu n c. At t svg s, t sbut w cng,” t Jpns nwspp Nihon Dokusho Shim-

bun pt 1956 suvy but cctns t w.

U.. cts puc but 80 mn puns npm by t

n t w. “Wt t xcptn t tmc bmb, m ws t



86 H e r o

mst ctv wpn mpy n cfc w,” wt t c

cmc c n supm cmmn Dugs McAtu’s

st. “F wt j gsn, t AN-M69 ncny ws ct

wt t gst cncy ny bmb gnst Jpns cts n

wngs,” Vnnv Bus n Jms Bynt Cnnt cncu n

pstw summtn. Mst mtcy, v’s “Annymus R-

sc jct N. 4” vpmnt pjct, t $5.2 mn, ws v 5,000

tms ss csty tn t $27 bn b t Mnttn jct’s tw

bmbs. Msu sy n tms vpmnt xpnss p Jpns

cty ncnt, npm cst $83,000 p mtps, cmp wt$13.5 bn c tmc ctcysm.

T Bmb gt t pss, but npm t wk. Mnts b t

Enola Gay pt sm, Tky, Osk, n zns t

Jpns mtpss, ng wt mny tusns t nbtnts, y

n ss. Its vu ppstn ws utb. F tvy sm nvst-

mnt, Amgn gt tn tt cv by tmc wpns ws

vb t ny cunty wt n c. Ls vyw tk nt.



VICTORY

tn O’s pn cnt Gmn-sty us us 1942–1943 npm

bmb tsts. Fcus s n t bm n ttc. Cmmnts nt t pmnc vus ncny bmb sgns. Standard Oil Development Company/National

Deense Research Committee



A Gmn-sty bm uns npm n t ncny bmb tsts

by t Fcty Mutu Rsc Cptn n 1942–1943. T tp st swst vw m t ; t bttm t wnw vw. Factory Mutual Research

Corporation/National Deense Research Committee



Fms pu m t scn-sty wnw tst stuctu s spctts

bsv n ncny bmb tst by tn O scs n 1942–1943.Standard Oil Development Company/National Deense Research Committee



A m Jpns m ct ncny bmb tsts n t 1944 t

Egw Asn, Myn. Ttm mts, sj scns, w tb wtcusns, stg cst, n bng uns t m. National Deense Research

Committee



Vws Gmn n Jpns sncs n t 1943 ncny bmb tstvgs t Dugwy vng Gun, Ut. Chemical Warare Ser vice/National Deense

Research Committee



A tn- t vn-gm Mxcn

-t bt cs 17.5 gmnpm tm bmb sgn n1943 by Lus Fs. Harvard

University Archives/HUGFP 20.3 Box 4

An y bt bmbs wt

mcnc pnng vc.

An tmt swtc mpvt vsns. U.S. Navy



“Egg-ct” tys n n pn bt bmb. Ec bt,m wt npm tm bmbs, pp m ts

pvt cmptmnt nt t t ty bw,

wc bcm ts uncng ptm. Tys scnby pcut t t csng pn. U.S. Navy

Csb Auxy AmyA F, Nw Mxc,

s ccnty sty

n 1943 by scp bts

m wt npm tmbmbs. U.S. Air Force



U.. Mns ttck Jpns pstns ptctng Munt ubc n Iw Jm

wt mtws n Mc 4, 1945. Associated Press/U.S. Marine Corps

A squn B-29 bmbs s tw cu-cv Jpn n 1945. U.S. Air

Force



Cuts LMy (wt cg) s b by B-29 nvgt but f ttck n

Ngy, Jpn n Mc 26, 1945. Tms w, w t Mc 9

bmbmnt Tky, s scn m gt. Bettmann/Corbis



Tky’s Nnbs Dstct t ttcks wt npm n xpsvs. Cnct

bungs gutt. A t stuctus v bn btt. U.S. Army



Osk t npm n xpsvs ttcks. U.S. Army



sm t tmc ttck. U.S. Army



87

SOLDIER

On Fy, Jun 2, 1967, s w m n t M Est, t U..Nvy spy sp Liberty, gy wsp jmm wt ctnc

vsppng qupmnt n m wt u vy-cb mcn

guns n ts ck, pt pn “nt Ap.” stntn ws

mp cnt n ntntn wts but ttn ms t

cst Egypt’s n nnsu, st t cty -A i s, n n t

Egypt- Is b. Os m t Jnt Cs t, w cn-

t t ntgnc vss m bv t nm cn cmmn,

ct t t s wst ng t cst tw t Egyptn cty t

n t uz Cn. Lstnng qupmnt qu t bt t -

mn cs t s, gny wtn sgt n. Amc’s xt Ft

ws punty sttn m tn 300 ms wst.

At wn n Mny, Jun 5, 1967, Is ck n cmbt wt Egypt,

Jn, n y. By Wnsy, t Jws stt sty t

cs ts ppnnts n, by npm bmbs nt st, sz t

60,000 squ-kmt n nnsu m Egypt, mng t vc-ts. Ls sgn cs-f n Jun 10, wc gv t x-Dy

W ts nm.

At 6:30 p.m. Wsngtn tm n Jun 7—12:30 .m. n Jun 8 n t

stn Mtnn, Dy Fu t w—t Jnt Cs snt t



88 Soldier

fst fv mssgs ng Liberty t sty w c cmbt. Ty

w nt snt by t gst “Fs” pty snc t sp ws nt

m t b n ny mmnnt ng, n nn v n tmy mn-

n. At 8:49 .m., Liberty c Ap, n bgn t cus swy

wst. At 9:30 .m., n c sptt mnt n -A i s, n nt t

n t g. Tcncns c nmtn m nby bttfs

t Ntn cuty Agncy.

A U.. g ung t t stn t sp. C tts st ut n wt

n ts bw. Is pts cnnt t vss gt tms btwn

5:58 .m. n 12:45 p.m., n n cs t mst gt. An nt -pt ntf t sp s U.. Nvy vss n, t, spcfcy t

Liberty. As t sp mv ng t cst, wv, subsqunt pts

t s t g ms t c tts, n quts st

t nt t nmtn. O cs jug t sgtngs t

b nt sp, n mk t unknwn.

At 11:24 .m. xpsns ck s wst -A i s. By nn, Lib-

erty’s cptn nt tck bck smk tt xtn ms m tcty. Is Nvy cmmns, mnu pts tt t bn

s m t s t pvus y, tmn ty w un t-

tck. Ty tp bts t ntcpt t gy sp vsb m

t s, n c suppt. Lt nvstgtns tmn t

pts s ttcks w mstkn: t xpsns gnt n n.

On t Liberty, -uty Amcns sunbt n ck.

Is A Fc pts n t t c cnts xpn wt

ppn just t 2:00 p.m., n tnstns s by t Is A

Fc. At n mnut pst t u, Mncm, t c cnt t

Is A Cnt ut, n t n b, s cgus,

“W’ snng n Ry,” t c nm tw Fnc-m npm-

cpb Dssut up Mystè jts. “Kus,” c p Mg

jts qupp wt ckts n mcn guns, w y v t sp.

“Mncm, Ry s npm, t w mk tngs s,” t c

cnt t c, Lutnnt Cn mu Ksv, bsv just un mnut t m t Ky, Is’s quvnt t nt-

gn, n T Avv. “Is t pmtt t g n?” Ry . “A m-

tv, yu v pmssn Ry,” Kus cnfm.



Soldier 89

“usgs, n t m n up . . . n n pss. Tw tgt. W’

cm n m t . Wtc ut t msts. Dn’t t t msts, c-

u t msts. I’ cm n m t, yu cm bn m,” Ry

On s t s ptn t 2:02:32 p.m. vcmn n t Liberty sw

t p wpns y v tm, p un, n tn tun wt

t sun t t bcks.

“Autz t snk,” s Mncm’s cgu Rbt t A Cn-

t Cnt, twnty-fv ms sut T Avv. “Mncm, s bst-

ng ?” Ksv sk. “’s gng w wt npm,” t c cnt

p. Tn, smy: “Yu’v mss by n unst,” Ry mntt 2:04 p.m. “I n’t knw. Numb Tw t . . . n nw ’s stfng,”

n unntf Is pt t mnuts t. “T mtn x-

cut tw ttck uns wt npm, n n npm bmb stuck t

sp,” cncu n Is Dns Fc sty. In tt nstnt, n

tgy tt t ts y mnstts npm’s pw n t unpct-

bty w, Amc su gn npm bmb ttck t

fst tm, n Is, n n u n, nct tb wun n tsstuncst y.

Kus’s npm sps v t sp’s bg, wc y

bn sms by ckts n mcn guns. “T j sp bust nt

uus m n mpct, ctng vytng, tn sug tug t

s ckt s t bun ntcy mng t mn ns,” c

O c t Dck Jms Enns. “I wtc Cptn McGng stn-

ng n n t stb wng t bg s t w w suny

cugt f. T ck bw m, stncns un m, vn t v-

bv m bun. T nt supstuctu t sp bust nt

w m m t mn ck t t pn bg u vs bv.”

cntnu, “A bun wt t pcu uy w w O

p [McGng], smngy mpvus t mn-m m n k-

ng stngy k tn ms, stpp cmy tug t f t -

: ‘F, f, stb s, -t v. un t f m.’ ”

“T ptus bcm pss s wun mn, swn fss n sc qupmnt. . . . In nt t msmn tb-

sz gb npm bun ngy, ng t t smk n cnu-

sn. m npm gbs bun n t pts t m, usng t



b xtngus,” Enns bsv. “My b cst gw wt un-

tny fs s bunng ckt gmnts n npm-ct ptcs

n m k ngy wsps. Dspty I bus tm wy. As t

tny ms , t t mt cntnu t s my cst,” cunt.

“Tug t s ckt s I cu s tmnus f gng n

ck uts n I cu t cck ms. T mt wbt

bun uusy m ct npm t w t fs ngu t

wt cks n buks nby,” t c t ck mm-

b. nt n nt buks bst m t ntns t t

j gsn uts.

A t Is tp bts ppc, n bgn t sgn. A

mcn gun, guns, n t U.. sp st t t Is vsss—

ccnty n pups s nt c. Dsst w: t bts

unc u tps, n wc bst tty-nn t w

n twnty-u t n t s t Liberty, n st t. Nnt-

ss, t spy sp mng t s wy. A tt tty-u ss

n 171 su njus: t st ttck n U.. wsp sncW W II.

Is, s t ssss vnts, qucky z mstk bn m.

Its tps ssstnc, n ts gvnmnt pv m p-

gy. It utmty p ptns t t Unt tts n t ms

ts t k n wun. Amc cnmn t ssut s “n

ct mty ckssnss ctng wntn sg umn .”

Npm tun upn ts ct t fst tm.

90 Soldier



91

Incny g ws vtn mbc un t w t WW II. Lus Fs’s vsttngy smp cmsty ws s bvus,

nc mnstt, tt t Unt tts n’t vn ty t kp t sct.

In 1946, t pss n s cgus pubs tug scussn

t cvmnt n t jun Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.

In 1952, s Juus n Et Rsnbg st n t w pssng tmc

scts, t U.. tnt O c ssu ctfct 2,606,107 “Incny

Gs” n m npm’s pcs mu vb ww.

Gvnmnts wty nug t cnt cs us t xpt

t mv. Amc n ts C W cnts w t gtst nt

cnsums. Eupn mp pws, tmsvs gny U.. s,

s mbc t. Bg nngn stts m up t mj gup

cnsums. Npm s bn us n mst sgnfcnt mty cncts

snc 1945.

Gc ws t fst cunty t py t g t W W II. On

Jun 20, 1948, t Ry nc A Fc us npm pv by tUnt tts gnst cmmunst pstns n t Gmms Muntns.

Dwgt Gsw, t U.. mssn c n Atns, ws snstv t p-

tnt ctcsms. “W must xpct ppgn gncs Cmmunst

cunts t . . . cg tt t us [t] f bmb s untc. . . .

6

Freedom’s Furnace



92 S o l d i e r

[T] pncp ppgn bs w b ct gnst t

Unt tts, stssng tt [t] f bmb ws m n Amc n

us n Gc ccng t [t] pns [t] Amcn Amy,”

wt. Nt s snstv, wv, s t wt t ncny. In t

vnt, just utn npm bmbs , t tt ct n ss ctcsm.

In 1949, Amc vsty ncs supps, n n August 2 Optn

Tc u uns tns npm, g xpsvs, n ckts

gnst b ubts n t Gmms n Vts Muntns. Ts tm,

bs tk cusng sss: tusns sun tt nt t

Abn n t Bkn stts, w utts sm tm. Vc-ty Atns. “Amcn bsvs . . . bv tt ss n

gt mg ws cus n t b nsttns by t 500-pun

bmbs n cgs npm ncns,” t New York Times -

pt. Npm p t wn n y C W stugg.

Wt wk w gnst tusns n Gc ws vn m c-tv gnst mns n K. At wn n uny Jun 25, 1950, tns

tusns Nt Kn tps, bck by numus tnks n -

pns, css t tty-gt p nt ut K. utns

sm c, vtuy n tnks pns, n but n-

t t my ws n wkn v. O cs bnn t sut-

n cpt u, tty-n ms m t b, tw ys t. Unt

Ntns (UN) cuty Cunc gts—wt t Rpubc Cn

bs n Twn psntng Cn, n Russ bycttng t ptst

t p’s Rpubc Cn’s xcusn—sv t sm y t

pv mty ssstnc t ut K.

Amcn npm t t gun wtn twnty-u us t UN

vt. “Bumst” Rc E. mt, cmnt, Cn, ws

n t w U.. ss n Jpn w mmb w t mx t

g. pp t fst btcs, n wn ms t ncknm “N-

pm mt.” Cws jy nt jttsnb u tnks, ttcgns s mpvs gnts, n sptc “ bmbs” css

t Jpn. Amcn tps w wtn ty-gt us.

Fc cmmunst ssuts, wv, qucky c tm t jn t -

tt. Npm cv t tcks, n ptct t nks. “ns



Freedom’s Furnace 93

tkng s pptunts pmt t cy bmbs, ckts n tnks

j gsn (npm) t tw t Nt Kn m cumns

pssng sutw gnst wy Unt tts nnty tcmnts

wc v nw bn mm by sup nvng cs fv

stgt ys,” Juy 9, 1950, Boston Herald sptc.

Outgunn gun tps un fbmbs spcy pu gnst

tnks. “T pns v n s by tnks f wt j gsn

bt n bn vncng m vcs, stbsng pt-

tn nt unk t jg sw puzz pt cgs wc suc vss

uss t suun submn. A ct t, cus, pmnnty m-nts tnk. Evn n-mss, cs nug, gnts nug t

m t j gs t f tnk’s u,” t Herald cntnu. “Wt

Npm, t sn’t mtt wt yu t t tnk nt, s ng s yu

bmb s n t gn vcnty,” Ws Mcn, n my cmbt

pt cnty tun m t nt, t Wsngtn pss b-

ng n Octb 1950: “A tt s ncssy s t spttng j

gsn t gt n t tnk n nvp t n ms. Wn t f swn n t smk cs wy, t bck n gutt tnk s s

ptny s t cw b t.” A p 110-gn npm tnks,

my scs pt, ct 15,000-squ-t bnkt f

wt n “ctv” fty-ys-squ t t cnt.

UN cs tt t pmt un t sutn pt usn

n n t gnst spt ttcks n August n y ptmb.

Ty cuntttck un ptmb 15, 1950, n bkut tt

cnc wt U.. Mn Cps mpbus nngs 220 ms nt

t Incn. Npm t cg. Ft A Fc gns c p-

tmb 17 Npm Dy n gnz 172 sts t bnkt t nt

nt n wt qu f. “Npm, t N. 1 Wpn n K,” t New

York Herald Tribune n n Octb 15. “Npm pvn t

mst utstnng sng wpn mpy n t Kn ptns,”

E Twnsn, st n t O c t C Cmc O c,

wt n Jnuy 1951. Mns ncknm t g “ckng .”

It ws vsttng wpn. BBC cspnnt Rné Cutt -

scb typc ttck: “[T] Cs, wt t smn w s

nw fny st ptnc, cm scmng n gn, cc, sw . . .

n ‘tss,’ s t w, nggnty, ng, yw, bnn-sp bjct



94 S o l d i e r

v t kn-g t g.” T bmb, wt, “ swy, tun-

ng v n v, n w t n k m gw n sp

utws n wvs unt t cv gt , Bck smk wnt up.

T sun wc cm t us t ws st x xpsn. ‘Fm,’

t s. ‘Tt’s npm,’ s t Cn nxt t m, ‘j pt. It

cs tmptu m tn 1,000 gs Cntg n w

scns. b stu.’ ” k pts pc ms just ty ys

ny pstns. tks sm t bwtc ppnnts. “Nvy

n Mn squns bnkt bt nks wt npm, bssm-

ng fs t u ngt u sx-m cumn. Tt cntnuus sup-pt fny s mz t nmy tps tt ty just wn

ng u nks n tny sctt gups, smngy m cncn

wt styng c t nxt npm p tn wt mssng n t-

tck,” wt Mn cmbt stn Jn tck.

On Vntn’s Dy 1951, npm’s nnt bty, nntymn u

Fmn wtc stks c t n s ncc pstn. “T

nt s tp wu upt n bg ng b ngms n tck bck smk,” wt. Lt, wk t pmt.

“I wnt wn tt w, n I’ nv gt t sgt. T w

uns bun bs n t. T snw ws bun t gun

n Cns bs w yng n ps, scc n bun m

u npm, t gs n ms zn n gtsqu ngs. . . . But

wt I sw n tt w ws ny t bgnnng. W un uns n

uns m, cugt n ws n vns w ty’ bn tyng t

,” s. s pt scms m bunng nms m

tn m wy.

F sp mng ntn cs. “T nmy n’t sm t mn

bng bwn up st. wv, s sn s w wu stt ppng

tmt npm n t vcnty ty wu mmty sctt n

bk ny w mvmnt,” s t Amcn cmmn t fst

tcmnt Mustng fgt-bmbs t pt m Kn -

stp. A p pss m Octb 1950 usttv. In t fst,u U.. pns cugt sv un Nt Kn ss n

g, n ttck wt npm. uvvs n sm bungs. As t

ct tun scn pss, wt gs sput m t wn-

ws. In t scn, tw fgt pts bst cnvy wt ckts n




npm, tn sm gup nmy ss w b-

sv t ttck m nby tp. As t pns ppc, wt

gs pp. “Cptu 12 Nt Kn psns w yng t

250 m.p.. n wtut fng st,” t pts pt. UN tps m

cntct n sm t Nt Kns.

Gun cs py npm s sn s qupmnt v.

Mns n ftn “Tg” m tnks, mbzn wt mgs

t pts, t Incn. Ty p cptu u tn ys t.

F t sm ct wn st m t gun s t wn pp

m t . “At sm ts ‘Tg’ Tnks n but 200 Nt K-ns up vn, n nnt tm, t Nt Kns g ts

tnks wt t,” wt Gmn Wng, st mmb n t C Cm-

c O c’s stc O c. “T psycgc ct s tmnus,”

xpn U.. c. “On tnk wnt nt vy cnty n f

n bust, n t stnc 1,000 ys nmy uck wn n t

xs n stpp fng. Ts ncu ts wy up n t ss

s w w cu nt pssby v c tm.”

It ws quy ctv n g cts n sm vgs. At u n

ptmb 22, t New York Herald Tribune wt, “ns pp

s n npm f bmbs n stcts y cnsum by yst-

y’s ppng bmbs.” F tnks fns t jb. “Wn ty n-

t t stts n tt pc, t ws k fstm, stng npm nt

ts bungs,” c U.. vtns Jy Rvn n Jck Cty.

“T w cty ws bz. . . . W (M26 sng tnks) wu t tt

bung n kp n ttng t, but t wun’t wn. Tt’s wn

w’ c n t Fm Tnks. Ty wu just bun ’m ut. Ty’ put

t ms nt t bttm s n ptty sn tt w bung ws

bz t wy t t tp .” Rsstnc n qucky: “T -

sttn ws t st t gt tc. . . . Wn t m tnks stt

pung npm nt t sttn, t ws ntng but vsttn, n

pnc . . . t NKA w n f, unnng ut t bung.”

tb mtws v smy unmbguus suts n sm sc. Amy stn Wng scb t ct ncny

g n t mu bsmnts u ms: “Ony bunng

t ny t nmy t us t us cs bcus t mu ws

wu mn stnng. T npm m t m tws, wv,



96 S o l d i e r

gnt nug t t cumb t cu mu ws, cusng tm t

cps n f t cs.” Fmtws scu muntns n

Jn F’s 1951 nvy cumnty This Is Korea s ts nt ntn

“Fy ’m ut, bun ’m ut, ck ’m.” Npm’s ccy, nc gn, ws

unsupss.

Unt Ntns tps ugt bck up t pnnsu t t Incn

nngs, n mst c t Cns b by Octb 1950.

Amcns ccup yngyng, t ntn cpt, t t n t

mnt. Cn nv t suppt ts y ss tn wk t, n t

tps v cs sut. Amc vcut u n wtwm Incn n Jnuy 4, tn cuntttck gn n cptu

t sutn cpt. Fm m-1951, t w stt nt stmt.

Npm pv ts wt s nsv t ung ts stg t

stugg. Tps f g ums, ugsss, wt g n pc

tm n xpsvs tt unc tm tn t twnty t nt t .

cny tntns tn tw ms tty ys n ctns,

n sutt ttcks gnst t bz. C Cmc O c E. F.Bun scb t ct t n utpst: “In t s xpng

ss t w mss tm cu b sn un ys bw t

n n cmng st. uny gyss m upt css t n,

m s t tt Amcn ss uck t s t cs. In just

w scns, t ms bw ut, mg nt s w css t

pmt n ngu t Rs.” A snc, “T stng t

bupty, n, mmnts t wn t ms wn, t nmy ws

gn. s tun t c t n wnmnt.” cncu yy,

“T Cns nt k t ttck pstn tt s qu f.”

As mpssv s npm’s tctc ws n K, wv, ts mn

us, s n W W II, ws sttgc bmbng. Inty, Wsngtn

tun t t “pcsn” sttgy t w b t npm cm-

pgn gnst Jpn. Wn Cn ntvn, wv, n t Unttts bgn t s, gns tun t ubn bmbmnts.

snt y Tumn’s Jun 1950 s t s cfc cmmns

spcf tt bmbng must b “nt nscmnt.” A tgtng c-

tv m Wsngtn n Jun 30 qu tt ttcks n Nt K b




mt t “puy mty tgts.” Agtns Amcn bbus-

nss n csm unn t ptc vu ts ppc. In August

1950, xmp, n Inn nwspp sst “Amcns n t

wstn pp sw spc sctu tw t Eupn nmy,

but pt nt cs cnuct n Jpn n sw n t

Est, cumntng n t cc Jpns twns s tgts t fst

tm bmbs.” cty tt Dn Acsn m n c qust

tt Gn Dugs McAtu nt t cmpnt.

A c gns n t F Est, wv, pus t bun cts m

t stt t w. “It ws my ntntn n p . . . [t] g t wk n bunng fv mj cts n Nt K t t gun, n t -

sty cmpty vy n but 18 mj sttgc tgts,” Emmtt

“Rs” O’Dnn, cmmn bmb cs n K n puty

t Cuts LMy ung t ttcks n Jpn, t tstf t Cngss.

Wnng ts, s, “wu tk c t umn spcts t

pbm.”

Wsngtn, wv, ws fm. A pn t t n ptmb 1950by McAtu n F Est A Fcs cmmnng gn Gg

ttmy t sn n un B-29s gnst yngyng ws jct

by t Jnt Cs t. “It s s tt yu vs t Jnt Cs

t, cnc wt g utty, ny pns yu my v

b yu utz suc n ttck ttcks sm n-

tu,” ty wt. “As mtt pcy, t Jnt Cs t wu

gny sppv mss ttcks, vn gnst mty tgts,

suc ttcks cu pssby b ntpt t b gnst t cvn

pputn Nt K,” A c stn Rbt Fut bsv

n n c sty. Ts ppc mstc vntgs, s w s

bnfts t ntntn tns. As c c st yt Vn-

nbg nt, “ Egt Amy gt cbb n ws usng t

mums t bmb . . . [] mt nust , t wu v bn

ptty unvb pubcty t A Cps.” In t ws, t U..

pubc wu bjct pns n stnt mssns pv unb tptct tps n t gun.

Lc cmmns us t gt sctn v bttf tc-

tcs t mpmnt n bsutst sttgy, bs n ncns, wv,

w pssb. At mtng n August 14, 1950, xmp, McAtu



98 S o l d i e r

wnt t s stutn mp, O’Dnn c, s n t v n

btwn t Nktng Rv n t usn pmt, n s

“Rs, I wnt yu t mk wnss ts .” Wt nnty-gt

B-29s, O’Dnn c, “I ws supps t mk wnss ut

27 squ ms, n wc n n knw ny wbuts n nmy,

n ny nmy cs w t.” By t n Octb, ccng

t t gn, tt mssn n vy t n ws cmpt: “Just

b t Cns cm n w w gun. T w n m t-

gts n K,” t Cngss.

Cn’s nty n t bt. On Nvmb 1, Amcn cst f wt t W W II cbts. On Nvmb 5,

McAtu t stuctn vy cty, vg, cty, nst-

tn, n mns cmmunctn, xcpt ctn ms n y-

ctc pnts, btwn t btt n n t b. nvju,

mj tnspttn cnt, ws t fst cty t b ncnt. “Yu

utz t g wt yu pnn bmbng n K n t

nt ncung tgts t nv

ju,” t Jnt Cs cb. On N-vmb 8, B-29s pp 85,000 ncny bmbs n t mtps,

“mvng t t mp.” Npm t ypng wk t “t bun ut

t pc.” By t n t mnt “ g pt [t] Nt Wst

btwn Yu Rv n sutws t nmy ns . . . s m ss

bunng,” t c pt. It wu sn b “ wnss

scc t,” utts vs, n n c McAtu’s

tty t sut.

yngyng ws tp bjctv. At pmny ttck n Dcm-

b 14, 1950, wt xpsvs n ncns, Gn Mttw Rg-

wy unc B-29s m wt npm n Jnuy 3 n 5, 1951, “wt

t g bunng t cty t t gun wt ncny bmbs.”

Nt Kn stt s t cnubtn “bun k unc

tw ys.” Abut n-t t muncpty ws uc t cns.

As n Jpn, t c us vnc tfn pns t mk K-

n cts t b ncnt, w by bmbs tt v t fv-mnut ntvs t p npm m w vs un 4,000 t.

“Onc t f gt gng, c bmb t t cngtn,”

Fut xpn. In cuntvng stbck t UN, Nt Kn




n Cns cs cptu u scn tm n t sm y

npm m ts ntn cuntpt unc.

c m bmbmnts t ntn cpt cntnu

mst tw ys. Optn ssu ump, n vn-u bg n

Juy 11, 1952, ws n t mst mkb. In kn mg

n “pcsn” ppc, Gn Jcb mt tt “Wn-

v pssb ttcks w b scu gnst tgts mty sgnf-

cnc s stut tt t stuctn w v tus ct

upn t m t cvn pputn ctvy ngg n t gs-

tc suppt t nmy cs.” Lts wn snts t sty wym mty cts. On t y, Amcn, ut Kn, Aust-

n, n Bts pns m fs n ct cs—vtuy

vy unt vb t t F Est cmmn—w 1,254 sts n

pp 23,000 gns npm n t cpt. Fw-up ts -

mn cvns t vc. Wn t sum bcsts tw

ys t, R yngyng s 1,500 bungs bn v n

900 m mg. At w m ssuts, cmmns cyngyng n m tgts wt ttckng.

Gns knw wt wk. “ctcy vy U.. fgt pn tt

s wn nt Kn c t st tw npm bmbs,” cmc

c Twnsn wt n Jnuy 1951. Abut 21,000 gns npm

t K vy y n 1950. As cmbt ntnsf t Cn’s ntvn-

tn, tt numb m tn tp. On n “vg g y,” cc-

ng t Egt Amy cmc c Dn B, UN pts pp

70,000 gns npm: 45,000 m t U.. A Fc, 10,000–12,000

by ts nvy, n 4,000–5,000 by mns. Fcts n Jpn, sn k

pnxs, mnuctu $40 pstc bmbss, wc nnty t

n un gns g, n muc t cmc fngs. Lt n

t w p cnvt Kn tfc smk pnts m m.

Tps mx t st. “It s smp mtt t mx sm Npm pw-

n wt b gsn, t t ‘bw’ 24 us, tn pu t nt

150-gn jttsnb u tnk n ny tgt tt mgtpsnt ts,” Twnsn wt. A tt 32,357 tns npm n

K, but ub tt pp n Jpn n 1945. Nt ny t -

s p m bmbs n K tn n t cfc tt ung W



100 S o l d i e r

W II—635,000 tns, vsus 503,000 tns—m wt ws n-

pm, n bt bsut n tv tms.

Bbc vsttn sut. In My 1951, t snt Tumn

v m m cmmn, McAtu tstf t Cngss tt “T

w n K s y mst sty tt ntn 20,000,000

pp. I v nv sn suc vsttn. I v sn, I guss, s muc

b n sst s ny vng mn, n t just cu my stmc, t

st tm I ws t. At I k t tt wckg n ts tusns

wmn n cn n vytng, I vmt.” T m supm

cmmn cntnu, “I yu g n nfnty, yu pptutng sugt suc s I v nv n t sty mnkn.” W

v t st gtn t Nt’s twnty-tw mj cts.

yngyng, cty mn pp b 1950, ws s t v

ny tw bungs t ntct. LMy, w wnt n t t t-

tgc A Cmmn n bcm t yungst U.. u-st gn

snc Uysss Gnt, wt “W bun wn just but vy cty n

Nt K n ut K both . . . w k v mn cv-n Kns n v sv mn m m t ms, wt t

nvtb tn tgs bun t nsu.” As O’Dnn, w

vct y ttcks, t Cngss n Jun 25, 1951, “O,

ys: w t t nyw . . . I wu sy tt t nt, mst t

nt Kn nnsu s just tb mss. Evytng s sty.

T s ntng t stnng wty t nm.”

Obsvs nt npm’s s cts. Cspnnt Cutt -

scb s v n twn twnty mnuts t ts cptu by t UN

n y 1951: “A un tm sttc t st smng cs

ss. . . . [A] cps, bt upgt by sm tck cntctn st up by

t npm wc k m, st usy gnnng, n sm-

ng v.” A w ys t, ct t Bts f spt sum-

mn m t cmpn but njus cus by t nw wpn. “Innt us cuus fgu ws stnng tt cuc, gs st,

ms ut m s ss. n ys, n t w s by,

ny wc ws vsb tug t ttts bun gs, ws

cv wt bck cust spck by yw pus,” t junst




wt. “ t stn bcus ws n ng cv wt skn,

but wt cust-k cckng wc bk sy.” ts vmt t t

cts t muntn. “A vts uctnty n t nustng

ssn nscmnt sugt,” cunt sty wn m -

fc sucs. “[W] k cvns, ny cvns, n bmb

t ms; f w vgs wt t ccupnts—wmn n c-

n n 10 tms s mny n cmmunst ss—un sws

npm, n t pts cm bck t t sps stnkng t vmt

twst m t vts by t sck wt ty t .”

p w suvv npm ttcks b f wtnss. On D-cmb 1, 1950, mn pt ccnty pp s bmb n t

m but n zn U.. ss suun by Cns tps.

Jms Rnsn pt t suts: “Mn I knw, mc n

ugt wt, bgg m t st tm. It ws tb. W t npm

bun t skn t csp, t wu b p bck m t c,

ms, gs . . . k ptt cps. Mn bgg t b st. I cun’t.”

A w wks t, n Jnuy 20, 1951, U.. pns pp npm tt mut cv n n cvns bn t t vcut. T

cvn, s t ppn, st uns ugs, ncung ftn-

y- Em n-wn. “Wn t npm t t ntnc, t bst

n smk knck ut ksn n cst- mps w n t

cv. . . . It ws ptc-bck cs—pp sutng c t,

stmpng, ckng. m s w su cw n p, cvng u

cs wt wt ct. m s w su us ut tug t bz.

Ts w w nt bun t t suct,” Em c. T

yut g mcn-gun stfng m t pns, n scp.

In Fbuy, New York Times cspnnt Gg Btt -

scb t untng t sm vg sut u. “A npm

t t vg t u ys g wn Cns w ng up

t vnc, n nw n t vg v ty bu t b-

cus t s nby t t s. Ts cspnnt cm css n

wmn, t ny n w sm t b t v, zy ngngup sm cts n bckn cuty f wt t bs u

mmbs my,” wt, “T nbtnts tugut t v-

g n n t fs w cugt n k n kpt t xct pstus

ty wn t npm stuck— mn but t gt n s bcyc,



102 S o l d i e r

fty bys n gs pyng n n png, usw stngy un-

mk, ng n n pg tn m s-Rbuck ct-

gu cyn t M O N. 3,811,294 $2.98 ‘bwtcng b

jckt—c.’ ” Btt cncu, “T must b mst tw un

n t tny mt.”

uc pts spk sm ctcsm uts t Unt tts. In

Btn, w mms ncny ttcks by Gmny ung t

Btz mn s, mmbs mnt (Ms) pty ptst

cvn csuts m npm n t spng 1952. Oppnnts gu

t g ws nscmnt n cu. Mty cs su nt us n-pm n “s wc pmnnty cvn,” n M gu. “It s

wpn wc ncts tb n nscmnt ss n sung,”

s t cbsp Yk, w mn tt t b utw. C

W ntgnsts jn n, vn by pncp, ptcs, cmbn-

tn bt. Npm “s mnstus su-styng vc tt puts

ts us byn t p umn scty,” cg t F Est c-

spnnt t London Daily Worker , pubctn ssct wt tUR.

Wsngtn spn mmty, vn tug t ws n cm-

pb mstc utcy. ntgn cs n tt t c t-

gt cvns, sst t pp wnng ts b ttcks,

cm npm buns w n nt m ny ts, n mntn

tt sm wpns bn us snc 360 BC. In pvt, Om

By, gn t my n cmn t Jnt Cs t,

t t Bts tt t bjctns “wu m Ang-Amcn -

tns” ty cntnu. qust pmssn t ssu sttmnt

tt cnfm UK suppt U.. npm ttcks. m Mnst

Wnstn Cuc xpss msgvngs, but nt stn n t wy

gmnt by Btn’s cmmns. Cuc c s mt-

tns, nt s ctns, n n August 22, 1952, f mmnum: “I

nt k ts npm bmbng t . A u t pp must b

bun, nt by ny f, but by t cntnts t bmb. W sumk gt mstk t cmmt usvs t ppv vy cu

m w ctng t cvn pputns.” s c s-

ty cntnu, “Npm n t w ws vs by n us by fgtng




mn n ctn gnst tnks n gnst vy n stuctus. N

n v tugt spsng t but v t cvn pputn. I

w tk n spnsbty t. It s n tng t us npm n cs bt-

t, m t n mmt gun tps. It s qut nt t

ttu gt msss pp wt t.” Cuc’s W W II mm-

s vnty nt ncu, t st, t n t w gnst Jpn.

In t n, By nv ssu t sttmnt.

Npm’s mst tcut n n ts p ws Bts pw

tst n w w xpt J. M. pgt, m pncp ssstnt

scty t A Mnsty, stn wt ns n ubtb tg svnty-sx. In Fbuy 1953, wtng n t mpccby stbs-

mnt Journal o the Royal United Ser vices Institute or Deence Studies,

gu t ncny ws pcs t tn nscmnt, c-

tv n gn n spcy gnst bjcts, n mpssb t gut

s mtt pctc. “T bmb, t s vnt, s nt wpn stt-

gc us . . . npm ws pp wt xtny pcsn, smtms

ny 50 ys t Amcn tps; t ws s pp n tss w mns w ng t cty bnt,”

bgn. It cm nt ts wn n K, cntnu: “Npm ws

n t ‘scvs’ t Kn W. It bn us n t fgt-

ng n t cfc n t 1939–45 W, but t ws n K tt ts ctv-

nss s stppng wpn ws uy mnstt.” It ugt ctvy,

n nb cus. “I t s us t stp n nmy tnk wc s vncng

n pps scuncng ts wy tug t pss wun yng n

ts pt, t sum v nvv n ts us s nt n n s t

ccunt. . . . But t t Unt Ntns cs mgt v bn bun

nck n cp ut K n 1950–51. Tt wu v bn n mm-

sub cmty umnty,” wt. Mv, “It s ptcuy

ctv n gnst mté; t s nt pmy wpn us gnst

psnn.” Fny, pgt mntn, ts smpcty n w cst m

t ctvy uncntb. “T ngnts npm— j pt—

cmmn n unvsy vb substncs wc cu nt ps-sby b cnt n t sm wy s unum.” Ony btt wpns,

cncu, wu n npm’s gn—s ny t ng bw n t

utty m kngts. “Nw wpns, b wpns myb, w



104 S o l d i e r

k t nw mu n u ssn,” cncu. Rmkby, pgt

nt scuss cntmpnus npm bmbmnts Kn ct-

s n s tc.

Fgtng sw n K n m-1953, n n n Juy 27 wt t

nmunjm mstc. As t nk , npm, n t pnts -

bt t nsp, spp mst nty m pubc scus.

Amc’s C W cnts n As, Ltn Amc, n t M Est

us npm qunty btwn t ws n K n Vtnm. U..vss tn supp t g cty. T nt pp t v

bn ny sgnfcnt bjctns. Its cst, wys w, sms nt t v

vn mt scussn. ppn cs qust Amcn npm

s y s Nvmb 1949 t us gnst cmmunst ukbp bs.

tt Dptmnt cs jct t pttns n t ty tt n-

pm mgt ct m nms tn t k. Mn’s ngns c-

t mstc tntv, but U.. vss pt t “ nt gvt s ct bcus n bunng quts.” Fny, t t

n 1951, wt npm’s suts n bt Gc n K n ctv

cunt t pmtc skptcsm, supps v n buk. Apns

pp jy bmbs gnst gu cncnttns n gcutu n

b s unt t n t w n 1954.

In Ltn Amc, t fst n mst xtnsv us npm ws n

Cub, w t Unt tts p t cu p Fugnc Btst

t F Cst. On My 24, 1958, tf wt supps U.. n-

pm, Btst unc Optn Vn, s fst n ny nsv. It

. ts pp bunng g n t wn tps, s w s bs,

n t spt tt tt cncu t ptn. Cst c

vcty svn mnts t. In 1961, t Cnt Intgnc Agncy -

npm stks t suppt t nng ts cuntvutny

émgé my t y Gón n t By gs n Ap 17. Invu

B-26 bmbs m wt mcn guns n fbmbs t vmuc mpct tt y, n t mnng t nxt, ccng t nv-

sn stn w Jns. T Agncy tn “sttc t us

nggmnt by snng -zn B-26s, tw tm pt by Am-




cns n un cv U.. Nvy Cmbt A t pns,” Jns

wt. ts “sptt svn-m-ng cnvy tnks, tucks n

mtmn,” cntnu. “Tw t pns p n n ttck,

n ttng t vc wt ckt n t t styng t

st tuck t t n t n. T cnvy mmbz, sx B-26s

pty btt t ctc mss wt bmbs, ckts, mcn guns

n npm, styng svn tnks n twnty tp-f tucks w

nctng gtn un csuts n vng tw ms smk n

f cunng upw.” Dspt ts , t nvsn cps n t

tnn Ap 19.

Wsngtn bck t st tw npm stks n u n Bv.

On ptmb 19, 1965, t uvn c, ssst by U.. pc

Fcs, fbmb suspct cmmunst gu cncnttn n

t Inc uns Mcu ccu. my, n Mc 31, 1967, t B-

vn c ttck muntn gu tts wt npm n

cmpgn tt n wt t cptu, xcutn, n mputtn t

ns Agntn pyscn n vutny Enst “C”Guv.

In t M Est, Is us npm sv tms. In 1956, t nw

stt py t g gnst Egypt (n cnjunctn wt Fnc cs,

n n ts wn); n 1964, gnst y; n 1967, gnst Egypt n gn

gnst y; n 1969, gnst Lbnn n Egypt; n 1970, n n

Egypt; n 1972, gn n Lbnn; n n 1973, gnst Egypt n y

ung t Ym Kppu W. Egypt pp npm n Is cs n

1973.

Tuky s ccsny us npm, ppng g bmbs n Cy-

pt cs bck by NATO y Gc n 1964, n gn n 1974.

“T pns f ckts, cnnn, ncny bmbs n npm—

j gsn,” Cy Fnswt pt t New York Times n

August 1964. “uns nn-cmbtnts v bn k n ttcks

n nncnt pp. T vgs ms n ygs v bn -

uc t bunng uns, n mss umnty s m by t us npm bmbs,” sst Znn Rsss, t Cypus psnttv t

t Unt Ntns. In ptcuy wkw mmnt t Unt

tts, 750-pun npm bmb mnuctu by t Amcn



106 S o l d i e r

tv Cmpny n mk “pty U.. A Fc” ws cv-

by Gk Cypts. A ptgp t vc ws pubs n

1966 pmpt puc by t Unn Junsts t Atns

Dy Nwspps tt “tn tms Cypus.” In 1974, Tuks

pn pp npm bmb n t Austn UN pckp-

ng ss vng n t c, n bun t mn v.

Eupn cs, smy, xtnsvy n npm n t

fgtng tt ccmpn t n cnsm. Fnc cs t

wy. On Jnuy 16, 1951, t fst npm bmbs n Vtnm wn

L. M. Cssn, cmmn t Fnc c n Incn, uswt c “bmbs spécs” (“spc bmbs”) st-tc

ns t twn Vn Yn n n. Ts gst ssut

t w t t ws vsttng. A b Vt Mn c pv

vv ccunt: “[A] sun, pns n nt my ys.

cms n t m g, gg-sp cntns, ppng m t

fst pn, w by t ggs m t scn n t pn[s].

Immns sts ms, xtnng v uns mts, t sms,stk t n t nks my ss. Ts s npm, t f wc

s m t sks.” Its ct ws mst supntu: “T bmb s

csy bn us n I ts fy bt tucng my w by. T

mn nw ng n ctns n I cnnt tm bck. T

s n wy ng ut un ts tnt f wc ws n c-

tns n buns vytng n ts pssg.” On t c’s ss

n up: “s ys w w wt t. ‘Wt s ts? T tmc bmb?’

‘N, t s npm.’ ” T nw wpn wn t btt t Fnc.

Cssn pt tt t nmy subsqunty cng ts tctcs n

m bmbs un t jung cnpy. cmmn, t-

, tt t g b us t bun cps n st cv t tn cts

n t pp n tm.

Fnc s us npm n ntn Ac. On Juy 22, 1961, ncn-

y bmbmnts p v bsg mty bs n Bzt,

Tuns. “Numus vctms tb t by bng bun vby npm bmbs, spt t n t Fnc gtn. My -

gtn s . . . pts swng t vctms npm bmbs,” tstf

t Tunsn psnttv t t UN. Cssn’s cgus vnty




t gn’s vc but npm: “Tw-ts t Fnc-

pnt sts tt xst n stn Ag n 1954 w bun by

Fnc cs ung t [1954–1962] gu w Agn npn-

nc, bcus w n pv st ntnst gus.

Abut n- t ws sty by npm, ccng t

[Fnc ngn Jn] Cbn,” t New York Times pt n

Nvmb 1962.

Bts n tugus ms kws put t g t wk n Ac.

“Npm bmbs w us t ut t tsts,” junst Rbt

Cny xpn Bts tctcs tt n t 1952–1960 Mu MuRbn n Kny. tug bun cps n vstt cncnt-

tns Angn gus wt npm n 1961 n 1962. It ws cn-

su n 1972 by t UN 98 t 6 (Bz, tug, wt-u ut

Ac, pn, t Unt Kngm, n t Unt tts n pps-

tn) “t utss us npm n cmc substncs n Ang,

Gun (Bssu) n Cp V n Mzmbqu.”

Inpnnc w m cns t w t xmp tpst msts. Egypt sptc npm bmbs t suppt yst s

n t Ymn cv w tt stt n 1962. Bmbmnts c v-

gs n cntst s t bnn t ms n v n cvs. On

ptmb 24, 1965, n gn n 1971, In pp npm n k-

stn tps. A pt scb c vcs ng t Ksm

tuc n. In 1969 n 1974, Kus snts ntn Iq p-

tst npm ttcks by t Bg gvnmnt. Bns pt

npm us by Ngn cs ung t 1969 cv w. In Bz, t

mty junt us npm gnst Mst bs w t t ct

“bt zn” n mt pt t sutstn Amzn ung t

1970–1974 Agun w.

Ts wy sps cncts w xtnsv scutny m p-

tc s, wys, junsts, cmcs, n t cmmntts.

Npm spcfcy, wv, ws mntn ny n pssng ung

ts p, xcpt t sctt Bts bjctns n 1952. Btns ntuc ws k “cvns,” “cu,” “nscmnt,” n

“g,” nt t scussn but ncny bmbmnts—

tms wt sgnfcnt g vnc n t ys—but t cmpgn



108 S o l d i e r

gy n wt t Kn mstc. F muc t w n t

ys t W W II, npm, n sm spcts k ts ct

Amc, ws n nnvtn wsm pw vb t w cst

n n quntty: nw n unqustnb utty. Vtnm cng

tt.



109

Amcn npm’s ntuctn t Vtnm ws ptntus. OnFbuy 27, 1962, tw ut Vtnms c pts, tn

by U.. vss, tun t Dugs A-1 kys n jy bmbs

n t psnt pc Wsngtn’s y Ng Dn Dm n n t-

tmpt cup. “T pns m pt psss v t snt

c t w ttu, ppng npm ( j gsn), fng ckts,

stfng,” t Assct ss pt. O cs nty n t

ncny’s nvvmnt. “T s sm snstvty n t subjct

npm, wc ws us gnst Vtnm by t Fnc,” xpn

New York Times pt m Bgt. It pv t . “A cck

n t ttck ysty sw tt t npm bmb ngu t

t pc n s m,” cntnu. Dmg ws s xtn-

sv Dm t nt pc, symb ut Vtnms xcu-

tv utty, z t t gun n pc.

Npm’s mgt ws ppnt t ny bsv. “A cntnuus st

ms m w ws vsb mvng css n f,” t Assc-t ss pt Fbuy 1963 stk by U.. p ts gnst

ut Vtnms vg. On My 1, s U.. mty cmmtmnts n-

cs, cty Dns Rbt McNm wtc Vtnms

c pns p fbmbs n n xcs. Just ty-gt us

7

Vietnam Syndrome



110 S o l d i e r

t, pts f t fst cmbt pts npm stks by ut

Vtnms cs. By t n t y, ts us ws utn. “On c

ys ptns uncng n t nnt- stunt n t Cv

t [n gn] cn wtc Gvnmnt pns ppng npm n

gus css t gn Rv,” ck mt wt n t New

York Times.

In Mc 1964, pubctn n Lnn ptgp Vtnm-

s bby bun by npm gv sm pus, but nt puc ny

t ctn t mgs. Wsngtn ssu n c sttmnt

cncn but n ts nstucts pp t s tt cus tc’s njuy. On Mc 9, 1965, snt Lynn Jnsn xpn

npm ttcks t tgts n Nt Vtnm. G f t vn

ys t. “Npm bmbs cns ‘cnvntn nnc,’ ” t

New York Times xpn t ts s wn t pt t stk.

ntgn pnns ntgt npm nt Amc’s mty buu-

ccy s ts us xpn. In Dcmb 1963, t my n c x-

pn n n ntn mnu tt tckn u “ncss t ng mtws, mpts sw bunng ppts, gvs cngng qu-

ts, n cuss m t bun ws t sucs n t g

un cns.” T w t kns npm pw, t svcs

vs: “M1” w Lus Fs’s cp 50% ccnut , 25%

nptnc cs, n 25% c c; “M2” sc t ncs st-

bty; n M4, tckn wt n umnum sp v m xz

ptum, mx st n y m g. U.. qupmnt ncu

bmbs up t 750 puns n sz, npm n mns, n sm cns-

ts f wt t ncny. E. B. sbg’s wt pspus

bust sgn, tst n t v Cg scc f, ws t n-

cny gntn systm cc.

m bsvs ppu t cus ctvnss stcky f n

tms mnscnt W W II n t Kn W. Nb ut

Jn tnbck ws ptcu ntusst. In Jnuy 1966, pps

t “tnbck sup b” n tt t snt Jnsn’s spc s-sstnt Jck Vnt, w w t t cty Dns Rbt

McNm. “I tnk t mst tyng mn wpn s t npm

bmb. p w w cg f wn’t g tug ms,” t

nvst wt. “Wt I suggst s npm gn, pck n vy

pstc sp mst t xct sz n wgt bsb. T tn-



Vietnam Syndrome 111

t cu b vy w pw— just nug t bk t pstc s

n gnt t nmmb. I t npm s pck un pssu, t

w sp ts wn t s bks,” t Nb wnn cntnu.

“T tnt ( cntct cp) su b c spty n nst

scw n just b twng. Ts wu w mn t cy

sck u bs wtut ng t ms,” vs. Amc’s n-

tn pstm pp t pcty t wpn. “[T] sn’t n

Amcn by v 13 w cn’t pg bsb m nf t m pt

wt ccucy. An gwn mn wt snt xpnc cn muc

btt. It s ntu wpn t Amcns,” xpn. Nn p-p t v bn mnuctu.

By 1966, npm ws n ntg pt t U.. w t n Vtnm.

Fgt-bmbs pp pps 4,500 tns p mnt n Incn

v: but 13 pcnt t tt wgt muntns v by .

T wng y, t tt ppc 5,000 tns p mnt. It pk

n 1968 t n stmt 5,900 tns mnty. Abut 388,000 tns U..

npm bmbs n Incn n t c m 1963 t 1973, cm-p t 32,357 tns us n K n just v t ys n 16,500

tns pp n Jpn n 1945. Wy ws t wpn s vub?

“p v ts tng but bng bun t t,” pt s.

Nw pts tn tn t Dx ttn, n t ut Cn

t cst ut Vtnm tt st ttng cntngnt

ct cs. , ccng t mty vtn spcst Fnk

vy, “ ns w t s t p bmbs n umn bngs n

wtc uts g up n b ng m wn s umnum npm

tnks tumb nt tm.” Tctcns cns npm spcy usu

cs cmbt suppt. ts n t p 120-gn tnks, wc

wg 800 puns n w tn t ng by t t tck, m fty

t n t t wtn un t tgts. T tn tnks tumb

tcy s ty , n bnkt n but 150 t ng n fty

t w n ms. “Anyn w suvvs npm ttck s pt t b

uy bun n, wtut fst t mc c, s cnmn t ngng, pnu t , t bst, pmnnt sfgumnt,” t New

York Times pt.

Vt Cng tps, w n ccss t cmbt pns, ccsn-

y us npm n n-c mtws. “pyng f but n

gt wsng cs, t Vt Cng st vytng f. . . . C



112 S o l d i e r

cn w ck n gsty mbc, nnts w t t mt-

s’ bsts,” Time pt 1967 tcty. It ws nt, wv,

g pt t sn.

ntgn mnus bcm m t s bmbng ncs. In

1966, t my’s Bombs and Bomb Components stngus “fbmbs”

m “ncny bmbs” pmy n t bss s tcknss. “F

bmbs usuy tn-sknn,” t cumnt xpn. gs

scmtc wngs t pcsy wt uts mnt. By 1970, t

svc’s Combat Flame Operations Field Manual spcf “Fbmbs

us pmy by mnts t tctc c t suppt gunptns. Incny bmbs gny us by t sttgc

c t ttck sttgc p tgts.” Bt bmbs w usu gnst

cmbtnts, t mnu cntnu, but “ncny” vcs cu b

py gnst “Fcts tt suppt nmy ptns” wc “n-

cu . . . ubn s.” , my spcsts wt, ntwtstnng

J. M. pgt’s pcsn ts, bmbng ws qu: “T b

ctv s ntpsnn wpns, ncny bmbs must b us nsu cnt quntts t vcm xstng f ns msus. T-

, t bjct s t suun t psnn wt ‘w f’ t ct

ntns t n t xust xygn supps n ncs spcs. A

bmbng must b us t ccmps ts.” Dms pcsn ubn

ncny bmbng .

Vtnm n nnvtn t t tctcs npm vy:

b ps m cpts, gnt by ncny gns. Vtn

Bb k xpn w t ws n: “A ‘Npm Dp’ ws usuy

m C-47 Cnk cg cpt. [W] ung twnty s fty-fv-

gn ums n cg nts un t b. . . . T pt wu v n

t tgt unt t n up wt t bts n t u ps, n tn

s t k. As t ums csc wnw, u-mn cw

wu sntc t nts n tug t n tn stw tm wy.”

Tn, k cntnu, “I wu n ut t gt s n p wt

pspus tmt gn t ty t n wt t npm n gntt. Ts suns y smp, xcpt tt nm p ws t mx -

sp n ss tn 400 t bv t gun.” Rsuts m n suc

unn t tctc’s ctvnss: “T fng stpp n [

utnnt] pt tt sv VC c t sun. Ty




cm bustng ut t pstns cv n j gsn n n

nt t ms t Amcn tps scmng ‘C !’ (n ct, ‘I

sun!’). T ts sty n t bunks n ck n pc.”

Evn mssv cmmtmnt ts u wpn, wv, ws nt

nug vcty. In Ap 1972, t Unt tts py npm n

t gst quntts v sn n sty t bck mssv Nt Vt-

nms nsv. Time scb t nz t. “Wn gt

u ntms ns n t twn 10,000-t. unwys, t pns qucky

tx t ws ptctv cnct vtmnts. Onc pn s sy

pk, t pt cmbs ut n s n c cn Buws.W sps t bw, yw kt tuck tuns up wt m-

mnts, n t gun cw uy ms t ntm wt n w-

sm y wpny—n bmbs, ckts n npm cnsts.

Nmy, t nt ptn tks ny 20 mnuts. T b nv gts

wm b t pt cmbs bck nt s ntm t tk n nt

st.” But t bmbmnts my y t. In 1973, t Unt

tts wtw ts st tps. ut Vtnm, spt t ssstnc pps 400,000 tns npm pp n ts b, sun n

Ap 30, 1975. Npm, n wt t Amc, st ts fst w.

U.. cvns spn t t us npm ung t fst ys t

Vtnm W muc s ty ung t Kn W: t ws nt muc

scuss n, wn t ws, bsvs gny xpn npm’s

cts s n nvtb, pps gttb, mnt w. As Am-

c’s nvvmnt xpn n 1965 n 1966, wv, bt ncs.

Bts cmmnts, s ung t Kn W, vc t fst bjc-

tns t Amcn ncny bmbs. Gm Gn, n s 1955 nv

The Quiet American, n s ccts bsv “ ‘Wt I tst

s npm bmbng. Fm 3,000 t, n sty.’ m pss gs-

tu. ‘Yu s t st ctcng f. G knws wt yu wu s

m t gun. T p vs bunt v, t ms g vtm k wt. Ty wt tug wt f.’ ” Ts ws pssby t

fst ctcsm npm n Engs ttu. Rbt Dvs, tn c-

mn t Engs Dptmnt t mt Cg, smss t nv s

tuus n vw t New York Times: “[Gn’s] cctus



114 S o l d i e r

Amcn typs tn s cu n tt s ts Jn-u -

t . . . cvztn cmps xcusvy cwng gum, npm

bmbs, nts, Cngssn wtc-unts, cy wpp n c-

pn, n nïv b n n’s wn sup vtu.”

nc scn n npm n Vtnm mst c. Tn,

n Ap 8, 1963, s t Unt tts xpn ts us t g, Nb

ut Btn Russ v bstng ctqu n tt t t

New York Times. “[T] w wc s bng cnuct s n tcty.

Npm jy gsn s bng us gnst w vgs, wtut wn-

ng,” wt. Ets sp butt: “Npm s bn usby t ut Vtnms c gnst mgn vns

Vtcng gus. Its us s ctny k nncnt pp—s t

wpns v n n ws. Amcn vss v pps ts m-

pymnt, n bt m n pctc guns, gnst xcpt cy

ntf mty tgts.” Cmpnts ts ntu but npm, t

ts cncu, ct “An untunt n—spt s mnnc

s psp—n untnkng cptvty t t mst tnspntCmmunst ppgn.”

Junsts stugg. T sm, npm’s mpct ws n ngm.

“Tctc suppt s us xtnsvy, but t tn s cut t sc-

tn wt t pp k by npm gmnttn bmbs w

gus my ms,” n Assct ss pt wt n Juy

8, 1962. T ts, t g ws cuntpuctv. Fnc junst

Ggs ncn, knpp n n gn sxtn ys n

1964 by t Vt Cng, gv n t st ssssmnts npm’s

ctvnss, n ts csts: “T stuctv cts Amcn pns

ppng npm bmbs—t Vtcng tf tm— vy

gt, n t nsugnts v n nsw t tm. Evy y, B-26’s st

t jung, bmbng nytng tt ks suspcus n sttng f t

wt psum t b Vtcng cps.” wv, cntnu,

“Wnv skms ccus, t gn c ntvns n w

vgs bun wn. w cn n xpct t cuntys nt ty t t nsugnts n suc ccumstncs?” Lc pst Augustn

Nguyn Lc c sm cncusn. “w cn w xpn t

mt wn c s bun by npm?” sk t sm y,

wn ccpt t Rmn Mgsysy Aw utstnng svc




t As. Imptty, n, ws cut gvn t gvus njus

nct by t g. “On stugt wmn pp t t f m-

c sttn ng c ws gs bn by bun by n-

pm. T c s nt xpct t v,” N n pt t

New York Times n Fbuy 1966.

ntgn cs, wv, n ubts but t g’s utty.

