Name: ____________________ Period: _____

APWH WORKBOOK

Unit Two: 600 BCE to 600 CE

Due Date: _________ Score: ____/30

This packet will guide you through the first unit in AP World History and prepare you for the reading quiz, vocabulary quiz, first essay, and first unit test on September ___.

You must complete ALL of the pages in the packet by yourself to get credit; incomplete or incorrect work will result in a zero for the whole packet.

Memorize and Know the Meaning of these Words for Vocabulary Quiz #2

1. Celibacy

2. Afterlife

3. Reincarnation

4. Missionaries

5. Pilgrims

6. Filial

7. Conversion

8. Sacred Texts

9. Feudal

Memorize and Know the Meaning of these Words for Vocabulary Quiz #3 1. Empire

2. Ideology

3. Bureaucracy; civil service

4. Social hierarchy, stratification, inequality

5. Patriarchy

6. Slavery

7. Urban

8. Tax revenue

9. Nobility

10. Elites

11. Autonomy

12. Citizen

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RELIGION OR BELIEF SYSTEMS

DEFINITION OF RELIGION:The human relationship with the sacred, with forces in and beyond nature

REASONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF BELIEF SYSTEMS:1. Protection and support or security in an uncertain world2. Desire for a deeper sense of the significance of life3. Hope for existence after death4. Provides answers to eternal questions about existence

a. Where do we come from?b. Why are we here?c. What happens to us when we die?d. What is our relationship to the environment?

FIVE COMMON TRAITS OF BELIEF SYSTEMS:1. Sacred calendar and rituals2. Sacred spaces3. Sacred teachings and writings4. Sacred symbols 5. Religious organization or hierarchy

Seminar on Belief Systems:

1. How do the ancient belief systems address gender? (Hint: patriarchy, gender of deities, and roles of women and children)

2. Why are sacred calendars and sacred spaces prominent in all ancient belief systems?3. Why are the sacred texts important in ancient times?4. What did priests do?5. Why are the rituals so different?

Write one question and one answer about the effects of each belief system on social and gender structures.

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EARLY BELIEF SYSTEMS

Confucianism

Daoism Time/Place of Founding

Master Kung 551 - 479 BCE Master Lao (c. 604 - c. 517 BCE)

Deity(s) Popular Confucianism -- city god, kitchen god who report to the Jade Emperor

Popular Daoism -- 8 Immortals, Queen Mother of the West, Jade Emperor

Founder/Leaders

Mencius, Han Yu Daoist priests -- geomancers and chemists

Key Texts Analects, Five Classics Daodejing, I ChingBeliefs/Practices/Rituals

Major belief emphasizes the moral goodness of human beings that can be achieved through correct teachings; practices are emphasis on education for boys and ancestor worship

Major belief is that harmony can be achieved from balance of human activities and the natural world; practices are meditation, martial arts, herbs and acupuncture to prolong life

Women’s Role

subservience to father, husband, son

some priestesses

Expansion/Influence

East Asia (Korea, Japan, Vietnam)/merit civil service based on examinations of Confucian learning

East Asia/development of gunpowder, medicine, geography, compass

Answer these questions:

How did Confucianism support a system of social inequality? (Hint: who had power? Who had to be obedient?)

How did Daoism encourage scientific innovation? (p. 144)

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Hinduisms BuddhismsTime/Place of Founding

Indus Valley1500 BCE (caste system)

5th century BCE; northern India

Deity(s)many local deities as well

Brahma (oversoul)Vishnu (Krishna) [consorts: Lakshmi and Saraswati]Shiva [consort: Kali]Ganesh, elephant-headedRama [consort: Sita]Sitala, goddess

Originally prohibited, but around the 2nd century C.E., statues of the Buddha and bodhisattvas proliferated. Then, local gods remade into Buddhist gods.

Founder/Prophet/Leaders

no recorded beginningmixture of local subcontinent religion with Aryan war gods

Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama -- 563 - 483 BCE)Mahayana Buddhism reveres bodhisattvas

Holy Book(s)written in Sanskrit

Rigveda (1500 - 1200 BCE) 1028 verses compiled by Aryan brahminsUpanishads (800 - 500 BCE) philosophical treatisesMahabharata (300 - 300 CE) prayers and stories, incl. Bhagavad-gitaRamayana (300 - 300 CE) epic poem about Rama

many sutras (sermons), e.g. Lotus Sutra

Beliefs/Practices/Rituals/Symbols/Architecture

ritual purity needed for puja (daily, individual prayer); pilgrimage centers near sacred rivers and mountainsflexibility for pujaPurusha’s body sacrificed to create caste system: priests, warriors, merchants, peasants [Untouchables excluded from caste system.]reincarnation (samsara): soul (atman) seeks to unite with Brahman (moksha)dharma: rules for each atmankarma: effects of following or disobeying dharma on the atmansexual passion in sculptures metaphor represent passion for union with godsornate temples