Ty b ctcs nïv. “Rstctns n tk but t us npm

cm t t Vtcng gv ptcuy ctv ppgn stbu-

tn t t ptgp vg n s c t . But t

fbmbs v bn t vub n pnttng cvs n tncs tgv up,” n unntf “sn Amcn c” t New York Times

pt Jck Lnggut n Mc 7, 1965. “T pubc sms t v n

vsn t npm,” t suc cntnu, “bcus pp tnk t’s

kn t bst mn’s tn t y m t t.” T nxt y,

3,500 mns n t n U.. bs t D Nng. By t n

t y, snt Jnsn ct mst 200,000 U.. tps

t Vtnm.

Objctns n ps tnt s Amcn cmmtmnts xpn.

“I nt mmb sng nstnc Gmn mty c (nt

vn n Gstp c) spkng s pny, cusy n sm-

ssy t Gmn w cms s yu ‘sn c’ spks t

yng t t wmn, cn, pss psnts, n t nn-

cmbtnts n ut Vtnm,” W W II suvv Emy Rssky

Dtt wt t t ts t New York Times n Mc 16, n

spns t t pc by n ct bv. Bts pmntns

cmp npm t psn gs wpns. On t t n, tty-

t-y- U.. Amy cptn Jsp us Bmngm b-

sv n btt, “I t n’t bn t stks . . . t ws

g cnc w wu v bn vun n u t nk.” Wn -

cpts n fgt-bmbs bgn “pung npm v t Vtcng

nsttns,” pt c t sm cs, t nmy bk n

n. “[I]t ws k stng fs n b” t tt, us s.

Cspnnt Cs M cptu t ntn’s unctnty n

ptmb 1965 New York Times sptc tt “A tks t

Vtcng—An ut Vtnm Cvns.” bgn wt n nct

“ wmn w s bt ms bun by npm n ys s



116 S o l d i e r

by bun tt s cnnt cs tm. Wn t s tm t sp

my puts bnkt v .” But, cntnu, “N wpn

s ntnscy b n w (npm s n t vy bst).” cncu

wt ts xcng: “ ‘I wn ny cvns w k?’ pt ws

sk. ‘W t knws?’ ws t nsw.”

Ts ws t unctn cntxt wn t tn Cmmtt c

n Vtnm, gup but tw zn tn Unvsty stunts

n cuty, bst by w snts m nby twns, bgn tmt. Cmmtt mmbs w “c m ss ftuy ctv gnst

t w” c . Buc Fnkn, tn n ssstnt pss En-

gs n Amcn ttu t t unvsty. “It ncu w pp

w c tmsvs pcfsts, tw w c tmsvs Mxsts,

n mst w n ng knw wt t c tmsvs,” wt. Ts

sm gup tugtu, cmmtt ctzns gnz t fst p-

tsts gnst t mnuctu npm wc, n tun, nsp n-tn mvmnt gnst t Dw Cmc Cptn, t gst

mnuctu t g.

Cngmt Unt Act Cptn (nw Unt Tcn-

gs) wn fm c t Unt Tcngy Cnt (UTC) tt

mnuctu npm f mxng unts t u pnt n t sm twn

Cyt, ftn ms sut n Js. tn Cmmtt mmbs

gnz tng cmpgn t n t wnt 1965. It tt

ct: scuty gus ntmt wks w tk ys by stnt-

tusy ptgpng tm, n t ws scnt pubcty bcus t

cty’s mt ctn. In Jnuy 1966, wv, wk t t fm’s

quts n unnyv scty t mmbs t gup tt t

UTC wn mssv cntct t puc npm ts.

“Npm B,” vp n 1964 by scntsts t Egn A Fc Bs n

F, bun tt, stuck tgt, n gnt m by tn

mutns. It ws m wt 50 pcnt pystyn, synttc sub-stnc mnuctu by Dw n sxtn t U.. fms (Dw t-

mk n vty s “tym”), 25 pcnt bnzn, n 25 pcnt

gsn. In m-1965, t ntgn sk puctn bs. A quntt

mnuctus stpp w. O cs nnunc t wnns n Juy

1965: n $11 mn 100 mn puns npm t UTC, n




cntcts up t $5 mn t st 25 mn puns c t unns-

up Dw n Wtc Cmc. Dw cnstuct mxng n st by

tn mpys t cty n Tnc, Cn, n Ls Angs.

Actvsts sw n pptunty, n sz t. “[W] tugt w cu t

st smtng cnct: stp c puctn. An pctcy

us sw gt ptnt sm kn mss cmpgn tt wu

swty uct pp but t ‘mm’ ntu t w n t u-

sns u gvnmnt,” Fnkn wt. Cmmtt mmbs c

t ub t ts n Cyt, xpn t y cmpgn t t

UTC’s quts n unnyv, n bby cpt xcutvs.

Cmpny cs g t py n Jnuy 25, 1966. A tk

mty cs mpy by t UTC—tw t gns n -

t m—nk ts psnt s nt t cnnc m.

Excutvs, Fnkn wt, nvk cnmc ncssty, umnty, n

pttsm t n t cmpny’s wk: “Evn w n’t wnt t wk

n npm, w wu v t just t sty n busnss. . . . Npm w

p stn t w. . . . Bss, wtv u gvnmnt sks us t s gt,” t pss pps t gumnts. Cmmtt mm-

bs gu tt ntntn w pbt w cms, n cm

t ws cs stc cnnctn btwn Dw n Nz cmc

pucs. Ty jun wtut sutn.

cuty gus bu t cmpgn gnst npm ts s sy

s ty bck t mxng-mcn ptsts. “Tt fst y, mst

tm [pnt wks] stpp t tk t t. m wnt ut

t wy t b ny. A w, tug, t t un us wn. On t

scn y, t cmpny pst pncts scuty gus n p-

tgp t t gt. Amst vy wk vng tug nw ptn

tt w n’t xst, xcpt w w gn t t un us wn,”

Fnkn c. A w wks stpp t cs w ms wn t

, w t mt t mn gwy, n spk wt mnstts. Ty

s pncts scuty gus bn t wtc tm, n tt

ty bng f ty sw ny ntw sympts. A w m-pys qut n, ccng t t cmc, un tmsvs bck-

st by mpys.

tks s n Mc 1966, wn t t jun Chemical and En-

gineering News cnfm t UTC puctn cntct. Nt ny

t fm g t mnuctu npm, t tnsp, t s g



118 S o l d i e r

t v t y t us, n bmbss. Excutvs nnunc t

fm wu subs tw “ugy, msy” cs tn O C-

n (nw Cvn) stg cty ts bmb cty. Ts n, t

t n cuswy tt jutt tw ms nt n Fncsc By, ws

pt t pt t twn Rw Cty, muncpty 56,300

n twn nt tn’s cmpus n At. Bcus pubc pp-

ty ws nvv, t tnsctn qu ppv by t Rw

Cty t Cmmssn.

Cmmssns mt t scuss t mtt n t tnn Mc 21

t t pt mng’s c n n m bung st m unus stg tnks. It ws mmty ppnt ts wu nt b utn

cnvctn: zn ptsts jmm t mng’s c n t

by nug spc t cs t gt. Abut svnty m f

cptn m n vw nt pc. Actvsts, ccmpn by

t cn n sm css, bn gnz by t tn Cm-

mtt, At pc gnztn c Cncn Ctzns, n

Rw Cty Untn cnggtn.A ck sk pubc cmmnts. Npm’s pubc tns sst

bgn. “I yu cu ctuy s t bs mn, wmn n cn

bun by ts wpn, yu wu ct t pvnt Rw Cty m

bcmng nm t g wn n sty wt Bucnw,” c n

ptst. “Rw Cty w bcm knwn s pc w mng

t s mnuctu,” xpstut nt. Dzns wt n n t

cmmnt. B mmbs c t cnvn t t g cunty

c bung n wntwn Rw Cty tt tnn.

M tn twc s mny pp, but 200, ssmb wn t -

ng sum t 5:00 p.m. Dbt gw m t. Ov My, c

ngn w nspct t vns t t Bsn cncnttn cmp,

sst tt “Lc gvnmnt n pssn pp t b n-

vv n pvng ctns t mnuctu ts vns, just s

yu cmmssns nw c upn t mk csn cncnng

npm cty.” Ant snt, En Gn, bt t cmms-sns: “Yu cmmttng tusns pp t t. I n’t knw

w yu sp t ngt.” Fnkn gv spc but npm’s cts n

cvns tt cus t cmn t cck s gv n : “Gt tt

mn ut .” A p pcmn gg t tc ut t m,




pmptng s svn-y- ugt t bust nt ts. In t nsung

cs, b mmbs sty vt t ppv t subs, n -

jun. uctn ws scu t bgn n My 1, n t st

gt mnts. Rw Cty xpnc ts fst ntw ptst.

Cty gutns qu num n ny vt by t pt’s b

qust wtn tty ys by 10 pcnt gst vts. Actvsts

m t Rw Cty Cmmtt Agnst Npm, sxty mmbs

stng, n unc pttn v. Ty wt tw-pg Napalm

Newsletter f wt nmtn but t sty t wpn n

ts us n Vtnm—n t fst suc cmptns v puc—n m cpy t vy gst vt n t cty. A g pctu

tt g wt u buns mk ts cv. Ltng ub t

t UTC pnt.

Junsts un t cnct sstb. “Ts s t fst tm snc

t stt t Vtnm W tt t pp w v n pptunty t

xpss tmsvs t t bt bx n spcfc ssu cnnct t t

w,” Cmmtt gnst Npm cmn Jms F. Cnn, sn ttny n mngng t t stnt fv-y- n Fn-

csc ptc n ty jun Ramparts, t t New York Times

n Ap 17. T nwspp’s xtnsv cvg t wst cst ptst

st n sp cntst t ts smss t ys Btn

Russ’s cmpnts but npm.

m c nwspps suppt t cmpgns. On pt

tt t UTC ss ptsts, n pubs tnscpt

c t c busnss: “Ts s Unt Tcngy Cnt cng. W

wn yu knw w yu mpy __________, ws yst-

y. D t yu ws tkng tm t pckt u pnt?” Ots

pps t v. “W t my b sm qustn but t us

npm n w, t s nt qustn t b c by t vts R-

w Cty ny t muncpty. . . . It s sy t s wt wu

ppn vy cty w t b w t mk ts wn csns s t

wt w mt s ccptb t ts wn ctzns,” tz t Palo Alto Times: “t sut wu b cs.” NBC n CB gv t bt

ntn pmnnc wn ty tu t n t ntwk nws b-

csts. Ltts, msty vb, stm n t t cmmtt m css

t cunty.



120 S o l d i e r

ssns n g. “It w put us n t mp,” pt cmmssn

s t pnn cty. A cuncmn spk n “cnmc bm”

tt mgt w. Ots sg. “T g nm Rw Cty

wt ts sgn ‘Cmt Bst by Gvnmnt Tst’ pps m

t m tn ‘Npm Cty by t D By’!” n snt wt n tt

t t t t Redwood City News. tn Cmmtt mmbs

puc n “Emgncy Rpt n t Mnuctu n Us N-

pm,” m xtm, ss wy stbut, vnt t Napalm

Newsletter. It ut t sty t wpn, g tt t Unt

tts cus 300,000–400,000 cvn csuts t t n Vtnm,n cncu, “Ts k by npm ty st v.”

On Ap 20, 1966, t Cmmtt gnst Npm submtt pt-

tn sgn by 3,761 Rw Cty vts—w v t 2,416 qu.

O cs cm t subs csn ws nt mtt subjct t

num us, n us t ccpt t pttn. Cmmtt mm-

bs su.

Npm puctn stt w t pts wt t cs t cm

t t. Acs stck cts 500- n 750-pun bmbss, -

v by subcntct, n t cuswy tt t t pnt. Ac-

tvsts gnz vgs. “In t m Cn cmt, t ptsts

cu wtc [t pnt] m t t s t w-ms nc wc

spt t m t ,” c Ec ksc, tn gut stu-

nt, “T mpty umnum bmb ss w bugt n by tuck

(tugtuy mk ‘D Nt Dp’); t pystyn pw, us t

tckn t npm, cm n by tn n ws mx wt t ncny

u n vts. T mxtu ws tn pp nt bmb css tug

tub, n t f bmbs w n bgs, t b tw css t

n Fncsc By t nv stg st m wc ty wu b

spp t Vtnm.” Fnkn mmb, “Yu cu vn stn t

t g cn- nk nc n wtc s t mpty bmb csngs wswung v t s ptm n pump u npm.” tsts

ct wks tug mgpns. Mngs stnttusy pt-

gp mnstts, n t c cns pts, n bst -

c musc t tm—Tckvsky’s ympny Pathétique ws -




vt. On My 16 n 17, n t fst cts cv sbnc gnst

npm, jzz muscn An Mngn, jn by At psy-

ctst n, y t, tw tn stunts, y wn n nt

tucks vng mpty bmb ss. c st tm.

Ls t Rw Cty cmmtt summz t cs t

cw 400 pp w gt n t utum t c qu

g c n m-My, just b t jug’s ung n t sut t

c num. Npm, ty gu, ws nscmnt, cu, n

cst. “W’ tkng but systmtc pnn mu tns tu-

sns cvns w v ntng t wt t w,” Cnn s.“Imgn t t nt knwng wn t nxt pn, yng t

sps gt tn t sp sun, w p tw cs m n

t pc w yu v,” bsv Untn mnst n cmmtt

vc-c Wm ug. “Excpt w s gnst t Gmns

n W W II, t [npm] s bn us ny gnst nnwt pp

n Jpn, K n Vtnm,” Fnkn mntn.

On My 20, 1966, Jug Mvn E. Cn jct t cmmtt’s f-ng. T Rw Cty s t tn O, nm t cut-

m, ctuy xp n My 1. A nw s, pt, bn

sgn n 26 Ap btwn tn, t UTC, n t pt—sx ys

t t pttn by t ptsts ws submtt. Tt gmnt,

u, nw gvn t ppty. I t pnts wnt t cng

t, ty sx ys t t t nw pttn n cct nw sgn-

tus. Mv, t jug s, “I v n ntntn tyng t c

wt t Unt tts su b fgtng w n Vtnm. N I

ntn t ty t c wt t m cs su b ppng

npm bmbs n tt fgtng.” Wt ts ws, n n ny s-

ty, Jug Cn unc t cmpgn gnst npm tt swpt t

cunty v t nxt t ys.

Cn’s csn nut ctvsts, sup-cg t c nt-

npm mvmnt, n ttct ttntn m ntn nt-w -

s. On My 28, 1966, uny, 1,200 pp pck t qu gc’s tb stum t unc ntn cmpgn gnst npm,

bgnnng wt byctt Dw. T ntn cnsum gs cm-

pny, ksc xpn, ws n ttctv tgt: “Its bst- knwn

puct ws n Wp, c pstc tssu wc cung t t t



122 S o l d i e r

ncs, s Dw’s j u cung t t skn. n Wp ws t b

un n uss css t cunty; ny c ntw gup cu

g t t nst supmkt n c byctt.” An, ,

“Fut pptunts ptst w by t qunt vsts

Dw cuts t unvsty cmpuss.” Rtc ws stng. “snts

bun—pfts up,” “Npm ks mccy t,” n “Wu

Yu Wnt Yu Dugt t My Npm uc,” sgns t

t vnt.

At t stum mtng, ptcpnts mc t t UTC npm

pnt y. Vtnm W ppnnt nt Wyn Ms Ognn pgssv Cngssn cnt Rbt c, t Ramparts

mngng t, ss t cw. Rw Cty spnt $9,000 t

mng t vnt. “Bwy n Rw Cty s nt bgt mn

tug, but t mcnts v wys m vnt t t

kp t nt n t s wys cu n cn. . . . uny t stt

tk n ty, gy n smb k,” snt cmpn n subs-

qunt tt t t Redwood City Tribune. “T ctzns RwCty must, n sm wy, pnt t tns n sct pctu

ts cty, pvusy cns t jw t nnsu nnt,”

t mssv cntnu.

tsts tk pc t sm uny n Nw Yk Cty, n n Tnc.

In Mnttn, but svnty-fv pp gnz by t ftn-mmb

Bkyn-bs Ctzns Cmpgn gnst Npm—suppt by t

ntw gups Wmn tk c, Yut gnst W n Fs-

csm, n t Unt tts Cmmtt t A t Ntn Fnt—

t Dw’s Rck Cnt cs. “Npm Buns Bbs, Dw

Mks Mny,” n sgn, n n c t Cn pcs.

Ant, ptc m cty t Nw Yk’s Jws pputn, wn

“Nz Ovns n ’44, U.. Npm n ’66.” Nwspps, tvsn nws

ntwks, n w svcs cv t ptst. In Tnc, but

n un pp gnz by tunts Dmctc cty

(D) n Fm Nw ctvsts pckt Dw’s cty. Cunt-mnstts m t Vcty n Vtnm Assctn sut sup-

pt t cty.

Rs sp ung t summ 1966. In August, stunts m

t Unvsty Mcgn, Wyn tt Unvsty n Dtt, n t




Unvsty T, jn by mmbs zn Dtt nt-w

gups, cnvg n Dw’s quts n Mn, Mcgn, ppu-

tn 27,000, 128 ms ntwst Dtt, “August Dys -

tst.” Rpsnttvs wn mtng wt . D. (T) Dn, t m-

g psnt t fm, n gnsn t ts un, w by

nt n t 22n by qutt D ctvsts. T scussns,

wv, puc n cng n cpt pcs. A Detroit Free Press

tc ubb t t “ p.” At t n t mnt, ssnts

gt gn n Mnttn n Tnc. c t Rck Cnt

st twnty- nn w ttmpt t c Dw’s tty-svnt- cs. tsts tt utumn gt Dw cuts t Wyn tt,

Cn, t Unvsty ut F, t Unvsty Cn,

Ls Angs, n t Unvsty Cn, Bky.

Awnss npm gw. Wn t Jnsn mnsttn s-

ptc “tut tms” css t cunty t xpn Vtnm pcy s

t smst bgn, w ppnnts put npm nt n cnt. u

gn, stunt , c t scussns t t Unvsty Wscnsn–Msn: “T psnttv t Dns Dptmnt

ws sk, ‘Wt s npm .’ gv tcnc scptn

npm, bng g n s n. T cw ws umbng.” tunts -

pt t qustn. “ sys, ‘W, t cn ctc yu n f.’ ” Fny,

“T Gn s, ‘W, yu y wnt t knw wt t s. It buns.

It buns pp.’ ” Tut ws sv.

Dw nt unstmt t ptnt tt psnt by t

ptst mvmnt. “I wu t Dw t cm ut Vtnm wt

t ‘Mcnts Dt’ b tt ws pnn n u nt t t Fst

W W; n yt, unss w cm t gps wt ts pbm, t s ky

t ppn,” n ntn cmpny mm wn n Dcmb 1966. ub-

c tns st mt qunty, vp cnt cptn-

w spns, ccut stn sttmnt t c mngs, n

nsu tt spksmn stuck t t gusy. Excutvs us msu

ngug, stss spct t xpssn s, n but tcs un gumnts sm t ts us by t unnyv UTC

xcutvs: uty, umntnsm, n pttsm.

“As m u uty t ts, w mgt tt w wu

py gtf wt w’ b t pv ps t ptct u fgtng



124 S o l d i e r

mn t sp t y wn fgtng w n,” Dw’s stn pubc

tns mng, Dn M. Wkf, s n spns t t fst

Rck Cnt pckts. “W’ supp gs t t Dns

Dptmnt n nt pcy mk,” , n nt “Futn GIs

sgn tt ncung ts sttmnt: ‘T ctvnss npm n

svng U.. vs s vwmng.’ ” T Dn tt ts pnts n

Wall Street Journal p- t wng y: “[W] tt u cm-

pny su puc ts tms wc u fgtng mn n n tm

w wn w v t bty t s . . . w jct t vty cm-

png u gvnmnt wt t’s Nz Gmny.” cncu,“Bscy, t bt v Vtnm, s ng s t mns pcu n n-

st bt, s ty tng.” As t cnmc ncssty, Dw stss t

ppst: npm, cs s, ws mnuscu pt ts busnss.

ntgn psnttvs sty quy tu t t gumnt tt

npm ct w cvns. In spns t 1966 quy m Nw Yk

snt Rbt F. Knny, t Dptmnt Dns sst “N-

pm s us gnst sct tgts, suc s cvs n nc suppys. Csuts n ttcks gnst tgts ts typ pmnnty

psns nvv n Cmmunst mty ptns.” Cmn t

Jnt Cs t E W xpn t pts n Fbuy

1967: “Npm, by vtu ts spsng n spng, cn gt nt

nsv pstns. It’s s spcy ctv gnst ntct

pstns . . . t npm spss n n ncpctts t cw n

smtms stys t wpn.”

Inty, Dw’s sttgy pp t wk. Byctt cs ccmps

tt—ny but 8 pcnt Dw’s ss, n ny vnt, cm m p-

ucts s cty t cnsums—n t cmpus ptsts subs s

t y w t cs. A ptmb 1966 pstn pp t Ntn

Cntng Cmmtt t En t W n Vtnm sws t xtm

ctns ustt ptsts t mgt b ncssy: “Cy ut Vt-

nms vctms npm n stfng— v—tug wt

sububs. I ty cnnt b smugg nt t cunty, btn npm nsu cnt quntts t st unquncb pgs n cws n sububn

stts. O p t m sm pns n wt sububn scys

n t pnng y sc.” O cus, t pp nt, “Wt

ts wu s anti -w sntmnt wu v t b cns.”




R pgms ts ut by npm mg s pstv t-

ntv ctvst ts. T mst gy pubcz pgm ws t

Cmmtt Rspnsbty Ttmnt n t Unt tts W-

Bun Vtnms Cn stt by n Fumn cs tt

summ. mss spt bs n cnvscnt c m cts

n ctzns css t cunty pu n ung t utumn. At t sm

tm, nws pts suggst t mpct npm mgt b ss tn

mgn. “[T] but tw ptnts wt sus npm buns

c wk,” N n pt t vst t n t gst -

gn spts, ct gty ms sut gn. Accut nt,ts kn pt mpn ctcsm ut. As y s August 6, ny

w pp stpp wn g Nw Yk pc mc, gnz t

mk t twnty-fst nnvsy t sm bmbng, pss

gt by Dw’s mtwn cs.



126

At tcs pubs n Jnuy 1967 scb npm’s ctsn ut Vtnms cvns, spcy cn, t mss U..

unc t fst tm. Ty ngz t mvmnt. Mgzns

t ppst ns U.. junsm, ggpcy, stcy, n

mgpcy, bk t sty: n t n n, fv-y- Ram-

parts, m t Wst Cst, wt n unc but 100,000; n t

t, t gty-u-y- Ladies Home Journal n sxty-u-y-

Redbook wmn’s pcs, t n Nw Yk, wt ccutns

6.8 mn n mst fv mn, spctvy. A cncu tt

npm, m t mn mv scb by cspn-

nts, ws bcy cu, c-skng k.

Ramparts t mst t pt n ncu ftn u-

c pgs bun vctms n jmm spts: t fst suc ctg

cvn npm csuts n ntn Amcn pc. “Tn

s, spnt bns, scmng gny b nug. But pps

mst t-nng t tny cs n bs scc ns by f,” wt ut Wm F. pp, ct t Mcy

Cg Cn’s Insttut Avnc tuy n Rsc n Nw

Yk. “Npm n ts m b cmpnn, wt pspus,

quz yung s n cv t nt gtsqu ms. T tt fgus

8

Seeing Is Believing



Seeing Is Believing 127

tw tn sccy umn n ppnc, n n cnnt b

cnnt wt t mnstus cts t bunng wtut bng t-

ty skn,” pt, “T nt ug t c ut n st t

ut ws stn by t tt t s-k skn wu cumb n

my fngs.” ct pt by t wss gnztn Terre

des Hommes n spt cntns: “In pcs wt t tmsp

sugt uss pp, w s ccut y n cn

w v bn sknn v, t n cts ygn, n

ns, n n cntnng.”

pp sst tt npm ut cn mst svy, spn-sbty t njus cty n t Unt tts, jct cms

mty ncssty, n n wt c ctn. “A bun s spcy

ctc n c bcus t stuctn tv t tt by

suc s pptnty gt tn tt n ut,” wt, “T

tgy tt s bng cn n Vtnm s t m u spn-

sbty w cn bun by npm cncn; ny t Unt

tts s usng ts wpn, n t s fttng tt w su pv tc t mutt cn.” As t t ntgn’s sstns t Rb-

t Knny, pp tt, “I m cmp t wn wt mty

unctns w bng pm by t tusns nnts n sm

cn, mny wm I sw sng spt bs n Vtnm, n

w wm pp n ptgps ccmpnyng ts tc.” cn-

cu, “Evy scknng, gtnng sc s snt cy t Amcns t

bgn t st t c ts wm w cmp t c

u wn bcus wt s bn n n u nm.”

Rnwn w cspnnt Mt Gn’s tc n The La-

dies Home Journal ws quy tnng. “In t cn’s w

t Qu Nn pvnc I sw t fst tm wt npm s. A c

svn, t sz u u-y-s, y n t ct by t . Npm

bun s c n bck n n n. T bun skn k

k swn, w mt; t fngs s n w sttc ut, bun

g. A scp csct cv m, wgt s ntb, buts s . s gnt, n mct mn bn wt ctct,

ws tnng t c,” s wt. “A wk g, npm bmbs w

pp n t mt. . . . A wk, t tt by c wt pn,

but nw ws btt. ws ny twstng s by, s tyng t



128 S o l d i e r

g s ncmpnsb ttu,” Gn wtnss. cn-

cu wt wt-knuck ps: “Ft wn t w, nt

c, s svn ys , mn k munng v; ws st

cyng. bn bun by npm, t, n t sm vg. s

mt st v s ct, nnng t tt by, n pss t t

c tt wt, skn. Wtv s s, n Vtnms, I nt un-

stn, but ys n vc v w gy s wu v

tkn s t c’s sung.”

Gn us mtp nstnt mty t v m

pnt. cunt t bsvtn Nw Jsy usw nmt sx w pt t Vtnms cn, n tv

t t cunty t s cntns fstn. “B I wnt t gn, I

n tt npm mts t s, n I tugt tt’s nn-

sns, bcus I cn put st n t vn n t t w mt but t

mt stys t,” t Amcn mt s. “W, I wnt n I sw

ts cn bun by npm n t s bsuty tu. T cmc

ctn ts npm s mt t s, n t s uns gt wnt cs nt t csts n t sts t n t gws t. . . . Ts

cn cn’t tun t s, ty w s tck wt s. . . . An

wn gngn sts n, ty cut t ns fngs t t; t

ny tng ty cnnt cut s t ,” s tstf.

Npm ct wmn, cn n t y spptnty,

t cbty cspnnt sst. g wt Ramparts tt

cn su ptcu m: “Cn k wun by

npm bcus t ntu t bmbngs. Cs suppt n-

nty s n tng. T y n ngt bmbngs mts, f wt

wmn, cn n t , s nt.”

yscn Rc y’s Redbook tc, wttn wt Rbt Lvn,

ws pps t mst pgnnt. T xpnc tpc sugn

spnt ys n Vtnm ttng cvn vctms t w. s ws c-

t pssn psn xpnc: “[N]tng cu v pp

m my ncunts wt Vtnms wmn n cn bun bynpm. It ws sckng n scknng, vn pyscn, t s n

sm t bckn s. On cntnus ys tw gttng sck

wn ks t pc mt n s pt bcus t bunng

s ngs s ng n t mmy. An n nv gts t bw-

ys t snt, sung, npm-bun c. Wt cu




nyn pssby sy t suc c?” s cncusn ws vsttng:

“T Vtcng nt us npm, w .”

A butt sts by pyscn w Rusk, nwn mc

bttn xpt n pt-tm cumnst t New York Times,

pp tw mnts t. An “ntnsv tu 20 Vtnms cvn

spts m t 17t n t Nt t t Gu m n t

ut,” Rusk pt, un nt n cs buns u t npm.

“T v bn css sv buns m npm but t numbs

nt g n cmpsn t buns u t ccnts,” wt. Rusk

s sw vy bun cs t t spts, n ttbut t vst m- jty t ckng ccnts, n ptcu t us tvy nxpnsv

gsn n stvs sgn ksn. Just 15 pcnt v sp-

t mssns n ut Vtnm, t pyscn sst, cm m

w-t njus. “[T] pctu tt s bn pnt by sm n t

Unt tts g numbs cn bun by npm s gssy

xggt,” cncu. Rusk’s gtnng tu n summy fn-

ngs, wv, wtv t ccucy, w n mtc t vv ts-tmny n sccng ptgps n t Jnuy tcs. s tw-pt

pt ws bu n pgs 84 n 30 succssv uny tns, n

gt tvy tt ntc. Lt bsvs ttbut fnngs w nju-

s t npm’s tty: “ts s n --ntng wpn” n Aust-

n mc tm pt n 1968.

At t Ramparts, Redbook, n Ladies Home Journal tcs, n

t ptgps, npm ws n ng just bgt s n t jung: t

ws pnu ct, mk by sc cn.

Mtn Lut Kng J. ws n t fst t spn. T Nb

c z cpnt pp tug stck mgzns t stunt

n t Mm pt n Jnuy 14, 1967, w wtng n pn.

z, ccng t cmpnn Bn L, wn c pp’s

pc n Ramparts: “Mtn just pus t pt wy m m.I k up n s, ‘Dsn’t t tst ny g?’ n nsw, ‘Nt-

ng w v tst ny g m unt I vytng I cn t n tt

w.” L cntnu, “Tt’s wn t csn ws m. Mtn

knwn but t w b tn, cus, n spkn ut gnst

t. But t ws tn tt c t cmmt ms t pps t.”



130 S o l d i e r

Wtn mnt, n Fbuy 1967, 2,500 mmbs t Wmn tk

c gup p psts t Ramparts pctus t mn-

sttn uts cty Dns Rbt McNm’s ntgn -

fc. Npm’s vctms bcm .

ctt cmpus mnsttns gnst Dw cuts sum n

m-wnt s stunts tun m vctn. Ts ctns pv

m cnnttn tn ts t pvus , n cv p-

ptnty m m cvg, but w mut n cmpsn wt

ts tt w tt utumn: bng, but nt yt ntn

mvmnt. At t Unvsty Wscnsn–Msn n Fbuy 21,1967, xmp, but n un stunts us t v wy

uts ntvw ms us by Dw cuts n Cmmc t

t cnt cmpus. “Wt w ws ts pctus m Ramparts

mgzn npm ks. Amst vyby pckt sgn k

tt. . . . T ws t cnnt pp n mk tm c up t

wt ws gng n,” xpn ptst ny sc. tunts sut

“bby ks” n “g Gmns” t psnttvs t cmccmpny, cnt n sng, n us t c t . c m

nntn sts. T nxt y, 200 ptsts bck t unvsty

cnc’s c t cng t ncctns. Amnstts b

ut t stunt psns n gstu sympty, n t css pss.

“Dw I,” s t vnt cm t b c n Wscnsn, pus t num-

b sts un t cunty but Dw n npm v 1,000

t fst tm.

m stunts suppt t us npm n Vtnm n cm t

Dw’s ns. A Jnuy mnsttn by twnty tunts Dm-

ctc cty (D) mmbs t nnsyvn tt Unvsty p-

uc wks ngy tts t t Daily Collegian. As n cspn-

nt wt, “[T] pups t Vt Cng s stcty t; ws

t pups t bmbng— t npm—s t us ut t VC n

tus t cunty t.” T ut cntnu, “T Vt Cng

v sw t mtt by tkng t c vg ty t-z n spttng s gs k w wu wsbn . . . w yu fgt

tt kn ungy svgnss? . . . wt t sm typ w tt

ty usng—bcus t s t ny tng ts nms unstn.”

Rspnss k ts cv ss ttntn s t y cntnu, n




pps w nts, but nt nty wy. In Msn,

cuntptsts t t Cmmc y, mny wn m t

c Rsv O cs’ Tnng Cps pgm, sut suppt

Dw. “Npm s g V.C. cn,” n pc.

Nw Yk pc ctvsts cntnu ctns tug t wnt n

spng 1967 tt m mpcts g n sm. uny Mc 19 ws

sgnt “Npm uny” by gup but svnty-fv ptsts

w mc m t Mtptn Musum At t t. tck’s

Ct. A tptyc tt “Npm Buns p,” t pt s

tmt by ptsts css t cunty, m ts fst ppnc. “W mc n ts, n c t sgns tt, wn cm-

bn, ‘Npm Buns p,’ supp t us by t Vg c

Cnt,” xpn gnz Jck McGu.

A w wks t, n Ap 4, 1967, Kng c vutn n

Amcn vus, n st npm t t cnt s gumnt. In t

spctcu mn t Rvs Cuc n Mnttn’s Upp

Wst , m n Fnc’s Cts Ct, c, “A tuvutn vus w y n n t w n sy w, ‘Ts

wy sttng ncs s nt just.’ Ts busnss bunng umn

bngs wt npm . . . cnnt b cnc wt wsm, justc, n

v.” cncu, “A ntn tt cntnus y t y t spn

m mny n mty ns tn n pgms sc upt s p-

pcng sptu t.” snt Uysss . Gnt’s gnt mus-

um, cs wt s ptp “Lt Us v c,” st sty css

t stt. A cus 168 nwspps nunc Kng’s cmmnts.

Lss qunty, but t t vn’s pnt, ctvsts gt n Nw

Yk’s Cnt k t “png Mbztn” n Ap 15 stbut

tun cks tt “ ‘p! I’m psn n U psnt-ckng

cty’—nnymus Dw mpy.”

A st-n n Mc 20, 1967, t mn Cg nt Ls Angs, tfst n t sc’s sty, xmpf t wmscty, n vn g

um, tt ws n mnt stunt nt-npm ptsts ung ts

p. Dw psnttv ns Btz v bt b 9:00 .m.

n ws sct t t cmpus musc m, wc bn sv



132 S o l d i e r

s ntvws. Wn mnstts pn t ck , w-

v, ty un twnty-fv D mmbs jmm ns. A g pst

n tp spy ptgps pp bun by npm. Occu-

ps mn tt tw psnttvs m t gup b w

t ttn t ntvws, t psnt t s t mtt. “mn

Cg ws nt un t pups tnng pp t bun

cn,” mnstt t t n stunts.

Dtmn, Btz pp t cnuct ntvws spt t cw.

A p ppcnts v, cct ms, n pp t -

sums. Btz ttmpt t ntvw tm mty by tpn, butws c t qut wn ptsts cust un t vsp. Exs-

pt, gt nt s c n v wy. Actvsts c t m n

t vcs t mk su t. tunt gvnmnt psnttvs

pt sutn t wng wk tt cnmn Dw ts

puctn npm n ug stunts t “cuy cns ts

ctvts b cnsntng t b ntvw by t cmpny.” T Los

Angeles Times pt tt ts ws t fst ctcsm Dw by stu-nt gvnmnt n utn Cn. Cmpny xcutvs t t

sc ty wu nt b bck tt y.

Tug t , Dw st fm. In y 1967, Unt Tcngs

quty stpp npm puctn t ts Rw Cty cty wn t

v ts 100-mnt pun t t gvnmnt. Wtc, t scn

t mty supps, s n ts mnuctung ptns t

but t sm tm. In Mc 1967, t tw-y b mtng vt

t npm pcy, wv, Dw sv t “stn up wt t bv

n,” ccng t b cmn C Gstck. “Ou sns w sv-

ng n tt w,” c n n sty ntvw, n “w t

stng bgtn t suppt tm.” Dw tus bcm t ny U..

npm mnuctu.

Acm t t gwng pubc wnss npm n Juy

1967 wn The New En gland Journal o Medicine pubs t fst

cnc vw t wpn’s ct n pp un t uspcs yscns c Rspnsbty, n ntntn nngvnmnt

gnztn cts stbs n 1961 t xmn t mc n

pubc t cts nuc w. Aut t Rc ws n nstuc-

t t v Mc c; cut Vct ws sn pys-




cn t Msscustts Gn spt: cnts tt wnt

ttntn.

Rc n cctz npm s “cmc wpn,” cn-

fm t fc ntu t buns t cus n t ptcu sks

t cn, mpsz t spc psycgc pw t wpn,

n cncu tt cts su mz tmsvs wt t sub-

jct s pt t pubc t spnsbts. “Npm buns

ky t b p n xtnsv. T svnss, png bunng

tm n g bunng tmptus npm v t g buns

n ct s, wt cgutn musc, t n t p tssuky. Buns ts pt w pbby sut n sv sc cntctus

n mts, spcy wn ty ccu un cntns mkng

y skn gtng cut,” t cts wt. Mv, ty ,

“Npm wuns cntmnt wt wt pspus my cntnu

smng ng t t nt tum.” Cn, t pyscns x-

pn, “w su spptnty g mtty n mbty

bcus spc pbms, cut n cnc, psnt by t bunc.” nc, ty vs, ws “m ky t b bsv mng n-

pm vctms tn mng ts wun by t gnts.”

xpn t tt t pmy pups t pc ws n-

mtn, gvn t pucty knwg but npm n t cvn

mc cmmunty. Antpty t t Vtnm cnct, wv, n-

su n mmt unc. “p w nt w t us n-

pm n pvus ws, but bcus t ppstn t t w n Vtnm

ws s wsp n s vmnt t ws ntst. Ts ws pck

up s n xmp t wys n wc ts w ws bng ugt,”

bsv ys t.



134

Twng ptc tuns gt bv npm by tn t summ 1967. Its ct n cvns ws ncsngy

wy unst. T w ws bunng tt: t bs pu n

119,265 nucts n 1963; 112,386 n 1964; 230,991 n 1965; n 382,010

n 1966, t mst snc t Kn W. Dw Cmc ws s cs s

cmpus cutng vst , s Ec ksc nt, c supmkts.

Fcus cps cmbt pp ngty n tvsn. ssns n

g. “ps yu ccpt t w, cn b justf—t stk

zns, t ugs, t spyng bc n cps, t npm,”

u st mmbs, w sgn n ptmb m t Intntn

Vunty vc Vtnms umntn gnztn, wt

n n pn tt t snt Lynn Jnsn. tsts t pvus

utumn n spng pv t b k nps tt ug.

T tmpst bk t t Unvsty Wscnsn–Msn n Oct-

b 18, wn Dw xcutvs gn vts ntvws t Cmmc

. As n t Fbuy “Dw I” ctn, stunts jmm t wyuts t cnnc ms n pvnt wu-b cnts m

ntng. Ts tm, wv, m tn tusn ptsts n b-

svs cw un t bung; Msn pc cs n t g,

summn by unvsty utts, cubb zns stunts ns

9

Indicted



Indicted 135

t , n mny m uts t bung (t fst xtnsv vnc

t y gnst t Vtnm W); n ctvst cut wn t U.. g n

tp t bung w t mnsttn ccu, n st f-

ccks n t mst t m; twn bck sms t c

pcmn, bk s ns, n knck m ut; ptsts ck

pc wgn s vnty ty c t s sv psns

ns; n, s csss cng t t n t u n t cw

sw t un 4,000–5,000 stunts, t gs ws us t fst

tm n n Amcn cmpus. c st ttn pp, n sxty-

fv stunts n cs n up n t spt. Tvsn bcstmgs t vnt cnnttn cst t cst, n tgg mst

2,000 nwspp tcs n ts but Dw n npm: mst

ub t tt numb tcs but t fm n ts cntvs

puct pubs t tt t.

Cmmnts by ptcpnts ustt w tttus n t-

w t “Bst Wpn Us n cfc” snc 1945. “Npm ws ts

us, j gs bunng t 2,000 gs Fnt. It n’t justk yu; t ttu yu. It s cmpt nc t Zykn B, t gs

ty us n t cncnttn cmps. It t k cmc w t ts

wst,” xpn Mk Gns, n t stunt ptsts. “T us

t Unvsty bungs t, n ct, pv subsy t Dw, by p-

vng tm t spc, w tugt ws bsuty wng,” stunt

u gn s. “T npm m n nb mpssn

n us n spcy n stunts,” c ss Muc Zt-

n. “I n’t wnt t s ny m Vtnms cn unnng un

wt t cts bun . T w mns us w tugt

w put n nug tm n m nug ns tt t wu b mpss-

b t gvnmnt t kp snng yung mn t Vtnm,” cn-

fm ctvst Jm Rwn.

ns m Msn spu ptsts gnst Dw n npm t

cmpuss css t cunty. By t n Dcmb stunts t t

Unvsts Ins n Mcgn, Bstn Cg, t Unvsty Mnnst, v, Cumb, Bns, Bstn Unvsty, sv

bncs t Unvsty Cn, t Unvsty Ccg, t

Cty Cg Nw Yk, Inn Unvsty, Nw Yk Unvsty,

t Unvsty nnsyvn, n numus ts gnst



136 S o l d i e r

t ncny. Dw pt cnnttns t ty-sx t 178 c-

gs cuts vst tt utumn, n 133 t 339 scs ty n-

tvw t n t 1967–1968 cmc y—m tn ub t

fty-fv nt-Dw ptsts t 1966–1967 sc y.

Excutvs put n bv c n ttmpt t w t sm pub-

c tns sttgy tt sv tm w t pvus spng.

“pksmn t Dw Cmc Cmpny, npm mnuctu,

s ysty tt cmpus mnsttns gnst t cmpny nt

ut ts cutmnt v t unvsts. Ty s t cmpny n

ntntn cutng t v cngng t,” t New York Times -pt n Octb 1967. “T Unt tts s nvv n Vtnm. As

ng s w nvv w bv n ufng u spnsbty t ts

ntn cmmtmnt mctc scty. An w ts bcus

w bv n t ng-tm gs u cunty. . . . [O]u cmpny s

m t csn t cntnu t puc npm B n t mts

s ng s ty n by u Gvnmnt,” cnns v-

sn t cmpny’s pcy sttmnt stbut t st mmbs.“[E]ctv wpns suc s npm svng t vs Amcn

mn,” Dw psnt bt Dn t Time.

A spksmn pntvy pt sstns but t mn-

m mptnc npm tv t Dw’s tt busnss. Annu ss

t ncny t t U.. gvnmnt w just $6.5 mn: ss tn

n- pcnt gss vnu. “Lmng g n t cmpny’s

mktng st m tn 800 pucts wt-puyng cmcs,

c mcns, nsctcs n nsttcs—mny wc s

us n Vt Nm,” Time bsv. Ts gumnt, t v bn

spstv, nw swy n n: npm ws nt cmpb t c

mcn. Dw’s bsut puctn—54,620 tns v t t m-

ty n 1966 n, n v 22,000 tns puc n t fst sx mnts

1967— justf cnmntn n t mns ppnnts.

v’s cnnttn n Octb 25, 1967, n wk t t v-

nc t Msn, ws spcy wncng. Rtc ws t mt utst. “Is t n t ntsts cmsty stunts— ny

stunts—tt w pfts k Dw psttut scnc pssn

n mu?” sk vnc ts. A st-n stt t 9:30 .m. n t

Jms Bynt Cnnt Lbty t 12 Ox tt, w ct



Indicted 137

Dw Lbs Fck Lvtt pnn t ntvw cuts. “T m-

nstts gu tt ny cptn guty w cms n ptn

t gnc—n ts cs, Dw— n gt t cm n t v

cmpus,” t Harvard Crimson stunt nwspp pt. Cnnt

Lbty, nm t n t m Ntn Dns Rsc

Cmmtt n v psnt, ws ttc t t t

Cnvs Cmsty Lbty bung: t vy pc w Lus

Fs n E. B. sbg cnuct t wnw-w xpmnts.

It s unc ptsts knw ts sty. At 11:00 .m., ctvsts scv-

Lvtt ct t nby Mnckt n ws cn-uctng ntvws— cy busnssmn mn t 12 Ox tt.

tunts n t t nw ctn. Dct t bts Rn

Vn, t Crimson cunt, “mmty ttmpt unsuccssuy

t sct [Lvtt] tug t cw wc by tn gwn t v

100. Ty stpp n n v t ts st mnstts but

w tn mt by ws stunts stnng, wt ms nk.” Mc

. Ans, css 1968, t Lvtt cu v ny “t sgn yw st pp bng t n-scw pg: ‘I g t stp

ntvwng n t v cmpus n nt t tun tt pu-

ps.’ ” Actvsts qustn t busnssmn ggssvy n npm,

Dw, n t w but fv mnuts, t Crimson cntnu, n

tn n Vn spp bck nt t cnnc m. Ty

mn t unt but 6:00 p.m., wn stunts vt t n t

ptst. Lvtt’s ws t ngst ny Dw cut ung t

nt-npm cmpgn. “Npm—n t cmpny tt mks t—v

bcm symbc w tt ts t sty cmmunsm by bmbng

pp,” Crimson wts tz t nxt y.

Fs, w t w mnts , ws “bystn,” n s

ws, t t ptst. cn t cv stunt gtn tt

vst s c, wc ws s ct n Mnckt . Lts

n ut w bcks wy n v qu sw pctu

c wt tb buns. “CAN YOU UORT NAALM usgnst CILDREN?” sk t txt. “I yu mt t mt n t

ws 10-y- ugt yu s , ty wu wnt yu t xpn

wy E s vctm NAALM. Dpp m Amcn pns, ts

j gsn sts t t mms cuntss t cn vy



138 S o l d i e r

y,” t sst. gnts—t Ctzns Cmpgn gnst Npm,

tunt Nnvnt Cntng Cmmtt, Msscustts tc

Actn c, n tunts Dmctc cty (D)—ug

“Dn’t buy Dw pucts.”

At W W II, Fs tun t s ntst n pubc t n

ccngns. s cmc ccmpsmnts w xtny: 284

sc pps; m tn twnty bks, ncung t ntn’s mst

wy us bsc gnc cmsty txt; t pstgus Ju pz cnc sc, n t Ncs M m t Amcn Cmc

cty; numus tcng ws; mmbsp n t Amcn Ac-

my Ats n cncs, n t Ntn Acmy cncs; t

ny cmst n t gunbkng 1963 ugn Gn’s Avsy

Cmmtt n mkng n t tt stbs nk btwn cg-

tt smkng n ung ss; n ny gs m Wms

Cg n t Unvsty s.

Unt Vtnm, t pss pt, ntng but cngtutns

w s wk n npm. snt y Tumn w m

Ctfct Mt n 1948 s nvntn. Ltts n m s-

s w s s g sv t vs. Tn, n 1966–1967, vytng

cng. s mbx ws f wt vt. “ s sm t wt-

s w syng, n ct, ‘W tugt yu w gt guy, n nw

yu’ bum,’ ” t New York Times pt.

Wn qustn, Fs w bgt n btwn s sc n

ctu pymnts npm. “I cun’t s tt ts stu ws g-

ng t b us gnst bbs n Busts. T psn w mks

. . . sn’t spnsb t s us t st t snt,” t

junst Jn Lnnn n Nvmb 1967. “Yu n’t knw wt’s cm-

ng. Tt wsn’t my busnss. Tt ws t pp. I ws wkng

n tcnc pbm tt ws cns pssng,” t nt

pt n mnt t. M gny, , “It’s nt my bus-nss t wt t ptc m qustns. . . . Just bcus I

py n t tcngc vpmnt npm sn’t mn

I’m ny m quf t cmmnt n t m spcts t.” In 1968,



Indicted 139

s t t n n ntvw wt Time, “I v n gt t jug t

mty npm just bcus I nvnt t.”

T Fs, npm ws ntstng pmy s cmc nnvtn.

As s t s tmnt pty, just t wks t stunt

mnsttns wck s bty bung t v: “Unt t

y b t ctu, I pnn t mnstt t ntstng n

cmpty nn-psn uss Npm t b cumnt by t bun-

ng nsm $7 bx m t v Cp. . . . My tk m

ut vn mntnng Npm.” Nn t t spks t t n-

n mntn t nmus ncny. yt tt, n MIT pssn m NDRC Dvsn 11 cgu Fs’s, cnfm w tt-

tus cng n Cmbg, Msscustts. In 1995 ntvw -

c, “T ws pstw p n wc I wu nt sy pub-

cy tt I bn nvv ung t w n t us npm, bcus

tt ws suc n ugy tng.”

As by unstt gmnt, Fs’s wk n npm, wc

pmnnt pc n s bgpy p t 1967, ws mtpcybus ut s c t t cmpus ptsts. s mtwn

nwspp nt mntn t muntn n ts pt n s tmnt

cbtn. T Williams Alumni Review ws quy sct wn t

nnunc s ppntmnt n 1968 s sc pss t mt

Cg. Npm cv scnt, ny, mntn n t mny ugs

pubs t s t, m pnumn, n Juy 28, 1977. At s m-

m svc, t csst nyn cm t mntn t g ws wn

ssct Rbt Ww scb W W II s t “Gt Cn-

gtn.” Cgu E. J. Cy mv, n cctstc ssss-

mnt, “On mmbs m t gt tk n s wk. . . .

ppc c tsk wt bunss ngy, gt zst n ntss

cncy.” A 1977 cmpnum mmb bgps, pubs by

t Ntn Acmy cncs, wt s w wk, “Wt t p-

pc W W II, Fs ws wn ncsngy nt w-t

pjcts. A b xcusn nt t mx ptc-mtcpynt cmpuns pssb us s xtc xpsvs ws w

by stus k sts ng cn tty cs s ncns, but by

t mst mptnt s w-t wk ws s ng n ntnsv



140 S o l d i e r

stuy t qunn ntms.” Acmcns nt ncu Fs’s

ptnt n npm, t tcnc pp wt but ts puctn,

n t xtnsv bbgpy s pubctns. In t spng 1996,

My Fs ct t Lus n My Fs Lbty Un-

gut Ognc Cmsty t t unvsty. v’s c Gazette

nt mntn npm wn t u t nmsks t y n: “Lus

Fs ws stngus sc ws c ncu wk n

ntm gnts, ctsn, n vtmn K-1.”

Dw cu nt stnc ts s sy. By t n 1967, t fm ws

bsg. Knwg but t wy npm k ws nw wsp.

Oppnnts tun t cmpny’s gumnt tt t g ws sm pt

ts ptns n ts , n sst tt Dw’s nsstnc n kp-

ng busnss t n’t n m t fm spcy cupb. At

ctvsts tun t t wn ty pubs c pttn sg-

ntus gnst npm n nwspps ntnw, n submtt tmssv cumnt tt sut t t us Am vcs Cmmt-

t. tunts c n t scs t vst m Dw, n utny

bck cuts n ntvw cs. T ws s muc ctvty

tt n Nvmb 8 t fm’s pubc tns st bgn t ccut n

ntn Napalm News but t tst tub spts.

Rtc ws sng. “W nt, tn, ng wt tvts, but

wt mnstus s,” Bstn Unvsty sty pss w

Znn wt n s utumn 1967 pmpt Dow Shalt Not Kill . Npm

bmbng “nks wt t stuctn Lc by t Gmns, t

cusng t ungn bn by t Russns, t cnt mss

sugt n Inns,” sst. “T ct tt t s ny n n-

ct cnnctn btwn Dw cutng stunts n npm pp

n Vtnms vgs, s nt vtt t m ssu. It s pcsy

t ntu mn mss mu tt t s nt vsby ct k n-

vu mu, but tks n cpt cct, w vy ptc-pnt s mt bty,” gu. “T us npm s bngng

sm upn u ntn tugut t w. Its us s wy unwty

t s wc ts ntn stns. W mn tt u snt

n t Mmbs u Cngss tk mmt stps t stp t mnu-

ctu n us ts bbus wpn,” t At pttn.



Indicted 141

Mkt-bs gumnts m tt wy gnst suc mps-

sn sstns. snt IBM Tms Wtsn J., xmp, n

tt t t stunt nwspp t s m mt Bwn Unvsty,

s t ws “cuus n t xtm” t xpct cmpny t “subvt

t mctc pcss” n us t s n ts pucts t ts wn

gvnmnt. nt t ws mst n mj U.. cptn tt

ws nt cntbutng n sm wy t t w. tunts bus s just-

fctns s, wv, n ug umn t wt ntns un

ccumstncs unt Bwn vst m Dw. ckts pp t

t cmc gnt’s Rck Cnt cs.

A Dcmb 18 ptst t Cn tt Unvsty, Ls Angs,

sw w uy nt-npm cs cnt t f by t n

1967. T mnsttn, t fst v gnz by t c D cp-

t, bgn wt y n mc t t sc’s mn mnsttn

bung, tn cntnu t t cutng c us n n t.

Dw cuts ck tmsvs ns wn t stunts v, s

mnstts pumm t, n t t “nt, tug nt sty,”n t ws D nwstt. T ptsts bun ummy wt

mm npm n tss stnk bmb nt t t, wc c

t cuts ut. Ty u t nt bung, wc ws pmpty

ccup by stunts. Cmpus pc, bck by 350 Cty Ls Angs

cs sttn but 300 ys wy bn sm , nnunc

tt vyn ws un st. T cuts sz vntg

bk n t ctn, jump ut bck wnw, n c t t

c. “T stunts cs tm, n k t tm tug t c

wnws s ty sp wy,” D s. T xcutvs t t -

n c vnng sws, ccng t t nwstt.

Dw t t pssu. “[I]ts mg s sung. Nxt t LBJ, Dn

Rusk n ubt umpy, Dw, t mnuctu npm, s

bcm t mst ppu tgt cmpus nt-w ptsts,” Science

mgzn pt. cn-gussng bgn ns t fm. “Ctv

mn,” mgt b m cut t ttct s sut t mnsttns,Dn tt. “Yu just n’t knw wt t s ng t t quty stu-

nts w’ tkng t,” s Dct Cpt Rcutng Rymn

F. R. “It ws vy stnng,” cut Gg An c

vst t n Js tt Cg. “On t ws I ws ntvwng I

t tk t n t wsm bcus w w bt s bn by t



142 S o l d i e r

t gs.” Excutvs bgn t ssss t ptns. “T s ctny

pssbty u nt bng bng g,” nw t n-

pm cntct, b cmn C Gstck t t Los Angeles

Times n Nvmb 23. A spksmn, wv, qucky bcktck, n

Gstck cf t nxt y, “My mks w ntn t mn

ny tt I cnnt cmmt my cmpny t ts tm t cus ctn

t nfnt utu.”

By 1968, npm’s ntfctn wt t s t Vtnm W,

n by xtnsn Dw Cmc, ws cmpt. tsts mv cm-

puss n ctvst cgy jn stunts s pncp gnzs. OnMy 7, t Nw Yk-bs gup Cgy n Lymn Cncn but

Vtnm (CALCAV) ssmb uns ptsts y t t

Unvsty Mcgn t Ann Ab w by n vngt “Mc

n Mn” cvn t Dw’s nnu mtng, wc ws t b t

Mn’s Cnt Intmt c. Abut 500 cgy n stunts,

mny wng bck mbns, cw t sc’s wn t nxt

mnng. “Gnc v npm,” “T w s wng—s s Dw,” n“Dw Knw-w In Evy Dp Npm,” sgns. “[I]t w cst

Dw uns n uns mns s t bu ts mg

s mk cmcs pgss nst cmcs stuctn,”

cs stckbk Dn J. Bnstn mnstt wt s-

s. “W must nt sun t gvnmnt t gt t mk m

ccs,” pc Quk cgymn Rv. Jms L.

Dw n cpt spnsbty t Vtnm W, n gn

p uty n pttsm. umntnsm n cmmc bn

pp m ts st gumnts. “Cmpns n’t stt ws, n

cmpns cn’t n tm . . . yu wnt t stp t w wy n’t yu

tkng t gsts?” Gstck ctu CALCAV Rv. Rc-

Fnnz n pubc scussn b t ss mtng. A

gup svntn cuntmnstts my v ncs t s-

cmt cpt cs wt t supptv mssgs: “I Bck

Dw, I Lk My V.C. (Vtcng) W-Dn,” n.

Cpt utty pv. Bnstn’s nmntn w pp-

nnt n m F Rsv b cmn Mn Eccs t t

Dw b ws t by 25 mn vts t 1,212. A sw ns

suny jct sutn t n Dw’s puctn npm. “Yu





144 S o l d i e r

Wn t 5:00 .m. “It sc t v ut my my,” t wy -

c. In y 1969, t ptsts ttn t bw up t fm’s

Tnt ss c unss ts mng sgn pg t stp npm

puctn.

Dw nug. In Octb 1969, wn ts ntgn cntct

cm up nw, t cptn submtt ts 1968 b wtut

justmnt—n st t cntct t ms mnuctu Amcn Ec-

tc Inc. L M, Cn, sutst Ls Angs. It nnunc

t vpmnt n Nvmb 14. Its v mnuctu bmbss,

n bn fng tm wt npm m Dw’s Tnc ctysnc 1967 t ts pnt n Lng Bc, sut Ls Angs. Amcn

Ectc but pystyn pnt just tt y, pssby wt t

npm cntct n mn. Npm’s nw mnuctu ws subsy

t Cty Invstng cngmt, puc n cnsum pucts,

n n pns t cut n cg cmpuss. Dw n t -

bty vb, n m ts cmmtmnt t pv wtv

pucts t gvnmnt qu.

Absutn pv t btn, wv, pps bcus t

mnuctu’s ck cnttn. Dys t Dw nnunc t st

ts cntct, stunts t Nt Dm Unvsty ck up cmpny

cut t ptst t fm’s pvus wk n npm. Ntn ttn-

tn w t unvsty’s csn t suspn xp tn stunts

n spns. Dw’s cntnu puctn t Agnt Ong bc

t ts nmy. Evn tug nt-npm cmpus ptsts gy

n wt Dw’s npm puctn—t fm c twnty-nn

mnsttns n t 1968–1969 sc y, n just u n 1969–

1970: “n n tks but t nym,” pt t t v Crim-

son stunt nwspp s t ncny n Jun 1970—t cmpny

ws us s tgty n t pubc’s mn t npm s t g ws t t

skn ts vctms. “[W] v n ct bn cut m sgmnt

scty, t sz wc s ntmnt, wc s bck us ut

mtny bcus ty s us s symb t t w n Vt-nm,” Gstck mtt n Jun 1970. Dw ss m

95,000 t 90,000 ung t ys cmpus ptsts. “W suspct

g mny t 5,000 w st ct t st n pt t t npm st-

s,” t cmn s uuy.



Indicted 145

Dw’s c s mnuctu npm mns n mptnt pt

t cmpny’s pubc ntty. In 1987, xmp, mst tw -

cs t t stpp pucng npm, Time mgzn pt

n t unc ntn pubc tns cmpgn s ws: “Dw

Cmc, vf n cg cmpuss ung t Vt Nm W

mnuctung npm, s cng ut t yung pp n tvsn

cmmcs tt sw sy mnt cg guts sgnng n t

p t w.” In 2005, mst ty ys t t c t by

cut ns Btz t ntvw cnts by tpn m t c-

cup musc m t mn Cg, t Economist mgzn, n ntc tt “Amc’s mst-t cmpns: -c cmmc

vfctn,” w Dw stc “tm cvmnt w t

cutng cntvsy,” n pt bcus ts wk n npm. Dw’s

psnt, c xcutv c, n cmn Anw Lvs b-

sv t 2006 cnnc n Etcs n Cmpnc: “Bv m, w

v u s tc cngs, mst tm vy pubc . . .

sttng wt t mnuctu Npm ung t Vtnm W . . .wn suny w wnt m bng cmpny tt m n Wp t

kp s t kn w mcn . . . t st, ccng t t

cctztns t tm.” Dw mns ns cntct, but

pps nt t mnuctu wpns.

tsts m spcfcy t npm bck nt t b n-

tw mvmnt m wc ty nty spng t Dw t t bus-

nss. Amcn Ectc’s Lng Bc pnt nv ttct sustn

ppstn, tug t tk sm tm ts numnt t bcm

c: n Dcmb 1, 1969, t New York Times ubb Lng Bc

“npm cpt t w”—n pt tt c ptsts

stt. Actvsm n utn Cn, wv, cm gy m -

c mwns cncn but sty n ppty vus, t tn

w ptsts, s n Rw Cty. On Jun 25, 1969, n xpsn t t

pnt n t mtn pstc n t jnng Cy Mn cmmu-

nty 226 ms. A tuck sp svn sppng cntns f wtnpm nt t Lng Bc Fwy t wng wk. N n ws

ut, but tmps y. Ant xpsn n Octb 2 spy t

pstc n t wns ms tt jn t pnt n zn cs n

tucks wn by ngb busnss. Rpsnttvs t cty



146 S o l d i e r

mng mv t stp puctn n t Cy Mn mwns

Assctn su t cty nggnc. But ccnts n wn t

pnt sv ts stt-up cuts, n wt tm mst bjctns.

Cvn njus cus by npm, wv, mn n mnt

ptsts gnst U.. nvvmnt n Vtnm unt t w n. A s-

s Dcmb 1971 “npm” ttcks gnst Cstms ts c-

t wt w tys n ms n sv cts, gnz by Vtnm

Vtns gnst t W, ws typc n ts us t g t w ttn-

tn t t b mvmnt. sts npm vctms mn

fxtu t ntw mnsttns.

Tus, by t tm Km úc n tt Dn bgn t un m t

tmp n Jun 8, 1972, npm ws csy ssct wt t w n

Vtnm n t mns mns. Mv, s sut t ntnw

uctn pgm tt ws n sut t nt-npm cmpgn, c-

cunts k tt pt Fx Buttf t New York Times cub cmpn t v t t cncv b 1966: “gt.

Nguyn Vn wtc ncuusy s ut Vtnms pn

mstkny pp mng npm gt n s tps n cust

cvns. In n nstnt fv wmn n cn n zn Vt-

nms ss w by bun, t skn png n ug pnk

n bck cunks. ‘Ts s tb, t wst I’v v sn!’ s -

gnt .”

Dn’s t-y- gs pv t sw t scp t f cu. A

s scp m up s n tug t tmp gt, but ws m-

s ncnt. s gnmt, w v t wst t ms,

gt s mutt by, n v t t cckpnt w m-

mnts t Km. ts skn ng m t by’s sm t, n

pp wt stps. wtn t u.

At t g w c, Km’s pnts bgn spt sc

t ugt. Nby Cu C twn y n tc . Impcu-nus, t cup, w m t vng s ppts s

n stn, wk tty ms t t cpt gn. Ty sc

t cty’s spts t ys, n spt n t pn c ngt. Cks

t t st nsttutn ty vst, gn’s Fst Cn’s spt,

n tt ny c Km’s scptn bn mtt. p-



Indicted 147

nts cck vy b n t gt-sty nsttutn. Tn, vwm

n xust, ty sump tgt n t bby. A cn pss

wt s mp. Km’s t ppc m. “Excus m, yu s

yung g bugt w ws bun vy by? It wu v bn

t ys g. . . . Myb s nt suvv?” sk. T cn

tm uts n pnt t sm bung wt png cpbs

n g wnws cv by sutts. “Tt m s cn w

w ,” s.

Wn pnts v, Km’s bgp Dns Cng wt,

“T ugt y n ct n t pstn. A gy-bwn gb mtt bunt , c ws by swn, n t bngs n

wuns w t wt nctn n stuck wt c n

skn.” mn. v. pnts us t t ny ct

ty mt t t spt, n cung t m n sptn. “s,

u ugt s bn t t ,” mp t. A gmm c-

gntn pss btwn pyscn n pnt: ty t c bng

stunts tgt n gn. In twnty mnuts, n mbunc v ttk Km t t Ntn Cnt stc n Rcnstuctv ugy,

spc cnc un n 1968 by p Nw Yks: pstc sugn

Atu Bsky n ttny Tms M. It ws pps t ny c-

vn cty n ut Vtnm tt cu v tt .

Rcvy m bun njus cn b xcuctngy pnu. A ct t

Km’s spt cmp t xpnc t bng y v: sung

s sv t cnsttut “wun t t su.” Ec mnng, t n

xmntn, nuss tk Km t spc bttub f wt sugc

sp n wm wt n mv ssngs. Tn, n pcss

c bmnt, ty us n sw t p wy n

nct skn. csss suppmnt t wt jts wn ncssy.

Nn-y- Km cv n nsttc. Wn sst cm t vst,

s nt t scms.

kn gts bgn nc t nctns bn n Km’s

stngt smwt tun. Dcts us spc kn c mtm t sv swts skn m ty s by n

x tm t t pst wuns. Dn sts su n njuy cmp-

b t sus bun, n qu cu ttmnt. Fny, t n-

su tt nw skn gw bck wtut usng t ts, Km úc ws

s n by cst n pc n tctn. bgn pystpy,



148 S o l d i e r

wc ntuc nw yssys sung, wn t cst ws mv.

In Nvmb 1972, t mst sx mnts t t cnc, t ngst sty

n t sty t cty, t tt g ws scg. “Npm s t

mst tb pn yu cn mgn,” s t n ntvw ys t.

T Vtnm W, n tun, ws ncsngy ssct wt U.. u

by t summ 1972. ut Vtnm’s mty stugg t cntn

mj nmy nsv, ts gvnmnt wbb, n pptns n

Amcn wtw bcm m ppnt by t y. Wt ws sym-bc n 1962, wn U..-m npm vstt snt Dm’s -

gn pc ws, ncsngy, ty. Autts nt cns “T

T W,” s ty cmpb mgs m Jpn ung W

W II n t Kn W, n t ptgp cptu mmnt

g m, but t ws m unqu: ptgps cn nju

by npm n Vtnm ccut n t Unt tts ys.

Rt, t npm tt t Km úc ws n ntmtn ntn -t, s muc s c nvu tgy. It s wun n

n, k sc, nt ctnty.

Amc’s st cmbt tps t Vtnm n Mc 1973. Mst

t npm wnt wt tm: 23 mn puns n 34,653 tn-t-ng,

cg-sp, my-gn umnum cnsts, c pck n n n-

vu wn ct, tun t Cn. Tps stck t bmbs

n sxty-svn pn cs t t Bc wpns sttn n t F-

bk wpns cty nxt t t Cmp ntn Mn Cps Bs

btwn Ls Angs n n Dg. Fn t t Unt tts

cm n Ap 30, 1975, wn ts st cpt t t U.. mbssy n

gn. In utn Cn, t ntn’s npm sn st n t

sun n wt t ts t. Guy, v t nxt mst qut

cntuy Amc, n t w, cm t cnmnty jugmnt.



TAL EM ATE , TO DE FE AT

U.. A Fc -51 Mustng “xy y” ustts w-v “np scp”

npm ttck n Kn twn n August 1, 1951. U.S. Air Force



yngyng t Unt Ntns ttcks wt npm n xpsvs.

Vitalii S. Latov

A t ut Kn wmn, bun by U.. npm bmbs, t n sttn

n uwn, ut K, n Fbuy 4, 1951. AP Photo/Eugene Fox, U.S. National

Archives, File



Km úc sws wuns. Perry Kretz



A pctu Vtnms c bun by npm, pubs n Jnuy 1967 by

Ramparts mgzn: n t fst ptgps cvn npm csutywy stbut n t Unt tts. William F. Pepper



A Nw Yk y gnst U.. nvvmnt n t Vtnm W n Mc 16, 1967,

by D. Bnjmn pck (scn m t) n Mtn Lut Kng J. (cnt).

AFP



Vw t Octb 18, 1967, ptst gnst Dw Cmc t t Unvsty

Wscnsn–Msn, m bkn wnw n t Cmmc Bung. Image

courtesy o the UW-Madison Archives



149

PARIAH

Npm m ts mss-mkt scn but n t 1979 bckbust Apocalypse Now, t fst fm t sw npm stk t gb

unc. Its pw ws unnb, but t suts t cv pv

usy n xmntn, vn cuntpuctv. Lutnnt Cn

B Kg, py by Rbt Duv, ybk ssut n

C’s nt t t mut t fctn Nung Rv. s bjctv

ws t scu mus “pnt bk” wv mtn, w cunts

mt t n, cmpn su n pt bt cwmn Lnc Jn-

sn. A sct mssn by pc Fcs cptn Bnjmn W,

py by Mtn n, wc qu scung t pmnty s s

bt cu vyg up v, ws ncnt. Mns sw t mv, wc

wn tw Acmy Aws, ncung Bst ctu, n gss -

cpts but $160 mn.

Npm’s mmnt cm s y bk. A vst f cpts cun

t . Amcn ss m t Fst Cvy Dvsn (Amb),

tugst n Vtnm, st n Kg’s cpt s s m-muntn. A t subs ws stpp t t sks. Lt cm,

n s wvs us by bw, uspks suny b ut Rc-

Wgn’s “R t Vkys.” Omnus n t, t mcns

swpt w v t s, vstt vg n ts ns wt



150 Pariah

ckts n mcn guns, tn stt n t bc m xpsns

n bwng smk. Kg, Jnsn, n W jump ut. A p

sus swm tw t bk.

Incmng ss n mcn gun f, wv, m ng wvs

mpssb. Kg bk nt n RT, R Tpn, “Bg Duk

x. Gmt, I wnt tt tn bmb. Bmb t nt t tn

Ag, sn.” A t n-ns sv ntm jts scn m

t cus n pp css npm n t jung. Fms

tun t scn n ng. nc w.

“Yu sm tt?” Kg s, mst t ms. Tn, u, “Yusm tt?” Lnc, t cmpn su, sk “Wt?” Kg, t by

t gw bunng ts, tt, “Npm, sn—ntng s n t

w sms k tt. I v t sm npm n t mnng. Yu

knw, n tm w bmb 12 us, n wn t ws

v I wk up; w n’t fn n ’m . . . nt n stnkng nk

by. But t sm—yu knw, tt gsn sm—t w —t

sm k . . . vcty.” k , nstgcy, tn s, “my ts w’s gnn n.”

In n xtn vsn t pctu, Kg ck s fngs n

t s ms s wk ng t s. “Lnc, t wn,” s.

A usng bz ws bung. “T wn—t’s bwn’ n s . . . t’s

gnn bw ts pc ut . . . t’s gnn un t!” wv s ms n

ccs. “It’s t g mn npm, tt’s wt’s ng t.” Lnc n

W pp t v. “It ws t bmbs cusng vtx wt t

wn,” t cn ptst. As ty n t bt, bw

tug n ctnc bun, “It’s just t uckng npm.”

W t spctcu squnc t tt ubt but npm’s -

stuctv cpbts, t c ny usttn. Kg’s spc -

scb bmbmnt tt t just t sm vcty. Npm un

vn t wv mtn t ws ntn t scu.



151

Dung n mmty t t Vtnm W, U.. wts, tsts,muscns, n mny ng ptcns, pt t tss fst

tcut by t Rw Cty ptsts: npm ws cu, mnt-

by Amcn, n mtp t n Vtnm. Abts ppu

cutu, by yw, vp ts mssg but wpn,

cunty, n cncusn n t t 1970s n y 1980s, n s t t

uns mns pp ww. By t m-1980s “npm”

cqu sng mnng tt cnnt mst nytng xtm—

wt n unyng mpctn vnc. At ptmb 11, 2001, s

mns vngnc swpt t cunty, mtn t ncny

n sm pckts U.. cutu s t gts nt sn snc t Kn

W: fm cts us t s m nttnmnt, mkts un

vntg n ts m, n n cmmunts m n t Intnt. Ts

cunttn, wv, ws mt n tus utmty ggt t

cnmnty pgm npm tt s mn gy un-

cng cs.Ctcsm by tsts stt n t t 1960s. Nvst J. G. B

pck up n 1969 w s w Engsmn Gm Gn t

n The Quiet American n 1955. In Love and Napalm: Export U.S.A.,

10

Baby Burners



152 P a r i a h

pubs n Nw Yk, B ct t ncny s mbmtc

Amcn pvsns n ky mnt n “ptmum c-muttn

fm” puctn. “Usng ssmby kts tcty ptgps, gups

uswvs, stunts n psyctc ptnts sct t ptmum

c-ttu vctm. Rp n npm buns mn cnstnt pc-

cuptns, n wun pf mxmum us ws cnstuct,”

cunt. “Dspt t vusn xpss by t pns, w-up

suvys wk-pfcncy n t pttns nct substnt

bnfts. T cts tcty fms n stub cn w un

t v pstv suts tt nct sm bnfts t TV pubc tg.” In cncusn, “Ts stus cnfm tt t s ny n tms

psyc-sxu m suc s pv by t Vtnm w tt t

Unt tts pubc cn nt nt tnsp wt t w gn-

y cctz by t tm ‘v.’ ”

nt Ln Gub g. s 1969 Nw Yk Napalm ss -

pct t g s n bscnty. Ctc Gc Guck, n New York

Times vw n “A st Wtnss t t Inumnty tumn Cntn,” wt tt Gub , “A vw sty s

pnm unnng, unsvb cnct.” Napalm I, s cntn-

u, “pct[] p y mn, n gstung n fnc, t

t n gny.” Ru Bnk’s 1967–1974 Napalm Elegies, cc-

tn tty ntpttns ptgp buty bun Cm-

bn c, cnvy sm mssg.

Muscns m t ntn’s cutu cpt, wv, puc

t mst wy pubcz tstc cmmnty n npm ung t

w. A zn s ntw ctv-uty ss sttn t t Mun-

tn m A Fc Bs n t twn Muntn m n Bs,

I, pn c us n muscns’ cctv n 1971 c t

Cv Wgn (n c scuty c “sbtg.”) Lc ctcs

n t sttmnt 7,000 m t tts, ug ttcks n t c

sp n ts mmbs, bk t bung’s s n wnws n nu-

mus ccsns, n vn t t n f, but t cctv psv. In1972, t mn s We Say No to Your War! Songs Written and Sung

by the Covered Wagon Musicians Active- Duty Air Force People, Mountain

Home AFB, Idaho, wc ncu “Npm tcks t Ks,” btng

py c-n-spns tnng cnc.



Baby Burners 153

Mmb Jn Bycuk xpn t sng’s sty: “A gup A

Fc n Amy GIs ssgn t t 1st A Cvy st wn n ngt

n tc n Vtnm t wt ts ws. Ec psn m vs

but n ncnt n wc tkn pt.” T mnscncs,

wt, v “bn pnt n GI nwspps v t w, [n

] pbby t mst wy qut pm t cm m t GI mv-

mnt.” In, tug pucs s ny tvy sm numb

bums, “Npm tcks t Ks” bcm ntnw ntm

ntw ptsts. A typc vs: “A bby suckng n s mt’s

tt/ Cn cwng n pt/ Dw Cmc sn’t gv st/ N-pm stcks t ks.”

Antw ptcns sz n t g’s sng cbty. Mnnst sn-

t n 1968 Dmctc psnt cnt Eugn McCty,

xmp, wt n s pm “Vtnm Mssg,” “W w tk u n-

pm n m tws/ ut t n tt sccy knws t us

mtcs.” In t fn ys t 1972 psnt cmpgn, ut

Dkt snt Gg McGvn uc n unc t t Unv-sty Mnnst t stunn snc, n tn ts, wn py

vtn’s scptn npm stk c n t Bstn tk

sw st Jy Wms: “W wnt nt vgs t ty pp

npm, n t umn bngs w us tgt k pcs mt

tt bn s. mtms yu cun’t t ty w pp

nms.”

Vtns tn t t c t pwu mtns st by suc

tstmny. cpt tp Bb k, xmp, tun m

Vtnm n 1971. On s fst y bck n t Unt tts n s

w “v t t nst sppng m t buy m sm cvn

cts.” T, t mnsc, “A cg-g w ntc my

m-tw qufctn bg n m sm mks but m b-

ng bby-bun.” k cntnu, “I gt us t pp wkng

wy wn ty fgu tt I ws n t my. . . . I ws n uts n

my wn cunty, n n mny wys, v sty tt wy v snc.”

Ts pgm cct t 1975: npm bcm mnsttn

t pts, cuty, n utty Amc’s gtst t. Nvst

n vtn p Cput cptu n y stg t pcss wn

wt n s 1977 utbgpy A Rumor o War, “A mn sw t



154 P a r i a h

gts n pts umn bv n Vtnm, mnn v-

nc n s s gtsqu ty vk m scntn tn s-

gust. Onc I sn pgs tng npm-c cpss— mm-

b sgt, pgs tng st pp.” ngpn ntctu Rbt Y

w b sc mpctns m t g n s vum pty

pubs t sm y And Napalm Does Not Help: “[D]mccy s

wn-bwn s n t n/ s nw t s ny spg t gw/

but t st; n npm s nt p.”

Atsts n t 1980s but n ts y xpssns. Ty cmmnt

m qunty n npm, n n w ng m, tn n nypvus p, n m t g pxy butty n ppssn.

In 1981, Bts muscns Ncs Bun n Ms Rtg ct

t bn Npm Dt n stbs gnc punk s n ntn-

tny ppu gn wt pmncs n tusns vnus w-

w n v tty bums. Its nm stns s “ct, t n stk

nt-w nc—npm s cmbustb substnc bng ptcu-

y us mnt w,” ccng t bn mmb BnyGnwy. Cmpt ycs t t fst tck n t 1987 but bum

tst ts gy n pctc: “Mutntn cptns/

Gnc t stvng ntns.” Wmct, nt punk bn wt

substnt wng, ws stbs n 1985 n tn, Ogn,

n s nvk npm ng sm ns t ctcz utty. Cus

ycs ts 1987 sng “Npm w” : “Npm sps n, u

cty s gn. . . . Ou gvnmnts uck . . .” Npm Rcs, stb-

s n Aust n 1992, s t w’s gst stbut t mt

punk cngs.

Wt spct t Vtnm n ptcu, vws npm gw s

s wnss ts cts sp n t ty U.. t snk n. In

1981, ctts nvst Wm By upt Gn’s gc ms

tt “g v tm k wt,” n B’s ntss, wt ntby

unncng xpstn npm buns n Vtnms g. In s

st sty “On t Ynk ttn” wt yung psttut, “tun bupty t v bck. . . . Wn sw bck, Lyck’s

bn scm n snt . s ns s nvunty t s

mut. T g k t m v su. ‘Ny-pm,’ s s

quty n xpntn. ‘Ny-pm, G.I.’ . . . bck ws b stp,



Baby Burners 155

swt pup sny skn w sttc wvs svy sc tssu

n bst bun ws tss n yng s-s.” t Buc

Wg ws quy bunt n “ng Npm,” s 1988 : “[T] g

uns ny s / s t npm ws/ unt bunng tnns n

cckng/ muscs w up/ nt tt fn pstn/ bunng bs

s pcty ssum. Ntng/ cn cng tt, s s bun bn my

ys/ n nt yu g v n nt t n-swpt / n nt t

jung-gn/ pstu unng b us cn ny t.”

Nwspps py tvy tt n ts spct npm’s

sty: cvg ws mst nty cumnty t tn nytc.Inusty bwt t New York Times st c nnu mn-

tns npm n 1951, t fst u y t Kn W, xmp,

wn t pubs 232 pcs tt mntn t g. Cvg pung

t 146 mntns t wng y, n just ty-fv n 1953. In 1967, s

U.. nvvmnt xpn n Vtnm, t pc’s npm pts

t scn pk, wt 187 cttns. Cvg cn m t: 120

sts n 1968, but gty-t mntns c y m 1969 t 1972,ty-nn n 1973, n nt m tn tty-sx cttns n ny subs-

qunt y—mny just ts summs bu p n t jun. T

y 2001, wn Amc nv Iq, ws t ny xcptn: cvg

m tn ub, m utn mntns n 2000 t tty-svn -

ncs, but t t tt. T Los Angeles Times w sm-

pttn, wt ss cvg npm n t Kn W tn ts Est

Cst cuntpt, but cmpb ttntn m 1955 n. An nyss

pubctns ctg by Gg Bks sws sm spk n n-

tst n t t 1960s, wt g pnt n 1970. Ts g tv t

nwspps ky cts t ng pubctn -tm mts

n tt tbs.

Mss mkt fms m tn cmpnst pnt’s pctm n-

gct. Apocalypse Now, wc tu Cn Kg’s cz s-

quy, n pn wt npm stk st t t sng “T En” by T

Ds, st t stn n 1979. An Of cer and a Gentleman, s n1982, gv “Npm tcks t Ks” ntntn m: “Fyng w n

ng mn/ pt my by stm/ ck p n ’m

scm/ ’Cus npm stcks t ks,” Nvy cuts cnt s ty

tn. “Egtn ks n f zn/ Bks un ms, just wkng



156 P a r i a h

n m/ Lst k wks m n/ ’Cus npm stcks t ks,” ty

y. A p Acmy Aws p t fm gss $130 mn

mstcy, n pps twc tt ntntny, m ww

unc tns mns.

Running on Empty, 1988 fm tt gss just $2.8 mn n -

mstc vnus, sw tt yw’s mg npm ws cnss-

tnt css t cmmc spctum, m g ss t sm fms.

“T bty s ct wt t vpmnt (mispronounces)

np-pm, us xtnsvy n t Vtnm W,” n yung sn nt-

w ugtvs n nwspp pt n s pnts. “[W]y’ tyv t bw t up?” sk s bt. “Bcus ty n’t stp

mkng t wn ty sk ’m pty. . . . Ty w ppng tt

stu n pp,” t tng p.

As tm pss, ppu ptys mpsz npm’s stuctv

pw n, smutnusy, t g’s nbty t cng t utcm n

Incn. Platoon, t 1986 fm wttn n ct by Ov tn

n st n 1967 “smw n t Cmbn b,” psnt tg s ctn mst supntu mgt. In cmctc fn scn,

spt U.. c t c t “xpn mnng”

n s vun utpst. A ctcysm w tt k n n ,

t un, cc w, n w tw Amcn vs t

cm t gps: cnnttn tt t n n t t p-

uny mg. It ws t fst pctn npm stk t gun

v n mj yw s. An Acmy Aw Bst ctu

n t t Oscs p pus gss mstc vnus t $139

mn, n gb cpts t pps $280 mn m tns m-

ns vws.

Forrest Gump, s n 1994, n vn m wtc n u,

smy bstct vnc. In mtc fn t t fm’s

Vtnm sgmnt, npm f cus cs t ut t jung

wt wun cmpnn n s ms. Fms sty vytng,

but n’t ut nyn vsb. T fm tn jump mmty t tUnt tts: “Tt’s I v t sy but tt,” Gump v. An

Acmy Aw Bst ctu n fv t Oscs w. Forrest

Gump gss vnus v $677 mn, wc suggst myb

100 mn cnm vws.



Baby Burners 157

Npm ws nw btt knwn by m pp n m pcs un

t w tn v b n, guby, pct wt ss bss n -

ty tn t ny tm snc t 1967 Ramparts ptgps. USA Today

junst Jck Ky, subsqunty f nvntng sts, cugt t

zeitgeist wn scb v-k stuctv pws t “npm-

tpp mtcs” stnsby puc t m C W muntns

pnt n t Ukn. In 1993 “xcusv” ubtu vcty wt,

“T nw 3-nc-ng, npm-tpp mtcs— ys, npm . . . gt

wn wt n sty gt— gv n , nuc-k gw—

n mnut.” T npm f, cntnu, “s s ntns t n-stnty bun tug -nc gss sty n qut-nc-

tck wn tb un t, tn st ug n f. . . . T mtcs,

k tck bty cns, cn’t b xtngus by psstnt bwng.

Dusng tm wt wt usuy sn’t wk, t. tppng n

tm ny bks t mtcs nt tt pcs, wc cntnu t

gw.”

Fight Club, fm s n 1996, tk t cncptn npm s supntu c t n n pnt sts. Ty Dun, sp

ssmn (pps gnuctn t t y cmc sps n

npm’s mnuctu), ntuc ms wt -t-yus cp

t g: “D yu knw yu mx qu pts gsn n -

zn ng juc cncntt yu cn mk npm? . . . On cn mk

kns xpsvs usng smp us tms, n w s n-

cn.” Vnc t Dun tugut t fm. Cuck nuk

ws vn m xpct n t nv tt nsp t pctu. s sty

pn n t t w’s tst bung, wt gun pss t

t bck t nt’s tt. Unsn ptgnsts bw u

sks n fng cbnts tug stt wnws nt stnt

stt. In t cntxt ts mym, t nt ntuc ms

wt npm cps: “T t wys t mk npm: On, yu cn

mx qu pts gsn n zn ng juc cncntt. Tw,

yu cn mx qu pts gsn n t c. T, yu cn s-sv cumb ct tt n gsn unt t mxtu s tck.”

Npm ws n bstctn, vn n mtn sm, by t tun

t mnnum: sgnf vnc. Aut Dv cck, x-

mp, sw t g n 2001 s mtp pssn. “m fb



158 P a r i a h

su ng t k . . . t cns cunts wt npm, t b tkn

vcusy by mn n t stps cuc,” wt n s sty “Kss-

ng n Mnttn.” “It sun sxy, sny, n xpsv, k t mu-

sc I wnt t mk,” Nw Yk muscn Tm tg c t

nm cs s stt-up punk bn Npm ts.

At 9/11, Amc’s gvs cm n npm tun t t s

pttc, mpct, fgt wt jb t . We Were Soldiers, -

mtztn t 1965 Btt I Dng n Vtnm, st t nw tn nMc 1, 2002. F t fst tm n cnm, uncs cm c t c

wt t cts npm n pp. As n Platoon, U.. cmmn

c n n ncny stk n s wn vun pstn. Unk Pla-

toon, ms mk t bgnnng t tn t n t sty. F

fst cugt squn Vtnms tps, w cps wt ngt-

ms scms. Tn, p sv bmbs tumb nt U.. ps-

tn. M, cmmn U.. cs, wt n t mm t btt c-ut wt junst J Gwy tt sv s t

bss t fm, “I jk my un n k stgt nt t

nss tw F-100 up b jt fgts mng cty t us. At tt

mmnt, t ct s tw sny, sx-t-ng npm cns-

ts, wc swy bgn byng n v n tw us.” Wn t

npm t Amcn tps, M n Gwy cntnu, “T

ws bun n n nstnt. T cts w ncnt. On

ws mss bsts; t t nt qut s b, but bt t

f nt s ungs.” Rscu ttmpts xps t u . “m-

by y t m t gb t t n t c ss,” G-

wy mmb, “Wn I gt tm, t bts cumb n t s

cm n I cu t b bns s nks n t pms my

ns. W c m nt t sttn. I cn st t scms.”

Mv cms cptu t gny twnty-tw-y- U.. s,

n nw t, Jmmy Nkym n gsy t. A fn st cus ns scc c s scu cpt t . “T my w n bby

I v tm,” scm, m mut.

Fny f tgs ntwtstnng, We Were Soldiers cptu

t m t tms wn t gv npm muc t ct t



Baby Burners 159

vntu U.. vcty t I Dng: t ncny’s n ws just, wv

but ts mns. Rcnnssnc ptn t yn, ntvw

by M n Gwy, xpn tt t pns “w sgt s

ys, n t cs ng ut s ty m t fst uns.” F t s-

, npm ws t sm bttf t bn snc W W

II: “Yu cu s g numb Nt Vtnms, fty un-

, qut numb, wtn fty svnty-fv ys us—mssng t

ttck—wn n t A Fc pns pp t npm n -

ct t n tm. W bgn t c.” Mns wtc t mtn pc-

tu, wc gss $115 mn ww.

In pgnnt sgt, t Cnt t Tky R n W Dm-

gs, Tky musum gnz by suvvs t 1945 npm t-

tcks n ct t t mmy, pn gt ys t We Were

Soldiers ws s. Attntn ws nsgnfcnt cmp t t mu-

tmn yw pctu: $828,000 n pvt ntns

un t mm, n w tusn vsts v pnng

y. A st New York Times nt nt vn mntn t cty’snm, n w sp stnctn, wv pqu t t bun,

btwn stuctn by cnvntn ms n tmc fs. “Jpn’s

cts w ncnt t sm A fbmbng Gmn cts,

ws t tmc ttcks vn nw mn unqu n sty,” sst

pt w Fnc. A tcup mt nt ump ws n t

Cnt’s mms.

pc Fcs vtn Jn Muns st npm t ts m

gy s n Amcn n s nc mkt 2004 nv Napalm

Dreams. It ws cctstc sm pst-9/11 tttus. Gn Bts

nc n st pc Fcs bs n scv st gup

U.. tps n t Mntgn tb s: “Ty st st t t

st c pstn, t u Mntgns yng n smcc un

t t Amcns. Amst s ty bn pc t sm

bbc gus cmny,” pt gnt Fst Css Wt

“pcuck” Wsngtn. “On t U.. ss bn st,t t k wt m tn 100 cuts. T t st gnst t,

sgtss ys stng ut nt t jung. s pnts bn pu

wn un s nks, n s gnts w mssng. T w n

t wuns. T cw mks n t tunk t t t wc s



160 P a r i a h

ns bn t w mut wtnss t s sung.” Muns ws

bunt: “W Wsngtn gugng mtn s vs-

s, n’t v muc sympty.”

Npm ws, wtut bt, t cct t ttn. “T

Mntgn ss unqustnngy ttn tmsvs gnst t

cy, n s cs t Wsngtn s my bwn ys w stng nt

s wn. T xpssn cng wn t fst ws npm

cnst stuck just uts t w,” t pc Fcs vtn wt.

“G I’m wng t, Wsngtn tugt s t bst sng t

stuck tm. It ws k pnng t t unc, t t smngt pntt t t bn.” ympty ws t s’s fst ctn: “T

stng vy wns bugt bck t m t sms: bunng gsn,

wsmk, n unyng t t unmstkb stnc c s.

mn ws ut t, tugt. bsts.” Rctn, w-

v, puc wt: “ ‘Bun, yu ccksucks,’ s s nt

gt ntms cm n.”

Cs t m, by 2007 mm npm pss m Fight Club ntsy t vyy ncssty. In t munt ctus t

Shooter, m m mty snp Bb L wgg stt s

qust mptn wt s ssstnt, ng F Buu In-

vstgtn spc gnt Nck Mmps, n sububn w st.

“Yu gt yu st, gt?” t spst sk. “Y,” Mmps

spn. Ty spy pnt, sm cns ppn, pps, n

cts n nt t cts. In t nxt scn, y gv vbnk n

t m t ws, t mn wk n t pn pn

usty pck-up tuck. wgg pck up ppn tnk wt sm bt-

ts tp t t: “A gt. T gs s gng t b n my mt.”

n pstc btt f wt yw g: “Npm n t fst u.”

Mmps sk, “Wt xcty w gttng y ?” wgg n-

sw, “As muc s w cn b.” Ty t us t g t sptc

sm my gus: vctms , scm, n cv n

ms; n nncmbtnts su. Shooter gss $96 mn n t-ts un t w, n ws t bst-sng DVD n t Unt

tts t wk t ts s.

Busnsss sw pptunty n npm’s nw spctbty. T fst

npm-bn cnsum puct, skn cm, pp n Nvmb



Baby Burners 161

15, 2007. Avnt Rsc, “t nwst, mst ynmc, mst nnvtv,

n t mst cuttng-g bn n t ty suppmnt nusty,”

ntuc Npm™, “unqu n ‘xpsv’ mxtu ngnts

tt s su t p yu mk quck wk nmy t cs ug n p

n t bttf yu by.” mtn mts pms, “By

ppyng t t spcfc s yu by, suc s yu bmns,

guts, tgs, t scntfc cncctn gycytnc c, sp-

by ktns, sTn™, ymbn C, n synpn C,

wk tgt tug nt pysgc ptwys t p yu tk

ut stubbn by t tt sn’t g wy st nug.” Appctnws smp: “As xpn n t mnc yms, ub g nt

skn, twc y, w t ss cts s.” A pn ssmb

by t ByBung.cm wbst nmnt Avnt 2008 Nw Bn

t Y.

Npm Ong y, wc gws n t k, but t nxt

y m Mbun, F, y spcst pc Ects. T c

jn Bu Fk, Bu Mym, Bgt s F#$% Yw, nts n t cmpny’s nup. A p tstmns m custms

gvs sns npm’s mnng t sm yung Amcns: “I t

w my my ws wy cstms, n ty cm m xpctng

m t k tyngy w [ sic ], but ntng but g tngs t

sy t m wn ty fny sw t. T gtng n t fst pt s

nt vn justc t w ungy bgt t ctuy ws. Nt ny tt,

but t k bsuty mnbwng un bckgt.” A scn: “

cnty bc my t ptnum bn—mst wt n tn

y npm ng spc cts y. t s ctuy s bgt s t

pctu sws!! pp mz wn ty s w czy bgt my

s.”

By 2008, npm ws just g cn un sm. In Death Race, n

August s m Unvs ctus, psn sn nmts cmpt

t t t n custmz cs. In t fn tuns n c Jnsn

Ams, ncknm “Fnknstn” n py by Bts mt tst Jsn ttm, un ms pusu by n nmy punng s v-

c wt vy mcn gun s ty ut tug n bnn

wus. “Gt n my p!” bk t Cs, s nvgt, py by

m Nt Mtnz. s mcnc n n ssstnt, stnng by ,



162 P a r i a h

xcng spcutv gncs. Cs stt s n Ams, cvg

juttng gnst tgt t-st. Cut t cnst: “NAALM” stnc

css t n . Cs pt ps, c btwn Ams’s gs, n

pu tck bck n yw st. T npm s jct, sms

nt t t bung, n sptt g v t pusut c.

“Fuck. Wt t ?” y t v. Cs pu gwng cgtt

gt m ts sckt, st up n t c’s pn , n k bck.

Wnbwn m c. “My Cstms, ss!” s

sut. “Aww, st!” t pusu w s t gt spun tw

m. It t wt mssv xpsn. Cs up sts cugt t pp-nnt’s scms gny, n s ttmpts t bus t g s

bun v. s c swv, t nt, n pp g nt t ,

cv n ms, n spnnng, sw-mtn wck. “Nc wk,” Cs

sm t Fnknstn s s pp bck nt st. Death Race

cv wk vws—“n ssut n t snss, ncung cm-

mn,” ccng t Rg Ebt t Chicago Sun-Times; “s s

mt n just s umb” v Rbt K Variety; n “n -vs n svy wussf mk” n t pnn San Francisco

Chronicle ctc t tub—but gss $76 mn n ws sn

by vst unc.

Cmput gms n t Intnt w npm fcns w s

t g pmy s m nttnmnt t fn c t. Npm.nt

s g s (“Npm.Nt s bugt 5,000 puns wpns

g Npm n s nvuy pckg t n s, ttctv, s-

pyb cnsts. Ec cnst s n t ctu Npm wc

yu cn ONLY pucs tug Npm.Nt.”) but s ctuy x

wbst tt ss t-sts. (“A!!! D yu ctuy tnk tt w wu

s YOU npm? Yu w BURNED by Npm.Nt! On ts jyus

ccsn, w ng psnz ‘ gt bun @ npm.nt’

T-ts.”) “Npm” w m Fstt ts uss wt nts n

bunng tts n t cmput sktps. V gms utny

npm mmnts. ny gms, xmp, cn buy “Npm nCt” yttn xpnsn pck Killzone 2 by Gu Gms:

“us t Fmtw n Btgun t y wst t yu nms wt

t Npm & Ct ck!” Mercenaries 2: World in Flames Xbx

s npm stks t btt nms.



Baby Burners 163

c ntwks ctt npm n cubs. T mst ppu, “NA-

ALM Fun Cub” n Fcbk, s but 4,100 “ks”; sm n

bsts un 1,700 “ks.” Uss cmmnt n vs npm stks

n scuss t muntn. YuTub s mny nstuctn vs

tt xpn w t mk npm by ssvng tym n gsn.

Ts ttct tns tusns vn v 100,000 vws n t cs

t mst ppu psnttns. VICE mgzn scs tstf

n 2009 t t mmbty ts mu. A gt pp t sm

pc npm cncct m tym, ty pt, “mm-

ty puc g-tmptu m n, sty t, bgn tp pt nt tny ps f tt sty t g fv mnuts.

tppng n ts pus w just tns t npm t yu s, s

ttng tm bun ut s y t ny vb ptn.” Expmnts

ub t g n tvsn: “Upn gntn, t st mmty

wnt up n n nn n smk bw tw t .”

“Npm” s cntmpy sng ny xtm bv. ng

Jn My summ up s tnsp wt pp st Jssc mpsn sws n n ntvw wt Playboy: “xuy t ws czy. Tt’s

I’ sy. It ws k npm, sxu npm.” Twtt cmmnts tn

us t w n sm mnn. “Any ng tm fct pns w -

qu sm tx ncss n cuts t ns n Mc wc

ptc npm,” us CwbyKus, xmp, twt n 2010.

Atug ntb, t c ts pst-9/11 cng n pubc pnn

su nt b xggt. Death Race’ s cutu mpct, msu by

t fm’s vnus, vws, n subsqunt nunc, ws sm

tn, xmp, Apocalypse Now. Npm’s Fcbk n gups n

YuTub m cmsts v uncs ny w tusn: nfn-

tsm n t cntxt t mns w wtc t mvs. Avnt’s skn

c puct, pc Ect’s y, n Fstt’s w

bscu pucts. Napalm Dreams s nk 1,790,678 n Bks n

Amzn.cm.

“T T W” ptgp btt cptus npm’s cntmp-y ppu ntty. Km úc, g nn, s cutu cn ct by -

tsts t ustt cmmnty n vytng m b gts t

n us. In 1994 ctn but pns t bu Dsny tm pk

n Cv W bttf, xmp, Gy c wn gwy



164 P a r i a h

On. Km úc ustt sgn tt s “Just D It!,” t Nk sgn,

n 1997 ctn but wkng cntns n Vtnms cts

wn by subcntcts t t ttcs fm. st bn n

Amcn sububn m n 2001 usttn Boston Globe bk

vw, n n wt psn n 2004 ctn but t Abu

Gb psn-bus scn. Km úc bun by npm mns

synnym Amc’s t n Vtnm n, m gny, cvn

tgy n mn w.

Mst unquvcy n ppu cutu, npm s Amcn. Fm

nvs k The Quiet American t Napalm Dreams, pms “VtnmMssg” t “ng Npm,” n fms Apocalypse Now t Death Race,

U.. cmmns t ns w t by qu f. Evn n

css w Amc ws nt mmty spnsb—t bmb tt

bun Km úc, xmp, ws pp by ut Vtnms

c pt—ts cupbty s n. As New York Times vw W-

t Gmn wt Dutc fmmk Mnus vn Kmp’s 1985

pmc cumnty Kim Phuc , “T pwu pctus t tt gunnng n pn n pnc swn v n v. Ty s

psntng t sungs t Vtnms pp—n t bm,

w gvn t unstn, s Amc’s.”

A sut ts n-unvs cspnnc btwn ppu p-

snttn n stc c s ptcy vsttng mssg tt

ts Amc n gn, n ts gvnmnt n mty n ptcu, t

npm n t sung t cs. Bts g t tst Bnksy summ-

z ts cncusn n s 2004 Can’t Beat the Feeling tbu: Km

úc, nk n n gny, uns w Amcn cns Mcky Mus

n Rn McDn ms.



165

Intntn wys gy gn npm unt t Vtnm Wbgn t tun gnst t Unt tts. As t bcm c, wv,

tt t w wu n n n Amcn t, vn bc, gb

t t gut t g s ntmty ssct wt U.. nvvmnt n

Incn gt stngt. Int g ctcsms cm n 1965 m

vt Bc cunts. Amcn pmts smss tm s pp-

gn. Invstgtns un t b uspcs t Unt Ntns,

wv, bgn n 1968 n 1969. Gups gvnmnt xpts mt t

scuss npm m 1972. Nt Vtnms ttcks ntnsf, U..

wtws cct, n “T T W” ptgp t

nt pgs s ty wk. Mutntn cnncs cnvn n 1974

n 1976—bcktng Nt Vtnm’s 1975 vcty—puc t

guty cs. Fny, n 1980, t UN pt ts Cnvntn n

Ctn Cnvntn Wpns (CCW). tc III m ncny

wpns us gnst “cncnttn cvns” w cm. In-

ty, ny w zn stts ccpt ts jugmnt. But succssvcs zns tn ntns t t st, ncung t

Unt tts n 2009. At t tm wtng, 106 stts pts t

tc III. Npm s nw n pbtn, s t w, n muc t

w.

11

Trial of Fire



166 P a r i a h

T t cunt w ws ng. It bgn n 1859, mpbby, n é-

t, Ag, y twn 190 ms st Ags. Ts ws t cntpc

20,000-ct cncssn gnt by Fnc mp Npn III

t Gnvn cn vntu. Jn-n Dunnt, tty-n-y-

scn n t wss cty’s wtst ms, pps mssv

stt vpmnt pjct n t tty. T succ, n

wt gts cnt by t mp. Npn ws bttng Aust n

ntn Ity t t tm, s t pspccus ntpnu tv t

t nt ns t p s cs. v t Cstgn tv,

wst Vn, n Jun 24, 1859, just s cnnns t t Btt -n, n t gst mty nggmnts n Eupn sty, bgn

t tun svn kmts t t st.

It ws n y-pnng xpnc Dunnt. “M tn 300,000

mn st cng c t; t btt n ws fv gus ng, n t

fgtng cntnu m tn ftn us,” bsv n mm

pubs t ys t. “ s n-t-n stugg n ts

n gtunss . . . cusng skus, ppng bs pn wtsb n bynt. N qut s gvn; t s s butcy; stugg

btwn svg bsts, mn wt b n uy. Evn t wun

fgt t t st gsp. Wn ty v n wpn t, ty sz t

nms by t tt n t tm wt t tt.” Tngs gt ws

t nxt y, “Wn t sun cm up n t twnty-ft, t scs t

mst u sgts mgnb. Bs mn n ss cv t

bttf; cpss w stwn v s, tcs, vns, tckts

n fs; t ppcs n w ty tck wt .”

Tn, “cns s tgc s ts t y b, tug vy -

nt st, bgn t tk pc. . . . Wt cs bck wt t s tt

swm but t wuns, mn gz un tm, w-y n

pss. Ots w n m tn wm-n, nxtcb cm-

pun ct n st n s n b.” Dunnt s cm-

mc mbtns n p gnz vunt cps. Lc wmn,

gs, n bys stbut wt, sup, n t. sss-by, ncung p Engs tusts n sn wt, bt t wun n

cng t ssngs. Lc s gnz tusns bs

css t gn.

Entussm bb, wv, t but wk. “Wt w mst

nub xcptns, t pp gw t n wy,” t Gnvn



Trial o Fire 167

wt. An c ws mt. “It must nt b tugt tt t vy gs

n kn wmn Cstgn, vt s ty w, sv m t

mny t wun n sfgu, but st cub, ss t wm

ty gv t p. A ty cu ws t bng tt t w

tm,” cutn. tckn, Dunnt pps n ntntn v-

unty gnztn t gnz ts utu ws. A gb

cncv, pps, cu nunct unvs pncps t gu t

pgm.

On Fbuy 7, 1863, t cété Génévs ’Utté ubqu,

Gnv cty ubc W, ns s c n ntntncnnc. wss cs bck t . Dunnt csscss

Eup, t s wn xpns, t btn cmmtmnts t ttn. In Oc-

tb, gts m sxtn stts ppv swpng sutns tt

t gunwk gtng pnptnts. On August 22,

1864, zn ntns sgn n gmnt “Amtn t Cn-

tn t Wun n Ams n t F,” n g t gunt

nutty t psnn n xpt supps t us. Tn wtzn, t cns cs ts ntn g, vs,

g: css n wt f. Ts ws t fst “Gnv Cnvn-

tn.” An ntntn w w ws bn.

Tts pt n Eup btwn 1868 n 1907 stbs n

nt cnsnsus but pncps g w n t gty

mst ncns, spcy f bmbs. Russn cnc pnc A-

xn Gckv, vtn pmt, tk untn stp n 1868

wn nvt t w’s gtst pws t n Intntn Mty

Cmmssn t t. tsbug “t xmn t xpncy bng

t us ctn pjcts n tm w btwn cvz ntns.” On

Dcmb 11, 1868, u ys t t R Css ws stbs,

svntn t w’s stngst stts, ncung t Unt Kng-

m, Fnc, uss, Aust-ungy, Tuky, n Russ, g t

“tcnc mts t wc t ncssts w ugt t y t t

qumnts umnty.” Dpmts stbs stnctn btwncmbtnts n nncmbtnts, n sst tt ny t m

gtmt mty tgts: “[T] ny gtmt bjct wc tts

su nvu t ccmps ung w s t wkn t mty

cs t nmy.” Dgts jug g wpns tt “usssy

ggvt” sung: “[I]t s su cnt t sb t gtst pssb



168 P a r i a h

numb mn; Tt ts bjct wu b xc by t mpymnt

ms wc usssy ggvt t sungs sb mn, n-

t t nvtb; Tt t mpymnt suc ms wu,

t, b cnty t t ws umnty.” Fny, mng numus

t cncusns, t ssmby c t cm t us ncny

pjcts tt wg ss tn u kgms (m t vng

n btwn buts n ty ss): “T Cntctng ts n-

gg mutuy t nunc, n cs w mng tmsvs, t mpy-

mnt by t mty nv tps ny pjct wgt bw

400 gmms, wc s t xpsv cg wt umntng nmmb substncs.”

Amc cm t t t scussn. Atug t Unt tts,

wck by cv w, ttn t Gnv Cnvntn 1864, t nt

ty t pct tt sut, n ws nt nvt t t t. tsbug

cmmssn. On My 21, 1881, C Btn n gup suppts

stbs t Amcn R Css n Wsngtn, D.C. Du n g

pt t t bbyng ts, t Unt tts tf t Fst GnvCnvntn n 1882, n bgn t ptcpt n ntntn w w

scussns.

ubsqunt mutt gmnts m t bsc fnngs t

t. tsbug. In 1899, t Fst gu c Cnnc, pps by

Ts Ncs II, cnvn n t Ntns. Amng t sttmnts,

gts g ctgcy tt t “gt bgnts t pt

mns njung t nmy s nt unmt”; cf t 1868 “us-

ss ggvtn” cncpt ( propres à causer des maux superus, n t

fntv Fnc txt) s “supuus njuy”; sst tt “T ttck

bmbmnt, by wtv mns, twns, vgs, wngs,

bungs wc unn s pbt”; n bnn fv ys

“t uncng pjcts n xpsvs m bns, by t

nw mts sm ntu.” A tt ty-nn cunts, ncu-

ng t Unt tts n mj Eupn pws, sgn t g-

mnt, wc ws mt t ws btwn sgnts n vcb nnsgnty jn t fgt.

A w-up cn gu c Cnnc n 1907 tnst

maux superus “usss ggvtn” s “unncssy sung” (t

tw tnstns nw jug synnymus), n nw t bn n



Trial o Fire 169

“scg pjcts n xpsvs m bns by t nw

mts sm ntu,” unt suc tm s t pc cnnc

mgt b cnvn. Gt Btn n t Unt tts, Cn, t

Ntns, Bgum, n Nwy, n sv t sm pws,

tf t cumnt. Fnc, Gmny, Ity, Jpn, n Russ, wc

tgt cnt mst t w’s mty cs, nt.

W W I put t stngt t t. tsbug cvnnt t t

tst. In 1916, Bts scntsts vp t w’s fst ncny bu-

t: bn muntn bcus t wg ss tn 400 gms. Att-

nys n t Unt Kngm tmn t wpn cu gy bus gnst bns—py t t tm t p f bmbs n

Lnn—s ng s pts w spc pcus. Ry A Fc

utnnt Wt Nb xpn: “Ts spc mmuntn s nt

us gnst nmy pns; n wn tkn up us gnst b-

ns c, sgn by t G.O.C. [] t R.A.F. n t F, s pnn

t t cckpt t us, ctyng tt t s us gnst bns

ny. T s n ubt s t t ncssty ts. On ts buts g n n’s s wu, t s s, pc t bun wy s n

b n ts vcnty.” Encmnt ws swt n s ts m

t v bkn ntntn us. “T tugt cm t m,” U..

c wt t cs n n-mn’s-n n Jun 1918, “tt I

w n t Gmn ns tn t Fnc, I btt gt t

ncny bs n my mcn. I yu cptu wt ncns

ty st yu wtut t.” Tt t Unt tts ws nt pty t

t t. tsbug Dctn ws subtty vnty t fn t

bttf. T c sct s ncns un t by

Gmn s, n scp.

upfc pgss n unmnt cy n ntntn gutn

ncny wpns mk t p btwn t w ws. T-

ts tt n t Gt W stpp f wpns m mmbs t t pws but nt ct sns t wnns. An g-

mnt t u psn gs g ws pt, but cmpb ts

ncny muntns nt vnc byn ts. mutnusy,

vpmnts n bmb tcngy xpn t sz bttfs t



170 P a r i a h

nt cunts, n unmn t stnctn btwn cmbtnts

n cvns. Attnys n nw cnstucts t spn t ts

cngs. Tus, by t t 1930s, tug n ty cs cu b m

tt sm ms ncny w, spcy t us ncny

buts, w g, n pctc, gvn t gmnt stt ntn-

tn w, t gumnt ws t sustn.

Amstc gmnts t tt m bt: t Cnt ws

cu nt v ncny wpns. T Tty c btwn t

A n Assct ws n Gmny, sgn t Vss, p-

cu wnsp ncny wpns by Gmn cs wt cm-pnsv stctns n t mnuctu, mpttn, n stg.

“T us m tws, spyxtng, psnus t gss, n

sm qus, mts vcs bng pbt, t mnuc-

tu n mpttn stcty bn n Aust. Mt spcy

ntn t mnuctu, stg us t s pucts -

vcs s quy bn,” Atc 135 t Tty nt-

Gmn-n-Ly, wc n stts btwn t Entnt n V-nn. Atc 82 t Tty Nuy-su-n, wc bugt pc

t Bug, n Atc 119 t Tty Tnn, wc n s-

tts wt ungy, cntn mst ntc ngug.

Dpmts scuss cngs t ntntn w ung ts p

tt mgt v sgnfcnty mt pymnts ncny wp-

ns, but n t n m n cngs. An y t ws 1923 ttmpt

t gz n gut ncny buts. A cnnc justs s-

ptc by t gvnmnts t Unt tts, Btn, Fnc, Ity,

n, n Jpn suggst tt suc muntns su b w

gnst ct, but nt gnst cvns un mst ccumstncs.

“T us tc, ncny, xpsv pjcts by gnst ,

s nt pbt. Ts pvsn pps quy t tts wc p-

ts t t Dctn t. tsbug, 1868, n t ts wc

nt,” n pps ptc. “A bmbmnt t pups

tzng t cvn pputn, styng mgng pvtppty nt mty cct, njung nn-cmbtnts s

pbt,” stput nt. N stts pt t pps.

Lgu Ntns msss m m tmn t t gu-

tn ung t Gn Cnnc t Lmttn n Ructn



Trial o Fire 171

Ammnts, t w’s fst gb smmnt cnnc, cn-

vn t Gnv n Fbuy 1932. Evy mmb t ntntn

by, pus t Unt tts n t UR, ttn: sxty ntns n

. A pc Cmmtt stbs t vw ncns cncu

ty su b bnn. Wn us gnst cts, t cmmtt wt,

f wpns “ptcuy ttnng t cvns,” n wn us

n mtws gnst cmbtnts, “t cuty nnt n t us

ts ppncs cuss sung tt cnnt b g s ncssy

m t mty pnt vw.” Tus, ty su b bn. A m-

jty t cmmtt tt ncny wpns w nntywpns ns n tus wnt tn mttns. On Juy

23, pmts g wtut ssnt tt “ncny wpns s

b pbt un t cntns unnmusy cmmn by t

pc Cmmtt.” By Mc 1933, t ws “An stbs u nt-

ntn w” tt ncny wpns su nt b us s pjcts,

“m pjcts” n ny t wy xcpt ns gnst pns,

s t Bts gvnmnt wt n t cnvntn submtt t tsmmnt cncv. On ptmb 22, 1933, gts unnmusy

pt ts ngug s t bss utu g c.

A nugt. Gmny wtw m t smmnt cnnc

n Octb 14, 1933, t A t’s . T summt mp ng,

wt ng csss, unt My 1, 1937, wn t ws bnn. N bn-

ng tts sut.

Outs t cnnc ms, nw mty pgm ppc

m bv. t t pn, s g sc Juus tn s wt-

tn, “[A]ms t fgtng w n t cvns ( nn-

cmbtnts) wk, m, wpt, m. Ony pssn ss

cm t gps wt n nt.” It bcm xmtc, cntnu, tt

w su b wg ny gnst m mn—t “ny gtmt b-

jct,” n t ws t t. tsbug Dctn. “It ws psw-

ty pncp n t ccumstncs t p- g n w, but t ws nt

n wc cu suvv t v t bmbng ct,” tn b-sv. “F, bjctvy cns, t ws nt gc pncp. By n

pcss snng cu bgnt b psu tt t mnuc-

tus mmnts n s nmy’s cunty w ss ctv nms

tn t mn w w unms n pps m n t f. Ty



172 P a r i a h

bn sp s bcus ty cu nt b gt t n n t -

sn t . Ty cn b gt t nw.” T ntntn w w n-

cny wpns, scnty tug t ws, ws but t b swpt wy

nty.

Ey ncny bmbmnts m pssb by tcngc

vpmnts w g ptsts. Btn, xmp, pps n

nquy nt Gmny’s 1937 ttcks n Gunc, n t Unt Kng-

m, t Unt tts, n Fnc cmpn t Jpn but ts f

ttcks n Cns cts n t sm y. As W W II pgss,

wv, gtns cmnty spp n t c mtytmntn. “It my w b, n I psny nt bnk t t ct,

tt ts gt Gmn w nusts cn ny b pys by bng-

ng t w t cts n wc ty stut t stnst,

mkng t qut mpssb t wkmn t cy n t wk. Tt

s ct w my v t c n I c t. It s, I suggst, u justfc-

tn u psnt bmbng cmpgn,” Bts Cnbn t

t us Ls n Fbuy 9, 1944. “I t twn s su,”Gmn gn K Bnsctz tstf vstt Cvnty t

t pstw Numbg Tbun, “tt s cmpnsb n vw t

nvgtn cts vb t tt p t w.” Cncns but

t gty ncny wpns k ts tt puc t Gt

W’s cckpt ntcs spp. “[T] g c s’s cnf-

nc n ts supty ws t mn ct cntng ts tmntn

t sty nmy mty bjctvs t csts,” tn summz.

T vcts, wv, bng sps, sty, n, ppnty, ntn-

tn w. At W W II stbs t ctvnss ncny

bmbmnts—n ptcu, npm ttcks—wys us tw-stp

pcss t gz tm. Fst, pstw ttnys fn t ky ssu

ncns s pcsn, t tn cuty. As Atc 14 t fst

mj pjct t ss t subjct, “Dt Rus t Lmttn

t Dngs Incu by t Cvn putn n Tm W,” p-

uc n 1956 by t Intntn Cmmtt t R Css (ICRC),ps t ssu, g pbtns ppy pp ny t “wpns

ws mu cts—sutng n ptcu m t ssmntn

ncny, cmc, bctgc, ctv t gnts—cu

sp t n unsn g scp, t n spc tm, m





174

Vtnm stt ts pstw cnsnsus, n us n ys wngng tt n n t w’s fst tty t cmnz n-

pm pymnts un ptcu ccumstncs.

vt Bc cunts, y gnst t Unt tts n ts s

n Vtnm, s t fst bjctns. In Ap 1965, s npm bmb-

ng ncs mtcy n Incn, jnt cmmunqué ssu by

t UR n t Dmctc Rpubc Vtnm, Nt Vtnm,

cnmn “t us bbus wpns nntn, ncung

npm bmbs, gnst t pcu pputn.” A w mnts t,

n Jnuy 24, 1966, t psnt Nt Vtnm spcfcy p-

tst npm ttcks gnst s cunty. Fny, n Juy 6, 1966, W-

sw ct ntns cctvy c t muntn tt cung t s

n bun t t bn. Ts ptsts gg npm nt t w

stg.

ubcty ncs n My 13, 1968, wn gty-u stts, ncu-

ng t Unt tts, ssmb un Unt Ntns (UN) uspcs tTn t fst Intntn Cnnc n umn Rgts (“W

pg usvs nc gn t t y stugg umn gnty,”

U.. psnt Lynn Jnsn wt n s bnctn). Dgts

sng ut npm bmbmnts s n t mn w’s wst

12

The Third Protocol



The Third Protocol 175

pctcs: “[T] wsp vnc n butty u tms, ncu-

ng msscs, summy xcutns, ttus, numn ttmnt

psns, kng cvns n m cncts n t us cmc

n bgc mns w, ncung npm bmbng, u-

mn gts n ngn cunt-butty,” sst Cnnc Rs-

utn XXIII. A t vw t muntn, ttns sv, ws

wnt: Gn Assmby gts su sk t scty-gn

t stuy “T n tn umntn ntntn cnvn-

tns pssb vsn xstng Cnvntns t nsu t btt

ptctn cvns, psns n cmbtnts n m cnctsn t pbtn n mttn t us ctn mts n

mns w.” Lw w cnsutnt t t UN ctt n

pss w t v Rc Bxt cmmnt, “T stmuus

t nw tugt but t pbtn stctn us ctn

cnvntn wpns ws, nt supsngy, t w n Vtnm, cu-

p wt nw cncn wt t umntn w w n gn-

.” On Dcmb 19, 1968, s cmpuss css ts st cunty v-bt wt nt-npm ptsts, t Gn Assmby m t

Tn Cnnc’s Rsutn XXIII.

A cutn bgn t t n npm. UN scty-gn U Tnt’s

c swtc n sptgt. In ts pt s n Nvmb 20,

1969, sts m xpct wt Rsutn XXIII mp: npm -

sv spc scutny. “[I]n vw t nc t npm n t T-

n Cnnc sutn, t gty tws t us n-

pm wu sm t b qustn wc wu c stuy n mgt

b vntuy sv n n ntntn cumnt wc wu cy

t stutn,” t fst fv Respect or Human Rights in Armed

Conict pts pp t Gn Assmby btwn 1969 n

1973. In 1970, t n ctn ws tkn, t scty-gn pt

s c: “T cntmpt pt n t qustn npm wc

mgt b pp by t cty-Gn cu ctt subs-

qunt ctn by t Unt Ntns wt vw t cutng b-sng suc uss t wpns n qustn s mgt b stbs s

numn,” tt tt y’s Respect vw.

Rsuts cm s t Unt tts vnc pns mty w-

wn n Vtnm. On Dcmb 20, 1971, t ntns t w,



176 P a r i a h

gt t t UN, c npm “cu” n m t n

cmpnsv stuy t n t ncns. Exstng suvys, t

Gn Assmby sv, “ nt wt t qustn pbt-

ng stctng t us t mts w tt cu, suc

s npm, tt nscmnty ct cvns n cmbtnts.” As-

smby mmbs qust t scty-gn “t pp s sn s

pssb, wt t p quf gvnmnt cnsutnt xpts,

pt n npm n t ncny wpns n spcts

t pssb us.”

Cnsutnt xpts, svn n tt, st t wk n My 15, 1972, nNw Yk. Mty, mc, cmc, n pmtc utts m

Ng, Rmn, Czcsvk , wn, t UR, u, n Mx-

c, suppt by mmbs t UN ctt, t W t

Ognztn, n t Intntn Cmmtt t R Css (ICRC),

xmn t ntu, sty, n us npm n t ncny

wpns. Amc, st fgtng n Vtnm, cn t ptcpt n

t guns tt t UN ws nt n pppt um wt t cms cnt ngttns. On Jun 9, w t tm ws n css, “T

T W” ptgp Km úc n n nt-pgs un t

w. tsts gnst t Vtnm W n npm pymnts t

ck Nw Yk tugut t summ. On ptmb 22, 1972, t

fn gup cncv n Gnv, t UN cv Napalm and Other

Incendiary Weapons and All Aspects o Their Possible Use: Report o the

Secretary-General.

Expt pnn ws unquvc: ncny wpns w pwu,

cu, n nscmnt, mpssb t ptct gnst, ptng

qucky, n gy wss. Npm ws n xcptn muntn wtn

ts ctgy n spcy n n gutn. “[I]ncns

mng t mst pwu mns stuctn n xstnc; ty c-

ctz t svg n cu cnsquncs tt w,” t utts

wt. “Excpt nuc wpns, n pps s ctn bgc

n cmc wpns, n t mmnt pcs suc stuctvpw n t ns mty cmmns,” ty mpsz. As t

cuty, ty stt wt t bsvtn tt “Bun njus . . . n-

tnsy pnu n, cmp wt t njus cus by mst t

ctgs wpn, qu xcptn sucs t mc




ttmnt.” Tus, “Wn jug gnst wt s qu t put s-

ut mty ctn, muc t njuy cus by ncny

wpns s [t] ky t b supuus.” An cspnngy,

cvns “ncns ptcuy cu n t cts.”

nsts smss gumnts tt ncns cu b pcsy

tgt: “Evn wn ty us s nvu wpns, ty my

st stk v cnsb , ntt fs tt sp b-

yn t mmt tgts.” Rtvy spkng, “T mnt cn-

t wc cn b xcs v t cts suc wpns s buts,

vn g xpsv bmbs, s ckng n t cs mst ncnywpns, n k wpns ty ssnty nscmnt,”

ty cntnu. “Ty my bng uncntb stuctn t vs,

pssssns n bttns cmbtnts n nn-cmbtnts k,”

t gup cuns.

Tt ptctn m npm n ncny wpns ws mst

mpssb ggt t nscmnt ntu. In t cs

ttcks, “Atug t s pssb t cncv st pgmm su cnt quty t nb cty pputn t suvv cngtn

vn f-stm, suc pgmm wu b vy xpnsv, bt c-

nmcy n n tms cngs n t scty, n wu tk mny

ys t stbs. Fw ny cunts v untkn suc p-

gmm.” F tctc stks, “c nn-cmbtnts , s u,

muc m vunb tn t cmbtnts, w m wt t

stuctv ppts ncny wpns, n tn n t vus

cunt-msus.” T, “T nscmnt ntu t cts

ncny wpns s tus ut unn by t cuts

pvng qut ptctn t cvn pputn,” t pn

cncu.

Npm—wc t xpts fn s “ny g- ycbn n-

cny,” wng Lus Fs—ws wst . Fst, t ws ptcu-

y pn t msus. “Bcus t cnsb cv by c

npm bmb n tn gt nccucy ts vy, n bcuss t qunty cs pxmty mty n cvn bjcts, f-

bmbs my cus sv mg n t cvn sct vn wn,

stnsby, t tgts ttck mty,” t utts vs.

cn, t ws spcy sy t puc: “Mny ts wpns



178 P a r i a h

xtmy smp t mnuctu, n t ncssy w mts

y vb t w v. Ts s ptcuy tu npm

wpns.”

Rgutn, t vss cncu, ws ugnty n. gss

puc ptn: “T p ncs n t mty us ncn-

y wpns, spcy npm, ung t pst 30 ys s but n

spct t m gn pnmnn t ncsng mbztn

scnc n tcngy w pupss.” Npm g pf:

“Incny wpns, n ptcu npm, y t subjct

wsp vusn n nxty.” Gn Assmby gts, txpts wt, su vs msus “ t pbtn t us,

puctn, vpmnt n stckpng npm n t ncn-

y wpns.” Npm st pubcy ccus.

Cunts un t w mbc t pt. On Nvmb 16,

1972, n un stts bck t sutn ppv by t

tc Cmmtt t Gn Assmby tt p npm’s us

n cmbt. N cunts pps t msu. Amc n utnt mmbs bstn. Avcts gutn c t us

t ns t xpts’ cncusns. “T Unt tts’ us npm

n Vtnm ws ttck ung t cmmtt bt, wc cus

n pt by gup xpts cng npm n t mst stuc-

tv wpns knwn,” t New York Times pt.

Fut vnc cngng vws n npm cm t t n t

mnt, wn Gn Assmby Rsutn 2932 m t tc

Cmmtt’s cncusn tt npm’s us ws pb “n m

cncts.” Gn Assmby mmbs scb ncny wpns—

ctgy ms, ty cuy sst, wys “vw wt ”—s

“gy nscmnt,” n ug tt t scty-gn’s pt

b pubs “ w ccutn.” Ts mnt t wu b s t t

pubc n bksts, t tn bu s n mnsttv fng. R-

pts m Vtnm nm bt. “As sut t us npm n

t w n Vt-Nm, numb psns wtng n t subjct vstt tt t wpn s bn us s nscmnty n cuss

suc sung tt t bngs n t ctgy wpns wc -

bn n ts ccunts,” t scty-gn’s c bsv n ts

1973 Respect or Human Rights pt. As mtt w, wv,




“Ts gtns spkng n suppt t sutn s n tms

suggstng tt t us npm— t ws t ts wpn tt ttntn

ws pncpy gvn—ugt t b bn but ws nt yt pbt

by gn ntntn w,” t scty-gn’s st cntnu.

T ws nng g snc. N cnncs cnvn. N

tts mg. A unmnt wknss, sm scs sst,

bn v n c pncp t ntntn w w: “unnc-

ssy sung” n “supuus njuy” cu nt b fn. N

sc vus cu tmn t pppt munt sung

spcfc mty gn, v’s Bxt wt. “An n pts smwt mpssnstc ppc t t qustn, tn t wu sm

tt t m ctv wpn s n sbng n kng, t m

ky t s t b ‘unwu’ bcus t sung t cuss.” csn,

gu, ws m wkb stn. pps s pncp:

“I wpn ct gnst mty psnn gnst mty b-

jctvs nscmnty ms cvns bcus t s n pssbty

cnfnng ts cts t t mty tgt, t wpn mgt b stg-mtz s unwu n tt ccunt.”

tym, npm’s ppnnts ttmpt t pn scn nt n

1972: t g, ty gu, su b bnn s gs wpn. Npm

“gvs g quntts cbn mnx, wc my cus psn-

ng n t. In t ws, t us npm mty pupss s

g s ptcuy cu bcus ts vctms, bss bng bunt

v, spyxt n psn. uc us s t cns

t b vtn t 1907 gu Cnvntn n t 1925 Gnv -

tc t pbtn t us cmc n bctgc (b-

gc) wpns,” t scty-gn’s 1973 Respect or Human Rights

in Armed Conict pt bsv wn t cumnt ts n sn-

ng. Ts gumnt nv vnc byn pmny stgs, wv,

ky bcus vcts cu nt cncusvy stbs t quncy

wt wc npm ct tug gs cts t tn buns.

Cngs t t R Css vnc ww bt. At ts XXII Int-

ntn Cnnc n Nvmb 1973, t Gnv-bs Intntn

Cmmtt n nnty-gt ntn scts, jn by psnttvs



180 P a r i a h

m svnty-gt gvnmnts n twnty ntgvnmnt n nn-

gvnmnt gnztns—v 500 gts n —g t x-

pn t gnztn’s mnt m umntn w t t w

w. “An gnztn tt v t ys cqu vy gt xp-

ts n t ptctn suc w vctms s cvns n psns

w ws nw c upn t ssst n t ssssmnt wpns n

t cts—t mv m umntn w t t w cmbt,”

Bxt xpn.

Nt wtut cntvsy. As ntgn w w xpt W. ys ks

cunt n 2006, “T ct tt t I.C.R.C. sugt n gn mnt t pusu t cnvntn wpns ssu . . . gv pus wtn

n uts t I.C.R.C. stcy, t I.C.R.C.’s s bn p-

tctn w vctms: mty wun, sck, n spwck n t

bttf; psns w; n cvns n nmy ns. m wtn

t I.C.R.C. bv tt ssumng wt g t t gty

wpns wu tct m ts ng-tm umntn mssn.” Nn-

tss, t XXIIn cnnc sv t cnvn ts wn gup gvnmnt xpts t vs Dpmtc Cnnc n t R -

mtn n Dvpmnt Intntn umntn Lw Appc-

b n Am Cncts (t “Dpmtc Cnnc”) but pssb

xpnsn t 1949 Gnv Cnvntns t cv cnvntn wp-

ns. wss cs st Fbuy 1974 s t t t cnvctn.

In Nw Yk, Gn Assmby gts mntn pssu. On

Dcmb 6, 1973, t UN pt Rsutn 3076 (XXVIII) “Npm

n Ot Incny Wpns n A Aspcts T ssb Us.”

W psnttvs nvt Dpmtc Cnnc gts t cn-

s “t qustn t us npm n t ncny wpns . . .

n t sk gmnt n us pbtng stctng t us suc

wpns.”

Expts ssmb by t R Css t ssst t Dpmtc Cn-

nc t pt t kp ttntn cus n npm. Ov t nxt

twnty-svn mnts, ts vss puc tw xtnsv pts nt w w n gty spcfc wpns. Ec cntn n xtn-

sv vw npm. Utmty, t Dpmtc Cnnc, wc

fnz pps vsns t t Gnv Cnvntns n 1977, nt




puc spcfc us npm. It , wv, sv n “Fw-

Up gng btn Rstctn Us Ctn Cnvntn

Wpns” tt ncu npm by nm n w vy n t x-

pt pts. Ts fnngs, ng wt n tn Gn Assm-

by sutn n 1974 tt gn cnmn npm n ug c t

gvn ts us, st t stg ptn n 1980 tc III t

Unt Ntns Cnvntn n Ctn Cnvntn Wpns.

T fst ICRC xpt gtng mt n ptmb n Octb 1974

t t wss ks twn Lucn, n Zuc. Mmbs, ncung

U.. gtn, g unnmusy tt buns t mst pnukn njuy, stutn ncny bmbmnt cts ws w

cm, n pubc pnn pys n mptnt n t mutn

ntntn w. As t fn pt stt: “A xpts g tt . . .

gny spkng, sv bun wuns w pbby t mst pnu

typ wun n qunty mn s ng ps tm . . .

n tt ty my sut n pmnnt sbty, ncung pysc,

unctn, csmtc, sc n psycgc sbty.”

pcfc us npm, wv, un n t nw-m

fntn ss sung n pcsn. On gup xpts

(ck n nnymty by cnnc pptus) sst tt ncn-

y wpns w numn. Ty gu m “suc cts s t n-

tu t wuns nct, t g pn wc vctms w

buns t su, n t cuty n png utn mc

ttmnt. In ts spcts, ty w cnvnc tt t sung

u t sv buns cus by ncny wpns ws cnsby

ws tn tt sutng m t w wuns.” A scn unnt-

f gup n t: “W mttng tt, gny spkng, sv

bun wuns w pbby t wst pssb typ wun, ts

xpts w nt cnvnc tt t us ncny wpns sut

n css n n xcptny g ncnc csuts, t n

gvy wun; n t cnty, ty tugt tt n ctn stutns

ts fgus mgt vn b sgnfcnty w tn ts sutng mt us t wpns.” Bnnng ncny wpns, t skptcs

gu, “vn mty sb, mgt w sut n n ncs

numb csuts n svy nju n ptcu.”



182 P a r i a h

m pyss gpp spcsts n t subjct pcsn. “Ac-

cng t numb xpts, ncny wpns unqustnby

nscmnt n tt ty xt t pmy ct v ctn ,

w mv t scny ct ty tn v n wc s u t

t s-ppgtng cct f s byn t cnt t us

t wpns,” wt uts t fn cnnc pt. wv,

ty cntnu, t xpts, “w cncng tt ncny wp-

ns, k mst t wpns, cu b us wtut scmntn,

n tt ty w nscmnt n css, by t ntu. In

t vw ts xpts, mn ncny wpns s ccut st wpns n , n, t tms vn m scmnt tn

t wpns tt mgt b us n t st; t pmy ct cn

b cnfn t stcty mt , n t sp t f, s wt

mny tntv wpns, pns upn t ntu t tgt.” A

ttcks k ts W W II, mmbs t tt gup mn-

tn, w bst n, snc ty cu ny b munt by w

cunts, unky t t pnt vnc. “It ws stt by smxpts tt g-sc ncny ttcks n ubn u s w

n ng cns mptnt n mty ctn. It ws s pnt

ut tt t cpcty muntng n cnuctng f- ttcks n

cts, suc s ts W W II, ws ty t t sps ny

vy w tts, ny t . In t pnn ts xpts, t,

g ncny ttcks w tng t pst,” t R Css

pt bsv. As pctc mtt, t tt gup nysts cn-

cu, “In m cnt m cncts, w ncny wpns

mgt t tms v bn us nscmnty, n t nstncs ty

pv t cpcty scmnt us.” pcsts pv sm-

y v v wt gn u ws su cnt t pvnt stu-

tn fbmbng cts, spcfc g pbtn gnst ubn

ttcks ws ncssy.

In t n, t ws n cnsnsus but t bst g stn.

m xpts c cmpt pbtn n ncny wpnsn npm. Ots ug pscptn “nscmnt ttcks

gnst cvn pputn cnts.” A fn gup cmmn tt

ws cnt spcfc wpns, t tn sst b pncps.




Expts pp t g, wv, tt pubc pnn ww

mtt gnst t us ncny wpns—tug ty spt s

t t mptnc tt bsvtn s mtt w. “In t ys

sm, pubc pnn cncnng t us ncny wpns p-

v yt nt gumnt t gty t us ts wp-

ns,” t Lucn pt vs. Ots, t cntnu, “w cu nt

ccpt t pubc cnscnc s n npnnt suc ntntn

w, w pp t mt tt xstng pubc pnn wt spct t

ncny wpns pv stng ptc ct gvnmnts

t tk nt ccunt.”

T UN Gn Assmby ws m unf. On Dcmb 9, 1974,

t w by sun yt nt cn but npm. Rsutn

3255 (XXIX) sz n t unnmty t ICRC’s Lucn xpts

but t pn bun njus t cnmn t g n ug ts btn.

Dgts pus t ngng Dpmtc Cnnc t wt ts c-

mmntns nt ntntn w. In tvy c vt,

nnty-gt stts ppv t sutn n twnty-sx, ncung tUnt tts, ts Nt Atntc Tty Ognztn (NATO) s,

t UR, n mmbs t Wsw ct, bstn. “[]v bun

wuns pbby t mst pnu typ wun n qunty -

mn s ng ps tm,” t UN sutn bsv. “Emp-

szng t cnsnsus t Cnnc Gvnmnt Expts,” t

sttmnt cntnu, t w by “Cnmns t us npm n

t ncny wpns n m cncts n ccumstncs w t

my ct umn bngs my cus mg t t nvnmnt n/

ntu sucs,” n “Ugs tts t n m t puc-

tn, stckpng, ptn n us suc wpns, pnng t

cncusn gmnts n t pbtn ts wpns.” T

gb ssmby nvt gvnmnts, t ICRC, spcz gncs,

n t ntntn gnztns t tnsmt t t scty-gn

“ nmtn but t us npm n t ncny wpns

n m cncts”; qust w-up pt m t scty-gn; n ncug t “Dpmtc Cnnc n t R m-

tn n Dvpmnt Intntn umntn Lw Appcb n

Am Cncts t cntnu ts cnstn t qustn t us



184 P a r i a h

npm . . . n ts sc gmnt n pssb us pbtng

stctng t us suc wpns.”

R Css cs sum t btns n Jnuy 1976. In

cntn wt n c cmmtt ssmb by t Dpmtc

Cnnc, t gup gt scn cctn spcsts, gn

wt U.. psnttvs, t nt wss ks st: Lugn,

tty kmts st stc n. Npm ws st cnt stg.

“O ncny wpns, t s npm wc s us t gtst

pubc cncn,” t xpts stt.

Avcts gutn ncny wpns, w t v-sns t Lucn, t mn ppss. A ct pcsn,

t tn sung, s t g bss. “A ts ppss v

n tng n cmmn, n tt ty cns sy t ptctn cv-

ns, tt s t sy, ty tk ccunt ny t ppnsty ts

wpns pucng nscmnt cts,” t xpts vs.

Mxc suggst cmpt bn ncns. wn pps

bn wt mt xcptns ( xmp, f wpns spcfcy -sgn us gnst m vcs). T Ntns, wt Aust-

, vnc smp u: “[I]t s pbt t mk ny cty, twn,

vg t cntnng cncnttn cvns t bjct

ttck by ny ncny muntn.”

Gup mmbs scuss sc fnngs t fst tm. A C-

nn xpt scb xpmnts n gts tt suggst tt sk

t t nms m npm: “Gts bn cpp n tn tt

n t pn n nw st tncs. Ec n ws cv wt sn-

g my bnkt. A stn npm bmb ws pp n t n-

ms, cmpty nvpng 30 gts n ts fb. On gt ws s-

vy nju by ct t m t bmb csng. Tw gts

sgty n skn, n sx sng s. N gt ws spyx-

t spy sgns cbn mnx psnng.” Cn s -

pt suts m xpmnts n pp tt suggst homo sapiens

mgt b m t sk m npm tn capra aegagrus hircus: “A bun-ng bb npm n t b skn bcm ntb t n scn.

T sz t bb n mpct n t pn ts. A sng y

cttn ptct t skn gnst bunng 6–7 scns, n sc-

n y 30 scns. O t tckn-npm bbs stkng n




nvu n smut t, 69% cu b xtngus wt t b

ns.”

Rsuts m Kn W stus psnt t Lugn unn

umnty’s vunbty t npm: “t ws t b xpct tt but

35% ts cugt by fbmb wu b k, n t suvvs

25– 30% wu n t b vcut by t pp n 50–55% wu

b hors de combat.” tkng tug ts fgus w, U.. Amy wp-

ns sgn spcst Wyn Cps pt tt suts m w-gm

smutns sw “gn pups bmbs n bmbts-spns

muntns wu cus, spctvy, 1.5 n m tn 5 tms s mnyncpcttng wuns t nmy tps s wu npm.” Ot x-

pts ttck ts cncusns nt cnsng tnt wpns

suc s ct guns, ckts n smt bmbs, n gnng cmpct-

ng cts k wt, bttf umntn, n t psycgc

ct npm.

Oppnnts gutn vnc gumnts sm t ts m

t Lucn. Ty vst t ncncusv bt v sung(“T s n cnsnsus n wt njus m ncny wpns

ky t mps m sung t tn t w bun njus

tn ny t typ tumtc njuy”), sst npm mgt b

bssng (“t mty vu npm cu pps b cns t

s m n ts psycgc cts tn n ts pysc ns; n snc

t tby cv ts s suts m by stmutng gt tn by

ct csuty-puctn, cs cu b m tt t ws ky t

cus ss v sung tn tntv typs wpn”), n s-

mutnusy mntn ncny wpns w unquy vub

(“psnt n mptnt mnt n t mty sns sm tts,

n t scuty ts tts wu b wkn by gn pb-

tn us”) n tt npm n ptcu n’t wnt spc scu-

tny bcus t pbby cu b pc (“t wu b unuy st-

sgt t cncntt n npm t ws y cncvb tt

t ncny gnts, pps m stuctv ns, cu b usn pc t”).

Unsupsngy, t xpts gn t cv cnsnsus. Nn-

tss, un t g ntss pubcty, ntntn w, nw

wt pcsn s ts gung pncp, pp t v wn ts nt



186 P a r i a h

tgt tn v b un npm. “[]us ttmpts w m

t uc t stnc btwn ppsng vws, t xp t m

gun yng btwn tm n t sw m xbty,” Austn

t Gn Wkng Gup Ec Kussbc bsv wt p-

mtc bnnss. “Ts tttu s t b wcm vn tug t

tm bng t nt succ n cvng ny cncusv gmnt n

t subjct,” sst.

At ts ngty -n, t Dpmtc Cnnc ts s-

stpp ncny wpns. Dgts m t vt Unn, Ity,

n Gmny, mng ts, c t 1972 U.. gumnt tt mscnt ws stnct m ntntn w. T m, ty s,

n pc t suc cnnc. Dpmts cc t wt s pps, n

pctc, stnctn wtut nc: Atn tcs I n II

t t Gnv Cnvntn 1949—130 tcs pt n Jun 8,

1977—cv c t wun, psns, n t sck, n pv

us t uc unncssy sung n ptct cvns, but sy nt-

ng but ncny wpns.

Npm pp t v scp t w. On t fn y t

mst tw-n-n--y pmtc cncv, wv, ttnys

pn pusut ut tt utmty t ts cptu un ntn-

tn juspunc. Rsutn 22, “Fw-Up gng btn

Rstctn Us Ctn Cnvntn Wpns,” ntf

gus’ gy wpns gts bv sv spc scutny:

bmbs tt spnt nt pstc gmnts nvsb t X-ys, n

mns, bby tps, n ncny wpns—ncung npm, spc-

f by nm. A cnnc ws t b cnvn nt t tn 1979 t

pmugt “pbtns stctns” n ts n t vcs.

Npm’s cut t ws st.

ntgn utts, wt t npm-nc Vtnm bc n

ts fn ts, n w w t bugnng ntst n cnvntnwpns mng ntntn gups n gn n t ICRC n ptc-

u, stt cntnuus pcss g vw nw wpns n

1974 t nsu ty mt Amc’s g bgtns. As t 1970s cntn-

u, n t ty t n Vtnm n ts unng cnsquncs




snk n, U.. pcy mks t fst tm stpp bck pmt-

cy, cmmcy, n ptny m npm.

Dns Dptmnt ttnys puc stn sttmnt t

U.. unstnng w w pncps t gu t vw. T

ngug ws s cuy g, t sms unky t v mps

muc pctc mttn n ctn. Its xstnc, wv, sws tt

pcy mks cknwg ntntn w n sw vu n gnuc-

tn, t st, t ts pncps. O “unncssy sung,” t wys

wt, “T s n g ntntn fntn. . . . A wpn

muntn wu b m t cus unncssy sung ny t nv-tby n ts nm us s ptcu ct, n t njuy cus s

cns by gvnmnts s spptnt t t mty ncssty

t.” As tt wsn’t pqu nug, ty , “Ts bncng tst

cnnt b cnuct n stn. A wpn’s muntn’s cts must

b wg n gt cmpb, wu wpns muntns n us n

t mn bttf.” Dspt t mbguty ts bncmk, c-

tnty, ttnys stt, ws qu tmntn gty: “Awpn s nt unwu my bcus t my cus sv sung

njuy. . . . T cct ctn s wt t mpymnt wpn

ts nm xpct us nvtby wu cus njuy sung

mnsty spptnt t ts mty ctvnss.”

Mtvtns nvu ss, mv, tump t ccts-

tcs ptcu wpns. ntgn wys cntnu, “In tmnng

gty, tt s nt qu t s ntcpt pssb uss

msuss wpn, mst ny wpn cn b msus n wys tt

mgt b pbt. A s m wt ngun my mu n n-

ncnt cvn psn w n s custy. T s s

cmmtt vtn t w w wc s su b

bugt t t n, cnvct, puns. T ct tt pst ws us

t pptt t cm s nt tnsm n tws wu wpn

nt n g wpn.” Extnng t pncp, “T sm my b s

n ct ttck n cvn bjct, nscmnt ttcks bygun cs. A wu wpn us t cmmt cm mks t

ct cmn but s nt mk t wpn systm wpn g.”

Fny, wt spct t tgtng, t Unt tts scw gn

pncps n v cs-by-cs ppc. “Lw w ssus t



188 P a r i a h

t wu tgtng ss t t tm mpymnt, t b t-

mn by t n-scn cmmn un t ccumstncs ung t

t tm,” Amc’s ttnys wt. “T cmmn utzng

wpn’s us su cns ts cctstcs w nncnt cv-

ns psnt n t nsu cnsstncy wt mssn us n-

ggmnt n w w pscptns n t ctng ttcks t

cvns nt tkng n ctv pt n stts, w tws nt

ps tt t ny cs.”

tcns, pmts, n ptn mty cmmns w

ss ccumspct. Jmmy Ct cg n t 1976 psnt cm-pgn tt “m bnkuptcy” tun t Unt tts nt “n

sn” t w, n ut t cunty. In 1977, t s ctn,

ns snt Rvw Mmnum 12, puc by t

tt Dptmnt’s Buu tc-Mty As, wc

t Unt tts t stp xpts “butzng” wpns suc s n-

pm bmbs. On My 9, t mnsttn k ts nw pcy t

summt wt Btn, Fnc, Wst Gmny, Ity, Jpn, n Cn.Npm ws nw bn wpn ws xpt ws pbt

ng wt nuc, cmc, n bgc muntns. It mn,

wv, n t U.. sn.

Ttn mtws wnt nxt. In 1978, t U.. Amy c

ts Iw Jm s bst. FLA, t Fm Assut u

Wpn, su-munt ckt unc tt st 1.3-pun ck-

ts f wt tckn ttyumnum ( qu tt buns t 1,400–

2,200 gs Fnt wn xps t ) tk t pc. In n

c t ng mttns tt m Gk F bst t cn-

nns pp, ckts tv fv tms t tn ptb m-

tws cu st, wg s muc p systm, n qu

ss mntnnc, ccng t FLA’s Amy Tnng Ccu.

Wn st t smutmtc, t vc v n ckt p scn.

F t fst tm n sty, Amc’s cmmtmnt t npm ws ss t

t n c tn t ts stt.

T UN Cnnc n Ctn Cnvntn Wpns (CCW) pn

s pps n Dpmtc Cnnc Rsutn 22 n ptmb 10,




1979. Rpsnttvs m gty-tw ntns cnvn t t s

s Ntns n Gnv. Incny wpns v t bt. “T

pbtn gutn ncny wpns ws mny t raison

d‘être t C.C.W., gvn t xtnsv n wsp stuctn

sutng m t us n W W II n, t ss g, n pst-

W W II cncts,” bsv U.. gtn mmb ks. “Mny

t tt ny gmnt n cnvntn wpns wc nt ncu

tc n ncny wpns wu v t stssng ppnc

f-bg wc gttn t bng t s-pp. I ntng

bn cv n ts subjct, t s ky tt t wk tCnnc wu v bn wst,” g pss ntn-

tn umntn w Yvs nz, w ws mpy t ICRC -

quts ung t p. T mk t v tty s stts

t ccpt, ts sggt us spcfc wpns n nvu

ptcs, nk by c tty cumnt tt spcf gn -

mnsttv pcus. Ts w gvnmnts t subscb t g-

uty gms à ct: vcs tt puc nntctb g-mnts (tc I); mns, bby tps, n t vcs (tc II);

n ncny wpns (tc III). tts t ns t bsc

tty n t st tw ptcs t bcm pts t t gmnt.

Lwys t tw ppty cnncs, n t t CCW’s tw -

m ngttng sssns, vw m gumnts but npm: ts

tty, mty ccy, n t pp scp ntntn w.

Mc bts gn pv ncncusv. Oppnnts bnkt p-

btn pt t gumnt, vnc t Lucn, tt ncn-

y ttcks w mty bst, gvn t mpv ccucy m-

n ct n vy systms. Mv, ty nt, mssv bmb

ts k ts 1945 n ng xst. Rbutts sst tt su -

cnt cpcty mn vsttng ttcks. A stuy submtt wt-

ut ttbutn by n t pncp gtns psnt t vu

ncns vsus g xpsvs wn t t cm: t cv 50

pcnt stuctn ptum stg cts, t nnymus u-ts sst, qu gty-nn sts wt g xpsvs cm-

p t just ttn wt ncny wpns; mmuntn pts n-

csstt 996 xpsv ttcks cmp t 456 stks wt mx

pys ncns n xpsvs. Just svntn sts wt



190 P a r i a h

mx mmnts ccmps suts cmpb t fty-gt ttcks

wt xpsvs n gnst ct mnuctung pnts. Incny

wpns cut sks ttcks n cvns n tgt sts, t ny-

ss cncu, ns s ty uc t numb ttcks qu t

sty tgts.

Dpmts utmty jct fny cbt gumnts k ts

n v smp stn ncny wpns: n ttcks un

ny ccumstncs gnst “t cvn pputn s suc” “cn-

cnttns cvns.” As ks, w ngtt t ptc t

Unt tts, wt, “[N]twtstnng us nggmnt [ n-pm] wn up by numb ntns n cnt cncts t mt t

mpymnt ncny muntns n pxmty t nbt ubn

s, mstks cmbt qunty t sung nncnt c-

vns. T stnctn btwn ntntn n unntntn njuy

t s st n t cvn w sus tt njuy.”

Lwys m numb mptnt xcusns. Cmbtnts -

cv n ptctn. “Muntns wc my v ncnt ncnycts, suc s umnnts, tcs, smk sgnng systms,” n-

cung wy us wt pspus, ngtts c, nt

cunt s ncny wpns, n tus w nt subjct t t ptc.

In n t wn’s 1976 pps t Lugn bn wt xcptns,

“Muntns sgn t cmbn pnttn, bst gmnttn

cts wt n tn ncny ct—suc s mu-pcng

pjcts, gmnttn ss, xpsv bmbs n sm cmbn-

cts muntns n wc t ncny ct s nt spcfcy sgn

t cus bun njuy t psns, but t b us gnst mty bjc-

tvs, suc s mu vcs, ct n nsttns cts,”

w s xcu m t fntn n “ncny wpn.”

A pstv sut ts stctns ws n sy cmpnsb

stn npm n t ncns. “Incny wpn” mnt

“ny wpn muntn wc s pmy sgn t st f t b-

jcts t cus bun njuy t psns tug t ctn m, t, cmbntn t.” Ts “cn tk t m , xmp, m

tws, ugsss, ss, ckts, gns, mns, bmbs n t

cntns ncny substncs,” ccng t tc III. “Cn-




cnttn cvns” mnt “ny cncnttn cvns, b t p-

mnnt tmpy, suc s n nbt pts cts, nbt

twns vgs, s n cmps cumns ugs vcus,

gups nms.” A “Mty bjctv” ws “ny bjct wc by ts

ntu, ctn, pups us mks n ctv cntbutn t m-

ty ctn n ws tt pt stuctn, cptu nutz-

tn, n t ccumstncs ung t t tm, s fnt mty

vntg.”

In tn t ptctn cvn pputns “s suc,” t ws “p-

bt n ccumstncs t mk ny mty bjctv ct wtn cncnttn cvns t bjct ttck by -v ncn-

y wpns.” Incny wpns tt w nt -v, suc s

xmp mtws, mgt ny b us “wn suc mty b-

jctv s cy spt m t cncnttn cvns n

sb pcutns tkn wt vw t mtng t ncny -

cts t t mty bjctv n t vng, n n ny vnt t mn-

mzng, ncnt ss cvn , njuy t cvns n mg tcvn bjcts.” T ws vn ptctn ntu sucs, p-

ps by t UR: “It s pbt t mk sts t kns

pnt cv t bjct ttck by ncny wpns xcpt wn suc

ntu mnts us t cv, cnc cmug cmbtnts

t mty bjctvs, tmsvs mty bjctvs.”

Ts stctns n npm pv t mst cut u t

Cnvntn n Ctn Cnvntn Wpns. T vt Unn, ss

tn n y nt ts nvsn A gnstn, bk t tc III.

T Unt tts, wt n cmpb mty nggmnts, nty

pv m mnb, n ccpt t pps n t fst ys

Octb 1980. Mscw cu nt stn n: n Octb 7, t New

York Times pt “T vt gtn ws t st t ppv

bn n usng npm sm m-spng substncs n stks

gnst mty bjctvs n cvn cncnttns. Mscw ws t

st wn t Unt tts st wk ppv t bn.” Dgtsfnz t cnvntn n Octb 10, 1980. A tt tty-fv stts

sgn t t t UN n Ap 10, 1981. It cm nt c wt fty sgnt-

s n Dcmb 2, 1983.



192 P a r i a h

An just k tt, npm bmbs bcm cmn wn us gnst

cvns “s suc” “cncnttns cvns” un ny ccum-

stncs. “Dgts s t mst mptnt cvmnt ws t bnnng

t ncny bmbng cts n t s w cvns

cncntt vn mty bjctvs psnt,” t New York Times

nt t t n t tng pcss. tc III “wu pp t

pbt t sttng f stms n cts ppng npm n v-

gs twns,” cspnnt Bn Nsst xpn n Ap.

Amc, wv, pv unwng t ccpt ts gb pgm.

Dspt ts pt pms, t Unt tts utmty c tpsv ts m ctn wt spct t npm n t ncn-

y wpns: U.. pmts t tc III bnk wn ty vntu-

y sgn t CCW n Ap 8, 1982. Wsngtn un snt

Rn Rgn st n gnst ts NATO s, xcpt Tu-

ky; vy Wsw ct stt, xcpt Rmn; n t p’s Rpub-

c Cn. A ts stts ppv tc III n tvy st

.



193

It tk but tw cs t Amc’s t n Vtnm t -gumnts vnc by ptsts n t t 1960s t pct un

t w n csc nt n-unvs ntpty t npm bck

by ntntn w. Dung tt tm, mty cs py t

ncny n vy cntnnt xcpt Nt Amc, Aust, n

mtz Antctc: jy bmbs n Ac, As, t M

Est, Ltn Amc, n Eup. Guy, wv, wt stt s

tcs, twks, n ptst sgns n Rw Cty, Nw Yk; M-

sn, Wscnsn; n npm’s btpc Cmbg, Msscustts,

sp tugut ppu cutu n bcm cnsnsus— kn

sc c t npm’s gb mbc by ptc n mty cm-

mns. Cvns n t Unt tts cm t s npm, vntuy

wt n-ystc ntnsty, s mnst. Cmbt pymnts w-

w puc vtuptn tt ncsngy utwg tctc bn-

fts. Npm bcm pubc tns pbm cs n pt-

cns. Dvpmnt tnt wpns tcngs, ncung smtbmbs n mpv cust muntns, ggt t wpn’s -

tv csts. In spns, mty tctcs stt t cng.

Utmty, t U.. gvnmnt sv sm ts pubc ts t ts

mkb ctn. On Ap 4, 2001, n w pubcz “st cnst

13

Judgment Day



194 P a r i a h

cmny” t t Fbk Nv Wpns ttn btwn Ls Ang-

s n n Dg, nvy cs b u w t npm. s-

nts B Cntn n Gg W. Bus bt cmmn tt t U..

nt ty tc III t t Cnvntn n Ctn Cnvntn

Wpns (CCW). On ptmb 23, 2008, t fny . snt Bck

Obm sgn t n s fst u y n c. In sxty-svn ys, npm

s mv m pstn c mnptnc t n gb nmy

n ntntn g gutn.

Ts s m n Amcn bnnmnt npm. Obm p-

pn pmtc svtn t s sgntu tc III tt -guby n s cmmtmnt mnngss. Npm mns g t

us n cmbt un ntntn w, n Amcn cs py t

ung t 2003 nvsn Iq—but, n sp cntst t pvus

ws, ty n t.

Ac ws t mst cmmn gn cnfm npm ttcks nt ys t t Vtnm W. In Etp, t Dgu, “sw”

junt, bck by t UR, pp g bmbs pty n Etn

bs n m cs m t st 1976 t 1985. “W vgs v

bn vstt by stutn bmbng s—smtms nvvng n-

pm,” Time pt n 1976. “W wk css n c c

uns n ss,” Bts Sunday Telegraph junst Nmn Kkm

cunt 1978 vst t t twn Gb ttck by Etpn n

Cubn tps. At bkst tm, wt, “t gn-n-bwn cm-

ug jt tun n bgn t scn gn, ts tm w by

MG-21 wt npm. . . . [It] v n t u cns t

vg, ppng ts y npm n nt ctng. Wtn tn mn-

uts, Gb bn tun nt n nn.” M tn nnty pp

n t ms w k by t stfng; ts su us

buns, ccng t Kkm. A c t, sks mn m f-

bmbs: “ Cvns guy ctu n w t wp bunng n-pm jy m t skn,” Time vs n 1985. Ft sut, nws

pts mntn npm bmbngs by Rsn ct n 1977, n

Cubn n vt ttcks n p-Wstn cs n Ang n 1978.



Judgment Day 195

Npm bmbs n wst, cnt, n st As n t 1970s n

1980s. U.. sucs pt qunt us npm by vt tps n

A gnstn ung t 1979–1989 nvsn n ccuptn. In 1983, n

m mt xmp, T tps pp npm n 150 Vtnm-

s ss ntnc ng t Cmbn b—pps t fst

us npm n Incn snc 1975. Iq cs us npm xtn-

svy gnst Kus ctzns n t 1986–1989 An xtmntn

cmpgn.

Ltn Amc sw t st tw pst-Vtnm pymnts. In 1980, E

v’s gvnmnt us npm gnst mstc nsugnts. “B- t U.. stt png us, w t us npm, bcus w

n’t v ny t qupmnt. W bugt t m Is sv ys

g, n us t unt 1981. I w n’t n tt, I mgt nt b sttng

ty,” Cn Jun R Bust, t vn

c, t 1983 U.. ct-fnng mssn. In 1982, ung t Fk-

ns W, Agntn uc ct pp tw npm bmbs n

Bts tps. Bt mss. UK tps scv 9,000 gns tg n f mxng unts wn ty cptu t Gs Gn Af

n Est Fkn, n tn stcks t t f n t cpt

cty, tny.

As npm’s sput gw, cmbtnts un t w qunty

g ts us by ppnnts. Ts ccus mst nvtby n

t cgs: tstmny t t wpn’s ntty. Tus, n 1977, s-

gus cm Fnc cs us npm n Wstn -

. “Lgy n t mn fctn,” Fnc gn mnst Lus

Gungu pmpty, n cuy, cmmnt n pmnty

ss w ys t. Ftn, t Est Tms npnnc mv-

mnt, sst n 1980 tt Inns us npm t bun cps. Jkt

n t cg. In Jnuy 2006, psnt nwy npnnt

Est Tm Xnn Gusm pt t cntntn n pt t t

Unt Ntns, n tt cvns bn tgt. A Washing-

ton Post pt c ctgc n: “Inns’s nsmnst, Juwn usn, cng t pt’s ccucy Fy,

nyng t cunty us npm.” C m pt cms tt

Lbyn cs us npm ung fgtng n t . In 1983, cs



196 P a r i a h

psnt ty-t-y- mn ty ntf s cptu Lb-

yn c pt t pts t n cnc t t cgs. “W

w ppng npm s w,” t mn s. “Outs, cw

5,000 pp sug tws m, ssng, sutng n cng s

xcutn. T gus, n tm ng gn unc ncs

m t Lbyn’s , ugt bck t cw b bunng m nt

tuck,” An Cw pt t New York Times. Lby n

t ttcks vn tk pc, t n tt npm ws us. ut Ac

n tt t us npm gnst Angn bs. Russ -

nunc 1995 Ccn cms, pt n Washington Post tby mmb t nwspp’s cntng my, tt t us npm

gnst cvns n t bus pvnc.

By 1991, wt t ntty npm stbs, n tc III

m tn c , Bts cmmns pnnng Optn Dst

tm gnst Iq cncu npm’s puttn ws tns t

pnt tt tump ts mty utty. Amcn cs jct ts

ssssmnt. “Bts cs sy tt n gt ts nmus puttnt s nt ntn t us t gnst m’s tps. But npm,

wc s mst ctv gnst mss tps ut n t pn, s mng

wpns stckp n t gu, n U.. cs nt u ut

ts us,” Time pt. In t vnt, U.. pts pp npm bmbs

ny t bun Iq nsv tncs f wt . “Muc bn

wttn but t nn t Iqs wu ct by fng tncs wt

bunng . But n t Mns’ sct, U.. pns bun t

pmtuy by ppng npm,” Gg Cuc pt n Time.

At t w, Iq utts us npm xtnsvy t suppss

t upsng n t sut t cunty.

Jugmnt Dy npm cm n Nvmb 18, 1994, wn bn

cmmns pp g ncny bmb n t twn Bb n

ntwst Bsn n stt cn vnts tt cnfm t jug-mnt Btn’s Dst tm pnns. It ws t scn stk n

Bb, ct n UN-c “s zn,” n tn ys, n m

t fst bn cng t t gb by n t tw-y- cn-





198 P a r i a h

t ncny g. Gns, t Fst vc, cv vtn ut-

ts, n sp mnuctus, sm tugt, mgt b ptcu bnf-

cs. “T y mtw, y nmss t Jp fgt t

Oknw, s y n pctm us, ttckng wt vgttn wc

mps nvgtn. A spc mxtu . . . s styng cggng g-

t gss n wt ycnt,” pt cunt t t n W

W II. “T U.. Fst vc s suggst usng t mgun

bckfng st fs. Agcutusts xpct t mpy t n mf

m bunng v s. T ttsbug muncp pt cn-

tmpts us t mtw t mv -pck c n snwn unwys,” t tc cntnu. “Npm, tt sp t n

stuctn s n ncny ngnt n wtm m-tws,

w sn b us by t Amy s G-I qu sp,” t Science News-

Letter vs n 1946. “Wtn w mnts, t W Dptmnt

stts, 50,000 gns nw quck-sus sp m npm w b

vb vytng m scubbng bcks s t G-I sm-

ps,” t pc cntnu. “Npm s s pt t v mt us n sm spt ppctns,” t cncu, wtut

btn.

Npm ws n us t fgt st fs n mt s t

Jpn’s t. In 1982, xmp, Fst vc cpts pp

g bmbs t cnt f tt jump nt “wnss s ugg

tt buzs cu nt b us,” ccng t n Assct ss -

pt tn ppy Cmp, Cn. Rngs v s us npm

t p gnt C sts. A 1989 ttmpt t us “sm bgs

npm” pp m bt t bun sp m t Exxon Valdez

tnk n Ask, wv, ws unsuccssu. ttsbug pt mn-

stts sst tmpttn n cs m ttn swpng n

bwng mcns.

Us t wpn n pxmty t cvns, wv, s gnt

ntnsyng sstnc. In 1992, xmp, ppnnts nvy fng

ng n t sn Vqus n ut Rc sz n pts npm tst—t fst us t g t t ng n c—s sn

t unc nt-bs ptsts mnt snc t y 1980s. Ctcs

ct npm’s nvnmnt txcty, ts but cts, n ts us n





200 P a r i a h

t pc n f ptmnts wt pn cs: m tn n un-

t pc n m cmmunty pps 4,000 ms. m

wn wt ty su t g twn gty ms nn,

ts sk t cn cu b t by yng bs s ty wk

m m sc. “It s ncb, t ums tt gng un,”

s pc c Cuck Kngt. O cus, t ws nt unvs:

w bv sus gt t t bc wt sts tt “I gt bun

n Cs By.”

Just t sunst n Fbuy 11, 1999, spctcu ss xp-

sns, vsb twnty-fv ms, st ms uns t gv t sp, n ck t twn. “W’v gt g t f gng,”

pt cmmn cnt spksmn. Utmty, t csn t us

npm pv mx bssng: but 90 pcnt t bun, but

t tn pcnt tt scp puc n t wst sps n O-

gn’s sty. Mv, t f ws s t t spt t sp n tw n

ct svg pbm tt tk mst c t sv.

m cmmunty gt bck ppss t us npm t ncn-t muntns nms cct by t cs n t Unt

tts n t Unt Kngm t ss utbks. Npm pp

wt t “T Tc” mtw cu uc n ut vstck

ccss t s n but n u, Nv Dptmnt Agcutu m-

py Rn Ansn pt t n ntx pmc n 2000. “It

wks vy nc sss suc s ntx, bcus yu gt ts by

scg wc cn v t sps n t. . . . Wn yu n bun-

ng t ccss, tn t (wt sps) un t ccss cn b

tc,” vs. Ttn pys m supus umb, -

ts, c n ts qu up t t ys t bun nms n

cst m, t Unt Kngm’s New Scientist mgzn pt

ung 2001 t n mut ss pmc tt t up t 60,000

nms ttng n fs n bns. “u nt t us npm

b cns ugnty? Is t sn wy t s nt bng cns . . .

t ct tt t vtns Vtnm tt mgt nt b ccptbt t pubc?” Lbu mmb mnt Tm Dy, psnt-

tv Lntgw n ctn’s cnt wns gcutu stct,

mn Envnmnt Mnst Mc Mc n t mst

t css. Mc n npm’s pubc mg ssu m m



Judgment Day 201

cnsng t. “I v n Vtnm-t nbtns but npm n

I m pcty pp t k t ts us. I t cn mk cntbutn t

t—I p—py csng numb fs n pn fs, I m

ppy t tk t n b,” spn.

cntsts m cs n t mts. “Npm suns ngus, but

t s ctuy tvy sy n s t us, n pbby s tn t

pt s n,” Mtn ug- Jns t c Vtny

Mcn t Lusn tt Unvsty n Btn Rug, w s cn-

uct ccss ncntn xpmnts, t t New Scientist pt.

“T’s ntng mystus but npm,” Nv c Ansnt vtny t mgzn DVM t nxt mnt: “It s t sm

qupmnt (n substnc) ty us n t U.. Fst vc n t

Buu Ln Mngmnt wn ty wnt t cnt pscb

bunng (wfs).” As Carcass Disposal: A Comprehensive Review,

puc n 2004 by t U.. Ntn Agcutu Bscuty Cnt

Cnstum bsv, “F mst pp, npm cnjus up mgs

w, stuctn, n fc umn csuts. wv, npms bn us n vty pc-tm ppctns, ncung t

bk up sps n t stuctn ntx-nct ctt c-

csss n t U.”

stc mgy, wv, n t vws “mst pp,” t us

t Ntn Agcutu Bscuty Cnt’s ssssmnt, tump t

tcncts. Cvg Ansn’s sc n t Bts Inde pendent

nwspp tngy msntf s “T Tc” suggstn s “t-

tc” pps: “M. Ansn s t t tcs cm n v-

us szs n wu b ctv n sp ccsss.” A BBC pt n

t bt cs “T T W” ptgp n n mg

s ng gnt fb s ts usttns t gcutu s-

cussn. “Mntn npm mmty cnjus mgs jung

w, stuctn n fc umn csuts. T ptgp

nk yung g ng npm ttck bcm n t mst

pgnnt mgs t Vtnm W,” t BBC bgn. It cncu,“[T] cmc’s vsttng wtm sty n ts pubc pcptn

tt [ sic ] my put mnsts usng npm. A spksmn t D-

ptmnt t Envnmnt, Tnspt n t Rgns s t us

npm ws unky.” In t Unt tts, Carcass Disposal: A



202 P a r i a h

Comprehensive Review pps t v bn t st sus cns-

tn gvn t cvn ppctn npm.

As pubc pnn vv, Amc’s npm sn ust n C-

n. Evntuy, sm t cnsts sp v sxty-svn cs—

ubb “Npm k” by bs ptvs—stt t k. Envn-

mntsts w tt ccngns n t g, nw scb by t

nvy s “ny-k” t ys n stg, mgt sp nt t s. A

pputn tpns’ kng ts, ptct nng spcs,tk up snc n sm t tns tusns wn cts, n

t t cmpxty t stutn. tcns bgn t mk n-

qus. In 1982, nvy cs c t sps t stckp.

Dstyng t g pv xcptny cut. O cs t t s

t 23 mn-pun sv, but t ptnt buys ct by

t Dns Rutztn Mktng O c tug. An n-st p-

cssng systm but n 1988, t m Entpss Ttmnt Fcty, t b bnn t nxt y wn sttn qupmnt pv

unb t spt bnzn n pystyn m gsn n su cnt

quntts— ncssy pcus t sps. Ngbs ptst n-

cntn ppss. “Bunng ts stu n snng t up n t s

k gttng bmb wt npm. . . . T n tng yu n’t wnt t

wt ts stu s t ut ny m pp,” tmy Wms, cun

c gup Dst Ctzns gnst utn, t c nwspp

n 1995. “Wt w’ tkng but bscy s just gsn n

pstc,” s nvy spksmn Rc Wmsn; wv, c-

knwg, “t s n mtn mnt nvv bcus ts ss-

ctn wt t Vtnm W.” Fny, t nvy w t nnpft

Btt Mm Insttut, mnstt svn ntn sc b-

ts, $28 mn cntct t t jb. Engns but $5 mn

pcssng cty t Fbk n, n 1997, sgn $2.5 mn cn-

tct wt utn Cnt Inusts (CI) n Est Ccg, Inn,t sty t npm, fttngy nug, by f. “T npm ws t b

squz ut t gng cnsts k ttpst n pc ns

6,000-gn scntns b cs. . . . utn Cnt

wu ccpt t scntns, bn t npm wt svnt s t



Judgment Day 203

wu bun t w n m pctb t v, n tn sp t t

cmnt kn, w t cu b bun s u, t nt st k

txc wst sps ncnt,” Rck Lymn pt t New York

Times. A tn wt 12,000 gns npm ws t pt C-

n vy wky tw ys.

Tn cm ptc ctn tt m t ngnng cngs

pp ncnsqunt. A w ys b Cstms, Rpsnttv

R Bgjvc, smn Dmct m Ccg, n but t

nvy’s cntct wt CI. A stm ptst upt. “My fst bjctn

ws wy wsn’t t pubc scsu n wy sn t tw-ts t wy css t cunty n tug vy pput k

Ccg?” Bgjvc t t New York Times. nt t nvn-

mnt csm, bcus t tn wu pss n Ccg n n n

p, gy bck n spnc, Est Ccg. Bgjvc nt cnt

cmc fs t CI’s pnt n cnt $80,000 fn stt nv-

nmnt n sty vtns, n bsv tt t fm’s cmn,

Kvn unsky, p guty t pvng s nmtn t cs n cs nvvng t sps zus wst n

Ccg ngb.

Npm’s puttn, wv, ws t ssnt pbm. “At t t

t cntvsy, mst ts nvv g, ws t gsty mg

npm, symbz mny Amcns ung t Vtnm W by t

spct mng jungs n ptgp Vtnms g n

nk pnc t npm bmbs bun t cts by,” pt

m Buck wt n t New York Times. “A, npm. Lt. C. Kg,

t cz cct py by Rbt Duv n ‘Apcyps Nw,’ just

v t sm t stu n t mnng,” bgn sty n t cnt-

vsy n t Chicago Tribune. Bgjvc, wt pt Mk Dnng,

“ssu nunctns n summn mgs sm-sc

xpsns.” Btty Bn, Ntwst Inn Rsnts

Cn A, wc pps t pn, t Dnng “Ts s k t stw

tt bk t cm’s bck. . . . W’v bn tkng t t Gvnmntbut cnng t pc up n tn ty g n ump npm .”

Nvy cs n CI xcutvs ugt bck wt cmmunty mt-

ngs, sc vsts, n pss bfngs, n ttmpt t ut t

pps tn tug t stct Rpubcn cngssmn Jy



204 P a r i a h

W. mmty bjct. “Dspt ts puttn, npm s s

t tnspt n m stb n ss vt tn gsn, wc s

cmmny snt by ,” ns cs t t Chicago Tribune.

Cmpny psnt Rbt Cmpb sw pts j npm

kpt n s sk. Tms McGs, mts mng t fm,

m btc npm m “us tms,” ncung tym

cups, n st t n f t pv t ws ss mmb tn gsn. A Nvy

Inspct Gn vw un n guts tt wnt bk-

ng t cntct. Nntss, cntvsy bcm s ntns tt wn

Ku Kux Kn mmbs pp t n unt y n Cc,Ins, cs nty n t qust pty bcus ums

npm tn ws scu t pss nby n t sm y. F t

pt, utn Cn cngssmn Rny (Duk) Cunnngm n

Rn ck pss t nvy t bgn spmnts s sn s pssb.

It ws t muc CI. On Fy Ap 10, 1998, t t stt n

Est wkn, ttnys t fm x tt t Btt skng

tt t nt sn ny npm unt “ mtts sv.” On Mny,cmpny wys cmpn tt “t gntt wc .C.I. s bn

c tug s byn ts cntmptn t pjct.” Ty -

qust tt t nvy n Btt “cs mkng ut spmnts n

[t] c spmnts y m.” CI wnt ut. “W v bn

subjct t n mtny cg ptc cnnttn tt s ty

wt t cts. . . . [Gvn] ngtv cnnttn but npm n ts

n t Vtnm W, w t CI w fgtng n up btt,” ps-

nt Cmpb t t Chicago Tribune. ubc yst, s, ws t

bm. “T us, t’s t sm , sm . . . . It just ppns t b tt

w n tt pctu tt 9-y- Vtnms,” t busnssmn

ptst t t New York Times.

But t npm tn t t sttn: t fst tnk ncny

g pt Inn n y tuy. “Wt w v s n

tnk c npm cyng 12,000 puns npm m pc n

Cn t pc n Inn. Ts s cuy wk ut pn byt Nvy,” Assstnt cty Dns ubc As Knnt

Bcn t pts t Tusy tnn bfng. Cngssmn m

Ins n Inn ccus t svc tyng t snk npm tug

t stts ung t y. “I tnk t ws bsuty npppt



Judgment Day 205

t Unt tts Nvy n t ngt v ts y wkn

t bgn t spmnt npm,” s Inn cngssmn t Vs-

csky. Wn t tn vntuy tun t sutn Cn, w-

v, Cngssmn Cunnngm n ck ct wt utg, n

mn n nvstgtn by t Gn Accuntng O c.

Btt upp t vu t cntct t $10 mn n ssgn

t n Juy t t GNI Gup D k, Txs—n nust cty n

ustn’s p Cnn wt mny ptcmc nsttns. B

ty cv t cntct, GNI cs gnz pubc mtng

Btt n nvy cs t ssss cmmunty sntmnt. Txs cn-gssmn n us wp Tm DLy vst Fbk t stsy m-

s, s, tt t spmnts w s.

Abut 10,000 gns npm v tw wks t wt “ny

t bst uy cmpnt,” t New York Times cunt. C-

nns w g t s t g. “I’ bv t wn t ctuy gts t, n

w n’t s t tunng,” n t CB Nws. Nvy cs kpt t

pcs t ptu n ut t spmnt sct. “In gt t cm spk by t Ap spmnt, nt t Nvy, t pm

cntct, GNI, n t Bungtn Ntn nt F wu

spcy wt tm t fst tn ws scu t pt wt ut t

wu tk,” CB pt. “W tk ssn m wt ppn n

Inn,” s GNI vc psnt guty s B Rvs. “W

sw t ptcns cm ut, sw t msnmtn wt wnt

un. W just t tt w gt ts ut t t pubc, qucky, t wu

b unst n, by n g, t ws,” cntnu. “W s

muc s w cu ts tm un t uct n nm t pubc n

t mk su tt ny qustns w nsw n vnc,” g L

uns, nvy nvnmnt s spkspsn. “T pp

ustn wt ts kn stu t tm,” xpn Rbn

Ycum, Btt’s mng m tns: “Yu sy npm t mst

pp, n ty pctu t mg tt tt g unnng wn t

. But yu xpn t pp n ustn tt t’s just gsn mxwt bnzn n styn n ty knw gt wy wt yu’ tkng

but n wt yu’ ng wt.”

Rsnts s ty smpy n cc. “p ng t p

Cnn n’t ty cn nytng but t,” s LN Ansn,



206 P a r i a h

ustn stt gnt n mmb Gnpnts Est s

Cunty. “Ty pwss, s tug ty’v bn sgn [ sic ] s

ntn scfc zn. Yu knw, ts txc cmpns k t

pc wt t st sstnc n tt’s wy ty cm .” Juy

tns, w v n t wkng-css cmmunty Cnn Vw, just

css t wt m t npm pcssng cty, t t New York

Times, “W’v y gt txc sup un . . . . W’v bt,

ck n sup nug tt stu tt w’ ws n w’ up.

Cn n’t wnt t. Inn n’t wnt t. Just v t t Txs.”

As D k cty mng Rn Cbt bsv yy, “t’s nunstnng tt ts s pt u cnmc bs.”

Wtv t cst t Txs, npm sps pv c pz

GNI. “T ncs n t vnus t wst mngmnt svcs

sgmnt ws pmy ttbutb t mj ncs n t svc

pv t t U.. Nvy t ttmnt Npm,” t cmpny

pt n Fbuy 2000 cuts n Excng Cmmssn

fng. In My, GNI pt n tn $1.2 mn gvnmntpymnt. By 2001, t v cst t sps pjct mst

ub m ts gn bugt t $48 mn. css mt ws

v t t Btn Rug, Lusn, pnt Fnc cmc fm

R t u nust uncs tt qu “g quty” u.

On Ap 4, 2001, ctng scty t nvy Rbt J. c n

n t U.. npm. “At w-ky cmny ts mnng t t F-

bk Nv Wpns ttn n n Dg Cunty, t fn tw cns-

ts Vtnm- npm w b cyc n snt n t wy t Txs

n Lusn,” pt t San Francisco Chronicle. “Acs n cs

npm bmbs, gn. Rcyc nt u (n) umnum csngs,”

Cptn Tms Bt, w vsw t pjct, t gusts. O cs

s t st wu b st t ts ntv stt: btt kng

ts n Cn gntctcs. “Npm, s wpn, s nw gn,”s Bc cmmn u Bun. “W cn nw sy t s pt

sty,” sst Fbk Cmb Cmmc xcutv ct

Bb Ln. “G nc,” s , “t pubc su b t.”





208

On Jnuy 6, 2003, t Amcn mu cg vy systmsp .. Cape Jacob ck n Kuwt. U.. ss n cvn

cntcts b n bgn ss twnty-u-u sts t un-

npm, n gns, n bmbs t T Mn A Wng

(MAW). By y Fbuy, s cty tt Cn w vw

s spc n Iq wpns mss stuctn t Unt Ntns

cuty Cunc, n ntgn pnns nnunc tt bmbng

wv cu qucky bk t Iq my, t wk ws mst cmpt.

“Evytng m n gns t 2,000-pun bmbs n npm

spp, y us wnv 3 MAW ns tm,” t Dpt-

mnt Dns’s Deend America nwstt pt n Jnuy 12.

M ws g. “W’v n msps—tt’s wt yu k n

nnc,” s c-n-cg Mty Gv. “Ts s mtvtng,”

ntus nnsyvn ntv Jm Bwn, “It’s xctng t knw t

wk w’ ng s supptng . . . Mn vtn unts.”

At 10:16 p.m. n Wnsy, Mc 19, snt Gg W. Busnnunc, “T pp t Unt tts n u ns n s

w nt v t t mcy n utw gm tt ttns t pc

wt wpns mss mu. W w mt tt tt nw, wt u

Amy, A Fc, Nvy, Cst Gu n Mns, s tt w nt v

14

The Weapon That Dare Not

Speak Its Name



The Weapon That Dare Not Speak Its Name 209

t mt t t wt ms f fgts n pc n cts n t

stts u cts.” Amcn bmbs y n n Bg.

wn , w kmts nt t Kuwt b n sutn

Iq, ms v t mn tt uns m Kuwt t Bs, n n t

Bg. In 1991, U.. n Iq cs fnz cs-f tms t n

f n ts bs. In 2003, mns pck up w t pcs-

ss t : t wtzs nt pc ng t Kuwt nt

n Tusy Mc 20 n tk m t summt bsvtn pst bs-

tng wt ss, wpns, n cmmunctns g. Bn t

ns, nvy tcncns pns wt Mk-77 fbmbs, cpck wt uns puns npm.

Amc ttck t n Fy mnng. “Mn Cb cp-

t gunsps fng f msss swpt n w m t sut. Tn

t mn wtzs, wt ng 30 kmts, pn sustn

bg v t nxt gt us. Ty w suppt by U Nvy

ct wc pp 40,000 puns xpsvs n npm,” -

pt Lnsy Muc wt n t Austn Sydney Morning Her-ald nwspp. “Anytng tt ws up t tt ws t t t

xpsns ws tn t wt npm. An tt ptty muc put n n

t ny Iq ptns up n tt ,” CNN cnfm. Dwn n t

22n sw just sng ntnn w t bsvtn pst bn,

wt n smk. “D bs vyw,” U.. c -

pt by . “I pty nyby w’s n t,” s mn sgnt.

“W t tm t sun.”

A nvy spksmn n Wsngtn mmty n npm

bn py. “W n’t vn v tt n u sn,” Lutnnt

Cmmn Dnny nnz s t y t sts pp. A

subsqunt sttmnt m t ntgn t t Herald sst, “Yu

sty cmng U cs usng npm n Iq s ptnty s. T

U tk npm ut svc n t y 1970s. W cmpt stuc-

tn u st btc npm n Ap 4, 2001, n n ng mntn

ny stcks npm.”

nstn nws, wv, sps k wf. n.cm pnt

Muc’s pt t y t ws pubs, n mmty s t

ssu ntntn w n ptnt w cms. “A g xpt t t

Intntn Cmmtt t R Css n Gnv s t us



210 P a r i a h

npm u bmbs ws nt g ‘p s’ bcus t Unt

tts ws nt sgnty t t 1980 wpns cnvntn tt pbts

n stcts ctn wpns,” t wbst xpn. wv, t cn-

tnu, qutng R Css vs n wpns n ntntn u-

mntn w Dmnqu Ly, “[T] Unt tts s t ppy t

bsc pncps Intntn umntn Lw (IL) n tk

pcutns t ptct cvns. In t cs npm n u bmbs,

ts spc pcutns bcus ts wpns, nt spcfc

wpns.” In tun, t New York Times nt n’s cvg s “t

fst t ggt n tm m t Sydney Morning Herald tt ptt us npm by Unt tts tps.” Times ts pubs n

tn nvy n, n t wn cctn, t nxt y.

Amcn tps vnc qucky tw Bg, but bgs

cus ys. In t Mc, cssng t t m Cn n cnt

Iq pv spcy pbmtc. ssg css t Tgs Rv

nt t cty Numny n Ap ws s cut. Npm

c bt bstcs. “W npm bt ts (bg) ppcs,”Cn Rnp As, cmmn Mn A Gup 11, t San

Diego Union-Tribune pt Jms Cwy n August 5, 2003, fv

mnts t t vnts. “Untunty, t w pp t b-

cus yu cu s tm n t (cckpt) v. Ty w Iq ss

t. It’s n gt wy t ,” . “T gns v npm,”

As bsv: “It s bg psycgc ct.” Mn Cps mj

gn Jm Ams, w cmmn mn jt n cpt unts n

t Iq W n t T Mn A Wng, “cnfm ct

pp wt n t Mns cntnu t c npm n Iq

tps n sv ccsns,” ccng t Cwy.

Nvy cs, cnnt wt ts tn vnc, mtt n

August 2003 tt fbmbs f wt “u-g mxtu” bn

us n Iq, but stngus tm m npm. “Dung t w, n-

tgn spksmn sput pts tt npm ws bng us, syng

t ntgn’s stckp bn sty tw ys g. Appntyt spksmn w wng stnctn btwn t tms ‘fbmb’

n ‘npm,’ ” Cwy xpn: “I pts sk but f-

bmbs, cs s ysty ty wu v cnfm t us.”

cntnu, “Wt t Mns pp, t spksmn s ysty,




w ‘Mk-77 fbmbs.’ Ty cknwg ts ncny -

vcs wt unctn ‘mkby sm’ t npm wpns. Rt

tn usng gsn n bnzn s t u, t fbmbs us ksn-

bs jt u, wc s sm cncnttn bnzn.” Mn

spksmn Cn Mc Dy ws sympttc. “Mny ks (ut

bt) t t Mk-77 s ‘npm’ bcus ts ct upn t tgt

s mkby sm,” s. In, ubc As spksmn

Twnty-Nn ms Mn Bs cptn Rbt Cum t t Sydney

Morning Herald w ys t, “T vg yung Mn my b

unm wt t tcnc nmnctu, n pbby s tts muntn [Mk-77] by t vncu ‘npm.’ ” T nc,

Dy sst, ws tt t nw mutn “sgnfcnty ss

n mpct n t nvnmnt.”

Inm bsvs jct t stnctn. “Yu cn c t sm-

tng t tn npm but t s st npm. It s bn mut n

t sns tt ty nw us nt ptum stt, but tt s t,”

s Jn k, un t w-wnnng Gbcuty.g wb-st, m ct t Ftn Amcn cntsts Mty

Anyss pgm, n n t w’s tp xpts n scuty s-

sus. “It’s Own. Ty nt wnt t pubc t knw. It’s ,”

mntn Rbt Mus, xcutv ct yscns c

Rspnsbty—n nsttutn st xpt n npm tty-sx ys -

t t Rc n Vct ’s gunbkng tc n t New

En gland Journal o Medicine. It “fts pttn cptn” by U.. u-

tts, Mus .

Eup n m gnztns cncu. “vy Rpcs Agnst

U ntgn: Npm Bmbs In T Iq W,” n Gmn stt

bcst ARD n ts 7 August Monitor nws pgm. “Npm. T

-wpn m t Vtnm-w. It s ntntny bnn n

utw, ts us s bn by t Gnv-Cnvntns. But nvt-

ss, t ws us n t Iq-w by t U.. my,” ntn n n-

nunc. Bts pt Anw Buncmb’s cvg n t UntKngm’s ntn Inde pendent nwspp ws quy pnt: “U

mts t us npm bmbs n Iq” b t n. “Amcn

pts pp t cntvs ncny gnt npm n Iq

tps ung t vnc n Bg,” t junst cg. “T



212 P a r i a h

ntgn n usng npm t t tm, but Mn p ts n t

cmmns v cnfm tt ty us n upg vsn t

wpn gnst ug-n pstns. Ty s npm, wc s s-

tnctv sm, ws us bcus ts psycgc ct n n nmy,”

sst.

Buncmb b wn n Amc’s xcptn ctn t npm,

n ts t n Vtnm. Fst, us tc III t fn gb

pgm: “A 1980 UN cnvntn bnn t us gnst cvn tgts

npm, tyng mxtu jt u n pystyn tt stcks t

skn s t buns.” Nxt, ggt Amcn xcptnsm: “TU, wc nt sgn t tty, s n t w cunts tt mks

us t wpn.” Fny, w n twnty-gt ys ng m

Vtnm t npm: “It ws mpy ntusy gnst bt cvn

n mty tgts n t Vtnm w.” Buncmb tt t p-

vctn t San Diego Union-Tribune pt Cwy: “O -

cs s tt junsts sk but t fbmbs t us wu

v bn cnfm. A spksmn mtt ty w ‘mkbysm’ t npm but s ty cus ss nvnmnt mg.”

cncu, “T vtn tt npm ws us n t w gnst

Iq, w t ntgn n t, s utg ppnnts t w.”

Amc’s ttmpt t ts npm n pn sgt by cngng t

mnng t w puc n ntntn ptc ncnt tt

mbss t gvnmnt ts csst y, Gt Btn, n -

tvy st . Ov ng p tm, t pctc ct

pubc cnusn tt py nt t ns ctcs.

In Jnuy 2005, xpcttn munt n t Unt Kngm tt

m Mnst Tny B wu sn c n ctn. Lbu mmb

mnt y Cn, n y n vcus ppnnt B’s

Iq W pcy, cs tt tm t sk Am Fcs Mnst Am In-

gm Mk-77 fbmbs bn us by Ctn cs, n twpn ws cmpb t npm. tcs pp t b pmy

mtvtn t qustn snc U.. Nvy cs stt n nt-

vws svntn mnts tt t cs us Mk-77s.

Ingm cnfm t fbmbs w cmpb t npm but, -

mkby, n ty bn us: “T Unt tts v cn-




fm t us tt ty v nt us Mk 77 fbmbs, wc s-

snty npm cnsts, n Iq t ny tm. N t ctn

mmb s Mk 77 fbmbs n t nvnty.”

T t snstv mtt st s Bts ptcs sw. B n-

nunc n Ap 5 tt gn ctn wu b n My 5. On

Ap 20, s Ingm t tstf, ws “m w” vnc

Mk-77s n bn us n Iq. T m cs mnst

nt pubcz t nmtn, wv, but “sugt cfctn m

t ntgn.” B ws ct ftn ys t wt 35.3 pcnt

t ppu vt t 32.3 s ppnnts, scnt 3 pcnt mgn. st muc s mjty n mnt. Iq W pcy ws ky ssu.

Ingm vs bt mnts s Jnuy nsw n Jun 13,

2005, sx wks t t My vt. In tt t Lbu mmb -

mnt Ln Rn, nw cnfm fbmbs bn us n

Iq—but ts tm n ty w cmpb t npm. Fst, Mk-

77s: “T U.. sty ts mnng Vtnm npm n 2001 but,

ccng t t pts I Mn Exptny Fc (I MEF) sv-ng n Iq n 2003, ty us tt 30 MK 77 wpns n Iq b-

twn 31 Mc n 2 Ap 2003, gnst mty tgts wy m c-

vn s.” cn, npm: “T MK 77 fbmb s nt v t

sm cmpstn s npm, tug t s sm stuctv cc-

tstcs. T ntgn s t us tt wng t t mt ccucy

t MK 77, t s nt gny us n ubn tn n s w c-

vns cnggt.”

An up nsu. W ppnnts, n s B n gn, cg

cnspcy. O cs p ncmptnc, n b nmtn m

t Amcn y. Rcmntns w. On Jun 24, t BBC pt

“Dnc cty Jn R s Amcn cs n Bg

gvn t wng nmtn. cm t ws ‘cck up’ nt cnspcy.

t ITV’s Jntn Dmbby pgmm: ‘Fst , ty n’t

us npm. Ty us fbmb. It sn’t stck t yu skn k n-

pm, t sn’t v t b cts tt. cny, w v nvus nytng tt vn ppxmts t wt ty w usng.’ ”

Lbu mmb mnt Ac Mn, w submtt t n-

t qustn jnty wt Cn, ws utg. “It s ‘sgc’ tt

Bts mnsts sy ty nt knw U cs us npm-sty

f bmbs n Iq,” s t t BBC. “ s Mk 77 bmbs w



214 P a r i a h

smpy m spstct vsn npm bmbs wc st ‘mt

pp,’ ” t bcst pt. Tt t pymnt ws mnuscu

cmp t pvus ws—tty bmbs tt wg but 15,000

puns n tt, vsus uns tusns tns npm n,

xmp, Incn—sm mmt: m mntn Vtnm’s

jy bmbs cnju tyng bgy.

I “npm” n fntn, ts mnng cu xpn s w s cn-

tct. An xtn bt v wpns us by U.. tps ung t-tcks n t Iq cty Fuj n 2004 ws cs n pnt. In 2007,

UK pywgt Jntn ms xtpt m t m pts

vw bv t sst n s ntw m Fallujah tt U.. tps,

n tn t t nggmnts t wn n gnst bgs,

s us npm n s py’s pnymus cty. Ts spctcu cm,

cmbn wt cbty cst, p gn nmus pubcty

t py ung ts Lnn un. “T nunctns t Unt tts sv, ptcuy n t scns tt wt t us npm n

Fuj, n gtn m by t-wng ctcs t w but nv sub-

stntt,” vw Jn z wt n t New York Times.

“Incny Wpns A N ‘Agtn,’ ” Nw Yk-bs m

mnt Fnss & Accucy n Rptng (FAIR) spn t z

w wks t n n Actn At t ts mmbs. T nyss cn-

t npm, wt pspus, n ncny wpns n gn.

FAIR wt, “I z mnt t sy tt t U.. mty ny cn-

fm t us npm-k wpn sw n Iq, nt n Fu-

j, w t ny ncny wpn mtt t v bn us n

Fuj ws wt pspus, tn tt’s vy sn tcncty.”

A 2005 cumnty bcst n Itn stt bcst RAI Tv-

sn Nws mx cps npm bmbmnts n Vtnm—ncung

t ttck tt wun Km úc—wt tstmny but wt ps-

pus ttcks n Fuj, n c FAIR’s swpng cncusnbut npm us. “Cng wt ws us n Fuj ‘npm’ my

v gt mtn mpct tn cng t W [wt pspus].

Npm ss mgs Vtnm n, spcy, tt tgc 1972 p-

tgp nk tt g, unnng wn stt, scmng n gny

m npm buns,” bsv New York Times pubc t Ck yt.




s vw t cntvsy qu tw ngty cumns t cy t,

vn n pt. “T w n Iq s st up suc pssn tt smtng

vy vub s n ng gttng st—cts,” yt cncu.

Extny pubcty st ccmpns t bst mntn “n-

pm.” Wn n bscu “jst” gup pst cu “npm c-

p” n ts wbst n My 2009, xmp, CB Nws ggt t

sty n ts “Intnt T Mnt” svc: “A gup nk t t

‘Gb Ismc Rsstnc’ c t ‘Abu Mus’b u Bgs,’

stbut nw svn-pg ustt cumnt tt suggst n

sy cp t mkng Npm. T cp sys t cn b pucusng cmmn us tms, suc s sp n sug. T mnu

ws stbut n sv j Intnt ums ty ng wt

vs swng t kn mg ts stuctv substnc cn

cus.” In n xmp m c U.. tvsn nws, 2012 F

mtmptmn-bty st bcm t “npm cs” n t

tk c nws ys wn -u Msn j t g ws s-

cv n t bcky t suspct, w wk nscntct.

Lss vsby, Amcn mty cs cntnu t cqu npm

wpns, n mnuctus vts npm vy cpbts t

buys n t knw. A Jnuy 13, 2004, my pcumnt scttn,

xmp, sugt mnuctus MK-77 fbmb ss. “F-

bmbs uptu upn mpct n sp bunng u g n suun-

ng bjcts,” U.. Amy F uppt Cmmn c My

xpn t pspctv supps. pcfctns stput “Cg-

sp, nn-stbz” bmbs tt “tumb n v n wn s

m t ct.” A “Fu gng mxtu bs,” cntnu, “w

b gvnmnt uns mt.” vnc, R Isn–bs

Txtn Cptn’s B A-1Z Zuu ttck cpt, “t utmt

n ttck cpts,” s nt xmp, vtss “Mk 77 f bmbs”

mng ts wpns cpbts.

Amc utmty tmn ts ntst y wt t w, t st n

ty, ns s gutn npm n ncny wpns ws

cncn. Its c pmt c t cunty t ts jugmnt n

Dcmb 7, 1996, u fty-fv ys t Jpn’s ttck n



216 P a r i a h

b w t ntn nt W W II n p ct npm.

“Ctn mty cncns” but tc III wc ncsstt

“ut stuy by t ntgncy cmmunty” utn ys, s-

nt B Cntn’s scty stt Wn Cstp nnunc,

bn sv.

Cntn n Cstp’s sutn ws t Unt tts t sgn

t ptc, but sv t gt t gn t. “Incny wpns v

sgnfcnt mty vu, ptcuy wt spct t mmb tgts

tt cnnt s y b sty wt cnvntn xpsvs,” Cn-

tn wt n s Ltt Tnsmtt t t nt, pps wt n yn ngng UN nspctns wpns mss stuctn n Iq. “At

t sm tm, ts wpns cn b msus n mnn tt cu

cus vy cvn csuts. In ptcu, t tc pbts t

us -v ncny wpns gnst tgts ct n cty,

twn, vg, t cncnttn cvns, pctc tt cus

vy vy cvn csuts n pst cncts,” cntnu. T,

t psnt suggst Amc “sv t gt t us ncnsgnst mty tgts ct n cncnttns cvns w t s

jug tt suc us wu cus w csuts n ss ct m-

g tn tntv wpns.” A g xmp ts, wt, “wu

b t ypttc us ncns t sty bgc gnts n n

nmy stg cty w xpsv vcs mgt smpy sp t

gnts wt sstus cnsquncs t cvn pputn.”

Dns Dptmnt ttnys suggst n ccmpnyng cmmn-

ty tt cncy, cng gumnts t t 1979 CCW cnnc,

mgt s b n pppt sn t v t w: “Ctn mm-

b mty tgts s m py sty by ncns,”

ty wt. F xmp, “ u pt cu qu up t gt tms

t bmbs n sts t sty usng ny g xpsvs t tn

ncns.” An, ty cncu, “uc n ncs mns sgnf-

cnty gt umntn sk ct mg.”

nts mn uncnvnc. tc III ngus b tCmmtt n Fgn Rtns t nxt c. Rpubcn Gg

W. Bus w t pcy s Dmctc pcss n sup-

pt tfctn wn tk c n 2001. Cmmtt mmbs,

wv, mn bptsn n ppstn: Cmn J Bn D-




w, Dmct, m n m pgss n ncny wpns g-

utn wn t cmmtt m 2001 t 2003 tn Rpubcns

Jss ms Nt Cn Rc Lug Inn, w

t gv t st t p m 1997 t 2007. Bck Obm’s

cmmtt mmbsp t Jnuy 2005, wng s ctn s sn-

t m Ins, s m n ppnt nc.

As Wsngtn mtt, t w mv. N w tn nnty-

nn stts ns tc III by 1999. Amcn pmts un

t ncsngy cut t ngtt wtn t Cnvntn n Ctn

Cnvntn Wpns (CCW) mwk bcus ty nt cmmt-t t ts mst mptnt pvsn.

Mv, vst ctns stts n nngvnmnt gnz-

tns bypss t UN nty t t tun t mnnum t nct

ww bns n n mns n cust wpns. Ts gmnts

st n pnt cntst t t nbty CCW sgnts t vs

cmpnsv guty gms ts muntns. An Intntn

Cmpgn t Bn Lnmns, stbs n 1992, unt ntntnvccy gups ncp Intntn, umn Rgts Wtc, M-

c Intntn, t Mns Avsy Gup, yscns umn

Rgts, n t Vtnm Vtns Amc Funtn, n nk

tm t supptv gvnmnts. Just fv ys t, 156 cunts—nt

ncung t Unt tts—sgn t 1997 Mn Bn Tty. tc

II t CCW bn sups, s pctc mtt, sgnt-

s. Cmpgns s t 1997 Nb c z.

In t summ 2006, nws pts but fgtng btwn Is

n ts ppnnts n sutn Lbnn w ttntn t t ngs

cust muntns: wpns tt sctt uns, tusns, bm-

bts gns v vst s. Mny nt xp unt ys t.

A gb ctn sm t tt gnz gnst n mns puc

n vn m p spns tn t nmns cmpgn. In 2007, t

summt n Os, Nwy n ty-sx t stts, suppt by Cust

Muntns Ctn m tn 350 nngvnmnt gnztns,c tty t bn t wpns. A mkb 107 stts— gn,

nt ncung t U..—sgn t Cnvntn n Cust Muntns n

Dubn n My 30, 2008. UN scty-gn Bn K-mn c t “

mj vnc t gb smmnt n umntn gns.”






t svtn suggst by Cntn n Cstp. Amc wu

“sv t gt t us ncny wpns gnst mty bjctvs

ct n cncnttns cvns w t s jug tt suc us

wu cus w cvn n ny c csuts n ss ct-

mg tn tntv wpns, suc s g-xpsv bmbs

ty,” An tstf.

On t t n, wtnsss gu tfctn wu gn t

Unt tts wt gb nms, stngtn ts ntntn tns,

n mpv t pspct gutn cust wpns un t

CCW—t tn t pbtn un t Cnvntn n CustMuntns. “[F]m nt ppv n nty nt c by t Unt

tts w st n mptnt xmp n bst U.. sp wn

t cms t pmugtng unvs nc t w w tts. It s

cut t Unt tts t psu t ntns t t

umntn n cutu pctcs wn w us t my jn t

typs tts tt b t cmmtt ty,” ctu nt

Csy. Rtfctn “w w us t ptcpt uy n vnt nt-ntn mtngs n t mpmnttn ts tts,” pgns-

tct. “Bcmng pty t ts tts s w sgnfcnty

stngtn u ngttng vg n u cbty n u wk n

t w w tts, t t xtnt tt t tts sk wy ty

su c t U.. pstns w nt ty ts tts t ty

s,” ttny Bng g. bt, “[W] g nt ts

ngttns, pp stn t us, ty cng t pstns n spns

t t Unt tts bcus ty tnk w’ ng t gt tng.

But w tn nv ty, usvs, ty st w’v pu t

tb wy n t s mn tt, t nxt g-un, ty gng t

b ss ky t cmpms.” Bng n An spg t Os

nttv cust muntns, n xpss g ps utu

CCW tc VI t gut t wpns. “[T] cunt t t

Os txt wu sgnfcnty cmpct cptn btwn t m-

ts tt ts n nn-tt ts n mssns n wc t us cust muntns my b ctv n pppt,” ty wn n

jnt spns t qustns submtt by Csy. “Rgss t

utcm t Os pcss, t C.C.W. s btt pstn t tk

ctv stps t ss t umntn cncns ssct wt t



220 P a r i a h

us cust muntns n cntxt tt cgnzs t mty vu,”

ty vs. An tt, “T CCW mwk s vnt-

gus t t Unt tts bcus t bncs umntn n m-

ty ntsts; t tntv t CCW s n t by sm t cunts

t cv bn n t us, puctn, n tns ts wpns

wtut cgnzng t mty utty n sm ccumstncs.” Jnt

Cs t sn sttgst Bg Gn Mc Jnsn

summ t up: “Amc stns smtng.”

Cmmtt mmbs g. Ty vt wtut ssnt t pt

tc III vby t t nt, subjct t Cntn’s svtn, n Juy 29, 2008. T pt t t u nt, cng Bng’s tst-

mny, stss t mptnc U.. cbty n gb cmmu-

nty: “Jnng ts tts wu put t Unt tts n btt ps-

tn, wv, t psu t cunts t t umntn

pctcs n m cnct. Mv, U.. tfctn s mptnt b-

cus t Unt tts ss cbty wn t s nt my b-

cm pty t t vy tts t s cmpn,” vs t FgnRtns Cmmtt. Rtfctn, t snts n t sts wt,

“wu st n mptnt xmp n wu mk t pssb U..

cs t ptcpt uy n vnt ntntn mtngs gng,

xmp, t mpmnttn ts tts.”

nts tf tc III, unnmusy n wtut bt, n

ptmb 23, 2008, ng wt svnty-svn t tts—t gst

numb ntntn ccs ppv by t by n sng y

snc 1910. Lw w pcts n t gup, ncung tc III, p-

snt “ nw t t sst U.. sp n t ntntn

cmmunty n w w mtts,” pc Assstnt t t Amy Jug

Avct Gn Lw W Mtts Dck Jcksn c n t

Army Lawyer jun, “Ty s n xmp t U.. Gvn-

mnt’s pubc pmcy ts t pty t U.. mty s w-

bng mmb t ntntn cmmunty.” Rtfctn, wt,

“ps st U.. sp n t w w.”

snt Obm sgn tc III nt w n Jnuy 21, 2009, s

fst u y n c. n cmmnt, n ttn nws ut-

ts nt pt t vnt. ps t gst-pf mntn t

nw w ws n t Undiplomatic bg m pmt n umn




gts wk Cs J. Bwn. c pc Assstnt Jcksn’s

ssssmnt, bt n m pnt ngug. In pst pppty

tt “Mst Unpt ty t Wk: CCW,” Bwn wt

“[T]s s yt nt putn Bus. T Cnvntn s n nnx

t t Gnv Cnvntn, n gy uncntvs uts t

Cny-Btn-Wck- jb wng t Rpubcn ty. Ts p-

snts nt my wngnss t wk wtn xstng ntntn nms,

but s pms t t t ws w— vw wt wc t

Buss w [ sic ] vmnty (n ntusy) sg. mw,

Jn Btn n Dv Angtn vpng c tcs.” A tt 106 cunts w tts ts t tc III n t 2012.

Lw fny cugt up wt npm n t cunty ts bt, t

t g sxty-sx.

O t? At n nt p snc, pps sut t ck

nws cvg, t Eu pn Unn by cg wt vsng

CCW ssus s cncns n Dcmb but t U.. “svtn

n unstnng” ttc t tc III. Un t 1969 VnnCnvntn n t Lw Tts, ntns m t v ccpt

svtns ty nt bjct t tm wtn twv mnts. T UN

psty’s ntfctn Amc’s svtn ws t Fbuy 5,

2009. At “wwn cspnnc,” ccng t n Eu-

pn pmt, svntn stts, ncung Fnc, Gmny, pn, n

t Unt Kngm, f bjctns t Amc’s unt ctn

btwn Fbuy 1 n 5, 2010.

Cmpnts sst ng g n pmtc pncps. Fnc

bsv tt bcus t svtn, “spt t ssuncs gvn

by t Unt tts Amc, t cnnt gunt t ptctn

cvns, wc s t raison d’être t tc.” Gmny bjct

t t unstnng tt “wu v t csn wt nt

t spctv nms t tc su b pp t t sctn

mty cmmn.” Btn ny “t cns t U..

pstn s nt cunt t t bjct n pups t tty t cub ntpt nwy nug.”

Nntss, t Eupn ntns, wt t xcptn Dn-

mk, w tc III t cm nt ct btwn tmsvs n

t Unt tts, subjct t t bjctns. Dnmk’s mbss



222 P a r i a h

cmmnt ny tt cunty, spt ts cmpnts, “s nt x-

pss ny ntntn pcung t nty nt c tc III.”

Tus, ntntn w s btb. m stts sst tt Amc

s bun by t tms tc III s wttn, wtv ts unqu n-

tn cvts. Ots mntn tt t U.. ntpttn t tty

w b pt m by v tm, n t “tt us ncn-

y wpns n cvn s s nt cmpty bn nym.”

Jugmnt mns usv.

In t cut ww pubc pnn, wv, vct pps

t v bn n: npm vts t spt cntmpy cv-ztn. Amc’s mty spkspp tsty t ts ty wt t

punctus psng “npm” m “fbmbs.” Amcn gsts,

spt gstus ccptnc, v nt yt uy cknwg t

t tt t spt gb w.



INFAMY

Abut 23 mn puns Vtnm W- npm bmbs cv sxty-svncs t Fbk Nv Wpns ttn, btwn Ls Angs n n Dg,

n 1998. Bettmann/Corbis



U.. Nvy npm n xpsvs ct gnt fb v t gun

gt New Carissa n Cs By, Ogn, n Fbuy 11, 1999.

Brandon Brewer/U.S. Coast Guard Digital

“Abu Gb ’Nm,” 2004 ctn n The Scranton Times cmps Iq

psns mstt by U.. cs t Abu Gb psn n Iq t t 1972

Terror o War npm vctms. Dennis Draughton





“Cn’t Bt t Fn’,” 2004. cn nt. Banksy



223

Npm ws cncv n tut, t mtt Amc’s st un-vsty, n bn n Bstn, t c bty. Its ntnty s

Amcn. Atug t s ugt un mny gs n mst t w’s

mj mty cncts snc ts nvntn, t s bun m pp,

css m t t’s suc n v ng p tm, n

t nm t Unt tts tn n tt ny t ntn.

“W s b s ctty upn . T s pp uppn

us,” Jn Wntp, nt mus Bstnn, pps n 1630.

s pctn, vucs by vnts, s bn spcy vnt

npm: pnt, tn ptgps, n fny mtn pctus v c-

umnt t ncny’s wkngs n v gt t. Inty, ts

wk t t g’s vntg. Amcns ppu nt-pg sts

n t ncntn Tky n t fbmbng t Jpns

cts—tug Ft Mn n Ltt By mg s t mst mus

wpns t w. Dung t Kn W, t New York Times n

t nwspps pnt uns tcs tt mntn npm.Gvnmnts n Gc, Cub, Is, u, Bv, n mny t

cunts, tn m by t Unt tts, bmb t ppnnts

wt npm t vsttng ct y n t C W. Ctcsm, t

ccu t , ws tng.

Epilogue

T W W Is Wtcng



224 Epilogue

Vtnm cng ts pgm. F t fst tm, npm’s fc

cts n cvns, spcy cn, cv sustn ttntn n

t Unt tts. A gssts ptst mvmnt gnst t ncny

n ts mnuctu Dw Cmc Cptn bgn n ntn

Cn n 1965. It sp css t cunty n t t 1960s, n

nk busnss, wpn, w, n cunty s ctvy, n cv

suc w pubcty, tt npm cm t symbz mny tt

ws bjctnb but Amcn nvvmnt n Vtnm. In 1972, s

bc m U.. cs, “T T W” ptgp nn-

y- Km úc, bun nk s s n t scp fgtng, bcmn cn. Dt n 1975 tk npm’s puttn, n muc Amc’s,

wt t. Mvs, sngs, twks, pms, bks, n tcs puc

ung n spcy t t Vtnm W ppuz t ntw

mvmnt’s gumnt, n m npm ww synnym

Amcn butty.

Intntn w gbz n cf ts nw ntpty. Dp-

mts n ttnys, w sw tt ntst n npm t fst -cs ts xstnc, cnvn cnncs n t us t mt ts

pymnt sttng n t t 1960s. In 1980, Unt Ntns gts

pt mny t ppss wn ty ppv tc III

t Cnvntn n Ctn Cnvntn Wpns. Incny ttcks

gnst “cncnttns cvns” bcm w cms. Mst Am-

c’s s n gtst vss, t wy smt by vpmnt

tnt mty tcngs, ns t cmpct n tvy

st .

Amc us t ccpt t w’s jugmnt. snts Rn

Rgn n Gg . W. Bus nt vn submt tc III t t

nt scussn. Ov tm, wv, vnts cng t ccuus

ntn vntg. Cmmns n c cm t ppct t bn-

fts wkng wtn gb cnsnsus. snt B Cntn n s

succss Gg W. Bus cng cus, n ug tfctn. In

2008, n t c mutt ncs ssmb t gut n-mns n cust muntns, n cncn tt ntntn w t mn-

g cnvntn wpns ws sppng ut UN cnt, snts t-

f t ptc. snt Bck Obm sgn t n 2009. A pmtc

svtn ttc by t psnt, wv, sst tt t Unt



Epilogue 225

tts cu sg t tty t ts sctn ng s wu sv

cvn vs. Ts pvsn, qustnb g vty (tug n

ubt v nug n pctc), suggsts nstg untsm.

In 1945 w “scc n b n bk t t m pp n

Tky n tt ngt Mc 9–10 tn wnt up n vp t sm

n Ngsk cmbn,” U.. gn Cuts LMy, w ct

t ttcks, wt t t w. In 2012, wv, s B cpt

bsv n pmtn ttu ts npm-cpb Cb gun-

sp, “t numb n cng cng m cs n ty’s btt-

fs s t qumnt t pstvy nty n m n tnb b t ttck st tgts wt pcsn muntns s s t uc

mnt ct mg t cvn psnn n ppty.”

Npm’s ms mn ts c. In 1945, t ws n Amcn tt

p wn t fgt gnst scsm. In 1950, t t n gnst cm-

munsm n K. It sv wt stnctn mst, , t Vtnm

W. Ty t s w cmn n pbtn, ts us gnst cncnt-

tns cvns bnn by ntntn cvnnt n ts pymntgnst nyn s tgty stct by t w pubc pnn.

F’s svgy s wpn s nt cng snc W W II,

vn snc t tm cus. ycbn-bs ncns,

tug t tntvs, pvn, cst-ctv mty su-

tns. Wt s cng n npm’s tm s Amc’s t n Vt-

nm, n t s gb scty. Incny g s symb t

m: stgmtz t t pnt mnststy, n unmntnb

s. Its bgpy s sng xmp t utty t tt.

Bn t b tms npm’s sty pgnnt psn st-

s. Npm’s t, Lus Fs, sw s pubc mg mg s

pnn tun gnst s ctn. “W tugt yu w gt guy,

n nw yu’ bum,” s summz s 1967 cspnnc. s

cspnnts vsmpf. Tcng n sc, nt npm, wsFs’s sgn gcy. s txtbks, ut wt s w, xpn

cmsty t gntns cts n scs. Ltts ps

m pups f s cv. s bty puc mj scvs

tt umn t b n t W W II. T t n,



Fs sst tt nvsn tt npm wu b us gnst

tngs, nt “bbs n Busts.” kn s nvvmnt t t

gun mnuctu, n n cupbty unntcpt

uss s ctn.

Km úc, n, g n pncp. “T us cms m t

pp w usng t,” s s npm: “A kn cn b us

g, n t ns t pp w usng t. I yu usng tt t

sty pp, t s s wng. tb, s v.” Fs’s sttmnts

pncp, wv, t squ wt s psn ptcptn n

1942 fbmb tsts n Inn m uss n Ut pcs Gmnn Jpns ms, n tug unstnng Amc’s p-

tn qumnts ncny wpns. “It s cut t mgn

wt ppns wn 42 bs. bunng g s pst v t ns

stuy wn bn: ms bustng ut t wnws, bstng

pn t , bcng t t t vs n tn tug t . In

mtt mnuts wt mn t stuctu cps nt bun-

ng p,” wt s xpncs t t Jsn vng Gun.In pncp, ts my b tu. In pctc, ss Fs knw xcty

wt npm , n w t mgt b us.

Rbt McNm, U.. scty ns m 1961 t 1968 n

tp utnnt t LMy n W W II, ws m ct. “It ws w

cm,” s t Mc 9, 1945, npm ttck n Tky. “A t nc

ws n t vg wpng,” wt ntvw Jms C.

At t t n npm’s c, stn Buc Cumngs nt-

vw Kn k Jng D n yngyng n 1989. A ct t m

npm mst ty ys cugt k, n but twnty t

mmbs Nt Kn bg p cw. ws t s suv-

v. Buns t m n c, just sc sttc tgt by zns

ptns, n g y, n mg ps tt su s ws. A

sunkn cw wt bnt fngs us t sc tssu sv n.

c ms wt “ cuusy pu st ptnss n um-

ty,” Cumngs wt. k tstf, “Evyby s s yut wc spcus n mptnt. . . . My yut s gn wt tty-sx p-

tns. I t ugt n ps t utu. I tw ns

wt wc I cu py t ccn. A ts t bmb tk wy

m m.” cncu, “I nt tnk t su b ny m vc-

226 Epilogue



Epilogue 227

tms k m n ts w. Nv gn. Nv n ts w vctm k

m.” Tms Tvsn ncu ts sttmnt t t n ts pgm

wn t bcst t ntvw. Bstn pubc tvsn sttn WGB

t t ut, wtut xpntn, wn t sw t cumnty.

Km úc— nm mns “Gn ppnss”—bcm npm’s

bst knwn vctm. ct m Vtnm t Cn wt us-

bn n 1992, stt n Tnt, n tw sns. T Unt Ntns

Euctn, cntfc n Cutu Ogn ztn c “vngsymb t sung nncnt w vctms” n nm G-

w Ambss n 1994. mngs t Km Funtn Intn-

tn t c vctms w. In 2011 ntvw, s s t ny

wy w vctms npm s tug gvnss.

bgn wt nncnc: “As tt g, yu tnk I sv

tt? I ws nn. I knw ntng but w. I knw ntng but pn.

But tn suny tt bmb pp.” Tn, s spk pn: “Evnnw, spkng wt yu, I st v t pn, n my bck. I gt y p

buns, ty bun t t bn. My cngs vy y, wnv

t wt cngs.” t w: “I y t my , n I t

vyn w cus my sung. Evn t pp w w nm, I

t tm. I ws nvus tm. Espcy t gs. I t tt I ws

n ugy g. I nv tugt tt I wu gt m, v byn,

c. Tt s m mptnt tn tt I wt scs n my

by.” njuy ws pun: “T cts n nuss mn my

skn, but ns nt npm bun wtn m. Mctn cu

nt p. Dcts cu nt p. N n cu p m my t

m t, m ng.” qustn: “A tt sung m t

t pnt tt I wnt t . But I cun’t . But t ws s t

v wt tt sp. Dp wn, I ws skng t pups my

: wy I n’t , n wy I v t su. Wy m I v k tt,

wt t n ng n bttnss.”Lv ws ny sutn: “Tn I un n t Bb tt t s

‘v ty nmy.’ Fny, I tun my bck t py my nms w

cus my sung. T m I py my nms, t st my

t bcm.” gn t stngt t gv: “I cus tm t



t. But nw I m nt ng tt ny m. I py tm. A t -

t s gn. I just v. I cunt my bssngs. I gv ts w cus

my sung. Wn I n tt ssn but gvnss, my t

ws st. I t k I ws . It ws k vn n t m.”

Ty s cnss s bss: “O cus, t pn cms bck

vy tn. But n my t, I t n m scs n my t. N

m t. I s gt. I gt t nsw, wy tt tt g, nn ys

, s st v. I m s gtu G s t m b v. G s t m

n. Nw I cunt vy sng mnut n my t b bssng. Ft

n gvnss muc m pwu tn npm cu v b.”

228 Epilogue



Nts

Acknwgmnts

Inx





231

Nts

Vst NpmBgpy.cm nts wt nks, vs, sct suc mts,

n vsns. Dggs † nct tn nts nn.

gu

1. Dns Cng, The Girl in the Picture: The Story o Kim Phuc, the Photograph, and

the Vietnam War (ngun Bks, 1999), 53–59.

2. Tunns: Cng, The Girl in the Picture, 52. mk sgns: b., 59–60. Runns:

b., 60.

3. Cng, The Girl in the Picture, 61–64. Fx Buttf, “ut VtnmsDp Npm n Own Tps,” New York Times, Jun 9, 1972.

4. Fms: n Ti Km úc, cnvstn wt t ut, Mc 17, 2012. “T t”:

Cng, The Girl in the Picture, 65–67. “ctu w: Vtnm Npm Attck,”

My 9, 2005, ttp://nws.bbc.c.uk/2//s-pcfc/4517597.stm (ccss 10/7/2012).

5. Ut: Cng, The Girl in the Picture, 63–65. Buns: b., 90. Cu C: b., 71. Dn:

b., 65–66. Jun 9: b., 76. “T T W” s wn W ss t

t Y 1972. Icn: Rbt mn n Jn Lus Lucts, “ubc Intty n

Cctv Mmy n U.. Icnc tgpy: T Img ‘Accnt N-

pm,’ ” Critical Studies in Media Communication 20, n. 1 (Mc 2003): 39. Anmn n Lucts, No Caption Needed: Iconic Photographs, Public Culture, and

Liberal Democracy (Unvsty Ccg, 2007), 171–207. cs un t

w cmmmt t pt’s tt nnvsy. Rb Gs, “Wmn n A

‘Npm t’ ns vs,” Assct ss, Jun 8, 2012, ttp://bgsty

.p.g/tc/wmn-p-npm-pt-ns--svs (ccss 10/7/2012). †



232 Notes to Pages 5–9

1. Wt: The Boston Globe, Juy 4, 1942, p. 16. Tnns: “Tst n wt Bmb nMks,” Lus D. Fs, The Scientic Method: A Personal Account o Unusual

Projects in War and in Peace (Rn ubsng Cp., 1964), p. 38, fg. 3.2: “Tst

n wt Bmb n Mks.” pt: v Unvsty Acvs, ps

Lus Fck Fs n My ts Fs (t Fs ps), UGF

20.3 Bx 4, “cpbk 1937–1960,” n.p. Fs, The Scientic Method, 36. An

Jms J. Bnng, “Intvw wt yt C. tt t Msscustts Insttut

Tcngy. 18 Nvmb n 2 Dcmb 1985.” O sty Tnscpt #0025.

2010. Cmc tg Funtn, p. 34. †

2. Appnc: Fs, The Scientic Method, 126, fg. 13.4; 202, fg. 20.1. Assstnts:Lus Fs t mu D. Rbbns, Mc 14, 1966, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3

Bx 1, F: “Mscnus Cspnnc, 1949–1966.” Bmb: Fs, The

Scientic Method, 36, 40.

3. Fs, The Scientic Method, 40.

4. Btts: The Boston Globe, Juy 4, 1942, p. 1. ug: b., p. 1. Rcs: b., p. 11.

btus: b., p. 7. L’ Abn: b., p. 8.

5. The Boston Globe, Juy 4, 1942, pp. 1, 9.

6. m: quts, Dptmnt t Amy, “Cmc Rnc nbk.”

Field Manual FM 3-8 . Jnuy 6, 1967. Dptmnt t Amy, p. 17. Fs,

The Scientic Method, 40.

1. v’s Gnus

1. Ntn Dns Rsc Cmmtt (NDRC), “ttus Cntct Funs,” Re-

port o the National Deense Research Committee 6/27/40-6/28/42 [t Report ],

Jun 30, 1941. Fnkn D. Rsvt snt Lby n Musum Fs

[t FDR Lby], Bx 2, F: “Bus, Vnnv.” Avb t ttp://www

.by.mst.u/ps/bx2/13u01.tm (ccss Octb 7, 2012). †

2. “Vnnv Bus: Gn yscs,” Time, Ap 3, 1944, ttp://ww w.tm.cm

/tm/cvs/0,16641,19440403,00.tm (ccss Octb 7, 2012). OEM D-

ns, “D. Vnnv Bus, -Lngt tt, t t Dsk.” LC Cnt

#2005691441, n.. (1940–1942?). Avb t ttp://www.c.gv/pctus/tm

/2005691441/ (ccss Octb 7, 2012). Bgpy: Vnnv Bus, Pieces o the

Action (Wm Mw n Cmpny, Inc., 1970). Yut: b., 74. Gn Ec-

tc: b., 243. Tcng: b., 244–245. Jms G. sbg, James B. Conant:

Harvard to Hiroshima and the Making o the Nuclear Age (Knp, 1993), 127. W

W I: G. sc Zcy, Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer o the Ameri-

can Century (T F ss, 1997), 11– 34. †

3. Bus, Pieces o the Action, 33– 34. Jms Bynt Cnnt, My Several Lives: Memoirs o

a Social Inventor (p & Rw, 1970), 234. Bus, Pieces o the Action, 34. †

4. Bgpy: Jun pkns, Harry Hopkins: Sudden Hero, Brash Reormer (t. M-

tn’s ss, 1999), 14, 12–13. Gnn Cg, “Mssn ttmnt,” Fbuy 2002,



Notes to Pages 9–11 233

ttp://www.gnn.u/butn/sty/sngbk/sptgnn/ (ccss

Octb 7, 2012). Lws C. Cbb, “pt Gnn,” 1916, ttp://www.gnn

.u/butn/sty/sngbk/sptgnn/ (ccss Octb 7, 2012). JnWsy: pkns, Harry Hopkins, 12. B C W: b. , 110. Tubcu-

ss Assctn: ny . Ams, Harry Hopkins, A Biography: The Lie Story o

the Man behind FDR, the New Deal and the Allied Strategy in World War II (ut-

nm, 1977), 38. R Css: pkns, Harry Hopkins, 130. Amcn Assctn

c Wks: pkns, Harry Hopkins, 138. R: Gg McJmsy, Harry

Hopkins: Ally o the Poor and Deender o Democracy (v Unvsty ss,

1987), 46, 79. Cmmc: Ams, Harry Hopkins, 145, 151. †

5. Lngug: Bus, Pieces o the Action, 35. Invnts: “Cn n Dns Invntns,”

pc t t New York Times, August 7, 1940. Bus, Pieces o the Action, 36.OK: b. Ams, Harry Hopkins, 165–166. †

6. Rmt: Lus Jnsn, Lws Cmptn, L. Icks, . A. Wc, y

L. pkns, n Fncs V. kns (Appv: Fnkn D. Rsvt), “O Es-

tbsng t Ntn Dns Rsc Cmmtt,” Jun 27, 1940. FDR Lby,

Fs, Bx 2, F: “Bus, Vnnv.” Avb t ttp://www.by.mst

.u/ps/bx2/13v01.tm (Accss Octb 7, 2012). Jms nny Bxt

III, Scientists against Time: Of cial History o the Of ce o Scientic Research and

Development (Ltt, Bwn n Cmpny, 1946), 451. Cunc Ntn Dns

50 U..C. 1, “Ctn, ups, n Cmpstn Cunc,” August 29, 1916. Av-

b t ttp://csw.p.fnw.cm/csc/uscs/50/cpts/1/sctns/sctn

_1.tm (ccss Octb 7, 2012). Rsvt: Bus, Pieces o the Action, 36. †

7. Bus, Pieces o the Action, 31– 32. †

8. Excutvs: Cnnt, My Several Lives, 234. Cnnt: Rc Rs, The Making

o the Atomic Bomb (mn & cust, 1986), 387 n. 3. NDRC, “Fm Ognz-

tn: Cmmtt Mmbs,” Report , Jun 28, 1942. FDR Lby, Fs, Bx 2,

F: “Bus, Vnnv.” Avb t ttp://www.by.mst.u/ps /bx2

/13g01.tm (ccss Octb 7, 2012). Cng Insttut Tcngy: Cn-

g Mn Engnng, Cng Insttut Tcngy, “CIT: M Tn 100

Ys n t Mkng,” 2012, ttp://www.ct.cmu.u/but_ct/sty.tm (ccss

Octb 7, 2012). Ex of cio n ppnt pstns: Lus Jnsn t ., “O Es-

tbsng t Ntn Dns Rsc Cmmtt,” Jun 27, 1940. FDR Lby,

Fs, Bx 2, F: “Bus, Vnnv.” Avb t ttp://www.by.mst

.u/ps/bx2/13v01.tm (ccss Octb 7, 2012). Cnnt’s spnsbts:

W. A. Nys, “T Ognztn t Ntn Dns Rsc Cmmtt:

Gn n,” n R. Cnn, D. Cuc J., R. . Ew, C. msc, W. R.

Kn, G. B. Kstkwsky, W. C. Ltp, W. A. Nys J., n E. . tvnsn,

Chemistry: A History o the Chemistry Components o the National Deense Research

Committee, 1940– 1946, . W. A. Nys (Ltt, Bwn n Cmpny, 1948), 4.

9. Cntctng: Bus, Pieces o the Action, 38– 39. Rvutn: Cnnt, My Several

Lives, 236.

10. N ctfctn: Nys, “T Ognz tn,” 10. Tss: b., 8. Bugts: Jms By-

nt Cnnt n Rg Ams, “Fw,” n Cnn t ., Chemistry: A History, x.



11. NDRC, “Cntcts 6/28/41,” Report, Jun 28, 1941. FDR Lby, Fs, Bx

2, F: “Bus, Vnnv.” Avb t ttp://www.by.mst.u/ps/bx2

/13t01.tm (ccss Octb 7, 2012). NDRC, “ttus Cntct Funs.” b.12. Gs: Cnnt, My Several Lives, 52. D: b., 23. Du cncnttns: b., 59.

F: b., 45–46, 242. Cvn csuts: b., 49–50. F ctcsm Cnnt’s

ccptnc c sggtn n ntcgt ttcs t t U.. Nv Ac-

my s Rg Ang, “Lgcs: Css Rpt,” New Yorker, Nvmb 17, 2008,

ttp://www.nwyk.cm/tk/2008/11/17/081117t_t k_ ng (ccss Oct-

b 7, 2012).

13. Ams: Nys, “T Ognztn,” 4. Cnnt, My Several Lives, 45–46, 242.

14. NDRC, Report , Jun 30, 1941. FDR Lby, Fs, Bx 2, F: “Bus, Vn-

nv.” Avb t ttp://www.by.mst.u/ps/bx2/1331.tm (ccssOctb 7, 2012).

15. Lus Fs, The Scientic Method: A Personal Account o Unusual Projects in War

and in Peace (Rn ubsng Cp., 1964), 9.

16. v Unvsty Inmtn ystms, “Bung Dcty,” n.., ttp://www

.us.v.u/v_cty/bgs/bg.pp (ccss Octb 7, 2012).

M pwu tn TNT: Fs, The Scientic Method, 10–11.

17. “Lus Fs Bby Bk,” v Unvsty Acvs, ps Lus Fck

Fs n My ts Fs (t Fs ps), UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F:

“Lus Fs—Bby Bk.” Ancsts: “Mty,” sn cspnnc Lus

Fs, My 13, 1977, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Fs Gn-

gy.” Mtt: Fs’s tnstn (ty: “wk cnqus ”). Lus F. Fs,

“Lus F. Fs (An Accunt Wttn Cg Ftnty Mgzn),” Ap 15,

1958, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Lus Fs—Autbgpc

Accunts.” Wms: Gvnmnt t Unt tts, “snn cuty Qus-

tnn: Empy’s Dctn,” Ap 8, 1942, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx

1, F: “Lus Fs—Bgpc Mt.” pts: “v tts— 34,”

Harvard Alumni Bulletin, n.., 161, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 4, “cp-

bk 1937–1960,” n.p. Unbtn tb tm: Lus Fs t mu D. Rbbns,

Mc 14, 1966, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Mscnus

Cspnnc, 1949–1966.” An Fs, “Lus F. Fs,” Ap 15, 1958, n Fs

ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Lus Fs—Autbgpc Accunts.”

st-cs: Jms B. Cnnt n Lus F. Fs, “F n Tt Engy Cngs n

t Ructn Qunns,” Journal o the American Chemical Society 44, n. 11

(Nvmb 1922): 2480–2493.

18. Lv: Lus Fs, “Autbgpc ktc Mmbs t Wms Css

1920,” 2, Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Lus Fs—Autbgpc

Accunts.” v: Gvnmnt t Unt tts, “snn cuty Qus-

tnn: Empy’s Dctn.” Ap 8, 1942, Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx

1, F: “Lus Fs—Bgpc Mt.” tcy m, “My Fs: A

Tnstn Fgu n t sty Wmn,” unpubs pp Cmsty

91, Fbuy 1982, Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “My Fs—

Bgpc n Ot ps,” 9. tcy m, “My Fs: A Tnstn




Fgu n t sty Wmn.” Journal o Chemical Education Volume 62 Num-

ber 3 (AC ubctns, 1985), 186. †

19. Ccngns: “D. Fs n Cnc,” Boston Herald, ptmb 7, 1941, n Fsps, UGF 20.3 Bx 4, “cpbk 1937–1960,” n.p. ss: Lus Fs t

mu D. Rbbns, Mc 14, 1966, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F:

“Mscnus Cspnnc, 1949–1966.” Vtmn K: The Nucleus, Dcmb

1955: Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 4, “cpbk 1937–1960,” n.p. Vtmn K:

Lus Fs, “T yntss Vtmn K,” Science 91, n. 2350 ( Jnuy 12, 1940):

31– 36. Wms: Lus Fs t mu D. Rbbns, Mc 14, 1966, n Fs

ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Msc nus Cspnnc, 1949–1966.”

Acmy: Gvnmnt t Unt tts, “snn cuty Qustnn,”

Ap 8, 1942, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Lus Fs—Bbgpc Mt.” tunts: Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F:

“Lus Fs—Autbgpc Accunts.” An Gts, “Lus Fck Fs,”

Ntn Rsc Cunc, Biographical Memoirs Volume 65 (Ntn Acms

ss, 1994), 169.


21. Ew R. Atknsn, “Emnu Bnjmn sbg,” The Nucleus Volume 70, Num-

ber 5 (Ntstn ctn t Amcn Cmc cty, 1992), 8, n Fs -

ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 4, “Unt cpbk.” Fs, The Scientic Method, 11.

22. Fs, The Scientic Method, 11–12. †

23. Ib., 12.

24. Ib. Lus F. Fs, “Fw: W jcts—Vums I–VI,” n.., n Fs

ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Lus Fs—Autbgpc Accunts.” †

25. Rbt B. Ww, “Rmks,” Lus Fck Fs, 1899–1977 Mm

vc gm, Octb 7, 1977, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F:

“Lus Fs—Bgpc Mts,” 2, 12. Fs, The Scientic Method, 13.

26. “Antn-Lunt Lvs,” Chemical Heritage Fondation, 2010. Avb t

ttp://www.cmtg.g/scv/cmsty-n-sty/tms/y-cmsty

-n-gss/vs.spx (ccss Octb 7, 2012).

27. Gg B. Fs, Incendiary Warare (McGw-, 1946), 14–15, 25. UN

Cnsutnt Expts n Npm n Ot Incny Wpns, Napalm and Other

Incendiary Weapons and All Aspects o Their Possible Use: Report o the Secretary-

General, Volume 14, Issue 12 (UN, 1973) 18–19: 59–62.

28. Gy Cuc, “T W Bt’s gu,” n The Canterbury Tales, Wt

W. kt, . (Cnn ss, 1800), 371– 374. Avb t ttp://www.gutnbg

.g/fs/22120/22120-/22120-.tm#w (ccss Octb 7, 2012). Incnt

cty un: Fs, Incendiary Warare, 2–11, 7. A Fc ROTC A Unvsty,

Fundamentals o Aerospace Weapons Systems (Gvnmnt ntng O c, My

1961), 133. UN Cnsutnt Expts, Napalm, 23–24: 79–80. †

29. msn: Bible: King James Version, Jugs 15:4–6. Avb t ttp://ttp://www.bb

gtwy.cm/pssg/?sc=Jugs+15%3A4-6&vsn=KJV (ccss Octb

7, 2012). Assy: Ann My, Greek Fire, Poison Arrows and Smoke Bombs:

Biological and Chemical Warare in the Ancient World (Ovk Duckwt,




2003), 208. un Tzu, Art o War, tns. Ln Gs (1910). Avb t ttp://suntzu

s.cm/tw.pp (ccss Octb 7, 2012). Tucys, History o the

Peloponnesian War, tns. Rc Cwy (1910). Avb t csscs.mt.u/Tucys/ppw.mb.txt (ccss Octb 7, 2012).

30. cus: su-Apus, The Library, tns J. G. Fz (1913). Avb t

ttp://www.t.cm/Txt/Apus2.tm (ccss Octb 7, 2012).

sus jct, “T L n Tms cus,” Perseus Project, n.., ttp://

www.psus.tuts.u/ks/b.tm (ccss Octb 7, 2012). Eups,

Medea, tns. E. . Cg (1910). Avb t ttp://csscs.mt.u/Eups

/m.p.txt (ccss Octb 7, 2012). My, Greek Fire, 228, 230. utc,

Lie o Alexander, tns. Bntt n (1914), 35, 46–120. Avb t ttp://

pnp.uccg.u/Ty/E/Rmn/Txts/utc/Lvs/Axn*/5.tm (ccss Octb 7, 2012). My, Greek Fire, 232. †

31. ny t E, “O Mt,” n The Natural History, tns. Jn Bstck (1855),

bk. 2, c. 108, 77–79. Avb t ttp://psus.tuts.u/pp/txt?c?=sus:

txt:1999.02.0137 (ccss Octb 7, 2012).

32. J. R. tngtn, A History o Greek Fire and Gunpowder ( Jns pkns Unvsty

ss, 1999 [1960]), 21, 14. †

33. Ib., 13, 15–16, 18, 12.

34. As scb, Kmnn’s mu ys n n ncny. Omn: tngtn,

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54. O c: NDRC U.. ORD, “F W,” 8. tvnsn, “Incny Bmbs,”

388. Objctv: Bxt, Scientists against Time, 290. †

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and in Peace (Rn ubsng Cp., 1964), 16. F cs st t cn-

tct s OEMs-179 m Dcmb 1941. Ntn Dns Rsc Cmmtt

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8. Ib., 24.

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Nys J., n E. . tvnsn, Chemistry: A History o the Chemistry Components o




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10. Fs, The Scientic Method, 25.11. tvnsn, “Incny Bmbs,” 389. Fs, The Scientic Method, 26.

12. Fs, The Scientic Method, 25–26. Lus Fs, “Accptnc Ass: T

cntfc Mt,” Wm . Ncs M Mtng, Mc 15, 1963, n v

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13. Fs, “Accptnc Ass,” 31. Fs, The Scientic Method, 26.


15. Ib., 15, 28.

16. Ib., 28.17. Ib., 29. tvnsn, “Incny Bmbs,” 389.

18. Fs, The Scientic Method, 29. T Oxord En glish Dictionary (Ox Unv-

sty ss, 1989) fns “npm” s “1. . A tcknng gnt cnsstng ssnty

umnum sts nptnc cs n t tty cs ccnut . b. A

txtpc g cnsstng pt n ts tcknng gnt ( sm sm gnt),

us n mtws n ncny bmbs; j pt,” n cts Fs.

19. NDRC U.. ORD, Summary Technical Report , 193.

20. “F R:” “Gp n R,” New Yorker, My 19, 1945, n Fs ps, UGF

20.3 Bx 4, “cpbk 1937–1960,” n.p. utn: Fs, The Scientic Method,

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21. Fs, The Scientic Method, 36. Fs, “Accptnc Ass,” 31– 32.


23. Ib.

24. Ib., 40–41. Fs, “Accptnc Ass,” 32.

25. Fs, The Scientic Method , 41–42.

26. zus: Fs, The Scientic Method, 49. “Fgt t t Fns”: b., 45. Obsv-

s: b., 50. Dsqufctns: Jms J. Bnng, “Intvw wt yt C. tt

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27. Fs, The Scientic Method, 50, 51–52. †

28. Dunt: tvnsn, “Incny Bmbs,” 392. Bxt, Scientists against Time,


29. Fgts: Vt Ty, “w W Fgt Jpn wt F: Nw Incny Bmbs

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Bwn n Cmpny, 1946), 291. Bks E. Kb n D Bs, The

Chemical Warare Ser vice: Chemicals in Combat. United States Army in World War

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38. M-1: Fs, The Scientic Method, 57. Cty ck: b., 91. NDRC U..ORD, Summary Technical Report, 46–48. †

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3. Ib., 25–26, 15.

4. Ib., 20, 25–26, 42. †

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Fs n My ts Fs (t Fs ps), UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F:

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8. Fs, The Scientic Method, 127. Cu, Bat Bomb, 105–106.

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224–225.10. Fzn: Dny, “Bstn Mn.” Rscu: Fs, The Scientic Method, 127.

Cu, Bat Bomb, 106–108.


12. Cu, Bat Bomb, 113–114. Fs, The Scientic Method, 127.

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14. Ib., 118.

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17. Intgnc: Bks E. Kb n D Bs, The Chemical Warare Ser vice:

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ments (Rn ubsng Cp., 1948), 183. “T M1/M1A1 Fmtw

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5. W W I: CCA, Chemical Warare Ser vice, 183. Fv ys: Ntn Dns

Rsc Cmmtt (NDRC) U.. O c cntfc Rsc n Dvpmnt

(ORD), Summary Technical Report o Division 11, National Deense Research

Committee, Vol. 3. (Cumb Unvsty ss, 1946), 97. Mun: CCA, Chemical




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7. Rng: Lus F. Fs, Gg C. s, E. B. sbg, My Mgn, F-

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v Unvsty Acvs, ps Lus Fck Fs n My ts

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t ., “Npm,” 773 n. 2. M1: Bxt, Scientists against Time, 295. †

8. “tn cmpnnts n w mstu”: L . Bpy, Wynm D. Ms, n

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ws gt tn N’s Rmn cngtn AD 64, wn tn utn ws

n muc sm cty bun. It ws s muc g tn ny t gtst

pctm ubn fs: Lnn 1666 (436 cs .68 squ ms, 13,200 bu-




ngs); Mscw 1812 (38,000 bungs); Ccg 1871 (21,188 bungs); n n

Fncsc 1906 (u squ ms, 21,188 bungs). Ct n Osn, “Ubn A

Attcks,” 617. Tctus, The Annals, 56-c.117: 15:40. Avb t ttp://pnp.uccg.u/Ty/E/Rmn/Txts/Tctus/Anns/15B*.tm (ccss Oct-

b 8, 2012).

20. yt, Inerno, 47.

21. An: LMy wt Knt, Mission with LeMay, 353. w: Rn c,

Wings o Judgment, 132. w, Design or Survival, 27. n, “A Fgttn

cust,” 84: “[]bby m psns st t vs by f t Tky n 6-

u p tn t ny tm n t sty mn,” cncu t Unt tts

ttgc Bmbng uvy. Bxt, Scientists against Time, 98. An Ct n

Osn, “Ubn A Attcks,” 617. LMy: Mc . y, The Rise o American Air Power: The Creation o Armageddon (Y Unvsty ss, 1989), 288.

Jms C, House o War: The Pentagon and the Disastrous Rise o American

Power (ugtn M n C., 2006), 96. An: LMy wt Knt, Mission with

LeMay, 353: “A stuy t Tky ttck Mc 10 n t knwg t ct

tt by Juy 1 yu w v ny tusn B-29s un yu cnt, s n t

cncusns wc mpssv vn t ns t bmbmnt ptns.

Un snby vb cntns yu su tn v t bty t sty

w nust cts su tt b qu,” An cst n Mc 21.

mn . Wk, Cataclysm: General Hap Arnold and the Deeat o Japan (Unv-

sty Nt Txs ss, 2010), 129.

22. 1,000 tns, Jpns gvnmnt: R, “RECORD AIR ATTACK.” Ftn squ

ms: Wn Mscw, “CITY’ EART GONE; Nt Bung Is Lt Intct n

15 qu Ms, ts w MILLION OMELE. LMy ys ups Is

Wn B-29’s tn W by On Dy,” New York Times, Mc 11, 1945.

23. Jpn : “TOKYO UT IN ANIC BY B-29 FIRE BOMB; Tss Cspn-

nt Ts M Exus—As ys g Wn Wpp Fms Tky Fgt-

n nt M nc by B-29 Bmb Rn n g Wn Mny unt Kn Am Ru-

ns Tnspttn Inqut Fcs Bckn by t Wns,” New York Times,

Mc 16, 1945. Rsnt s: Rbt Tumbu, “B-29’ TURN JAAN

INTO CAOTIC LAND; Dmstc Bcsts Rv Rugs n Mns,”

New York Times, Mc 23, 1945. Jpns n U.. csuts: Wn Mscw,

“51 qu Ms Bun Out n x B-29 Attcks n Tky; LMy Bcks Fgus

wt ts vc—1,000,000 Jpns A Bv t v s n Fs,”

New York Times, My 30, 1945.

24. Tn ys: Cvn n Ct, The Army Air Forces in World War II, Volume 5, 618.

Ngy: LMy wt Knt, Mission with LeMay 353. t. C McKwy, “A

Rpt wt t B-29s IV: p,” New Yorker, Jun 30, 1945.

25. Tty-n squ ms: Ct n Osn, “Ubn A Attcks,” 623. U..

ttgc Bmbng uvy, Summary Report (Pacic War), 17. cng cmcs:

LMy wt Knt, Mission with LeMay, 368– 369. Ct n Osn, “Ubn

A Attcks,” 614– 627 (sp. t st n pp. 624–625); n Jms L Ct n Jms

C. Osn, “T A-Out B-29 Attck,” n Cvn n Ct, The Army Air Forces in

World War II, Volume 5, 674–675, tb 1.




26. “Wnu”: c, Wings o Judgment, 138. Gtst mg: “JAAN’ 8-

DAY LO TO B-29’ A RECORD; Gn Nst ys Dmg Ws bby

Gtst Ev Inct n Lk vy Lss n uctn,” New York Times, Mc 24, 1945. Rus ct: LMy wt Knt, Mission with LeMay, 370.

Amc pp v 40,000 tns M-69 bmbs n Jpn, c wc wg

6.2 puns n cntn 2.6 puns npm, tt 80 mn puns

bmbs, 12.9 mn nvu ss, n 33.5 mn puns npm. Btwn

Jnuy 3 n Jun 19, 1945, npm-f AN-M-69 bmbs cmps 53 pcnt

bmbs pp n Jpns cts (AN-M47: 25.4%, AN-M50: 19.1%, AN-

M76 2.1%, M74 0.4%). Tck ps smk s v fbmb cts n m

ccucy wng bmbs msnm. Tts: NDRC U.. ORD, Summary

Technical Report, 1. Bmb bkwn: b., 90, tb 8. uppy sp: b., p. 91,p. 4. Accucy: b., 91–94. †

27. LMy: Ct n Osn, “Ubn A Attcks,” 626. Rn Rgn wt Rc

G. ub, Where’s the Rest o Me? (Du, n n c, 1965), 119. Atm

bmbs: U.. ttgc Bmbng uvy, Summary Report (Pacic War), 24.

Mc D. Gn, Five Days in August: How World War II Became a Nuclear War

(nctn Unvsty ss, 2007), 7: “t ssu mty justfctn [ nuc

wpns] s mt.”

28. Bunng ts: U.. ttgc Bmbng uvy, Summary Report (Pacic War),

20. xty-sx cts: Bxt, Scientists against Time, 99. Ct n Osn, “Ubn

A Attcks,” 643 (sx pmy cts ttck) n Ct n Osn, “T A-Out

B-29 Attck,” 674–675 (sxty scny cts ttck). Lts: U.. ttgc

Bmbng uvy, Summary Report (Pacic War), 21. Tky: LMy wt Knt,

Mission with LeMay, 355. †

29. Lsss: Fnk, Downall , 69. LMy wt Knt, Mission with LeMay, 367: “W

st xcty 0.9 pcnt ts w ptcpt n t Mc f ttcks,” L-

My wt. Ct n Osn put t tt st n svntn “mxmum-t ncn-

y ttcks” t 136, n vg 1.9 pcnt sts. Ct n Osn, “Ubn

A Attcks,” 644. Bg fn: Jms L Ct n Wsy Fnk Cvn, “Vcty,”

n Cvn n Ct, s. The Army Air Forces in World War II, Volume 5, 732–733.

w M-69s: Bxt, Scientists against Time, 294. †

30. uzuk: Ct n Cvn, “Vcty,” 756. U.. ttgc Bmbng uvy, Sum-

mary Report (Pacic War), 26. m v ctcz t pt’s cncusns.

ORD: Bxt, Scientists against Time, 98. bu Ing, The Pacic War 1931–

1945: A Critical Perspective on Japan’s Role in World War II, tns. Fnk Bwn

(ntn, 1978), 200. †

31. 80 mn puns: NDRC U.. ORD, Summary Technical Report, 193. “Bst

wpn”: “Fm Cns Bst Wpn Us n cfc,” Assct ss, p-

tmb 24, 1945, n v Unvsty Acvs, ps Lus Fck Fs

n My ts Fs, UGF 20.3 Bx 4. “cpbk 1937–1960,” n.p.

“Fm Vt Am: Cn Cs It cn Ony t Atmc Bmb,” New York

Times, ptmb 25, 1945. Bxt, Scientists against Time, 289. On Gmny

s Bn, . Fire and the Air War, 80: “[]t stus mg nct ncn-

s w 4.8 tms s ctv s g xpsv bmbs n snc s n




gnst t sm nust n mcnt ppts.” Csts tmc bmbs

psumby wu v cn sgnfcnty ty w mss-puc n W

W II. “T Csts t Mnttn jct,” Brookings, 2002, Avb t ttp://www.bkngs.u/but/pjcts/cv/nucwpns/mnttn (ccss Oc-

tb 8, 2012). †

1. Os nt cv: Isc K t ., “Fnngs Fct,” n U.S. Navy Court o In-

quiry to Inquire into the Circumstances o the Armed Attack on USS Lbty (AGTR- 5)

on 8 June 1967 (Dptmnt t Nvy, O c t C Nv Optns,

1968), 1, tms 7– 9. Avb t ttp://www.tbtyncnt.cm/cs/FnngsOFct.p (ccss Octb 8, 2012). -A i s mnt: W. L. McGng, Log o

Liberty AGTR- 5 (U.. Nvy, Jun 8, 1967). Avb t ttp://www.tbtync

nt.cm/cs/Lgs1-24.p (ccss Octb 8, 2012).

2. Intfctns: Is Dns Fcs (IDF) sty Dptmnt, Rsc n In-

stuctn Bnc, The Attack on the “Liberty” Incident, June 8, 1967 ( Jun 1982), 8,

20. Avb t ttp://www.tbtyncnt.cm/cs/s/IDF-sty-pt

-n.p (ccss Octb 8, 2012). Wm D. G n ny W. Mng-

tn, Attack on a Sigint Collector, the U.S.S. Lbty (Ntn cuty Agncy/

Cnt cuty vc, 1981), 40–41. Avb t ttp://www.tbtyncnt

.cm/cs/ns/NApt.p (ccss Octb 8, 2012).

3. ttcks: IDF sty Dptmnt, Rsc n Instuctn Bnc, The At-

tack on the “Liberty,” 21.

4. Autps: Jy A. Cst, The Liberty Incident: The 1967 Israeli Attack on the U.S.

Navy Spy Ship (Bssy’s Inc., 2002), ppnx 2. b., 48–49 gms.

An Jms ctt, The Attack on the Liberty: The Untold Story o Israel’s Deadly 1967

Assault on a U.S. Spy Ship (mn & cust, 2009), 215–216. IDF sty Dpt-

mnt, Rsc n Instuctn Bnc, The Attack on the “Liberty,” 13.

5. Jms M. Enns J., Assault on the Liberty: The True Story o the Israeli Attack on an

American Intelligence Ship (Rnm us, 1979), 67.

6. Ib., 68, 70. McGng scb “fy-k pcs npm yng un n-

s t pt us.” Buks: ctt, The Attack on the Liberty, 62.

7. K t ., “Fnngs Fct,” 5, tm 26. Ck C, “T Is Attck n

t U Liberty,” unpubs mmnum t W. W. Rstw, Juy 18, 1967, pp.

3–5. Avb t ttp://www.tbtyncnt .cm/c.tm (ccss Oct-

b 8, 2012).

8. Wm Bc, “Is, n E, Attcks U.. p: 10 Nvy Mn D, 100 ut n

Rs Nt n,” New York Times, Jun 9, 1967, p. 1. T , “Is Attcks

U.. Nvy p n E; 10 D,” Los Angeles Times, Jun 6, 1967, p. 1. Lus Dm-

bwsk, “Is Os t y Rptns t U..,” Chicago Tribune, Jun 11,

1967, p. 10. N n, “s Dscb Attck n Vss: Iss tuck

uny U.. Guns W Un,” New York Times, Jun 11, 1967, p. 27.

ctt, The Attack on the Liberty, 2–5. Apgy: Enns, Assault on the Liberty, 284–

288. Rm Rn, Israel Deense Force Inquiry Commission Report, Jun 16, 1967,




pp. 9–16. Avb t ttp://tbtyncnt.cm/cs/s/m-n-pt.

p (ccss Octb 8, 2012). s G n Mngtn, Attack on a Sigint

Collector, 63–64. †

6. Fm’s Func

1. Lus F. Fs, Gg C. s, E. B. sbg, My Mgn, Fck

C. Nv, n tns T. utnm, “Npm,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry

38, n. 8 (August 1946): 772–773. Fs ssgn s gts t t scty w:

“Lus D. Fs, ssgn t t Unt tts Amc s psnt by t

cty W. Incny Gs. Unt tts tnt O c N. 2,606,107. 5

August 1952.” Avb t ttp://ptmg1.uspt.gv/.pw?Dc=02606107&mu=ttp%3A%2F%2Fptt.uspt.gv%2Fntcg%2Fnp-s%3Fct1%3DTO2

%2526ct2%3DITOFF%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnttm%25252

FTO%25252Fsc-v.tm%2526%3D1%2526%3DG%2526%3D50%2526%3

DALL%25261%3D02606107%2526O%3DN%2F02606107%2526R%3DN%

2F02606107&gNum=&Rtyp=&ctnNum=&ky=NONE&Input=Vw

+fst+pg (ccss Octb 8, 2012).

2. Unt Ntns (UN) Cnsutnt Expts n Npm n Ot Incny

Wpns, Napalm and Other Incendiary Weapons and All Aspects o Their Possible

Use: Report o the Secretary-General, Volume 14, Issue 12 (UN, 1973), 51: 178. †

3. Gsw: Lwnc . Wttn, American Intervention in Greece, 1943– 1949 (C-

umb Unvsty ss, 1982), 243 n n. 49. w Jns, “A New Kind o

War”: America’s Global Strategy and the Truman Doctrine in Greece (Ox Un-

vsty ss, 1989), 290 n. 22. Futn bmbs: b., 293 n. 3. Optn Tc,

n suns: Wttn, American Intervention in Greece, 251. A. C. gwck,

“Gk Amy Opns Gmms Assut; Avnc t Abnn B Is M n

Nt n Dv n Lst Mn Rb Zn,” New York Times, August 26, 1949. Wn:

Wttn, American Intervention in Greece, 251. †

4. Nt Kn my: Jn y n Buc Cumngs, Korea: The Unknown War

(Vkng, 1988), 73. Wkn v: Cum McDn, Korea: The War beore Viet-

nam (T F ss, 1986), 30.

5. Twnty-u-us: E J. Twnsn, “Ty Dn’t Lk ‘ Bmbs,’ ” Armed

Forces Chemical Journal 4, n. 3 ( Jnuy 1951), n.p. Rbt Fnk Fut, The

United States Air Force in Korea, 1950– 1953 (Du, n n c, 1961), 29.

Twnsn, “Ty Dn’t Lk ‘ Bmbs,’ ” n.p.

6. Rc J. Jnsn, “Jts Dsty 60-100 Tnks, Ny R’s Fc,” Bos-

ton Herald- N.Y. Times Dispatch, Juy 9, 1950, v Unvsty Acvs, ps

Lus Fck Fs n My ts Fs (t Fs ps), UGF

20.3 Bx 4, “cp Bk: 1937–1960,” n.p. Fty-ys-squ: Ry E. Appmn,

South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu ( June– November 1950) (Gvnmnt nt-

ng O c, 1961), 379 n. 9. E. F. Bun, “It’s Nt Nw but Npm Is n A-

ups WONDER WEAON,” United States Army Combat Forces Journal (N-

vmb 1952): 25–26: “A by-tnk npm w sptt ng

ms v n s bg s tb f, n ny tnk cugt n t s ky t v




ts cw k, ts gsn bun n ts mmuntn xp.” An Dn

B, “Npm Bmbs n K” [n ntvw cnuct by t stc O c,

O c t C Cmc O c, n Mc 1, 1951], n Jn G. Wstv, Com-bat Support in Korea (Cmbt Fcs ss, 1955), 82. †

7. Npm Dy: Twnsn, “Ty Dn’t Lk ‘ Bmbs,’ ” n.p. Wt n,

Hell or High Water: MacArthur’s Landing at Inchon (Mcm n, 1968), 16. N. 1: C.

B. An, “Npm, t N. 1 Wpn n K,” New York Herald Tribune, Octb

15, 1950, p. 2, sct. 2–4. Tnk n nnc cs: Twnsn, “Ty Dn’t Lk

‘ Bmbs,’ ” n.p. “Ckng ”: Wt Kg, Mcm W. Cg, n Fnk A.

Mnsn, Battle Report: The War in Korea, Prepared rom Of cial Sources (Rnt

n Cmpny, 1952), 423. Kystn-Fnc, “Npm Bmbs n C 1951,”

GettyImages.com, Jnuy 20, 1951, Avb t ttp://www.gttymgs.cm/t/nws-pt/sm--ss-unng-sm-npm-bmbs-smw

-nws-pt/106498743 (ccss Octb 8, 2012). †

8. Tt’s npm: Rné Cutt, Korean Reporter (Wngt, 1952), 172. Fty ys:

Ry E. Appmn, East o Choisin: Entrapment and Breakout in Korea, 1950 (Txs

A & M Unvsty ss, 1987), 213. Nt vy cs stk ws succssu. A U..

cptn c tt n Dcmb 1950 ut Kn s w tk cv m

nby npm t “cm up ut t ng, tk t tng stps tw

m n cps n n t . n t t bst s t tv

wn t ng” (Appmn, East o Choisin, 210). Dsnt: Kg t .,

Battle Report, 258.

9. u Fmn: Ruy Tm, No Bugles, No Drums: An Oral History o the Korean

War ( Jn Wy & ns, 1994), 119, 121. cms: tny n, The Korean War:

No Victors, No Vanquished (Unvsty ss Kntucky, 1999), 80. Npm ws s

usu gnst ug-n psnn: “Wn t bmb ns, t bunng npm sps

ut n ps wn nt xs,” pt Egt Amy cmc c Dn

B (B, “Npm Bmbs n K,” 82). Fut ctg sm nsv suc-

csss: suppy pt ws 95 pcnt sty, fbmbs k ny 300 ss

wn pns sups spng bttn, n cmpny tps ttck t

supp ws s t v bn wp ut. Fut, The United States Air Force in Korea,

2n . (O c A Fc sty, 1983), 518. An . Wtng, China Crosses

the Yalu: The Decision to Enter the Korean War (tn Unvsty ss, 1960), 71

(qutng Cns mty cmmntts n tctc ctvnss npm). †

10. Immty sctt: D. M. Gngc, War in Korea, 1950– 1953 (s, 1990),

261. Tw pss: Twnsn, Ty Dn’t Lk ‘ Bmbs,’ ” n.p. sns n

n nstnc sst ty npm ny wn t ws pp cty n t

pstns n n m t s mnuv, but ts ppc s nt pp t v

bn t nm. Fut, The United States Air Force in Korea, 1st ., 331. “N-

pm Jy Bmbs v Bzng uccss n K,” All Hands, Ap 1951, p. 17: “I

yu w t sk Cmmunst tps n K wc wpns ty mst , t m-

jty wu sy npm.” Avb t ttp://www.nvy.m/m/ns/cbt

/195104.p (ccss Octb 8, 2012).

11. Tg tnks: . Gmn Wng, “Fm,” Armed Forces Chemical Journal 7, n. 1

( Juy 1953): 12. sycgc ct: Bun, “It’s Nt Nw,” 27.




12. u bmbng: New York Herald Tribune, ptmb 23, 1950. u m tnks:

Jy Rvn n Jck Cty, Hearts o Iron: The Epic Struggle o the 1st Marine

Division Flame Tank Platoon, Korean War 1950– 1953 (Tun ubsng, 2003), 10. ttp://www.mgns.n/Fmtn.tm (ccss Octb 8, 2012).

13. Bsmnts: Wng, “Fm,” 12. This Is Korea! Dct by Jn F (Unt tts

Nvy, Rpubc ctus, 1951). Avb t ttp://www.yutub.cm/wtc

?v=n3VDI2qk (ccss Octb 8, 2012). C cws ng npm by

tnk bmbs: 28'57". Cs suppt stks: 35'00", 39'00"–40'52", 45'00"–45'55").

y n Cumngs, Korea: The Unknown War, 166.

14. Onsv us mtws pv ngus n t tvy sttc w tt -

w. O nnty-svn systms us by n vsn n Octb n Nvmb

1951, “65 w st tug nmy ctn w bnn s t pt cuscp. x pts w k ,” t unt’s cmc c pt. Ts c-

cunt ws typc: “A but nstnty k n t pts. . . . T sc-

n pt mng t gt n st bust b t mcn munctn”

(Wt G. ms, United States Army in the Korean War, Volume 2: Truce Tent

and Fighting Front (Gvnmnt ntng O c, 1966), 387.

15. Fugsss: Wng, “Fm,” 12. png 1951: Bun, “It’s Nt Nw,” 25, 26. †

16. Fut, The United States Air Force in Korea, 1st ., 41.

17. I. F. tn, The Hidden History o the Korean War (Ltt, Bwn, 1989), 312.

Mvn Lumsn, Incendiary Weapons (MIT ss, 1975), 45. An Fut, The

United States Air Force in Korea, 1st ., 42.

18. yngyng pps: Fut, The United States Air Force in Korea, 1st ., 42, 194.

Vnnbug: McDn, Korea: The War beore Vietnam, 234.

19. Rbt F. Fut, “Tctc Empymnt ttgc A w n K,” Airpower

Journal (Wnt 1988). Avb t ttp://www.pw.u..m/cncs/pj

/pj88/wn88/ut.tm (ccss Octb 8, 2012).

20. tn, The Hidden History o the Korean War, 312. †

21. Dn Acsn, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (Ntn,

1969), 463. McDn, Korea: The War beore Vietnam, 234: “putn cn-

ts bn nmy ns w ssum t tps, n mvmnt n s

ws fn s mty. Ony my gups wt cn w t b sp.”

22. Autztn: Acsn, Present at the Creation, 464. nvju, ypng, Nt

Wst : Buc Cumngs: The Origins o the Korean War, Volume 2: The Roaring

o the Cataract 1947– 1950 (nctn Unvsty ss, 1990), 753: “550 tns n-

cny bmbs” n nvju. 85,000 bmbs: Twnsn, “Ty Dn’t Lk ‘

Bmbs,’ ” n.p. (tng nvju ttck t Jnuy 10). m cs n cng

n pcy ccu. “T cts Nt K gy nmmb n

wu mk ncny tgts. Dcks, suppy bss, ys, n

bgs, wv, gtmt tgts,” Bun wt n Nvmb 1952. Bun,

“It’s Nt Nw,” 28.

23. yngyng 1950–1951: Cumngs, The Origins o the Korean War, Volume 2, 753.

Bun k unc: Fut, The United States Air Force in Korea, 2n ., 278.

4,000 t: b., 518. u: “O c Rpts Dscbng t Dy’s Optns




n K; Rs Avnc ut u n Ttn U.N. Fnk,” New York

Times, Jnuy 6, 1951.

24. mt: Fut, The United States Air Force in Korea, 2n ., 516–517. 23,000 g-ns: ms, United States Army in the Korean War, Volume 2: 324– 325. Mc-

Dn, Korea: The War beore Vietnam, 234: “2,300 gns [ sic ].” †

25. Evy fgt: Twnsn, “Ty Dn’t Lk ‘ Bmbs,’ ” n.p. Nvy us -

qu pts t p npm bmbs b ty tun t cs. An,

“Npm, t N. 1 Wpn n K.” 21,000 gns: Fut, The United States

Air Force in Korea, 2n ., 371 (sstng 7.8 mn gns npm n fst y

w). B, stc $40, Kn cts: Wstv, Combat Support in Korea,

81. Jpn mnuctus: y G. umms J. “Npm,” Korean War Almanac

(Fcts n F, 1990), 196. An tpn Lyn Enctt n Ew gmn, TheUnited States and Biological Warare (Inn Unvsty ss, 1998), 117. 32,357

tns: Fut, The United States Air Force in Korea, 1st ., 645. †

26. Dugs McAtu, “Csuts n K.” Cmmtt n Am vcs n t

Cmmtt n Fgn Rtns, Unt tts nt, Military Situation in the

Far East: Hearings to Conduct an Inquiry Into the Military Situation in the Far East

and the Facts Surrounding the Relie o General o the Army Douglas MacArthur

rom his Assignments in that Area (Gvnmnt ntng O c, 1951), pt 1 (My 3,

1951), n.p. At st gtn cts: Buc Cumngs, The Korean War: A His-

tory (Mn Lby, 2010), 160. yngyng: Jn y, “T Nt Kn

Engm,” New Let Review 127 (My– Jun 1981): 29. y nts tt Nt K

s nt s tt csuty fgus, but n stmt bs n vt suc s-

sts 11.5 t 15 pcnt t pputn ws k: m tn n t UR ung

W W II. Cuts E. LMy wt McKny Knt, Mission with LeMay: My

Story (Duby & Cmpny, 1965), 382. Rc Rs, Dark Sun: The

Making o the Hydrogen Bomb (mn & cust, 1995), 443 (qutng LMy: “w

k —wt—twnty pcnt t pputn K s ct csuts

w, m stvtn n xpsu?”). O’Dnn: tn, The Hidden History o

the Korean War, 312.

27. Cutt, Korean Reporter, 174. Vmt: Kg t ., Battle Report, 111.

28. Dn Knx, The Korean War, an Oral History: Pusan to Chosin (cut Bc

Jvnvc, 1985). Tnyng Cv: C ng-un, “ut K ys U.. K

uns Cvns,” New York Times, August 3, 2008. But nt tt n 1952 U..

Amy c cmc c E. F. Bun sst, “It s untu tt npm ‘cn k

by suckng t xygn ut t .’ A mn cn v sm tm n cn-

tnng ss xygn tn s qu t bun gsn.” In nstncs w npm

nt k by bunng, “Dt, t sms, my cm m cmbntn t,

sck, t xygn, n pssby ums, but nt ncssy m ny n

tm n.” Bun, “It’s Nt Nw,” 26.

29. Gg Btt, “R ms n U.. Dscuss Gs, ng u Is

Up,” New York Times, Fbuy 9, 1951. tn, The Hidden History o the Korean

War, 258–259. Dn Acsn mn cnss stp ts kn “snstnz

ptng.” Cumngs, The Origins o the Korean War, Volume 2, 755. †




30. mnnty cvn: “M..’ AGAIN CORE NAALM BOMB UE; Bt

Lb n Cnsvtvs Rs Qustn Dps n Cvn As n K,”

pc t t New York Times, My 22, 1952. Ruts, “NAALM BOMB DE-NOUNCED; Acbsp Yk Ugs Us Wpn B Outw,” New York

Times, Ap 28, 1952, p. 2. Mtst n F Cuc ctn s s

bjct. McDn, Korea: The War beore Vietnam, 234. Mnstus: Austn

tvns, “U. . Cunts R Cgs Npm Is Us n Cvns; U.N. Lts

Wnng Nt Kns Bmbng U. . Cunts Rs n Npm Bmbs,” p-

c t t New York Times, August 19, 1952.

31. ntgn ns: tvns, “U. . Cunts R Cgs Npm Is Us n Cv-

ns.” Cuc: M. L. Dck , “T Fgn O c, Ang-Amcn Rtns,

n t Kn Tuc Ngttns, Juy 1951– Juy 1953,” n Jms Cttn n InNy, s., The Korean War in History (umnts ss Intntn, 1989),

108. Btn’s cs st justf “ mn vpmnt m-twng

wpns wc ng bn us n w.”

32. J. M. pgt, “Npm,” Journal o the Royal United Ser vices Institute or Deence

Studies 98, n. 589 (Fbuy 1953), 82, 83, 84. Btt mn, “J. M. pgt,”

Airminded: Airpower and British Society, 1908– 1941 (Mostly), n.. Avb t

ttp://mn.g/bgps/j-m-spgt (ccss Octb 8, 2012).

33. tpn R. m, The United States and the Philippines: A Study o Neocolonial-

ism (Insttut t tuy umn Issus, 1981), 82.

34. Vn: ug Tms, Cuba: The Pursuit o Freedom (p & Rw, 1971), 998.

Lumsn, Incendiary Weapons, 49. By gs: w Jns, The Bay o Pigs

(Ox Unvsty ss, 2008), 114–115. †

35. “ ‘Npm Bmbs’ n u Gus,” The Times, ptmb 20, 1965, p. 8. p-

c Fcs: Lumsn, Incendiary Weapons, 68.

36. “Bv Uss Npm n Fgt On Gu s n utst,” New York Times, Mc

28, 1967, p. 3. Assct ss, “Bvns ssng Dv n Gus,” New York

Times, Mc 30, 1967, p. 12. Guv: Dn R. vg, “T Fn Dys Juy

7–Octb 8, 1967,” n Che Guevara in Bolivia (pp psnt t smn,

Mn Cps Cmmn n t Cg, Ap 1, 1985). Avb t ttp://www

.gbscuty.g/mty/by/pt/1985/DR.tm (ccss Octb 8, 2012).

t Knbu, The Death o Che Guevara: Declassied. Ntn cuty

Acv Ectnc Bfng Bk N. 5. n.. Avb t ttp://www.gwu.u

/~nscv/NAEBB/NAEBB5/ (ccss Octb 8, 2012). †

37. 1956 Egypt: Dk Vb, The Suez Crisis 1956 (Ospy, 2003), 39 (wt Fnc),

49, ttp://bks.gg.cm/bks?=M3kg4s8C&pg=1&vq=npm&pg

=A49%23v=npg&q=npm& =s (ccss Octb 8, 2012). An Lums-

n, Incendiary Weapons. 63. 1964 y: Bg Gn Ez Wzmnn, cm-

mn t Is c: “T Is jts, c, us npm ( j

gsn) n ckts.” W. Gng B, “Is Jts Rk yns n Btt,” New

York Times, Nvmb 14, 1964, p. 1. 1967 y (x Dy W): Ec Btt, “D-

mn t tp y Btt: UN Rpts Us Npm,” The Times, Jun 10, 1967,

p. 1. Mc Ct, Warare and Armed Conicts, a Statistical Reerence to

Casualty and Other Figures, 1494– 2000, 3 . (McFn & C., 2008), 613:




“T Is Amy s . . . 4,000 puns bmbs npm.” An Cs

Bnny, “Egyptn Bun by Is Npm,” ttp://www.gttymgs

.cm /t /nws -pt /gypt n -s -bun -by -s -npm -ung -b-nws-pt/506745231969. Lbnn: Gy umn, “Is Rs Accus

Usng Npm,” The Times, Fbuy 26, 1969, p. 6. 1969 Egypt: Cnfm by

Is ns mnst Ms Dyn. Lumsn, Incendiary Weapons, 64. Assc-

t ss, “Is ns t, Dp Npm n Egypt,” Spartanburg Herald,

Fbuy 13, 1970, ttp://nws.gg.cm/nwspps?=mTssAAAAIBAJ&sj

=BswEAAAAIBAJ&pg= 3703,2159531 (ccss Octb 8, 2012). 1972 Lbnn:

“TERRORIM: An Nw, M--Dt,” Time, Octb 2, 1972: “[T] s

w st f m npm st ks.” 1973 y (Ym Kppu W): “T W

t Dy Jugmnt,” Time, Octb 22, 1973: “Fny, Is m unts,csy suppt by ntms n kywks wsng n t sptt npm n

t w yn unts, t t yn v n tun t Abs bck.” An

Gb Duv, “T By yn , Bun by Is Npm ,”

GettyImages.com, Octb 17, 1973. Avb t ttp://www.gttymgs.cm/t

/nws -pt /t -by - - -syn -s -bun -by -s -npm -s -nws

-pt/51425419 (ccss Octb 8, 2012). Tny umms, “Egypt’s Dputy

m Accuss t Unt tts uppyng Is wt Npm Us n

y,” BBC, Octb 14, 1973. Avb t ttp://www.tnsuc.cm/stst//

RTV/1973/10/16/BGY509030328/?s=npm (ccss Octb 8, 2012). Egypt:

Jn k, E. “Npm n W.” 2012: ttp://ww w.gbscuty.g/mty

/systms/muntns/npm-w.tm (ccss Octb 8, 2012). †

38. Cy . Fnswt, “64 ns n R; Gk Cypts ut Csuts t 300—

Wn Rps. Jts Cntnu Attcks n Cypus s Ncs Rpts Lnngs by

Tuks Tps. Bmbs Btt Gk stns. ns k t Bunt Dvs n

Tuks tng n Isn’s Ntwst,” pc t t New York Times, August

10, 1964. Znn Rsss: “Excpts m pcs n t U.N. cuty Cunc

Dbt n t Cypus Css,” New York Times, August 10, 1964. tn: Lumsn,

Incendiary Weapons, 65. Austns: “Austn tst t Npm Attck n U.N. C,”

The Times, August 16, 1974, p. 8, c. B. Lumsn, Incendiary Weapons, 65.

39. “Bmbs spécs”: L. M. Cssn, Aviation Indochine (Amt-Dumnt, 1954), 97.

Vt Mn: Bn F, Street without Joy (cckn, 1972 [1961]), 39. Tctcs:

Cssn, Aviation Indochine, 239. Amcn cs t w s vc, wt-

ut succss. Optn w Fst, n t Mc 1965, us mgnsum

bmbs t bun t jung. It ws u. Optn t Tp, n Jnuy 1966,

npm, sty 17.5 pcnt t st cnpy, n ws cns “n-

cugng,” but utmty nsu cnt, by U.. Dptmnt Agcutu xpts.

Optn w Fst n Optn t Tp: Gbcuty.g. “Optn

w Fst, Optn t Tp,” Dcmb 2, 2012, ttp://www.gbscuty

.g/mty/ps/sw-st.tm (ccss Octb 8, 2012). “Encugng”

suts m t Tp: Mutc t . “Optn nk Rs: Fn Rpt.” My 1967:

U.. Dptmnt Agcutu—Fst vc. 6. (nk Rs us mgnsum

bmbs). Avb t ttp://www..m/pubs//Intntn_scuty_s

/vtnm_n_sutst_sDcumnts/801.p. Mvn Lumsn, Napalm

Notes to Page 106 261





vw: ck mt, “T Unty gn; Cpt Cntnus t Gssp n

p un Nw Rgm s un t O,” New York Times, Dcmb 7, 1963.

3. Bun bby: “U.. Amts Us Npm,” The Times, Mc 30, 1964. NtVtnm: Unt tts Dptmnt Dns, The Pentagon Papers: The Deense

Department History o United States Decisionmaking on Vietnam, Volume 3. n-

t Gv tn (Bcn ss, 1971), 278. Avb t ttp://www.mtyk

.u/c/nt/pntgn3/pnt6.tm (ccss Octb 8, 2012). Ec -

ksc, The Technology o Killing: A Military and Politi cal History o Antipersonnel

Weapons (Z Bks, 1995), 119. An Jck Rymn, “U.. Fs Usng Npm n

Rs; A tks n Nt Vtnm A by F Bmbs,” New York Times, Mc

20, 1965.

4. T kns npm: Dptmnts t Amy n t A Fc, MilitaryChemistry and Chemical Agents, Technical Manual TM 3- 215, Air Force Manual 355-

7 , Dcmb 1963, 40–41. Equpmnt: Dptmnts t Amy n t A Fc,

Bombs and Bomb Components, Technical Manual TM 9- 1325- 200, Ap 1966,

2- 33–2-55. Avb t ttp://www.scb.cm/c/59235651/TM-9-1325-200-Bmbs

-n-Bmb-Cmpnnts-UA-1966 (ccss Octb 8, 2012). ymu

M. s, Chemical and Biological Warare: America’s Hidden Arsenal (T

Bbbs-M Cmpny, 1968), 64. spus gmnts cu sm x-

tn ps n t bs vctms. Fnk vy, “T A W n Vtnm,”

Flying, Nvmb 1966, p. 54. Mvn Lumsn, Napalm and Incendiary Weap-

ons: Legal and Humanitarian Aspects (tckm Intntn c Rsc

Insttut, 1972), 55. †

5. Tm Ws, The War Within: America’s Battle over Vietnam (Unvsty C -

n ss, 1994), 88.

6. ut Vtnms cs us unknwn tn quntts npm. M-

vn Lumsn, Incendiary Weapons (MIT ss, 1975), 50, tb 1.1., n Lumsn,

Napalm and Incendiary Weapons, 84, tb II.8. Ot sucs nt tts:

1,500 tns p mnt: “Npm—A Usu but Nt tty Wpn,” New York

Times, Dcmb 10, 1967 (gs wt Lumsn ng t 1965); 25,000 tns

p mnt: s, Chemical and Biological Warare, 64. TOR, t Tt s-

ty Optns Rpts, my pv m pcs t wn t bcms pub-

cy vb. Byn Bn, “Bmb tbs usu pst, psnt ws,”

Boston Globe, Juy 30, 2012. Bun t t: s “Npm—A Usu but Nt

tty Wpn.” †

7. w t s: vy, “T A W n Vtnm,” 43. “Npm—A Usu but

Nt tty Wpn.”

8. “T W: T Mssc Dk n,” Time, Dcmb 15, 1967.

9. Dptmnts t Amy n t A Fc, “Incny Bmbs” n “Fbmbs,”

n Technical Manual TM 9- 1325- 200, Ap 1966, pp. 2- 33 n 2-40 spctvy.

Dptmnt t Amy quts, “Cmbt Fm Optns,” n Army Field

Manual FM 20- 33, 1970, pp. 7-1, 7- 3, 7-5. quts, Dptmnt t

Amy, Flame Fuels: Technical Manual TM 3- 366, Jun 14, 1971, p. 3: “Fm u s

tck, jyk substnc wc ngs n cnsstncy m pub qu t




ubby, vy tck g. . . . [I]t s us n bt ptb n mcnz m-

tws s w s f bmbs n m f xpnts.” †

10. Bb k, “Cmcs n p ns,” n Mttw Bnnn, ., Hunter- Killer Squadron: Aero-Weapons, Aero-Scouts, Aero- Ries, Vietnam 1965– 1972 (s-

, 1990), 237. “C ” ty mns “O, my G!” Dptmnt t

Amy quts, “Cmbt Fm Optns,” 7-6. †

11. 1972: “T A W: T Is t Dsty,” Time, Ap 17, 1972. †

12. Gm Gn, The Quiet American (ngun, 2004 [1955]), 143. Rbt Gm

Dvs, “In Ou Tm N Mn s Nut; Gm Gn’s Cntvs Nw

Nv Ds wt Amc’s R n Incn,” New York Times, Mc 11, 1956.

Btn Russ, “Ltts t t Times: Vtnm cy tst Russ s

Ou Am Is t Bck Ecnmc Rm,” New York Times, Ap 8, 1963. “L Rus-s’s Ltt,” New York Times, Ap 8, 1963. †

13. Gu s ms: Assct ss, “U.. Cmbt Instucts Ln s Ty

Tc n ut Vtnm,” New York Times, Juy 8, 1962. Ggs ncn,

“Cs-up t Vtcng n T Jung; A Fnc Rpt Cptv by

Gus n ut Vtnm Rpts n Wt w t Vtcng—t

Mn, T M, T Mts,” New York Times, ptmb 13, 1964. Augus-

tn Nguyn Lc : Unt ss Intntn, “gn’s Tctcs c by

st; Fgt gnst Rs ys Cuty Csts puty,” New York Times, p-

tmb 1, 1964. N n, “Vtnm snts A Vctms W,” New York

Times, Fbuy 15, 1966.

14. Jck Lnggut, “A w ut t Tst n Vtnm,” New York Times, Mc 7, 1965.

15. Emy Rssky, “Rmk n Npm,” New York Times, Mc 16, 1965. us:

Cy . Fnswt, “W-Gs Dbt ts Cmmns; Wsn s Ctcsm—

Mny Ntns Aus,” New York Times, Mc 24, 1965. Jck Lnggut, “A

w Wns Vtnm Btt; Bgu Tps v by tks U.. ns,”

New York Times, My 15, 1965.

16. Cs M, “A tks t Vtcng—n ut Vtnm Cvns,” New York

Times, ptmb 5, 1965.

17. . Buc Fnkn, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies (Unvsty Mss-

custts ss, 2000), 75. Fnkn t bcm pss Engs n Am-

cn tus t Rutgs Unvsty. . Buc Fnkn. “Cucuum Vt

. Buc Fnkn.” N t: ttp://nm.utgs.u/~b /cv.tm (ccss

Octb 8, 2012). On “tugtu, cmmtt ctzns” s Insttut Intcu-

tu tus, “Wt Is t uc t ‘Nv ubt . . .’ Qut?” Avb t

ttp://www.ntcutustus.g/q.tm#qut (ccss Octb 8, 2012).

18. Wnt ptsts: ksc, The Technology o Killing, 127. Ec ksc,

“Mkng Npm cpbk,” Stanord Daily, My 26, 1966. ct tp: Fnkn,

Vietnam and Other Fantasies, 74–75.

19. Npm B: Fnkn, Vietnam and Other Fantasies, 74–75. Ogn npm -

mutns bun t 800–1,200°C (1,472–2,152°F). Lt mutns bun t

1,500–2,000°C (2,732– 3,632°F). Gbt Dyus, “Npm n Its Ects n

umn Bngs,” International War Crimes Tribunal— 1967, Dcmb 1, 1967,




ttp://www.vtnms-mcn.g/b1.tm (ccss Octb 8, 2012). Ms

smt, “T Npm Bmb,” International War Crimes Tribunal— 1967, D-

cmb 1, 1967. Avb t ttp://www.vtnms-mcn.g/b2.tm (c-css Octb 8, 2012). ystyn: “Npm-B t Us ug Amunt ysty-

n,” Chemical and Engineering News, Mc 14, 1966. Lt mutns us 20

pcnt bnzn, 43 pcnt pystyn, n 37 pcnt gsn. Gg W.

Musus, En J. B, Dnns R. y, n Jnt M. ugs, “Us upus

Npm s n Engy uc,” Energy Sources 22, n. 2 (2000): 147. Ogn A

Lgstcs Cnt, Unt tts A Fc, “Mty pcfctn MIL-N-38645:

NAALM B,” Dcmb 4, 1968. Avb t ttp://ngns.s.cm/cumnt

/bstct/TJXMDAAA AAAAAAAA (ccss Octb 8, 2012). 1965 puctn:

E. N. Bnt, Growth Company: Dow Chemical’s First Century (Mcgn ttUnvsty ss, 1997). Bs: b., 356. Mxng n: b., 352. (Bnt fns

ngty Dw c s ct pubc tns.) †

20. Fnkn. Vietnam and Other Fantasies, 74–76, 77.

21. Ib., 78.

22. Ib., 80.

23. UTC cntct: “Npm-B t Us ug Amunt ystyn.” ksc,

The Technology o Killing, 127. Fnkn, Vietnam and Other Fantasies, 82. Fcty:

Rnt ws $327 p mnt. Jms F. Cnn, “Npm: M n U..A., m-

twn Dy,” Ramparts 5 (August 1966), 47. †

24. Fnkn, Vietnam and Other Fantasies, 82.

25. Fnkn jct, junmnt: Fnkn, Vietnam and Other Fantasies, 83. Gn:

Lwnc E. Dvs, “Npm Fs ttn Vt t B Fcty n Cst Cty,”

New York Times, Ap 17, 1966. Fst ptst: Wc Tun, “cfsts Bk n

Npm Fgt: Jug Rjcts n Tt Wu ut Cst nt,” New York Times,

My 21, 1966. †

26. Dvs, “Npm Fs.” Nwstt: Rw Cty Cmmtt gnst Npm,

Napalm Newsletter, 1966 [ut’s cctn]. M t vts: Ec -

ksc, cspnnc wt ut, Ap 2, 2012.

27. Cnn: Dvs, “Npm Fs.” UTC: s, Chemical and Biological Warare,

258. “Dcsn Bngs t Ntn Lv,” Palo Alto Times, Ap 20, 1966. NBC,

CB: Fnkn, Vietnam and Other Fantasies, 84–85. Cnn, “Npm: M n

U..A.,” 48. Ec ksc (v. . Buc Fnkn), “sty t Rw

Cty Cmpgn gnst Npm,” 1967, unpubs mnuscpt.

28. Ecnmc bm, st v: Cnn, “Npm: M n U..A,” 47. “Cmt

Bst by Gvnmnt Tst”: ksc, The Technology o Killing , 128. †

29. 3,761: Fnkn, Vietnam and Other Fantasies, 85. 2,416: “Lt Vts Dc t

Npm Issu,” Redwood City Tribune, Ap 5, 1966. Dy Lmbk, “tsts

Fc Cty t Vt n Npm Fcty,” Los Angeles Times, Ap 17, 1966, p. 1-B.

Lwsut: Tun, “cfsts Bk n Npm Fgt.” In Nw Yk, nt-npm

ptsts pckt Wtc’s nnu mtng. Bnt, Growth Company, 353.

30. uctn: ksc, The Technology o Killing, 129–130. Tckvsky: b., 130.

Empty css, Mngn: Fnkn, Vietnam and Other Fantasies, 85. Ec




ksc, “Npm Asts,” Stanord Daily, My 17, 1966. An Ec ksc s

Emnu Gn, “Npm Fs Ast, Dcsn Expct,” Stanord Daily,

My 18, 1966.31. Tun, “cfsts Bk n Npm Fgt.” †

32. Ib. †

33. Dw: ksc, The Technology o Killing, 131. gns: Tm Wck, “Nw Lt n

Cst, Lk Rc Rgt, Dnuncs Lbsm,” New York Times, My 29, 1966.

Tm Wck, “In t Ntn; p n Tucks,” New York Times, My 23, 1989.

Tribune: Cnn, “Npm: M n U..A.,” 50. †

34. Dugs Rbnsn, “Dw Cmc O c ckt Its Mnuctu

Npm,” New York Times, My 29, 1966. Bnt, Growth Company, 253.

Tnc: Bnt, Growth Company, 354. †35. Bnt, Growth Company, 354. Dv Mnss , They Marched into Sunlight:

War and Peace Vietnam and America October 1967 (mn & cust, 2004) , 70.

36. The War at Home. Dct by Gnn b n By Axn Bwn (Ctyst

M, 1979), t 13′43″ .

37. Mm: Mnss, They Marched into Sunlight, 71. t: Bnt, Growth Company,

253. Wkf: Rbnsn, “Dw Cmc O c ckt.” Dn: bt D.

Dn, “Wy Ds Dw Cmc Mk Npm?” Wall Street Journal, Dcmb

8, 1967, p. 18. †

38. Knny: Wm F. pp, “T Cn Vtnm,” Ramparts 5, n. 7 ( Jnu-

y 1967), 58–59. psng: Bnt, Growth Company, 352. Rbt . McN-

m n Dn, “Wy Ds Dw Cmc Mk Npm?” p. 18. †

39. tsts subs: s, Chemical and Biological Warare, 261. Opnng y

sc: Ws, The War Within, 85 n. 53. But s F W. McD, “Bn p-

pnng n Gn Cnt,” GettyImages.com, Jnuy 8, 1967. Avb t ttp://

www.gttymgs.cm/t/nws-pt/vw--sgns-suspn-m-bns

-n-gn-cnt-nws-pt/103094001 (ccss Octb 8, 2012).

40. Cmmtt Rspnsbty Ttmnt n t Unt tts W-Bun

Vtnms Cn: pp, “T Cn Vtnm,” 87. Ws, The War

Within, 87. Tw ptnts: N n, “Gm gt Vtnms W: Cv-

n spt t Cnt,” New York Times, Jun 6, 1966. c mc: Nncy Zu-

s n G uvn, Who Spoke Up? American Protest against the War in Viet-

nam, 1963– 1975 (Duby & C., 1984), 91. †

8. ng Is Bvng

1. Ramparts ccut n: “Mgzns: A Bmb n Evy Issu,” Time, Jnuy 6, 1967.

Ladies Home Journal ccutn: Rbt E. Bng, “Cuts ubsng s 2

Mgzns; Dwn yng $5.4-Mn n tck,” New York Times, August 15, 1968.

Redbook ccutn: Ktn L. Ens n Ts L. Luck, s. Women’s Periodi-

cals in the United States: Consumer Magazines (Gnw ss, 1995), 303– 304.

2. pp ws s xcutv ct t Cmmssn n umn Rgts bs n

Nw Rc, Nw Yk. Wm F. pp, “T Cn Vtnm,” Ram-

parts 5, n. 7 ( Jnuy 1967), 46, 55, 58, 59, 60. †




3. Mt Gn, “u t Ltt Cn . . . ,” Ladies Home Journal, Jnuy

1967, p. 108. †

4. Ib., 108–109. Nncy Zus n G uvn, Who Spoke Up? American Protest against the War in Vietnam, 1963– 1975 (Duby & C., 1984), 108.

5. Gn, “u t Ltt Cn,” 108.

6. Bw ys: Rc E. y wt Rbt J. Lvn, “W t Inncnt

D,” Redbook, Jnuy 1967, p. 103. †

7. w A. Rusk, “Vtnm Tu I; Rpts Mny Cn Bun by Am-

cn Npm A Cng,” New York Times, Mc 12, 1967. w A.

Rusk, “Vtnm Tu II; Ects Amcn Mc Et n t vc n

Dss Assy,” New York Times, Mc 19, 1967. Dv Mnss , They Marched

into Sunlight: War and Peace Vietnam and America October 1967 (mn & cus-t, 2004) , 72–74. E. N. Bnt, Growth Company: Dow Chemical’s First Century

(Mcgn tt Unvsty ss, 1997), 357– 358. Mvn Lumsn, Napalm and

Incendiary Weapons: Legal and Humanitarian Aspects (tckm Intntn

c Rsc Insttut, 1972), 49, 49–52. †

8. Kng: Dv J. Gw, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the South-

ern Christian Leadership Conerence (Wm Mw, 1986), 543. McNm’s

c: Zus n uvn, Who Spoke Up?, 103.

9. Wscnsn: T fst ntw ptsts tk pc n m-Octb 1963, ccng t

u gn. The War at Home. Dct by Gnn b n By Axn

Bwn (Ctyst M, 1979), t 5’35”. sc: b., t 33’30”. B ut: M-

nss, They Marched into Sunlight, 235–235. Ov 1,000: b., 487. Zus n

uvn, Who Spoke Up?, 106. †

10. Daily Collegian: Knnt J. nmn, Campus Wars: The Peace Movement at

American State Universities in the Vietnam Era (Nw Yk Unvsty ss, 1993),

157. Nt wy: b., 180. V.C. cn: b n Bwn, The War at Home, t

33'30". †

11. Jck McGu, “Npm uny,” WIN Peace & Freedom thru Nonviolent Action

mgzn, Ap 7, 1967, p. 2. Ec ksc, The Technology o Killing: A Mili-

tary and Politi cal History o Antipersonnel Weapons (Z Bks, 1995), 131.

12. ptu t: Mtn Lut Kng, “Byn Vtnm—A Tm t Bk nc,”

Ap 4, 1967. Avb t ttp://www.mcntc.cm/spcs/mktmt

bksnc.tm (ccss Octb 13, 2012). “Lt Us v c”: Gnt Mnu-

mnt Assctn, “Gnt’s Tmb: An Ovvw. R Dsgn,” Grant’s Tomb,

ttp://www.gntstmb.g/v3.tm (ccss Octb 13, 2012). Dnunc:

N Cnn n Tvs my, “T ty Kng’s ‘Byn Vtnm’ pc,”

Talk o the Nation, Mc 30, 2010. Avb t ttp://www.np.g/tmpts

/sty/sty.pp?styI=125355148&t=1&=1045 (ccss Octb 13, 2012).

snt-ckng cty: “Ftuns Ckss,” WIN Peace & Freedom thru Non-violent Action mgzn, My 12, 1967, p. 13. ksc, The Technology o Kill-

ing, 132. †

13. Mk Tumn, “Dw Run Out Twn,” New Let Notes, My 1, 1967, p. 2.

ksc, The Technology o Killing, 131.

14. Tumn, “Dw Run Out Twn,” 2. †




15. Bnt, Growth Company, 356– 357. ksc, The Technology o Killing, 130. †

16. yscns c Rspnsbty, “sty Accmpsmnts,” PSR.org,

ttp://www.ps.g/but/sty--ccmpsmnts.tm (ccss Octb 13,2012). †

17. t Rc n Vct W. , “Npm,” New En gland Journal o Medicine 277,

n. 2 ( Juy 13, 1967): 87. “mng”: Fnk vy, “T A W n Vtnm,”

Flying, Nvmb 1966, p. 54. †

18. Vct , ntvw wt t ut, ptmb 3, 2009. †

9. Inct

1. Inucts: ctv vc ystm, “sty/Rcs: Inuctn ttstcs,” SSS. gov, ttp://www.sss.gv/nuct.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Intntn V-

unty vc: Fncs Ftzg, Fire in the Lake: The Viet namese and the Ameri-

cans in Vietnam (Vntg, 1972), 482.

2. The War at Home. Dct by Gnn b n By Axn Bwn (Ctyst

M, 1979), t 36’–43’. Dv Mnss , They Marched into Sunlight: War and

Peace Vietnam and America October 1967 (mn & cust, 2004) , 363– 369. Inju-

s: “I gnst F,” Time, Nvmb 3, 1967. Fst us t gs n U.. c-

g cmpus: Nncy Zus n G uvn, Who Spoke Up? American Protest

against the War in Vietnam, 1963– 1975 (Duby & C., 1984), 106. Numb

tcs but Dw: Mnss, They Marched Into Sunlight, 487. †

3. Bst wpn: “Fm Cns Bst Wpn Us n cfc,” Assct ss,

ptmb 24, 1945, n v Unvsty Acvs, ps Lus Fck

Fs n My ts Fs (t Fs ps), UGF 20.3 Bx 4, “cp-

bk 1937–1960,” n.p.. Cmmnty: t tnscpt Two Days in October.

Dct by Rbt Knn (Rbt Knn Fms, 2005). Avb t ttp:// www

.pbs.g/wgb/mx/twys/fmm/pt.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). †

4. tsts: “Npm: Dw Bws Out,” Newsweek, Dcmb 1, 1969, p. 78. Unvs-

ts: G Wck, “Dw W Ign Cmpus tsts: Npm Mk Rpts Its

Rcutng Unct,” New York Times, Octb 27, 1967. Fty-sx ptsts: An-

tny Rpy, “Npm tsts Wyng Dw, tug Cmpny Is Unut,” New

York Times, Dcmb 11, 1967. Fty-fv ptsts n 1966–1967 t 133 n 1967–1968:

E. N. Bnt, Growth Company: Dow Chemical’s First Century (Mcgn tt

Unvsty ss, 1997), 355– 356. Dw pt 133 ptsts n t 1967–1968 sc

y n twnty-nn n t 1968–1969 sc y. Jy Fnt, “Npm B Lst,

Dw t Tgt; It Expcts Fut tsts Dspt Cntct En,” New York

Times, Nvmb 23, 1969. 339 cmpus vsts n 1967–1968: “Npm: Dw Bws

Out,” 78. In 1970, Dw cmn C Gstck s t cmpny c “221

mj nt-Dw mnsttns” n U.. cmpuss snc 1967: 217 n 1967–1969

n u tt y. Rbt J. C, “ ‘Kp Yu C,’ Dw Avss Tgts An-

tw tsts,” New York Times, Jun 4, 1970. Mnss sys t “ bn

m tn 100 cmpus ptsts gnst Dw n t y snc” Octb 1966. M-

nss, They Marched into Sunlight, 487. Zus n uvn cunt twnty cm-




pus mnsttns n 1967, mst by c cpts tunts Dmctc

cty. Zus n uvn, Who Spoke Up?, 106. †

5. Wck, “Dw W Ign Cmpus tsts.” Dn: s “I gnst F.”6. 0.5 pcnt: Wck, “Dw W Ign Cmpus tsts.” “I gnst F.”

Absut puctn: Wck, “Dw W Ign Cmpus tsts.” †

7. Lts: “tunts W tst Dw Cmc Ty,” Harvard Crimson, Oct-

b 25, 1967, ttp://www.tcmsn.cm/tc/1967/10/25/stunts-w-ptst

-w-cmc-ty/ (ccss Octb 14, 2012). “Gnc”: W. Buc png,

“300 tg t-In t Mnckt t t Dw Cmc Rcutmnt: Gmp

Wns ‘vnc’ Is ssb Ls,” Harvard Crimson, Octb 26, 1967,

ttp://www.tcmsn.cm/tc/1967/10/26/300-stg-st-n-t-mnck

t-/ (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Lbts: v Unvsty, “CnntCmsty Lbty” n “Cnvs Cmsty Lbty,” ttp://www.us

.v.u/v_cty/bgs/bg.pp (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Dm-

nsttn: png, “300 tg t-In.” Lngst : Bnt, Growth Company,

361. “Dw s bcm ntm t nt-w gups bcus ts puctn

npm. T substnc s ntn t bun ut jung vgwt, but t s t

tn n Vtnms cvns,” t t b wt. “A Justf Dmnst-

tn,” Harvard Crimson, Octb 26, 1967, ttp://www.tcmsn.cm/tc

/1967/10/26/-justf-mnsttn-pystys-st-n-mnsttn/ (ccss

Octb 14, 2012). A mnty pnn sgn by utn st mmbs pp

n Octb 27: “But t ptst ws vnt n npppt snc cng n

Dw’s pcs w nt stp t w vn bstuct t us npm. I Dw

suny us t mnuctu npm, t zns cmpns tt

wu v t gvnmnt cntct t cy n puctn.” Bsut Jns

J. t ., “T Wng Wy t c: On t Ot n,” Harvard Crimson,

Octb 27, 1967. †

8. Dgtn: “Npm Invnt Dscunts ‘Gut’: v Cmst Wu ‘D It

Agn’ t Cunty,” New York Times, Dcmb 27, 1967. Ams U.. n-

t Cmmtt, Ctzns Cmpgn gnst Npm (Bkyn N.Y.), tunt Nn-

vnt Cntng Cmmtt (NCC), tunts Dmctc cty, Ms-

scustts tc Actn c (AX), “Cn Yu uppt Npm Us

gnst Cn?” n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 7.

9. E. J. Cy, “Rmks,” Louis Frederick Fieser 1899– 1977 , pmpt, Octb 7,

1977, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Lus Fs—Bbgpc

Mt,” p. 10. Wt uvn, “Cgtts t, U.. Rpt Cn-

cus; ‘Rm’ Actn Ug: Cnc Lnk Ct, mkng Is As Fun ‘Im-

ptnt’ Cus Cnc Bncts,” New York Times, Jnuy 12, 1964, n Fs

ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 6, “cpbk,” n.p. An Mj unt, “U.. Nms

n t tuy mkng,” New York Times, Octb 28, 1962, n Fs ps,

UGF 20.3 Bx 6, “cpbk,” n.p. †

10. snt y Tumn, “Ctfct Mt . . . utstnng fty n m-

tus cnuct n t w t gnst t cmmn nms t Unt

tts n ts s n W W II,” Mc 1, 1948, M Mt B, n Fs




ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 4, “cpbk 1937–1960,” n.p. Ltts: “T s-

ss,” Time, Jnuy 5, 1968. Bum: s “Npm Invnt Dscunts ‘Gut.’ ” †

11. Bgt n: Jn Lnnn, “Npm Invnt n t v: Fs ‘Cun’ts ts us gnst bbs’ ” [n pubctn st], Nvmb 1967, n Fs

ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 7. F: “Lus Fs—Rtmnt Dnn, 1967.” Un-

sb: s “Npm Invnt Dscunts ‘Gut.’ ” N jugng: s “T sss.”

Npm pns: Lus Fs, “Cmmnts but t Dy (My Dy, Nv. 10, 1967),”

Nvmb 10, 1967, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Lus Fs—

Rtmnt Dnn, 1967.” nc: Jms J. Bnng, “Intvw wt yt C.

tt t Msscustts Insttut Tcngy. 18 Nvmb n 2 Dcmb

1985.” O sty Tnscpt #0025. 2010. Cmc tg Funtn, p. 19.

12. mtwn nwspp: “Lus Fs Rts m v Fcuty,” Belmont Citi- zen, Juy 27, 1967, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 7. Wms: “Nsn C t

mt v Cmst,” Williams Alumni Review, Fbuy 1968, Fs -

ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 7. Eugs: Louis Frederick Fieser, 1899– 1977, Octb 7,

1977, n Fs ps, UGF 20.3 Bx 1, F: “Lus Fs—Bgpc

Mts,” p. 14. Z: Cy, “Rmks,” 9. Bbgpy: Ms Gts, “Lus

Fck Fs, Ap 7, 1899– Juy 25, 1977: A Bgpc Mm,” n Biograph-

ical Memoirs, Volume 65 (Ntn Acmy ss, 1994), 165. Avb t ttp://

bks.np.u/pnbk.pp?c_=4548&pg=169 (ccss Octb 14,

2012). Lbty: snt n Fws v Cg, “Mvng t t

t Css: Rnvtn jct Cts W-Css Cmsty Lb tunts,”

Harvard University Gazette, Dcmb 12, 1996. Rbt D. mn, Rbt L.

, Mt Vugn, n bt Tb, “Cntbutns Ognc Cmsts t

Bcmsty: Lus F. Fs, My Fs, n Mx Ts,” The Journal o Bio-

logical Chemistry 278 (Dcmb 26, 2003): 4–6. An Fs ps, UGF 20.3

Bx 1, F: “Fs Lbty Dctn Cspnnc, 1996.” †

13. ubctn cntnu unt Mc 25, 1969. Bnt, Growth Company, 355.

E. N. Bnt, Chairman o the Board: A Biography o Carl A. Gerstacker (Mcgn

tt Unvsty ss, 2003), 97.

14. w Znn, Dow Shalt Not Kill (Bstn Unvsty/B.U. Nws pt., n..), n

utn tunt Ognzng Cmmtt, The New South Student , Dcmb 1967,

3, 4, 6. Znn pp npm bmbs n t twn Ryn n Gmn-ccup

Fnc n Ap 1945. w Znn, Mk Knpck, n u Bu, A People’s

History o American Empire: A Graphic Adaptation (ny t & C., 2008), 129–

132. ttn: “us Cmmtt n Am vcs, Rcs t Cmmtt n

Am vcs, 80t–90t Cngsss (1947–68). RG 233. 4.95.” National Ar-

chives and Rec ords Administration, ttp://www.cvs.gv/gstv/gu/us

/cpt-04-m-svcs.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). †

15. Wtsn: “Npm— Usu but Nt tty Wpn; Asn Wpns,” NewYork Times, Dcmb 10, 1967. Aumn: ymu M. s, Chemical and

Biological Warare: America’s Hidden Arsenal (T Bbbs-M Cmpny,

1968), 262. ckts: m Buck, “Npm Dsps n Dssvs un Dbt,

but pmnt Rs On,” New York Times, Ap 15, 1998.

16. “C tt, FV n Dw,” New Let Notes, Dcmb 18, 1967, p. 3. †




17. Img: s, Chemical and Biological Warare, 261. Ctv mn: Rpy,

“Npm tsts Wyng Dw.” Quty: s, Chemical and Biological

Warare, 261. Gs: Ntn Fn, “w Nw, Dw?” Los Angeles Times, Jnuy 14, 1968, p. B8. Bng g: s, Chemical and Biological Warare,

261. Cfctn: “Dw ks t Dny It Mgt Gt Out Npm Busnss,” New

York Times, Nvmb 23, 1967.

18. “Npm tst,” The Times, My 9, 1968. Knnt C. F, “Dw Cmc

Mtng Bcks uctn Npm; Antw tsts Rbu,” Wall Street

Journal, My 9, 1968, p. 4. Bnt sys 300 ptsts gt. Bnt, Chairman

o the Board, 99.

19. F, “Dw Cmc Mtng Bcks uctn Npm,” p. 4. Bnt,

Growth Company, 358– 360. An Bnt, Chairman o the Board, 99.20. mm npm: Dn Bgn, The Trial o the Catonsville Nine (Bcn

ss, 1970), v. “Cgy: T Bgn Bts: Ty Rb Dt Bs,”

Time, Jun 7, 1968. F, “Dw Cmc Mtng Bcks uctn Npm,”

p. 4. †

21. Actns: Myn Juus, Fire and Faith: The Catonsville Nine File (Enc tt F

Lby, 2005). An bk, “F pk us t En Vtnm W,”

All Things Considered, My 17, 2008, NPR.org, ttp://www.np.g/tmpts/sty

/sty.pp?styI=90433944 (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Tstmns: Bgn,

The Trial o the Catonsville Nine, 33, 44–45, 65–66, 93. Dnumnt: T bts

pp n t cv Time mgzn n Jun 1971. Dn Lws, “p B-

gn, Fm st n c Actvst n t Vtnm W E, Ds t 79,” New York

Times, Dcmb 7, 2002. A jug un t ptsts guty n c t

cunts—stuctn U.. ppty, stuctn ctv vc cs, n

ntnc wt t ctv vc Act 1967—n sntnc tm t psn

tms btwn tw n t ys. Bgn, The Trial o the Catonsville Nine,

v. J Tp, “t n ty: T Ctnsv Nn n Btm Fu Ac-

tns Rvst,” Baltimore City Paper, My 14, 2008. An J Tp n kzz

Cyzyk, “Fv Mnut Wk-n-gss T,” Hit & Stay. Avb t ttp://

www.tAnty.cm/ (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Dw D.C. cs: “5 sts

mng 9 z n Dw tst n Cpt,” New York Times, Mc 23, 1969. “9

Dw tsts Cg n Cpt,” New York Times, Mc 25, 1969. Zus n

uvn, Who Spoke Up?, 107. ps u ncs p: Bnt, Growth Company,

360. 91 pcnt: b., 351. †

22. Bnt, Growth Company, 203–204. †

23. Annuncmnt: “Dw Dcs It s tpp uctn Npm U.,”

New York Times, Nvmb 15, 1969. Jy Fnt, “Npm B Lst, Dw t T-

gt,” New York Times, Nvmb 23, 1969. Amcn Ectc: Rbt A. Wgt,

“Nw Npm ct ts Cst Twn: mwns n W Fs tstng

uctn,” New York Times, Dcmb 2, 1969. Cty Invstng: “Dw Dps N-

pm,” Time, Nvmb 28, 1969. Dns: s “Npm: Dw Bws Out,” 78. †

24. Nt Dm: s “Dw Dps Npm.” Fnt, “NAALM BID LOT.” Ty

K, “Vtnm E tsts Rtun t Nt Dm t Mk mn Annvsy,”

WSBT, Nvmb 18, 2009. Crimson: Bnt, Growth Company, 360; n Rbt




J. C, “ ‘Kp Yu C,’ Dw Avss Tgts Antw tsts,” New York

Times, Jun 4, 1970. s: Bnt, Growth Company, 361. †

25. Vf: Jn . DMtt, “Wcm, Amc, t t Bby Bust,” Time, Fbuy23, 1987. Jn Bussy, “t Appc: Dw Cmc Ts t Tug

Img n Cut t ubc—It uss Its A Cmpgn, Gvs Dt t Rguts,

Bcks Ecgc Mvs—But s It Ry Cng?” Wall Street Journal, N-

vmb 20, 1987: “Dw st gts qustns but npm, vn tug t stpp

mkng t mmb g 17 ys g.” Mst t: “Amc’s Mst-t Cm-

pns: A R-C Cmmc Vfctn,” Economist, Dcmb 24, 2005.

W mcn: Tm Engt, “Tmgm: Nck Tus, Bck t t Futu wt

t Cmpx?” TomDispatch.com, Dcmb 15, 2008, ttp://www.tmsptc

.cm/pst/175014 (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Justn Eng, “ ‘M Mn’ gnRncs Dw Cnng, Npm . . . D Ty?” MLive, Jun 4, 2012, ttp://

www.mv.cm/nttnmnt/sgnw/nx.ss/2012/06/m_mn_gn_

ncs_w_c.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012).

26. mwns st: Rbt A. Wgt, “Nw Npm ct ts Cst Twn: m-

wns n W Fs tstng uctn,” New York Times, Dcmb 2, 1969. †

27. Tm Ws, The War Within: America’s Battle over Vietnam (Unvsty C -

n ss, 1994), 532.

28. Fx Buttf, “ut Vtnms Dp Npm n Own Tps,” New York

Times, Jun 9, 1972.

29. Dn’s nn-mnt- bt sx wks t m s njus. Ts w

t ny cvn tts m t npm stk. Dns Cng, The Girl in the

Picture: The Story o Kim Phuc, the Photograph, and the Vietnam War (ngun

Bks, 1999), 75, 83. “Vtnm Npm,” ITN. Avb t ttp://www.yu

tub.cm/wtc?v=Ev2EqN40&tu=t (ccss Octb 14, 2012), t

1'14".

30. Cng, The Girl in the Picture, 78–79.

31. Ib., 83–84. Bsky: Dv W. Dunp, “D. Atu Bsky Ds t 83; stc

ugn n Vtnm,” New York Times, Fbuy 11, 1982. M: “Tm M,”

Milwaki.com, ttp://mwk.cm/u-st /ttnys/tm-m/ (ccss Octb

14, 2012). Junsts Cstp Wn n Mc Bky s p tns

Km m t Fst Cn’s spt. Cng, The Girl in the Picture, 79– 80.

Annck Cjn, “ ‘L f pt’ st u ccé,” M le magazine du Monde, Jun

17, 2012. An Rb Gs, “Wmn n A ‘Npm t’ ns vs,” As-

sct ss, Jun 8, 2012.

32. Cng, The Girl in the Picture, 95. Assct ss, “Npm G Rcv-

ng n gn,” New York Times, August 9, 1972.

33. Cng, The Girl in the Picture, 104–105. Ezbt Om-Otunnu, “Npm u-

vv Ts ng t Vtnm W,” University o Connecticut Advance, N-

vmb 8, 2004. †

34. Fng w: Dv Nmn, uc. “Bttf: Vtnm. Tmn 1969–1972.”

Battleeld: Vietnam n.., ttp://www.pbs.g/bttfvtnm/tmn/nx3.tm

(ccss Octb 14, 2012). E pts: As Rbt mn n Jn Lus




Lucts, psss tc n cmmunctns, spctvy, bsv, “In-

, by 1972 t pubc sn bun skn ngng n ss m Vt nms

bbs.” mn n Lucts, “ubc Intty n Cctv Mmy n U..Icnc tgpy: T Img ‘Accnt Npm,’ ” Critical Studies in Media

Communication 20, n. 1 (Mc 2003), 40, 44.

35. Lst tps: Dv Nmn, “Bttf: Vtnm. Tmn 1973–1975.” Battle-

eld: Vietnam, n.. ttp:// www.pbs.g/bttfvtnm/tmn/nx4.tm

(ccss Octb 14, 2012). Fbk: Buck, “Npm Dsps n Dssvs

un Dbt.” 34,653 cnsts: Ggt Funts, “Nvy ps Nw L N-

pm tg t,” North County Times, Ap 5, 2001 (67 cs). Dt: Jsp

Tst, “U. . Fcs ut Vtnm; n Fs t Lst .O.W.; W R Is

En t Dc Cntvsy,” New York Times, Mc 30, 1973.

1. Gss vnus: “Apcyps Nw,” Box Of ce Mojo, ptmb 15, 2012. Avb

t ttp://bx cmj.cm/mvs/?=pcypsnw.tm (ccss Octb 14,

2012). †

2. Jn Mus n Fncs F Cpp, Apocalypse Now. Dct by Fncs F

Cpp (Amcn Ztp, 1979).

3. Jn Mus n Fncs F Cpp, Apocalypse Now Redux. Dct by Fncs

F Cpp (Amcn Ztp, 2001).

4. Enmy n t bmb “spp ut n t ngt,” ccng t t scpt.

Jn Mus n Fncs F Cpp, Apocalypse Now, Dcmb 3, 1975, pp.

44–99. Avb t www.yscpt.cm/scpts/pcyps.tm (ccss Oct-

b 14, 2012).

10. Bby Buns

1. Mny t cmmnts n cunts un t w cntmpnus

ctcsms npm. , xmp, Bttn L. Knpp, “Rvw Wk(s): Na-

palm by Ané Bntt,” Books Abroad 43, n. 4 (Autumn 1969): 557. vsns:

J. G. B, Love and Napalm: Export U.S.A. (Gv ss, 1972 [1969]), 132–133.

u Tux, “ Love and Napalm; Export U.S.A. by J. G. B. c by

Wm . Buugs,” New York Times, Octb 29, 1972. †

2. Gub: Gc Guck, “At Rvw; A st Wtnss t t Inumnty t u-

mn Cntn,” New York Times, My 25, 2001. Ln Gub, “Npm

,” n cnvs, 1969, mtsnn Amcn At Musum, ttp://mcnt

.s.u/cctns/sc/twk/?=9266 (ccss Octb 14, 2012); “Npm

V,” cyc n cnvs, ttp://mcnt.s.u/cctns/sc/twk/?=74688

(ccss Octb 14, 2012); “Npm I,” cyc n nn, 1969, Rn Fmn

Fn Ats, ttp://www.tnt.cm/twk/424482952/373/n-gub-npm-

.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Bnk: Rbt mt, “Ru Bnk Ds

t 77; Atst n tc Fc,” New York Times, Mc 15, 1998.




3. Mk Ln, “T Cv Wgn: Fnng t w t Act u Dstns,” n Cv-

Wgn Muscns, “Ln Nts,” We Say No to Your War! (n Rcs,

1972). Avb t ttp://k-m01.s.u/n_nts/pn/AR01015 .p (ccss Octb 14, 2012).

4. Jn Bycuck, “Npm tcks t Ks,” n Cv Wgn Muscns, We Say No

to Your War! †

5. McCty: Rc Css, “Eugn McCty: 1916–2005,” Time, Dcmb 12,

2005. Wms: “umn Bngs Fus Tgt,” Time, Octb 23, 1972.

Cstp Lyn, “G.I.’s Rgt tuns M’Gvn Ry; Tp by Vtnm

Vtn y by Dmct Mnnst tunts,” New York Times, Octb 13,

1972.

6. Bb k, “Cmcs n p ns,” n Mttw Bnnn, . Hunter- Killer Squadron: Aero-Weapons, Aero-Scouts, Aero- Ries, Vietnam 1965– 1972 (s-

, 1990), 245.

7. p Cput, A Rumor o War (ny t n Cmpny, 1996 [1977]), 4. Rbt

Y, And Napalm Does Not Help (nmnn Euctn Bks [As], 1977), 6.

8. Ov t ty bums: “Npm Dt Dscgpy,” ttp://n.wk p.g

/wk/Npm_Dt_scgpy (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Napalm

Death, ttp://npmt.g (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Csng t nm:

Abt Mun n Jn , Choosing Death: The Improbable History o Death

Metal and Grindcore (F us, 2004), 27. Mk “Bny” Gnwy, “NA-

ALM DEAT bnnm,” cspnnc wt t ut, Juy 17, 2012. Cp-

tns: Ncs Bun, Npm Dt, “Mutntn Cptns,” Rock Lyrics,

ttp://www.ckycs.cm/125-1237-14390/npm-t/t-by-mnpu

tn/mutntn-cptns-ycs.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). tn:

“Wmct (bn),” ttp://n.wkp.g/wk/Wmct_(bn) (ccss

Octb 14, 2012). Wmct, “Npm w,” LyricsTime, ttp://www.ycs

tm.cm/wmct-npm-sw-ycs.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012).

“Wmct Npm w Lv t T Dynm 2010,” ttp://www.yutub

.cm/wtc?v=XO=BMLQkA (ccss Octb 14, 2012). “Abut Us,” Napalm

Rec ords, www.npmcs.cm/npm_b.pp?sCs=77971544634

8667398c603 (ccss Octb 14, 2012).

9. “Ny-pm”: Wm By, On the Yankee Station: Stories by William Boyd (W-

m Mw n Cmpny, 1984), 123. Buc Wg, Song o Napalm: Poems (At-

ntc Mnty ss, 1988), 34– 35. †

10. “Mntns ‘Npm’ 1945–2010.” 2011: ttp://Quy.NYTms.cm (ccss

Jun, 2011). Los Angeles Times, “Mntns ‘Npm’ 1945–2010.” 2011: Los Angeles

Times. ttp://Qust.UMI.u (ccss Jun, 2011). T ws n pk n t

1950s, wc suggsts tt t New York Times cv npm usg n K m

csy tn mst. Gg NGm Vw. “npm.” 2012. ttp://bks.gg.cm

/ngms/gp?cntnt=npm&y_stt=1940&y_n=2012&cpus

=0&smtng=3 (ccss Octb 14, 2012). †

11. Dugs Dy twt, An Of cer and a Gentleman, 28. Avb t ttp://www

.yscpt.cm/scpts/ cngntmn.p (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Gss




vnus: “An O c n Gntmn,” Box Of ce Mojo, 2012, ttp://www.bx

fcmj.cm/mvs/?= cngntmn.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012).

Ww vnu fgus nt vb n stmt t ppxmtytwc mstc vnus. Nm Fn Gyn, Running on Empty. Dct by

ny Lumt (Wn Bts, 1988). †

12. Gss vnus: “tn,” Box Of ce Mojo, 2012, ttp://ww w.bx cmj.cm

/mvs/?=ptn.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Ww vnu fgus

nt vb n st mt t ppxmty twc mstc vnus. Aunc

stmt t $5 n vnu p vw. Flight o the Intruder, 1991 t but

Vtnm W bmb pt ct by Apocalypse Now cut Jn Mus s

ncu cmctc npm stk t t n t fm but sw t f cu

ny m bv n wtut ptcu cmmnty. Rbt D n n Dv -b, Flight o the Intruder. Dct by Jn Mus (munt ctus, 1991).

13. Ec Rt n Wnstn Gm, Forrest Gump. Avb t ttp://www.msb.cm

/scpts/Fst-Gump.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Gss vnus: “Fst

Gump,” Box Of ce Mojo,2012, ttp://www.bx cmj.cm/mvs/?=stgump

.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). †

14. Jck Ky, “ts Npm s Mt Its Mtc,” USA Today, My 21, 1993. †

15. Fm: Jm Us, Fight Club. Dct by Dv Fnc (20t Cntuy Fx, 1999).

T scpt uss sgty nt ngug. Jm Us, Fight Club. Avb t ttp://

www.msb.cm/scpts/Fgt-Cub.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Bk: Cuck

nuk, Fight Club (ny t n Cmpny, 1996), 11–13. †

16. Kssng: Mck Kkutn, “Bks t Tms; T Uncnvntn n t

Unv n n Ubn Msc,” New York Times, Jun 29, 2001. Npm ts: t-

g stbs t bn n 2000. T n cm m sng by UK bn T Cs

n t 1980 bum Sandinista!: “C n’t su s mbug mm/ ’s

gnn b npm st.” Rnn, “Npm ts,” Ear Candy, ttp://mmbs.t

p.cm/cny_mg/npmsts.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012).

17. Gvs cmng : C Bck, ct t Cnt Int gnc Agncy’s

Cunttst Cnt 1999–My 2002, tst mny b t Jnt Invstgtn

nt ptmb 11t: Ft ubc ng, ptmb 26, 2002— Jnt us/n-

t Intgnc Cmmtt ng. FAS, ttp://www.s.g/p/cngss/2002

_/092602bck.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Rn Wc, We Were Sol-

diers. Dct by Rn Wc (munt ctus, 2002). Lbyng: -

G. M n Jsp L. Gwy, We Were Soldiers Once . . . and Young: Ia

Drang—The Battle that Changed the War in Vietnam (Bntn Bks, 2004

[1992]), 175, 127. †

18. M n Gwy, We Were Soldiers Once, 282. Gss vnus: “W W -

s,” Box Of ce Mojo, 2012, ttp://bx cmj.cm/mvs/?=wwss

.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012).

19. Musum: “Intuctn,” The Center o the Tokyo Raid and War Damages, ttp://

www.tky-sns.nt/ngs_pg/nx.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012).

Jntn Ruc, “Fbmbs v Tky,” Atlantic Monthly, Juy–August 2002. w-

W. Fnc, “Tky Jun; 100,000 p s, but W Rmmbs?”




New York Times, Mc 14, 2002. M Ymguc, “Musum Rcs Tky F-

bmbng,” Assct ss, Mc 10, 2002. †

20. Jn F. Muns, Napalm Dreams: A Men o Valor Novel (ckt Bks, 2004),68, 67, 69.

21. Jntn Lmkn, Shooter. Dct by Antn Fuqu (munt ctus, 2007).

Gss vnus: “t,” Box Of ce Mojo, ttp://bx cmj.cm/mvs/?

=st.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). R Tsc, “DVD s: t

Kncks Out Cmpttn,” CinemaBlend.com, ttp://www.cnmbn.cm/v

nws/DVD-s-t-Kncks-Out-Cmpttn-5070.tm (ccss Octb

14, 2012).

22. Avnt Rsc: “Abut Us.” ttp://wb.cv.g/wb/20091124200716/ttp://

vntsc.cm/but (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Npm: ttp://wb.cv.g/wb/20100325084642/ttp://vntsc.cm/pucts/npm (ccss

Octb 14, 2012). Nmntn: ttp://wb.cv.g/wb/20091123134102/ttp://

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7. UN Cnsutnt Expts, Napalm, 50: 176. †

8. Ib., 52–53: 183.

9. “Nwys t mnng t w ‘npm’ s bn t ncu . . .

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11. “U.N. Unt Dps t us Npm,” New York Times, Nvmb 17, 1972. †

12. A fn pvsn qu t scty-gn t ccut t pt mng mm-

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14. UN, Respect or Human Rights in Armed Conict: Existing Rules o International

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22. Cmpt pbtn: ICRC, Lucerne, 33: 109. putn cnts: b., 34: 112.

pcfc wpns: b., 34: 114.

23. ICRC, Lucerne, 33: 108. Ksvn, Reections on the Law o War, 164–165.

24. Vt: Bxt, “Cnvntn Wpns un Lg btns,” 49. Rsutn:

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27. ICRC, Lugano, 109–110: 30, 110: 31. Cn: Ec ksc, The Technology o

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29. ICRC, Lugano, 104: 6(c), 106: 13(), 104: 6(), 106: 13().

30. Ib., 128–129.

31. U.. gumnt: W. ys ks, “Mns n Mts W,” George Washing-

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32. ICRC, “Rsutn 22.” Rsutn 22 ws suppt n ptcu by wn,

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33. Ib., 516 n. 21. Bxt, “Cnvntn Wpns un Lg btns,” 60

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ks, “Mns n Mts W,” 516.

34. ks, “Mns n Mts W,” 517 n. 25.

35. Ct: Dv Bn, “Issu n Dbt; Cmpnsv U. . Ams cy

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Mmnum 12: Bn Gwtzmn, “Ct Is tuyng Ams Cnts;

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t Dptmnt tt’s pncp nk t t Dptmnt Dns. “Buu

tc-Mty As (M),” U.S. Department o State, www.stt.gv/t/pm/

(ccss Octb 14, 2012). Lk: “ummt t Dwnng tt,” Time, My 9,

1977. Dn Ob, “$1 Bn n Ams s Bs Rus n 1977, U..

ys,” Washington Post, My 20, 1978, p. A3 (s uss npm bmbs nt

w). U.. sn: Anw . Mcm, “F Busy U.. Gn n K,

uut Is Lt, Rnss Nw,” New York Times, Ap 21, 1977 (npm us n

tnng xcss n K).




36. quts, Dptmnt t Amy, “66-MM Rckt Lunc: M202A1,”

Training Circular TC- 23.2. Ap 1978, p. 1-2: tm 1- 3. Avb t www.scb.

cm/c/3218834/TC23-2-66MM-ROCKET-LAUNCER-M202A1#pg=3 (c-css Octb 14, 2012). Gy W. Ck, “M202A1 Fm Assut u

Wpn (Fs),” Gary’s U.S. Inantry Weapons Reerence Guide, Fbuy 14, 2008,

ttp://www.nts.cm/gp/mty/nnty/m/M202.tm (ccss Octb

14, 2012). Ot tntvs t npm ctg by IRI n 1972 ncu “g-

mnttn bmbs n ckts, cust bmbs, u- xpsvs, gunsps wc

f 18,000 uns mnut, us sttgc bmbs n tctc suppt, tc.” M-

vn Lumsn, Napalm and Incendiary Weapons: Legal and Humanitarian Aspects

(tckm Intntn c Rsc Insttut, 1972), 39. Amc’s 1990 Field

Manual FM 3- 11, Flame Field Expedients, wc sups FM 20- 33, Combat Flame Operations, s nt scuss mtw tctcs. Wm C. cnck,

“Rvw: Flame On! U.S. Incendiary Weapons, 1918– 1945,” Engineer: The Proes-

sional Bulletin or Army Engineers, Ap 2000. †

37. ks, “Mns n Mts W,” 521. Yvs nz, “A Nw tp Fw

n Intntn Lw: btns Rstctns n t Us Ctn Cnvn-

tn Wpns,” International Review o the Red Cross 220 ( Jnuy–Fbuy

1981), 13. †

38. W. ys ks, “T tc n Incny Wpns,” International Review o

the Red Cross 279 (Nvmb– Dcmb 1990): 539–540. Avb t ttp://www

.c.gv///Mty_Lw/p /RC _Nv-Dc-1990.p (ctng U.. ttgc

Bmbng uvy). †

39. ks, “T tc n Incny Wpns,” 539, 541. †

40. UNOG, Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use o Certain Conven-

tional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indis-

criminate Eects as Amended on 21 December 2001. Dcmb 21, 2001. Avb t

ttp://www.ung.c/80256EDD006B8954/(ttpAssts)/40BDE99D98467348C12

571DE0060141E/$f/CCW+txt.p (ccss Octb 14, 2012). UNOG. “t-

c n btns Rstctns n t Us Incny Wpns.” The Con-

vention on Certain Conventional Weapons (10 Octb 1980), Atc 1.1(b). Av-

b t ttp://www.cc.g/.ns/FULL/515 (ccss Octb 14, 2012). †

41. UNOG, Convention on Prohibitions. tc III, Atc 1. †

42. Ib., Atc 2.2, 2.3, 2.4. †

43. UR: “vt Accpts Cub n Bmbng; T Tty n tcs,” New York

Times, Octb 8, 1980. Cnvntn: “T Cnvntn n Ctn Cnvntn

Wpns.” UNOG.c. “T Cnvntn n btns Rstctns n t Us

Ctn Cnvntn Wpns Wc My B Dm t B Excssvy Inju-

us t v Inscmnt Ects s Amn n 21 Dcmb 2001 (Cnvn-

tn n Ctn Cnvntn Wpns, s Inumn Wpns Cnvntn:

C.C.W.),” The Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (Unt Ntns,

n..). Avb t ttp://www.ung.c/80256EE600585943/(ttpgs)/4F0DEF0

93B4860B4C1257180004B1B30?OpnDcumnt (ccss Octb 14, 2012).

Bn D. Nsst, “U.N. Mmbs gn Tty n Npm n Ln Mns,”

New York Times, Ap 11, 1981. An Ams Cnt Assctn, “Cnvntn n




Ctn Cnvntn Wpns (C.C.W.) t Gnc,” ArmsControl.org, n..,

ttp://www.mscnt.g/ctsts/CCW (ccss Octb 14, 2012). †

44. “Acc n Rus W Is Cmpt; Ant y My B Cnvn,” NewYork Times, Octb 10, 1980. Nsst, “U.N. Mmbs gn Tty.” †

45. “CCW: Rtfctn ummy.” Tty Cmpnc, O c t Un cty

Dns Acqustn, Tcngy n Lgstcs (Dptmnt Dns,

n..). Avb t ttp://www.cq.s.m/tc/tts/ccwp/tsum.tm (ccss

Octb 14, 2012). “tts ts n gnts.” Avb t ttp://www

.ung.c/__80256600585943.ns/(ttpgs)/3c7cc047548c12571c00039cb

0c?OpnDcumnt&Expnctn=2%2C3%2C1%23_ctn1#_ctn2 (c-

css Octb 14, 2012). †

13. Jugmnt Dy

1. “In my cns pnn, n suc gn pbtn n t us npm cn b

st m t w n c,” w w utty n ny Dunnt M

(t gst Intntn Cmmtt t R Css n) ss Fts

Ksvn wt n s 2007 Reections on the Law o War: Collected Essays (Knn-

kjk B, 2007), 347.

2. Etp: “A Ln Ancy n Bs,” Time, My 31, 1976. Axn D

W, Evil Days: 30 Years o War and Famine in Ethiopia (umn Rgts Wtc,

1991), 79. Ew W. Dsmn, “Etp Fgttn W Rgs On,” Time, D-

cmb 23, 1985. Rs n Ang: Jn Buns, “Rs Invkng s

Msus t tm Gus; Cuc ucs v m Dt Kng

Tc Dscb 5,000 Cvns Rpt D Mty Cuts Cus Cn-

cn,” New York Times, Dcmb 28, 1977: “Npm s bn wy us.” †

3. A gnstn: Dw Mtn, “vt Tps t Tst Nw Wpns n A-

gnstn; Mty Anyss Nw Wpns Us by vts,” New York Times, Juy

10, 1980: “Amcn sucs s tt t vts us npm wy.” Rbt

cuts n Kn Osn, “W Tusn kmss,” Time, My 18, 1987:

“npm n g xpsvs w t mk.” Tn: N Ky, “Ts

Dp Npm n Vtnms,” The Times, Ap 6, 1983, p. 1. Ruts, “Ts

Ry t O Nw tks n Vtnms,” New York Times, Ap 7, 1983. Iq:

u vn Zbu, “Kus T Gs Attcks by ussn’s Mty,” New York

Times, August 23, 2006: “fy npm cnsts pp n vgs m Iq

mty jts n cpts.”

4. E v: Wyn B, “v O c t v T Npm Us,”

New York Times, Octb 9, 1984. In 1984, U.. mbss Tms R. ckng

cnfm t cunty stcks npm. Wyn B, “v Mty

s Npm Bmb tcks,” New York Times, ptmb 30, 1984. Fkns:

Cstp Cnt, Air War in the Falklands 1982 (Ospy ubsng, 2001), 67.

Wt F. Dust, Oensive Air Operations o The Falklands War, Ap 2,

1984. Mn Cps Dvpmnt n Euctn Cmmn, p. 70. Avb t

ttp://gbscuty.g/mty/by/pt/1984/DWF.tm (ccss Octb

14, 2012) ny tnp n twt Tn, “Npm tcks Fun. Agntn




Lst 250 Mn t Gs Gn,” The Times, Jun 2, 1982, p. 1, c. B. R. W. Ap-

p, “Btn Rpts zng Ky s Outs tny,” New York Times, Jun 2,

1982. Rc Evns, “Npm Fun As t tny Af,” The Times, Juy 2,1982, p. 6, c. D.

5. Wstn : “s Gus Cg Fnc Attck n Wst ,” New

York Times, Dcmb 19, 1977. Jntn Kn, “Fnc Jts v Appnty

Jn Fgtng,” New York Times, Dcmb 23, 1977. Est Tm: ny

Kmm, “W-Rvg Tm tuggs Bck m Abyss,” New York Times, Jnu-

y 28, 1980. Dbb Ett, “Dt Ty My Rtt E. Tm-Inns Ts,” All

Things Considered, NR, Jnuy 21, 2006, NPR.org, ttp://www.np.g/tmpts

/sty/sty.pp?styI=5166959 (ccss Octb 15, 2012): “T pt s

cgs tt Inns us npm n cmc wpns t psn n w-t.” Cum Lync n En Nksm, “E. Tm Atcts Dt; At Lst

100,000 D, Rpt t U.N. ys,” Washington Post, Jnuy 21, 2006, p. A12.

C: An Cw, “t snt by C s Lbyn Assts ns Dpp

Npm,” New York Times, August 9, 1983; “Lbyn Wpns un C Dst

st wt Bmbs n Npm.” The Times, August 10, 1983, p. 4, c. A. C m

sm gtns wn fgtng bk ut gn n 1987. Assct ss, “C

ys Lbyns Us Npm,” New York Times, Jnuy 4, 1987. Jms Bk,

“C Rpts 4t Dy Attcks by Lbyn ns,” New York Times, August 13,

1987. Ang: Ry Knny, “t Dns Npm R n Ang Twn,” The

Times, August 16, 1983, p. 5, c. A. An Aqus Ngngu, “tc n Etnc

Cnsng n Cnt Ang,” FAS.org, ttp://www.s.g/p/w/p/cs

/unt/n0610991.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012) “t MLA s st t n-

scmnt bmbng s, usng pbt npm n pspus bmbs

n t cvn pputn.” Ccny: Ly Wymut, “Ccny’s Rsv,”

Washington Post, Jnuy 30, 1995, p. A15. †

6. Btn/Unt tts: “w t As Mgt Rtt,” Time, Fbuy 25, 1991.

Gg J. Cuc, “T Bttgun,” Time, Mc 11, 1991. Iq: w G.

Cu-En, “Dt n Fgt,” Time, Ap 15, 1991: “In sm css tgt wt

npm n pspus, tusns cvns stm tw t sutn sc-

t t cunty ccup by U.. tps.” †

7. “Bsn . . . Npm Attcks,” Time, Nvmb 18, 1994. N njus: “b Jts

R ‘ A’ n Bsn; Rbs Us Npm,” ’ Los Angeles Times, Nvmb 19,

1994, p. 10. Cuck utc, “Npm n Cust Bmbs Dpp n Bsnn

Twn,” New York Times, 19 Nvmb 1994: “N n ws nju, s Mj. Ks

, Unt Ntns mty spksmn . ‘Ty w ucky,’ s, ng

t t pp Bb. ‘A t bmbs n n t cnt twn wtn 100

mts n nt.’ ” †

8. Unt Ntns cuty Cunc, Security Council Resolution S/RES/958 (1994) Resolution 958 (1994) Adopted by the Security Council at Its 3461st Meeting, on 19

November 1994. 19 Nvmb 1994. Avb t ttp://www.un.g/g/sc/vw

_c.sp?symb=/RE/958(1994) (ccss Octb 14, 2012). † Rg Cn,

“NATO, Expnng Bsn R, tks bn Bs n Ct,” New York




Times, Nvmb 22, 1994. “NATO unss bs Npm Attck,” Time,

Nvmb 21, 1994.

9. Vgttn, st fs, n c: [ut unknwn], “Cmc W DscvsW B Us n c: T A W gnst mu Inscts n Aqutc Vgt-

tn,” n.., n v Unvsty Acvs, ps Lus Fck Fs n

My ts Fs, UGF 20.3 Bx 4, “cpbk 1937–1960,” n.p. mp:

“Npm W B M nt G-I Lqu p,” Science News- Letter 49, n. 14 (Ap

6, 1946), 219. “W’s Npm My F Numus ctm Rs,” Baltimore

Sun, ptmb 28, 1952, p. L7. T sty suggsts “snt, nn-bkb pstc

pucts. Dsks, t sz qut, t stt up t gs n yu fpc wtut

pp knng.”

10. ppy Cmp: Assct ss, “Npm Us n Fst F,” New York Times, Juy 24, 1982. An cn, “Npm Us n Btt gnst Bus F

Rsk,” Los Angeles Times, Jnuy 6, 1984, p. F1. C: Iv tsn, “Fst

Rgntn by F Fzzs n Its C Tst,” New York Times, Jun 5, 1985.

Exxon Valdez : Mcm W. Bwn, “O n uc Cvs Dp Tt,” New

York Times, Mc 31, 1989. †

11. Rbt Rbn, “Nvy Dps Npm n Vqus.” U/ut Rc ty

Ntwk Tns. (Vqus stc Acvs, 1992). Avb t ttp://www

.t-wp.cm/cvs/43/023.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). Rn

G n Rn Rcs, “ut Rcn Yut Dmn U.. Mt y Lv V-

qus Isn,” The Militant 62, n. 15 (Ap 20, 1998). Avb t ttp://www

.t-wp.cm/cvs/43/073.tm (ccss Octb 14, 2012). K Rss,

“Dt t Nvy Bmbng Rng Rsnts tug ut Rc; Isn O cs

k Lstng Cs-F,” Washington Post, August 19, 1999, p. A10. Jun

Fgu, “tp In n Vqus,” New York Times, Jnuy 18, 2001: “tus y

cumnt tt Nvy-unc npm, unum n cust bmbs v cus n-

csng cnc n nnt mtty ts n v cps t sn’s fsng, g-

cutu n tusm nusts.” s “Vqus, ut Rc Ovvw,” Dcm-

b 8, 2011. ttp://www.ts.cc.gv/sts/vqus/vvw.tm (ccss Octb

15, 2012). An Rn O’Ruk, “Vqus, ut Rc Nv Tnng Rng:

Bckgun n Issus Cngss,” Congressional Research Ser vice Report or

Congress (Cngssn Rsc vc, Dcmb 17, 2001). Avb t ttp://

www.sty.nvy.m/by/nn/vqus.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). †

12. Oyst bs: “Ogn Oyst Gws y p s vst,” Washington Post,

Fbuy 14, 1999, p. A05. “359,000 gns u n 37,400 gns s

u”: Envnmnt Nws vc, “Gun Cg p png O n Ogn

Cst,” Fbuy 9, 1999, ttp://www.ns-nwsw.cm/ns/b1999/1999-02-09-

03.sp (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Km Mupy, “Nvy Tm Fs t Ignt Fu

O n Gun p,” Los Angeles Times, Fbuy 11, 1999. J Bn,

Assct ss, “Cg p t tuck n Ogn; Dmtns Expts Tun t

Npm,” Durant Daily Democrat, Fbuy 11, 1999: “At b s n

pum y bck smk, smng gw n t w t sp’s cg s ws

t ws t sw gt us pptns.” My Cutus n Lynn




Ms, “pctcu Bsts Ignt O Ab Gun p,” Los Angeles

Times, Fbuy 12, 1999. “400 puns”: Rn ncz, “O Bun n Gun

p C uccss; M Wt p Cntn Fu; Ltt 400,000 GnsLky t Rc Bcs,” Washington Post, Fbuy 13, 1999, p. A02.

13. Kngt: Cutus n Ms, “pctcu Bsts.” “I gt bun”: Rn ncz,

“Expts Ignt Bst n 2n B t Bun O M p’s Fu,” Washington Post,

Fbuy 12, 1999, p. A03.

14. Twnty-fv ms: ncz, “O Bun n Gun p.” G f: Cutus

n Ms, “pctcu Bsts.” “Fgtng M wt F,” Time, Fbuy

22, 1999. †

15. Fcn, Inc. Ont, Ogn, mnuctu T Tcs. “G Fu

T Tc M 1400,” Terra-Torch.com, ttp://www.t-tc.cm/ucts/1400_T_Tc.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Ccsss: Avnst Cm-

munctns, “Npm pks Intst Ovss,” DVM, The Newsmagazine o

Veterinary Medicine, V. 32, N. 5 (My 2001), p. 6. Unt Kngm: Mn

Mupy, “Fun y,” New Scientist, Mc 21, 2001. t cs ut-

mty k mns nms. “Tmn: Ft-n-Mut Css,” BBC.

co.uk, Octb 19, 2001. Avb t ttp://nws.bbc.c.uk/2//uk_nws/1207

463.stm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). M Dy: Tms Dy Lc, 11t

Bnt, “ns (us Cmmns Dy Dbts) – Acv,” Bound Volume

Hansard – Debate. Ap 23, 2001. Avb t ttp://www.pubctns.p

mnt.uk/p/cm200001/cmns/v010423/btxt/10423-09.tm (ccss Oct-

b 15, 2012), c. 32. N nbtns: b.

16. ug- Jns: Mupy, “Fun y.” Ansn: Avnst Cmmunctns,

“Npm pks Intst Ovss.” Dn D. Jns, tpn wkns, n Dn

R. Ess, “Nn-Ttn n Nv Tcngs,” n Carcass Disposal: A Compre-

hensive Review (Ntn Agcutu Bscuty Cnt Cnstum, August

2004), 20. Avb t ttp://ss.k-stt.u/FtuCntnt/CcssDsps

/DF%20Fs/c.p (ccss Octb 15, 2012). T jugmnt n-

pm’s ppu mg ws wy . “[A]mng cvns, f wpns cns-

numn. T u mtws s bscy npm, n npm s

nv cv m ts Vtnm puttn wunss,” t .cm m ty -

s cspnnt ctt ug, xmp, wt n 2001 cumn tt ug

t Unt tts t cns pyng mtws n A gnstn. ctt ug,

“F Wn Ry: Wy W u Cns Usng Fmtws n A gn-

stn,” Slate.com, Octb 31, 2001. Avb t ttp://www.st.cm/tcs/nws

_n_ptcs/w_sts/2001/10/f_wn_y.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

17. tv Cnn, “Ft-An-Mut Css: Incntn—Mnsty My Us Npm

t Bun Anm Ccsss,” Inde pendent, Mc 27, 2001, p. 5. “Npm Cu A

Ccss Dsps,” BBC.co.uk, Ap 24, 2001, Avb t ttp://nws.bbc.c

.uk/2//uk_nws/1293925.stm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Dv Mntgm-

y, “Epmc Rss Issus Futu,” Scotsman, Ap 2, 2001, p. 4: “A MAFF

spkswmn s t n pns t us npm.”

18. In 1992, Cn stt nvnmnt cs fn t nvy $191,500 kpng

sm npm n n pn pp bg, n ng t pst qu “N mkng”




sgns, mng t nctns. Ly Dzn, “tt EA Cts Nvy Wst t

Bc,” Los Angeles Times, My 9, 1992. By 1994, tt 1,774 cnsts

k n t b p, mv, ncnt. “Apcyps Tn,” NewYork Times, Jnuy 15, 1995. A 1998 nyss by t Fus ctn t Nv R-

sc Lbty stmt t sz t tt U.. npm stckp t 3.4 m-

n gns. Gg W. Musus, En J. B, Dnns R . y, n Jnt

M. ugs, “Us upus Npm s n Engy uc,” Energ y Sources 22,

n. 2 (2000): 147. “Npm k Ncknm”: Rc Rss, “Dsc Npm

Bmbs,” 1994, CorbisImages.com, ttp://www.cbsmgs.cm/stck-pt

/gts-mng/C001040/sc-npm-bmbs (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

“ny-k”: Nvy Npm M Tsk Fc, “Dscptn Cnsts n M-

ts,” Napalm Project Inormation Sheet (Dptmnt t Nvy, Dcmb1998). Avb t ttp://www.tmgv.cm/NpmjctFcts_Dc1998

.p (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Kng ts: Tny y, “Rgtng Npm t

Its c n sty,” Los Angeles Times, Ap 1, 2001. “Ntn Nws Bs;

Nvy Rcs D Bunng Npm,” New York Times, Jnuy 6, 1999. Ds-

ps: utwst Dvsn, NAVFACENGCOM, “Rcyc Npm uccssuy

Cnvt t Inust Us,” RMP News, F 2001. m Buck, “Npm

Dsps n Dssvs un Dbt, but pmnt Rs On,” New York Times,

Ap 15, 1998.

19. s: utwst Dvsn, NAVFACENGCOM, “Rcyc Npm.” Buck,

“Npm Dsps n”: “ ‘T w ts t n tm t ctuy s t,’ s

Cmmn mt. ‘Ts nt wk.’ ” m Entpss: “Fbk Nv

Wpns ttn,” GlobalSecurity.org, ttp://www.gbscuty.g/mty

/cty/bk.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Muc t suppy ws “N-

pm B”: 20 pcnt bnzn, 43 pcnt pystyn, n 37 pcnt gsn. “Du

t t g cncnttn pystyn, npm ts cu nt b bun cty

s u bcus t spy nzzs pctcy njcts n cmbusts wu

pug,” Nv Rsc Lbty nvstgts wt n 1998. Musus t .,

“Us upus Npm,” 148. Wms: Ong Cunty Rgst, “Ctcs Fum t

Nvy’s Attmpt t Dsps O Npm Bmbs,” Wilmington Morning Star, N-

vmb 24, 1995, p. 13A. Btt Mm Insttut: “Abut Us,” Battelle.org,

ttp://www.btt.g/butus/nx.spx (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Rck Ly-

mn, “Muc-Rput Npm Fns Wy Accptnc, I Nt Wm Wcm,

n Txs,” New York Times, August 10, 1998. Musus t ., 150: “T ug

munt supus npm pssss by t mty s t g t smpy gn

sty by stuctv mts suc s ncntn. . . . T ngy cntnt

t supus npm ws ccut t b 18,383 Btu/pun.” Buck, “Npm

Dsps n.”

20. Buck, “Npm Dsps n.”

21. Img, stw: Buck, “Npm Dsps n.” Kg: Mk Dnng, “Cngss-

mn Gttng tc Mg Out Npm Tn,” Chicago Tribune, Ap 19, 1998.

22. Dnng, “Cngssmn Gttng tc Mg.” T. wn Ty n tny

Zmb, “Npm pmnt n Tn t Nw,” Chicago Tribune, Ap 15,

1998. KKK Ry: Buck, “Npm Dsps n.” n. Rbt B. , J.




“Tstmny t ngs B ubcmmtt t Cmmtt n Appptns,

us Rpsnttvs, On un Ft Cngss, cn ssn, ubcm-

mtt n Mt y Cnstuctn Appptns” (Gvnmnt ntng O c,1998). Avb t ttp://www.gp.gv/sys/pkg/CRG-105g48548/tm

/CRG-105g48548.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

23. Buck, “Npm Dsps n”: “Cmpb s, t k cm ‘u

cc,’ bcus stt s c wkng Dw Cmc n mmbs

kng uts s Rck Cnt wnw wn ptsts w pcktng

gnst tt cmpny mnuctung npm.” Ty n Zmb, “Npm

pmnt n Tn t Nw.”

24. y tuy cmmmts t y btwn G Fy n Est uny

wn t by Jsus Cst y n ts tmb, ccng t Cstn ttn. n Lccq, “y tuy,” The Catholic Encyclopedia, v. 7 (Rbt App-

tn Cmpny, 1910). Avb t ttp://www.nwvnt.g/ctn/07424.tm

(ccss Octb 15, 2012). Knnt . Bcn, “DD Nws Bfng,” FAS.org,

Ap 14, 1998. ttp://www.s.g/mn/-101/sys/umb/t04141998_t0414s-4

.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). nkng, Gn Accuntng O c nvstg-

tn mn: Buck, “Npm Dsps n.” “D ngt”: Mc Ln,

“Npm Tn,” Voice o America, Ap 15, 1998. Tnscpt vb t ttp://www

.s.g/mn/-101/sys/umb/980415-npm.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

25. GNI: Lymn, “Muc-Rput Npm.” Dy: Ec Lctbu, “Lng-Dy

Dsps Npm Is t t Bgn,” Los Angeles Times, Juy 11, 1998.

26. Bst uy: Lymn, “Muc-Rput Npm.” “10,000 gns”: “Ntn

Nws Bs; Txs Cmpny t Bgn Rcycng U.. Npm,” New York Times,

Juy 14, 1998. Ec Ansn, KB, “Vtnm E Npm,” Morning Edition,

Juy 14, 1998. Avb t ttp://www.np.g/tmpts/sty/sty.pp?st yI

=1025638 (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Ktn Bk, “Npm Tn: Lst tp,

Txs,” CBS News, Juy 14, 1998, ttp://www.cbsnws.cm/sts/1998/07/14/n

tn/mn13882.stm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Rvs: Lymn, “Muc-

Rput Npm.” uns: Lctbu, “Lng-Dy Dsps.” Assstnt

Nvy cty Rbt B. J. vst D k t ty t s t cncns

snts, n sgn t xtnt t pubc tns cmpgn t Nvy ws

c t munt. Bk, “Npm Tn” (t spy by wbst my vy).

Ycum: Lymn, “Muc-Rput Npm.”

27. Ansn, tns: Lymn, “Muc-Rput Npm.” Cbt: Lctbu,

“Lng-Dy Dsps.”

28. T GNI Gup, Inc., “Rsuts Optns—Fsc 2000 T Qut Cm-

p wt Fsc 1999 T Qut.” cuts n Excng Cmmssn Fm

10-Q, My 15, 2000. Avb t ttp://gg.bn.g-nn.cm/spy

fngn.spx?FngID=614064-1244-51197&typ=sct&TbInx=2&cmpny

=29088&ppu=%2ut.spx%3cmpny%329088 (ccss Octb 15,

2012). GNI f bnkuptcy n ptmb 12, 2000. “T GNI Gup Fs

Bnkuptcy tctn,” Houston Business Journal , ptmb 14, 2000. Avb

t ttp://www.bzjuns.cm/ustn/sts/2000/09/11/y22.tm (ccss




Octb 15, 2012. R: sn bs, “Npm Rmv jct Wppng

Up,” North Country Times, Fbuy 4, 2001. “Ntn Nws Bs; Nvy Rcs

D F Bunng Npm,” New York Times, Jnuy 6, 1999 (Btn Rug). A-tn supps wnt t Cm Wst Mngmnt bs n t Atu, Txs.

Gg mn, “WC t usung Npm Cntct,” Odessa American, Ap 9,

1999. Avb t ttp://www.txstn.g/nws/OA-WCNpmCntct

.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Musus t ., “Us upus Npm,”

155: “Npm cn b sy n n us s n ngy suc t s us n t

psnc csvnts. . . . Ts sutn cu pv vb ngy suc tt

cn b us n cmmc ppctns suc s ctc pw gntn, cnt

tng pnts, nust pcsss tt qu t.”

29. Lst cnsts: Mc Ty, “Mty ys Gby t Npm. ntgn R-cycs Rmnng tck Ntus Wpn,” San Francisco Chronicle, Ap 4,

2001. Ec Ansn, “Npm Cn-Up,” Morning Edition, Ap 4, 2001,

ttp://www.np.g/tmpts/sty/sty.pp?styI=1120992 (ccss Octb

15, 2012). G nc: Ggt Funts, “Nvy ps Nw L Npm

tg t,” North Country Times, Ap 5, 2001.

30. Dfntn: Fs m npm gnc cmcy “nnscptv” tm

tt ntf ny ncny m m tckn ptum. Lus Fs, The

Scientic Method: A Personal Account o Unusual Projects in War and in Peace

(Rn ubsng Cp., 1964), 29. “Npm” n t Oxord En glish Dictionary

(Ox Unvsty ss, 1989) s fn s: “1. . . . b. A txtpc g cnsstng

pt n ts tcknng gnt ( sm sm gnt), us n mtws n

ncny bmbs; j pt.” As yt tt, c t Ntn Dns R-

sc Cunc’s W W II ncny wpns pgm, bsv npm n

1995 ntvw, “tt nm ws nvnt y n t cmpstn s nty nt

ty, but t nm s st us.” Jms J. Bnng, “Intvw wt yt C. tt t

Msscustts Insttut Tcngy. 18 Nvmb n 2 Dcmb 1985.” O

sty Tnscpt #0025. 2010. Cmc tg Funtn, 22. “yt tt

Ds t 95; Ws Expt n Engy, Cmbustn,” MIT News, ptmb 26, 1998.

Avb t ttp://wb.mt.u/nws c/1998/tt-0926.tm (ccss Octb

15, 2012). Fnks: “Npm,” GlobalSecurity.org, ttp://www.gbscuty.g

/mty/systms/muntns/npm.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). †

14. T Wpn Tt D Nt pk Its Nm

1. Cape Jacob: U.. Dptmnt Dns (DD), “s O Amm

U.. Mns,” Deend America: U.S. Department o Deense News About the War on

Terrorism,” Fbuy 2, 2003, ttp://www.nmc.m/cv/2003-02

/20030212.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). “T-AK 5029 Cp Jcb,” Federa-tion o American Scientists, 2011, ttp://www.s.g/pgms/ssp/mn/usw

pns/nvy/st/tk5029.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Twnty-u- u

sts: W. A. Npp J., “Ammuntn Fns Its Wy m Kuwt t t Mns’

ns,” USMC News, Fbuy 2, 2003. Avb t ttp://www.gbscuty




.g/mty/by/nws/2003/02/m-030211-usmc02.tm (ccss Octb 15,

2012). nnng: “Tnscpt w’s U.N. snttn,” CNN.com, Fbuy 5,

2003, ttp://tcs.cnn.cm/2003-02-05/us/spj.q.pw.tnscpt_1_gnun-ccptnc-q-n-st-cnc-smmnt-bgtns?_s=M:U (ccss Oct-

b 15, 2012). Ec cmtt n Tm nk, “W n Cs csn

Bmbng Wv t Bk Iq Amy Ey n Attck,” New York Times, Fbuy 2,

2003.

2. “snt Bus Asss t Ntn,” Mc 19, 2003. O c t ss c-

ty, t Wt us. ttp://ggwbus-wtus.cvs.gv/nws/ss

/2003/03/20030319-17.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). “Optn Iq Fm:

Mj Cmbt Opt ns ‘Ds t Bg,’ ” GlobalSecurity.org, My 7, 2011.

ttp://www.gbscuty.g/mty/ps/q_m-mc.tm (ccss Oc-tb 15, 2012).

3. 1991 cs-f: tv C n Guy Gugtt, “Iq Accpts A Cs-F Tms,”

Washington Post, Mc 4, 1991. tpn A. Buqu, “Incnt t wn,”

Armor, Jnuy–Fbuy 1999, 30. Avb t ttp://www.bnnng.my.m/m

/mmgzn/cntnt/Issus/1999/AmJnuyFbuy1999wb.p (ccss

Octb 15, 2012). wtzs: Lnsy Muc, “D Bs A Evyw,”

Sydney Morning Herald, Mc 22, 2003.

4. Muc, “D Bs A Evyw.” Mtn vg, “vg: tctng

Iq’s O uppy,” CNN.com, Mc 22, 2003, ttp://tn.cnn.cm/2003/WORLD

/mst/03/21/tsc.q.svg/ (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

5. Muc, “D Bs A Evyw.”

6. Lu McCu (Cmp), “W Ws,” Salon.com, Mc 22, 2003, ttp://

ttp://www.sn.cm/2003/03/22/w21/ (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Amy -

mn, “A NATION AT WAR: Wbgs; Fcts A n, pn Is Out,” New York Times,

Mc 25, 2003; cct Mc 26, 2003.

7. Jms W. Cwy, “O cs Cnfm Dppng Fbmbs n Iq Tps: R-

suts A ‘mkby sm’ t Usng Npm,” San Diego Union-Tribune, Au-

gust 5, 2003.

8. “Fu-g mxtu”: Bn Cubby, “Nw, Impv n M Lt: n N-

pm,” Sydney Morning Herald, August 8, 2003. “Fbmbs”: Cwy, “O cs

Cnfm Dppng Fbmbs.” On Mk-77 fbmbs s “MK77 750b Npm.

MK78 500b Npm. MK79 1000b Npm,” FAS.org , ttp://www.s.g

/mn/-101/sys/umb/mk77.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012) An “Fbmbs,”

Ordnance.org, ttp://www.nnc.g/fbmb.tm (ccss Octb 15,

2012). F v s: “Mk 77 F Bmb Dp,” YouTube, ttp://www.yutub.cm

/wtc?v=3XTYJ8Yp4 (ccss Octb 15, 2012). “Mk77 Fbmb,” YouTube,

ttp://www.yutub.cm/wtc?v=92t1IDDJg&tu=pcp (ccss Octb

15, 2012). Vncu: Cubby, “Nw, Impv n M Lt: n Npm.”

Cnusngy, 1999 nvy pubc s cumnt ct by t Herald n t sm

pc pt tt “t U Mn Cps s qumnt n uss t [npm] t

ngs t Yum n Twnty-Nn ms.” Envnmnt: Cwy, “O cs Cn-

fm Dppng Fbmbs.”




9. Anw Buncmb, “U Amts It Us Npm Bmbs n Iq,” Inde pendent,

August 10, 2003. k: “Jn E. k—Dct,” GlobalSecurity.org, ttp://www

.gbscuty.g/g/st/pk.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Cwy,“O cs Cnfm Dppng Fbmbs.” An Mc Ns, “ntgn Dns

Us Txc Agnt n Iq,” All Things Considered, Nvmb 18, 2005. Avb t

ttp://www.np.g/tmpts/sty/sty.pp?styI=5019073 (ccss Octb

15, 2012).

10. Jn Gtz n Gg Rst/MONITOR 507, “vy Rpcs gnst U

ntgn: Npm Bmbs n t Iq W,” InormationClearing House.ino, Au-

gust 7, 2003, ttp://www.nmtncngus.n/tc4395.tm (ccss

Octb 15, 2012). Buncmb, “U Amts It Us Npm Bmbs n Iq.”

11. Buncmb, “U Amts It Us Npm Bmbs n Iq.”12. y Cn, “Wttn Answs t Qustns,” Bound Volume Hansard – Written

Answers, 11 Jnuy 2005, c. 374W. Avb t ttp://www.pubctns.p

mnt.uk/p/cm200405/cmns/v050111/txt/50111w01.tm#50111w01.tm

_sb3 (ccss Octb 15, 2012). W ppnnt: “M y Cn M, Lytn

n Wnst vt strongly against t pcy: Iq 2003 – F t nvsn,” The

Public Whip, ttp://www.pubcwp.g.uk/mp.pp?mp=1684&mp=1049 (c-

css Octb 15, 2012). Am Ingm, “Wttn Answs t Qustns,” Bound

Volume Hansard – Written Answers, 11 Jnuy 2005, c. 373W.

13. “B ts 5 My s Ectn Dt,” BBC.co.uk, Ap 5, 2005, ttp://nws.bbc

.c.uk/2//uk_nws/ptcs/4409935.stm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Am In-

gm, “Wttn Answs t Qustns.” Bound Volume Hansard – Written Answers.

28 Jun 2005, c. 1396W. Avb t ttp://www.pubctns.pmnt.uk/p

/cm200506/cmns/v050628/txt/50628w03.tm#50628w03.tm_sb4 (c-

css Octb 15, 2012). Rct: Mc Wt n An Tvs, “Lbu’s

Mjty s Awy,” Guardian, My 6, 2005. “B Wns stc T

Tm – Mjty 66,” BBC.co.uk, My 5, 2005; v. ptmb 9, 2005, ttp://

nws.bbc.c.uk/2//uk_nws/ptcs/vt_2005/cnsttuncs/ut.stm (c-

css Octb 15, 2012) (35.3 t 32.3 pcnt). Ky ssu: Dv Cwng, “Opnn

s: Mvmnt n t Issus?” BBC.co.uk, My 3, 2005, ttp://nws.bbc.c.uk/2

//uk_nws/ptcs/vt_2005/ssus/4506035.stm (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

Ck, Dv ns, Mnn twt, n u Wty, “2005

Bts Gn Ectn,” American Politi cal Science Association, ttp://www

.psnt.g/cntnt_15008.cm (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

14. Am Ingm, “Ltt t Ln Rn, M,” Rai News 24, Jun 13, 2005, ttp://

www.nws24..t/n24/ncst/t/cumnt_mnst.jpg (ccss Oct-

b 15, 2012). scussn U.. pymnt MK-77 bmbs n npm n Iq

n us Mytt, “Ltt t Mc Lws: Rqust Inmtn – Ntfctn

Excss Cst,” Juy 15, 2005. UK Mnsty Dnc. R. 25-04-2005-094904-004.

Avb t ttp://www.qnyss.g/c/647_25042005-094904-004RFIRE

ONEMK77-1.p (ccss Octb 16, 2012).

15. Mnts t, t Mnsty Dnc xpn t bc s ws: “A UK c

wkng n Bg cntct t Bg Cmbn Optns Cnt skng




cfctn wt MK 77 Fbmbs bn us n Iq. A U O c wk-

ng n tt cnt pv t ssunc tt ty nt. W unstn tt

t ssunc ws gvn y. Tt nmtn ws cnvy bck t t UK by tpn cnvstn.” us Mytt, “Ltt t Mc Lws: Rqust

Inmtn – Incny Bmbs,” August, 2005. UK Mnsty Dnc. R.

18-07-2005-122443-007, p. 1. Avb t ttp://www.qnyss.g/c/657

_18-07-2005-122443-007-RFI-RspnsCfctn-MK77bmbs-.p (ccss

Octb 15, 2012). Cn Bwn, “U L t Btn v Us Npm n Iq

W,” Inde pendent, Jun 17, 2005. Nt npm: “Mnst mm n Npm E,”

BBC.co.uk, Jun 24, 2005, ttp://nws.bbc.c.uk/2//uk_nws/ptcs/4116262

.stm (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

16. “Mnst mm n Npm E.”17. Jntn ms, “T Lgcy Fuj,” Guardian, Ap 4, 2007. Jn z,

“An Assut n Iq, tg t n Lnn,” New York Times, My 29, 2007.

18. Fnss n Accucy n Rptng (FAIR), “Incny Wpns A N ‘Ag-

tn,’ ” FAIR.org, Jun 11, 2007, ttp://www..g/nx.pp?pg=3114 (c-

css Octb 15, 2012). U.. utts fst sst wt pspus bn

us ny umntn t Fuj, but t, wn cnnt wt cntcty

vnc m n t mty’s wn pubctns, mtt t bn us t

v nmy fgts m cv n tctc ncknm “sk n bk.” “k n

Bk,” New York Times, Nvmb 29, 2005. Gn t c, cmn t

Jnt Cs t, pps t t cnusn, n unn w ctc

fn stnctns nmnctu v bcm un ntns pubc scutny, wn

bsv t pss bfng n spns t t New York Times t “k

n Bk”: wt pspus, s, “s nt cmc wpn, t s n ncn-

y” (but nt, bs bt, n ncny wpn s fn by tc III

t Cnvntn n Ctn Cnvntn Wpns [CCW]), U.. DD, “ss

Bfng (Nv. 29, 2005),” qut n Amcn cty Intntn Lw, “U..

Dns Us Wt spus Muntns n Iq,” The American Journal o

International Law 100, n. 2 (Ap 2006): 487. FAIR, “Incny Wpns

A N ‘Agtn.’ ” In w-up t, FAIR stngus btwn npm n

wt pspus—“W [wt pspus] s nt npm t , wc FAIR

nt gu. Rt, t pnt ws tt cmc gnt wt ptnty t cts

ws us n btt n mj Iq cty”—but pt ts cm tt t mtt ws

“sn tcncty.” FAIR, “NY Tms Rspns n Fuj Wpns,” FAIR.

org, Juy 20, 2007, ttp://www..g/nx.pp?pg=3141 (ccss Octb 15,

2012). W. ys ks, “Mns n Mts W,” George Washington

International Law Review 38 (2006), 521–522 (“Tmt ( tmt) muntns,

m tws, n npm ncny wpns, but wpns wt ncnt

ncny cts, suc s wt pspus n sm ms tc mmuntn,

nt.”) RAI Nws: g Rnucc n Muz Tt, “Fuj, t -

n Mssc,” RAI News 24, Nvmb 8, 2005, ttp://www.yutub.cm

/wtc?v=UwsNRybE (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Gg Mnbt, “B-

n t spus Cus A W Cms wtn W Cms,” Guardian, N-

vmb 22, 2005. m nws utts, ncung t mss-ccutn UK nwspp




t Sunday Mirror n Nvmb 28, 2004, vn pt tt U.. tps n Iq

us “npm gs,” n unknwn substnc. tt Dptmnt cs pub-

s n xcuctngy t uttn “ numb wsp myts n-cung s cgs tt t Unt tts s usng cmc wpns suc [s] n-

pm n psn gs” n spns—but t cct t twc v t nxt vn

mnts s tn nmtn cm t gt. U.. Dptmnt tt (D), “Is

t U.. Usng ‘I g’ Wpns n Fuj?” USEmbassy.gov, Dcmb 9, 2004,

v. Jnuy 27, 2005, v. Nvmb 10, 2005. Jnuy vsn vb t

ttp://www.gbscuty.g/mty/by/pt/2005/050127-uj.tm

(ccss Octb 15, 2012). Rvsn sty: “D t U.. Us ‘Ig’ Wpns

n Fuj?” RAI News 24, Nvmb 10, 2005, ttp://www.nws24..t

/n24/ncst/n/g_wpns.sp (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Ck yt,“Ws T Npm n Fuj?” New York Times, Juy 18, 2007. yt utmty

jct FAIR’s sstn n suppt z’s ssssmnt. Ck yt, “Ws

T Npm n Fuj? t II,” New York Times, Juy 24, 2007.

19. “Npm Rcp st Onn,” Internet Terror Monitor, My 18, 2009, ttp://

www.cbsnws.cm/8301-502684_162-5023379-502684.tm (ccss Octb

15, 2012). CB nt pt tt t 1969 U.. Amy pc Fcs Improvised

Munitions Handbook, wc pvs t nstuctns mkng “g

m us” m gsn mx wt sp, gg wts, nm b, n t

tckns, suppmnt by mtu cps npm n numus wbsts,

ws s vb nn n 2009. quts, Dptmnt t Amy, Improvised

Munitions Handbook, TM 31- 210 Department o the Army Technical Manual, 1969:

c. V, N. 4.1–4.7, pp. 159–170. Avb t ttp://www.scb.cm/c/14108872

/U-Amy-Impvs-Muntns-nbk-TM-31210#pg=159 (ccss Oc-

tb 15, 2012). “Npm cs”: Ty Bn, “Dts Emg n Npm Cs:

Mn Cg n Mt Lb Bust Wks Dns Cntct,” Pensacola News

Journal, Mc 3, 2012, p. C1.

20. My , U.. Amy F uppt Cmmn, Rck Isn, IL. “13 – MK77 M

5 Fbmb, NN: 1325-01-286- 3586; /N: 923A652; Appxmty 993 Ec.”

ucs ugt Ntc, cttn Numb W521J04-R-0077, Jnuy 13, 2004,

Avb t ttp://www.qnyss.g/c/644_MK77pcumntntc.p

(ccss Octb 15, 2012). My , U.. Amy F uppt Cmmn,

Rck Isn, IL, “Amnmnt cttn N. W521J-04-R-0077.” cttn

Numb W521J04-R-0077 M. 0005, Jun 4, 2004, ttp://www.qnyss

.g/c/645_pcu0005.p (ccss Octb 15, 2012). B cpt,

“T B A-1Z Zuu-Ftus,” Bell Heli cop ter, A Textron Company, 2011, ttp://

www.bcpt.cm/n_U/Mty/A-1Z/A_1Z.tm#/?tb=tus- tb

(ccss Octb 15, 2012).

21. Wn Cstp, “Ltt ubmtt,” n Message rom the President o theUnited States Transmitting Protocols to the 1980 Convention on Prohibitions or

Restrictions on the Use o Certain Conventional Weapons . . . nt Tty Dcu-

mnt 105-1, 105t Cngss, 1st ssn, Jnuy 7, 1997. Avb t ttp://www

.gp.gv/sys/pkg/CDOC-105tc1/tm/CDOC-105tc1.tm (ccss Octb

15, 2012). Amc ccpt vsns t t CCW n tcs I n II n Mc




24, 1995; Cstp t ts t t n s mssg. U.. D, “Atc-

by-Atc Anyss t tc n btns Rstctns n t Us

Incny Wpns Annx t t Cnvntn n btns Rstctns nt Us Ctn Cnvntn Wpns Wc My B Dm t B Excs-

svy Injuus t v Inscmnt Ects (tc III),” n Message rom

the President . . . , 30). As cnty s My 12, 1994, Cntn wt t t nt,

“t cncns but t ccptbty tc III m mty pnt

vw tt qu ut xmntn.” Wm J. Cntn, “Ltt Tnsmtt,”

n Message rom the President . . .

22. Iq nspctns: Unt Ntns (UN) pc Cmmssn, “Cngy Mn

Evnts,” Dcmb 1999, UN.org, ttp://www.un.g/Dpts/unscm/Cngy

/cngym.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Dn mt, “On tcIII t C.C.W,” The Quakers’ Col onel, Nvmb 24, 2008, ttp://quksc

n.bgspt.cm/2008/11/n-ptc---ccw.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

Excptns: Cntn, “Ltt Tnsmtt,” Message rom the President . . . Cs-

tp’s cncusn my v bn pmtu. “T pcs wng ts cn-

tn, wv, cntnu t ung mty vw, n t nsu tt t

Unt tts ws b t tn ts bty t mpy ncns gnst g-

pty mty tgts,” D g vs Jn Bng t t nt n 2008.

nt pv ut ts. Jn B. Bng, “p ttmnt

n. Jn B. B ng, Lg Avs, Dptmnt tt, Wsngtn, D.C.,” n

Annx II: Tty ng Ap 15, 2008, An Amendment and Three Protocols to

the 1980 Conventional Weapons Convention: Report o the Committee on Foreign

Relations, ptmb 11, 2008. U.. nt Exc. Rpt 110-22, p. 24. t

Rpt 110-22. Avb t ttp://www.s.g/p/cngss/2008_pt/ptcs

.p (ccss Octb 15, 2012). “By fng ts svtn, t Unt tts s-

snty jct tc III, Atc 2,” pn Mttw Dunm, c p-

uty st jug vct. Mttw Dunm, “T Ft Cust Muntns,” The

Reporter 37, n. 1 (png 2010): 28, n. 14.

23. Dptmnt ttnys v t tm “pptnty”: “T Unt tts must

tn ts bty t mpy ncns t g-pty mty tgts suc s

ts t sk n mnn wt t pncp pptnty wc gvns t us

wpns un xstng w.” U.. DD, O c t Un cty D-

ns Acqustn, Tcngy, n Lgstcs, “Tb (B). T Atc-by-Atc

Anyss Incny Wpns tc,” Message rom the President . . . , 32– 33:

3–4. As t U.. DD, O c t Un cty Dns Acqustn,

Tcngy, n Lgstcs, “Atc-by-Atc Anyss t tc n b-

tns Rstctns n t Us Incny Wpns Annx t t Cnvntn

n btns Rstctns n t Us Ctn Cnvntn Wpns

Wc My B Dm t B Excssvy Injuus t v Inscmnt

Ects (tc III),” Treaty Compliance, n.., ttp://www.cq.s.m/tc/tts

/ccwp/tbyt_p3.tm (ccss Octb 15, 2012). As ks bsv n 1990,

un ctn ccumstncs cmmns b m usng ncny wpns

my b c t “mpy ty f n - v g xpsv muntn

tt wu b ss ccut m stuctv tn n -v ncny

296 Notes to Page 216



wpn, sutng n gt ct cvn csuts mg t cvn b-

jcts. Ony tm w t wt t pbtn cntn n At c 2(2) s n-

cs ptctn nncnt cvns n mty bjctvs.” W. ys ks,“T tc n Incny Wpns,” International Review o the Red Cross 279

(Nvmb–Dcmb 1990): 548.

24. T U.. Cnsttutn qus tt t nt ty tts submtt by t

psnt by tw-ts vt. Cs: “sty t Cmmtt,” U.S. Senate

Committee on Foreign Relations, ttp://www.gn.snt.gv/but/sty/ (c-

css Octb 15, 2012). O c U.. nt Bck Obm, “Cmmtt Assgn-

mnts,” Dcmb 9, 2006, ttp://wb.cv.g/wb/20061209190827/bm

.snt.gv/cmmtts/ (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

25. Jn B. Bng, “p ttmnt,” 25.26. Intnt n Cmpgn t Bn Lnmns, “Bn sty,” ttp://www.cb.g

/nx.pp/cb/Tty/MBT/Bn-sty (ccss Octb 15, 2012), “tts

ts,” ttp://www.cb.g/nx.pp/cb/Unvs/MBT/tts-ts (ccss

Octb 15, 2012), “Abut us,” ttp://www.cb.g/nx.pp/cb/Abut-Us (c-

css Octb 15, 2012).

27. Cnvntn n Cust Muntns, “Rtfctns,” ClusterConvention.org, ttp://

www.custcnvntn.g/tfctns-n-sgntus/ (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

Cust Muntn Ctn (CMC), “111 tts n B t Cnvntn n Cus-

t Muntns,” StopClusterMunitions.org, August 1, 2010, ttp://www.stpcust

muntns.g/ttysttus/ (ccss Octb 15, 2012). V c, “Cust

Muntns Tty Ents nt Fc,” Arms Control Today 40 (ptmb 2010).

Avb t ttp://www.mscnt.g/ct/2010_09/Cust (ccss Octb

15, 2012). M: CMC, “A M Mkng Cng Gby,” ttp://www

.stpcustmuntns.g/t-sutn/cng-gby/ (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

Cunts tt mjty t w’s cust muntns nt ptcpt.

J Abmsn, “107 Cunts Appv Cust Muntns Tty,” Arms Control

Today 38 ( Juy/August 2008). Avb t ttp://www.mscnt.g/ct/2008

_07-08/cust (ccss Octb 15, 2012). †

28. ty: Jy Bg, Assstnt cty tt Lgstv As, U..

D, “Ltt t t nb Jsp R. Bn, J., Cmn, Cmmtt n F-

gn Rtns, Unt tts nt,” Fbuy 7, 2007. Avb t ttp://www

.stt.gv/cumnts/gnztn/116355.p (ccss Octb 15, 2012). Am-

cn B Assctn (ABA): Amn Ls-F, “Ltt t t nb Jsp

R. Bn, J., Cmn, Cmmtt n Fgn Rtns, U.. nt,” Octb

31, 2007. Av b t ttp://pps.mcnb.g/ntw/sp/pcy

/300mpmnttn_tt.p (ccss Octb 15, 2012). “U.. tfctn . . .

tcngs”: Rbt . Csy, “Opnng ttmnt,” n Rpt 110-22, p. 17. T

ABA, wt mst 400,000 mmbs, s “t gst vunty pssn ssc-

tn n t w.” Its Gvnmnt As O c bbs Cngss t suppt t

ssctn’s pts. “sty t Amcn B Assctn,” Amcn

B Assctn , ttp://www.mcnb.g/utty/but_t_b/sty.tm

(ccss Octb 15, 2012). Fgn Rtns Cmmtt: Csy, “Opnng tt-

mnt,” 17. Bn n Lug: b., 19.






tion on Certain Conventional Weapons (UNOG, 26 Juy 2012). Avb t ttp://

www.ung.c/__80256600585943.ns/(ttpgs)/3c7cc047548c12571c000

39cb0c?OpnDcumnt&Expnctn=2%2C3%2C1%23_ctn1#_ctn2(ccss Octb 15, 2012). A tt svnty-u cunts v nt sgn. UNOG,

“tts Nt ts,” ttp://www.ung.c/__80256600585943.ns/(ttpgs)

/3c7cc047548c12571c00039cb0c?OpnDcumnt&Expnctn

=4%2C1%23_ctn1#_ctn4 (ccss Octb 15, 2012). †

35. Vnn Cnvntn: Vienna Convention on the Law o Treaties, Unt Ntns

Tty s, V. 1155, p. 331 (Unt Ntns, My 23, 1969, nt nt c Jnu-

y 27, 1980), Atc 20(5). Avb t ttp://untty.un.g/c/txts/nstumnts

/ngs/cnvntns/1_1_1969.p (ccss Octb 15, 2012). †

36. Ntn pstns: J Abmsn, “U.. Incny-Wpns cy Rbu,” Arms Control Today 40 (Ap 2010). Avb t ttp://www.mscnt.g/ct

/2010_04/Incny (ccss Octb 15, 2012).

Epgu

1. Jn Wntp, “A M Cst n Cty,” n.., ttp://www.ks.v

.u/s/p/03.%20wntp,%20Cstn%20C.p, p. 6 (ccss Octb

11, 2012). “Y t gt t w. A cty tt s st n n cnnt b

.” Gsp Mttw, Kng Jms tns. (1611), 5:14. Avb t ttp://www

.bbgtwy.cm/pssg/?sc=Mttw+5%3A14-16&vsn=KJV (ccss

Octb 11, 2012).

2. Cuts E. LMy wt McKny Knt, Mission with LeMay: My Story (Dub-

y & Cmpny, 1965) , 387. “ckt Gu: B A-1Z,” Bell Heli copter (cctn

t ut, 2006), n.p., ttp://www.bcpt.cm/Mty/A-1Z/1291148375494.

tm#/?tb=ggts-tb (ccss Jun 2012, t mv). But s Cms

Jnsn, Nemesis: The Last Days o the American Republic (Mtptn Bks,

2006), 32– 33 (n Iq cv n csuts t U.. nvsn).

3. “Npm Invnt Dscunts ‘Gut:’ v Cmst Wu ‘D It Agn’ t

Cunty,” New York Times, Dcmb 27, 1967.

4. Km úc: ntvw wt t ut, Ap 28, 2011. Lus Fs, The Scientic

Method: A Personal Account o Unusual Projects in War and in Peace (Rn ub-

sng Cp., 1964), 50–51.

5. Jms C, “Intvw wt Rbt McNm” [Fbuy 2003], n C,

House o War: The Pentagon and the Disastrous Rise o American Power (ugtn

M n C., 2006), 97. “I w s t w w’ b t s w cmns,” LMy

s n 1945, ccng t McNm. “I tnk ws gt. W wu v bn,”

t scty wt n t Los Angeles Times August 3, 2003 (qut n C,

House o War, 97 n. 233). The Fog o War. Dct by E Ms (ny c-

tus Csscs, 2003).

6. Buc Cumngs, War and Televi sion (Vs, 1992), 223. vn Lnqvst, A His-

tory o Bombing , Ln vty Rugg, tns. (Nw ss, 2003).

7. “sty,” n.., ttp://www.kmuntn.cm/mus/cntntpg/nx.pp

?f=sty.tm&m=10&sub=101 (ccss Octb 11, 2012). T cntct ts




t untn : .O. Bx 31025, 15 Wstny R Nt, Ajx ON L1T 3V2,

Cn. T.: (905) 426-5860. “Km uc,” Nzone Tonight, ptmb 24,

2008. Avb t ttp://www.yutub.cm/wtc?v=Xz2gCn-I (ccssOctb 11, 2012). Gw Ambss: “Km uc n T,” n.., ttp://www

.unsc.g/nw/n/unsc/but-us/w-w-/gw-mbsss/km-

puc-pn-t/ (ccss Octb 11, 2012).

8. Km úc, ntvw wt t ut, Ap 28, 2011. Km úc, “T Lng

R t Fgvnss,” This I Believe, Jun 30, 2008, ttp://www.np.g/tmpts

/sty/sty.pp?styI=91964687 (ccss Octb 11, 2012). An Ezbt

Om-Otunnu, “Npm uvv Ts ng t Vtnm W,” University

o Connecticut Advance, Nvmb 8, 2004. Avb t ttp://www.vnc

.ucnn.u/2004/041108/04110803.tm (ccss Octb 11, 2012).

300 Note to Page 228



301

Acknwgmnts

A bk s tm n pnt. My gtst tnks t my w, Mxun, wsuppt ts pjct m ts st ys. My cn, Mc n p,

vn n tn cut ssgnmnt wt pssb c. Ty s -

mn m t nfnt stks bn t bn tm “cvns.” My t,

D. Rbt N, n my stpmt, Ann Eg, ctqus m-

mns vu n xqust gmmtc ccucy. My bt, ss Rc-

N, sts st cmc xmp.

Jyc tz, my t, usn Wc Bm, t-n-c, Bn

Dstbg, Cstn Tstnssn, Mgux Ln, n t st t

tm t v Unvsty ss, n My Ngn n u Vncnt t

Wstcst Bk Gup’s w g, fn pubsng xcnc. I m

gtu t my nnymus vws t vc n suggstns, wc I

v n my bst t w. ny Djkst n Es Cpn, gnts pvc-

tus, pt m tug t w pubss wt vv n xcnt

jugmnt.

Cumb Unvsty n t Cty Nw Yk s suptv pc t stuyAmcn sty. My tcs n cgus t nsp m: b n,

Kn Jcksn, m Myn, C Guck, Ec Fn, An Bnky, Ans

tpnsn, Mk Mzw, Ac Kss-s, Rc Busmn, n

m mt, mng mny ts, m t sty cuty; Bb Bck, m



302 Ac knowledg ments

t w sc; n Jn Wtt, m Y Lw c. Ns, J. T.

Dnc, n Mtz Cón gu m t nng. Ntn - Rsnt,

Byn Rsnbt, Ezbt K ntn, Ksn, Nck Osbn, V-

y, J Mnsk, Dn Immw, tpn Wtm, Rubn

vzky, Abg tu, n mny ts tugt m t pw cmc

cgty. Bttny Emunsn gt m t t fns n.

Lbs t t scsp. Mc Ryn n Ec Wkn pv

t pnt t m t Cumb. But Lby’s nc st, n t vs w

mnst t Intby n Bw Dct n svcs, v ctc

mts s by mgc. Bb Mn n Kt Bws ctg t Fsps t v’s Acvs n p m mmnsy. A quttns m t

pps cutsy t cvs, n wt t pmssn. Nw Yk’s ub-

c Lby, pps t mst butu n t w, ws gt ssstnc.

“sty su b wttn s pspy,” Vt wt. I g. My tm

tcng Cntmpy Cvztn n t csss t Cumb Cg p-

uny nunc ts tts. “Emp Lbty: A Gb sty t

U.. Mty,” summ smn I tugt t sty Dptmnt, put mys n cntxt. My ungut n gut stunts—bst, s ty knw,

pssb stunts—kpt my spts g, n my t n t gun. Mtt

Jns, Rsvt Mnts, p Ktc, Mc tnswsk, n Ktyn

Ytks pn t m, n tugt m muc but pspy. Dv

Rtzn n Mgn Dty st by my s. Lvn Lc, Mc Dunn,

Kstn Gg, Jnn Tmpsn, Dzzc, M Bqu, D

nn, n Nn Tunssn ncug m vy stp t wy.

Mny xpts gv m cuc nsgts, pv suc mts I wu

tws v mss, n nsw qustns, n ptcu n Ti Km

úc, Ec ksc, Mvn Lumsn, . Buc Fnkn, W. ys ks,

Ey Rs, Buc Cumngs, Jn y, v-ptnt Dns Cng, Ms

Ct, xctng n M. Fnkstn, Jntn B, n Jm Dngmn.

Bnksy, y Ktz, Vt . Ltv, t v Unvsty Acvs, t

Ntn Acvs, t U.. Amy, Nvy, Cst Gu, n A Fc, D. W-

m F. pp, Cb tn n Avnt Rsc, n t Unvsty Wscnsn, mng ts, cntbut mgs. pkng pptunts t t

Nw Yk Mty As ympsum, t tzmn Insttut W n

c tus t Cumb’s c Intntn n ubc As, A-

zn tt Unvsty, n t Gg Wsngtn Unvsty-Lnn c



Ac knowledg ments 303

Ecnmcs-Unvsty Cn t nt Bb Intntn Gut

tunt Cnnc n t C W p m gnz my tugts n

gnt usu bck.

Dv Kvtz pcng g nyss, w tt, n bst

nsp. N gmn’s Russn ws wss. Dn Zcmn ws -

qunt byn ws. Mun n En Mzn, Axn D, y-

s M, n Ayss Mkt gv m pc mn. Mcn K. Nn p

m cs ts tpc, n ws cs t ts xpstn tn nyn.

I w my uctn t ng pcssn tcs tt stt wt my

mt, Ev J. N, MD, pss mcn n bcmsty t vMc c, n ncus ns n w stunts t v Cg,

t Ntn Unvsty ngp, n scs un t w, s w s

Cumb. Ts bk cs t cntbutns n vy w.





305

Ams, Lyt, 45, 47–48, 50–51

Ams, Rg, 12, 28, 37

A gnstn, 191, 195, 207

Axn t Gt, 18

Aumnt nptnt, 32– 34

Aumnt pmtt, 32– 33

Amcn Cynm C., 33

Amcn Ectc C., 144–145

Ang, 107, 195–196

Antx, 200–201

Apocalypse Now, 149, 155, 163–164,

203

Agntn, 195

Amu n C., 33

An, ny “p,” 28, 46, 62, 68, 72,

74, 82, 85

Assct Fcty Mutu F Insunc

Cmpns, 27, 53

Atmc bmb, 7, 72, 81–82, 85–86, 91, 106,

159; cst tv t npm, 86

Avnt Rsc, 161

Bby Incny, 24

B, J. G., 151–152, 154

Bnksy, 164

Bnk, Ru, 152

Btt Mm Insttut, 202, 204–205

Bxt, Rc, 175, 179–180

Bnzn, 30, 116, 202, 205, 207, 211

Bgn, Dn n p, 143

Bb, Bsn, 196–197

Bgjvc, R, 203

Bv, 105, 223, 302

Bmbs: B-25, 37; B-25 wt bt bmbs,

47–48; B-17, 63, 71–72; B-29, 66–69,

71–73, 80–81, 84–85, 97–98; B-26

(Dugs), 104–105, 114

Bmbng, U.. “pcsn,” 61, 62, 64, 66,

96, 99, 103, 112; U.. “,” 63–64,

66, 68–69, 72–73, 82, 84–85, 96, 98,

102, 112, 182, 192

Bmbng tts: WWII, 61; Jpn, 84;

K, 99–100; Vtnm, 111

Bmbss: M-47, 30, 31, 33– 34, 56, 75,

84; M-69/AN-M69, 37–42, 56, 69, 76,

84–85; M-50, 41–42; M-52, 41–42; bt

bmbs, 46; Mk-77 (MK-77), 209,

211–215

Bstn, MA, 6, 14–15, 22, 33, 75, 143, 153,

223, 227

Bz, 107

Bggs, Lymn J., 10

Bwn, U, 21

Buts, ncny, 24, 168–170, 177

Bus, Gg . W., 224

Bus, Gg W., 194, 208, 216, 218, 221, 224

Bus, Vnnv, 7–10; t NDRC, 7, 9, 37;

t ORD, 26, 28, 37, 53, 86

But, Bnjmn, 22

Byzntn mp, 19, 20, 21

Cn tt Unvsty, Ls Angs,

141

Cmb, 1, 156, 195

Cmbg, MA, 5, 12, 15, 31, 32, 37, 139, 193

Cn, 184, 188, 227

Inx



306 Index

Cput, p, 153

Csb, NM, 45, 47, 49; Csb

Cvns, 45Cng Insttut Wsngtn, 8, 9, 11

Csy, Rbt, 218–219

Ct, Jmmy, 188, 287

Cnt t Tky R n W

Dmgs, 159

Cnt Intgnc Agncy (CIA), 42

C, 196

Cn t, 24

Cstn, C, 22

Cmc W vc (CW), 11, 23,26–28, 30– 32, 36– 37, 40–42, 46–47, 50,

52–56

Cn, 20–21, 66, 68, 71, 92, 96, 98–99,

106, 111, 156, 165, 169, 174, 192, 195, 214

Cuc, Wnstn, 25, 26, 64, 102–103

Cvn csuts, 11, 73, 102, 120, 124,

126, 216, 219; “cncnttns

cvns,” 190, 192, 216, 219, 224

CLARION, Optn, 65

Cntn, B, 194, 216, 218–220, 224Cust muntns, 193, 217–220, 224;

Cnvntn n, 217–219

Ccnut, 33– 34, 55–56, 110

Cumb Unvsty, 27, 52, 56, 135

Cmptn, K, 8, 10

Cnnt, Jms Bynt, 8, 11, 13, 14; t

NDRC, 10, 11, 26

Cn Lgn, Gmn, 24

Cngv, Wm, 21

Cnvntn n Ctn CnvntnWpns (CCW), 165, 188–189, 192, 194,

217–221; tc III, 165, 181, 189, 190–191,

194, 196, 212, 216–218, 220–222, 224

Cs By, OR, 199–200

Cu, Jck, 49–51

Cunc Ntn Dns, 9

Csby, Bng, n Ly Csby, 48–49

Cub, 104, 194–195, 223

Cutt, Rné, 93, 100

Cypus, 105–106

Death Race, 161–162

Dvn, Lus, 49–50

Dvnyctyn, 14, 15, 30

Dn, . D. (“T”), 123–124, 136, 141

Dnvn, Wm, 46

Dw Cmc C., 116–117, 121–125,130–132, 134–138, 140–145; npm

puctn, 136; tt ptsts 1966–

1968, 136; tt ptsts 1968–1970, 144

Dsn, Gmny, 63–65

Dugwy vng Gun, UT, 40, 42, 51,

226

Dunnt, Jn-n, 166–167

Dunt C., 14–15, 31, 37–40, 55

Estmn Kk, 37, 56

Egtn, , 35

Egw Asn, MD (nw Abn

vng Gun), 27–28, 32, 42, 52, 59

Egn F, FL, 42, 47; Egn A Fc

Bs, 116

Egypt, 6, 20, 87, 105, 107

E Cnt Mn A ttn, 51

E v, 195

Ep, R. Buc, 47, 49–50Etp, 52, 194

Evtt, MA, 15, 25

Fcbk, 163

Fc, Mu, 62

Fs, Fnc, 57

Fbk Nv Wpns ttn,

Bc, CA, 148, 194, 202, 205–206

Fs, Lus, 5–6, 12–15, 25– 37, 42–52,54–55, 58, 70, 91, 110, 137–140, 177,

225–226; npm, 15; npmng

cbgss, 44; bt bmbs, 46–51

Fs, My ts, 13, 139–140

Fight Club, 157, 160

F: sty s wpn, 15–25, 27;

cmsty, 16

Fstm, 6, 62–63, 76, 79, 81, 83, 95

Fm Assut u Wpn

(FLA), 188Fmtws, 18–23, 27, 53, 60; Gmn,

22–23, 53; Jpns, 53; M1, 53; E1,

53–54; tnk-munt, 54, 59, 95;

npm M1/M1A1, 55–56; U.. WWII

cfc tt, 59; Vt Cng, 111



Index 307

Fmng, Rbt L., 22

Fnc, 8–9, 12, 16, 20, 21, 23–24, 27, 52,

57, 88, 105–107, 109, 114, 131, 166–169,169–170, 172, 188, 195, 197, 206, 221

Fnkn, . Buc, 116–118, 120–121

Fnc, Jn, 23

Fu-G bns, 39

Gsn, 6, 30, 31– 34, 37, 43, 54–58, 66,

72, 86, 90, 93, 99, 105, 109, 113–114, 116,

129, 137, 143, 150, 157, 160, 163, 198–199,

202, 204–205, 207, 211Gn, Mt, 127–128

Gn Cnnc t Lmttn n

Ructn Ammnts, 170–171

Gnv Cnvntns, 27, 168, 179–180, 186,

211, 221

Gmny, 12–14, 23–24, 26, 40–41, 43, 52,

56, 59–65, 67, 71–72, 102, 124, 167,

169–172, 186, 188, 221; us m-

tws, 22–23, 53; g Ln,

57, 60Gstck, C, 132, 142–144

Gbt, A. C. C., 47

Gbt n Bk C., 53

GNI Gup, 205–206

Gub, Ln, 152

Gt Btn, 21, 26, 102, 115, 172, 200,

212–213

Gc, 91–92, 104–105, 223

Gk F, 19–22, 188

Gn, Gm, 113, 118, 151, 154Gum, Mns Isns, 66, 69, 74, 80

Gunc, Bsqu Cunty, pn, 24–25,

172

Gun, Rbt, 67, 76–77, 79

Gunpw, 15, 21, 30, 31, 34, 35

gu c Cnncs (1899 n 1907),

168, 179

mbug, Gmny, 62–63nkw (Wun), Cn, 68

ns, yw, 68–69, 71

s, Atu, 64, 73–74

v Unvsty, 5, 7, 8, 10–14, 25,

27– 30, 33– 34, 37, 42–44, 48, 55, 57, 86,

110, 132, 135–137, 139–140, 144, 175, 179;

Annymus Rsc jct N. 4, 5,

29, 86; Busnss c, 5, 35– 36;Cnvs Cmsty Lbty, 15,

26, 137; psn gs sc, 26–28;

Gbbs Cmsty Lbty, 29– 30,

32, 47; tb stum, 30, 34; Cnnt

Cmsty Lbty, 136–137

smt, z, 79

w, 31, 41, 59

cus, 17, 225

sbg, Emnu Bnjmn (E. B.),

14–15, 30, 34– 35, 37– 39, 110, 137gskw, Tsk, Utk, Kzuy,

n Ktsub, 77–78

sm, 84, 86, 125, 203, 225

yw, CA, 41, 80, 84, 151, 156, 159

pkns, y, 8–9

tt, yt, 38, 139

UKY, Optn, cy, 55–56

In, 17, 21, 68, 71, 97, 107Inns, 30– 31, 140, 195

Intnt, 151, 162, 215

Iq, 107, 155, 194–196, 207–216

Is, 87–90, 105, 195, 217, 223

Ity, 9, 12, 52, 65, 166, 169–170, 186, 188

Iw Jm, 59, 80, 188

Jpn, 12, 24–25, 27, 31, 39–42, 44–47, 51,

53–54, 58, 60–62, 66–69, 71–77, 80–81,83–86, 92, 96–99, 103, 111, 121, 148, 159,

169–170, 172, 188, 198–199, 216, 223, 226;

us mtws, 53; WWII mg

t, 81

Jsn vng Gun, Msn, IN,

37, 226

Jwtt, Fnk, 8, 10–11

Jnsn, Lynn B., 110, 115, 123, 134, 174,

220

Jnv, Jn , 20

Knny, Rbt F., 124, 127

Ky, Fncs ctt, 21

Knc C., 53



308 Index

Kng, Mtn Lut, J., 129, 131

Kb, Jpn, 66, 72

K: ut, 92–93, 96, 98–100, 110–111,113, 148; Nt, 92–100, 110, 113

Kn W, 103, 110, 113, 134, 148, 151, 155,

173, 185, 223; bmbng tts, 99–100

Ladies Home Journal, 126, 129

Ln mns, 110, 186, 189–190, 224; Mn

Bn Tty, 217

Luc c, 33

LMy, Cuts, 67, 69–74, 82–84, 97, 100,225–226

Liberty, U, 87–90

L’ Abn, 6

Lncn, Abm, 22

Ltt, Atu D. C., 31, 32

Lnn, Engn, 23–26, 102, 110, 169, 214

Ls Angs Cunty Ntu sty

Musum, 46–47, 49

Lutw, 24, 25

McAtu, Dugs, 86, 97–98, 100

Mgnsum, 23–25, 28, 30, 38, 52, 62–63

Mys, 30– 31

Mncut, Fnc, 23

Mnckt Cmc C., 33

Maltha, 18

Mnbug, Gmny, 56

Msscustts Gn spt, 133

Msscustts Insttut Tcngy(MIT), 7–8, 10, 11, 12, 27, 31, 35;

ncny sc, 53–54

My, Jn, 163

McCty, Eugn, 153

McCnnn, Gg, 22

McGvn, Gg, 153

McKwy, t. C, 73–74, 83

McNm, Rbt, 109–110, 130, 268

Medea, 18

MEETINGOUE, Optn, 76Mtsp Cmc C., 32, 33, 34

Mxcn -t bt, 46

Mn Bn Tty, 217

Mtc, Rv., n Eys Mtc, 40

Mgn, Rbt, 69–70, 73, 80–81

Mkw, umk, Atsuk, Ryk, n

Kc, 77

Mzmbqu, 107Muns, Jn, 159–160

Muc Amy A Bs (nw Ews

AFB), 47

Must gs, 30

Naatun, 20

Ngy, Jpn, 68–69, 71, 83

“Nu,” 33

Npm, fntn , 33Npm Dt bn, 154

Npm.nt, 162

Npm Rcs, 154

“Npm tcks t Ks,” 152–153, 155–156

Ntn Acmy cncs, 8, 10, 14,

138–139

Ntn Cnt stc n Rcn-

stuctv ugy (Bsky Cnc),

Vtnm, 147

Ntn Dns Rsc Cmmtt(NDRC), 7, 10–12, 23, 26–27, 29, 31,

37– 38, 46, 51, 56; Dvsn B, 10, 11;

Unum Cmmtt, 10, 11; Dvsn D,

11; mtws, 53–54

Ntn Invnts Cunc (NIC), 46

Ntns, 31, 53, 164, 168–170, 184, 197

Nw Gg, mn Isns, 54

Nw Gun, 54

Nw Yk, NY, 9, 76, 82–83, 122–123, 131,

152, 158, 193Ng, 107, 176

9/11 ttcks, 151, 158–159, 163

Nbtt-pks Inusts, 35

Nst, Lus, 68–69, 74, 84

Nt Atntc Tty Ognztn

(NATO), 105, 183, 192, 197

Nux ucts Cmpny, 32, 34

O’Dnn, Emmtt “Rs,” 97–98, 100Obm, Bck, 194, 217, 220, 224

Obt, Mstk, 79–80

O c cntfc Rsc n Dvp-

mnt (ORD), 26, 57, 85

O c ttgc vcs (O), 42–43, 46



Index 309

Of cer and a Gentleman, An, 155

Oknw, Jpn, 58–59, 61, 198

O’Ly, Ms. Ctn, 17, 27

mtc c, 33

ks, ys, 180, 189–190

ttsn, Rbt, 55

pp, W m F., 126–127, 129

u, 105, 176, 223

n Ti Km úc, 1–4, 146–148,

163–164, 176, 214, 224, 226–228

ppns, 31, 53, 104; Btt Ip Dm,58, 60; Lyt, 60

spus: wt, 2– 3, 6, 27, 35, 38, 39,

46, 56, 76, 110, 112, 126, 133, 190, 199,

214; , 47

yscns c Rspnsbty, 132, 211

css, b, 25

ctnny Asn, 35

, pu Nw Gun, 56

Platoon, 61, 156, 158

np, Ft tts Mcns, 56sn gs, 11, 25–28, 52, 115, 169–170, 179,

184; Lwst, 11

utn Cnt Inusts (CI), 202–204

mn Cg, 131–132

, J Gsn ( J. G., “Gg”), 43

tug, 107

w, Tms, 76, 82

jct X-Ry, 51

ksc, Ec, 121, 134

yngyng, Nt K, 96–100, 226

Rmbut, G, 25, 26

Ramparts, 119, 122, 126, 128–130, 157

Rgn, Rn, 84, 192, 224

Redbook, 126, 128–129

R Css, Intntn Cmmtt

(ICRC), 9, 167–168, 172–173, 176,

179–184, 186, 189, 209, 210; Amcn,

9, 168; Cnnc Expts, Lucn,181, 183–185, 189; Cnnc

Expts, Lugn, 184–185, 190

Rw Cty, CA, 118–122, 132, 145, 151, 193

Rw Cty Cmmtt gnst Npm,

119–121

Rc, t, 132–133

Rs, R. . “Dusty,” 51

RKO tus, 41Rckts, 2, 21, 22, 88–89, 92–94, 105, 109,

113, 150, 185, 188, 190, 194

Rmn my, 18–19

Rsvt, En, 45

Rsvt, Fnk n D., 7, 9, 12, 45–46, 61

Rubb, 6, 22, 31– 32, 55

Russ, Btn, 114, 119

Russ, 12, 40, 43, 85, 92, 140, 167, 169,

196–197; UR, 102, 171, 174, 176, 183,

191, 194

gn, ut Vtnm, 1, 4, 110, 114, 125,

128, 146–148

pn, Mns Isns, 57, 59, 66, 68,

80

kmt, Cyk, 79

msn, 17, 56

u, ut K, 92, 95–96, 99

b, 196–197ng, Cn, 24, 25

Shooter , 160

t, Lv, 22

, Vct, 132–133

mpsn, Jssc, 163

ut Ac, 107, 196

pgt, J. M., 103–104, 112

pn, 87, 107, 221

Lnk, 30

tn O Dvpmnt Cmpny(OD), 28, 32– 33, 37, 38; pc Gmn

uss, 39–41; mtws, 53

tn O Cn (Cvn), 118,

121

tn yx C., 47

tn Cmmtt c n Vtnm,

116, 120–121

tn Unvsty, 56, 118, 121

tnbck, Jn, 110

tvnsn, E, 46tmsn, ny, 53, 65–66

t. tsbug Dctn (1868), 167–171

tunts Dmctc cty (D),

122–123, 130, 132, 138, 141

wtzn, 127, 166–167, 180–181, 184



310 Index

“T W” ptgp, 2, 4, 148, 163,

165, 176, 201, 224

Tnt, U, 175Tmt, 23, 24, 25, 27, 30, 42

Tucys, 17

Tnn, Mns Isns, 57, 60, 66, 80

Tz, ny, 26

TNT, 13, 35

Tky, Jpn, 61, 66–67, 69, 71–73, 75–77,

80–83, 85–86, 223, 225–226; Kkt

Bg, 79, 81; 9 Mc 1945 fstm

csuts, 81

Tmn, Rc, 8, 10Tty c btwn t A n

Assct ws n Gmny

(Vss Tty), 170

Tumn, y, 96, 100, 138

Tuns, 106–107

Tuky, 18, 105, 167

Unt Kngm, 9, 12, 21, 24, 26, 102, 107,

169–170, 172, 188, 196–197, 200, 212, 221Unt Ntns, 92, 96, 103, 105, 165,

174–176, 178, 180–181, 183, 195, 197, 208,

224, 227; ctt, 173, 175–176;

Intntn Cnnc n umn

Rgts (Tn), 174–175; Respect or

Human Rights in Armed Conict, 175,

178–179

Unt tts A Fc, 17, 97–99, 102,

110, 112, 116, 152–153, 156, 159, 164, 208;

Amy A Fc, 28, 46, 56–57, 64–68,70–74, 84, 86, 97; Nnt U.. A Fc,

57; Egt A Fc, 57, 64–65;

Twntt A Fc, 68, 71, 74; XXI

Bmb Cmmn, Twntt A

Fc, 68–69, 73, 85; XX Bmb

Cmmn, Twntt A Fc, 71;

Ft A Fc, 93

Unt tts Amy, 10–11, 15, 22, 31, 34,

37–44, 46–47, 50, 52–53, 55, 59–60,

65–66, 68–71, 92–93, 95, 97, 99, 102,104, 110, 112, 115, 148, 153, 185, 188, 198,

211, 215, 220

Unt tts Mns, 37, 51, 66, 93, 95,

99, 103, 115, 196, 208–210

Unt tts Nvy, 9, 35– 36, 37, 46, 53,

57–59, 69, 87–88, 94, 96, 99, 105, 155,

194, 198–199, 202–206, 208–210, 212Unt tts nt, Cmmtt n

Fgn Rtns, 216, 218, 220

Unt Tcngy Cnt (UTC), 116–117,

119, 121–123

Unt W p Cmpny, 56

Unvsty Ccg, 27, 135

Unvsty Ins, 12, 135

Unvsty Wscnsn-Msn, 123,

130–131, 134–136

Ut, uyn Cng “Nck,” 2–4Ut tt sn, 41

Vcksbug, M, 22

Vqus, R, 198–199

Vt Cng, 1–2, 114–115, 129–130, 142; Vt

Mn, 106; us mtws, 111

Vtnm, 193, 201, 206; ut, 1– 3, 4,

110–111, 113–115, 123, 126, 129, 146–148,

164; Nt, 1, 110, 113, 159, 165, 174Vtnm W, 110, 113, 119, 122, 135, 142,

145, 148, 151–152, 156, 165, 176, 194, 201,

202–204, 212, 224–225; bmbng tts, 111

Wkbys, Knsuk, 79, 82

W uctn B, U.., 33– 34

Wsw ct, 174, 183, 192

Wg, Buc, 155

We Were Soldiers, 158–159Wms Cg, 5, 13–14, 44, 138–139

W W I, 22, 25, 52, 54–55

W W II, 4–6, 17, 26, 40, 71, 96, 103,

108, 110, 115, 121, 139, 172, 182, 189;

A bmbng tts, 61

Ynk ngnuty, 4

Ymn, 107

YuTub, 163

Zntt, Enqu, 27, 52

Zppn sps, 22, 23, 24