Accepting the Four Noble Truths to achieve nirvana:1. Life is suffering2. Suffering comes from desire.3. Eliminate desire.4. Follow the Eight-Fold Path (Living life w/moderation)o Right Understandingo Right Aimso Right Speecho Right Actiono Proper Worko Right Thinkingo Proper Awarenesso Meditation

Women’s Roles

goddesses and female force important though subservient role of wife emphasizedprayers by women like Mirabai accepted

nuns, bodhisattvas

Hinduisms BuddhismsExpansion/Influence

Southeast Asia through trade or importing brahmins for legitimacy and principles of administration, art and architecture

Mauryan King Ashoka about 260 BCE after his war with the Kalinga spread Buddhism throughout India and to Sri Lanka (Missionaries spread Buddhism from there to Southeast Asia) and Bactria (Missionaries spread Buddhism from there to Central Asia and East Asia.)

How did Hinduism support a system of social inequality? (varna or caste system)

How was Buddhism similar to Christianity in using missionaries and monasteries to give men and women at the bottom of their social hierarchies a different role in life?

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Judaism ChristianityTime/Place of Founding

2000 BCE/Canaan or Israel (later called Palestine under the Romans)

first century/Roman Palestine

Deity(s)many local deities as well

“God” (Jews do not have a name for God)

Jesus Christ, Trinity

Founder/Prophet/Leaders

Abraham, Moses,Hebrew prophets, temple priests including a High Priest

Mary, Apostles and Disciples,Hebrew prophets, the Pope (for Catholics), Patriarchs (for Eastern Orthodox)

Holy Book(s)written

Torah (The Five Books of Moses), Mishnah, Talmud

Gospels, Old and New Testaments

Beliefs/Practices/Rituals/Symbols/Architecture

The Hebrews made a covenant or agreement with God to obey the Ten Commandments and the 613 laws for daily life including required charity, day of rest, and restrictions on food; reverence for the Torah (The Five Books of Moses) and Jerusalem where the Temples stood. Jews believe that the Messiah will come and bring peace to the world. They also believe in an afterlife.

Christians accept the divinity of Jesus Christ and that his resurrection offers salvation for all who believe in him. Christians follow the Ten Commandments -- especially the day of rest; reverence for the New and Old Testaments (The Bible) and the sacred cities of Jerusalem, Bethlehem,Rome (for Roman Catholics) and other cities with special shrines.They believe in an afterlife and hell for sinners.

Women’s Roles

Matriarchs, Judges, educators in the home, some rituals related to the home are only done by women

nuns, saints

Expansion/Influence

Forced migrations created diaspora communities of Jews throughout the Mediterranean, Middle East, most of Europe, India, Central Asia, Western China; idea of a day of rest; Ten Commandments

Missionaries spread Christianity throughout the Mediterranean, Middle East, Ethiopia, most of Europe, India, Central Asia, Western China; canon (church) law

List three similarities between Judaism and Christianity:1.2.3.

Reading Questions for the story of Ruth

1) Why did Naomi decide to return to Judah? 2) What did she tell her daughters-in-law? 3) Why did Ruth insist on going with Naomi? 4) What was the family relationship between Boaz and Naomi? 5) Why was Ruth gleaning in Boaz’s field? 6) What Jewish values does the story show?

Reading Questions for Mira Bai1. How does she do puja (Hindu prayer)? 2. Why does she pick Gopala as her lord? 3. Why was her husband’s family upset with her?4. What did they do? 5. What did the other Hindus think about Mira Bai? 6. What does the story tell us about Hinduisms?

Reading Questions for Isidasi1. Why did Isidasi have so many reincarnations? (Hint: what dharma did s/he

disobey?)2. How did her husbands know about her karma?3. Why does she become a Buddhist?4. How does she practice Buddhism?5. What does her father think about her conversion?6. What Buddhist values does the story emphasize?

Reading Questions for “Mary the Harlot”1. Why did Mary become a harlot (prostitute)?2. What Christian beliefs and practices did her uncle use to convince her to return to

the monastery?3. What ancient Christian beliefs and practices does her life represent?4. Why would this story help convert people to Christianity?5. What kind of people would the story attract?6. What Christian values does the story emphasize?

Reading Questions for Ban Zhao [need more]1. Why does Ban Zhao write her book?2. What are the Confucian principles she lists?3. What does she say are the roles that Confucian women should have?4.

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Score: ___/10 Summative Grade

Comparative Essay Question

On another piece of paper, write a thesis paragraph that answers the following question:

Compare how TWO of the following major belief systems affected social hierarchies and gender roles in their regions from about 2,000 B.C.E. up to 600 C.E.  The different belief systems are: Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, or Judaism.

WRITE A THESIS PARAGRAPH ONLY

Here’s some questions to consider before you begin writing:

FULLY ADDRESS THE QUESTION o Identify which two belief systems you are comparingo What regions they were ino What kind of social hierarchies and gender systems existed in those regions

(rigid/loose; many levels or not?)o What part of the time period from 2,000 B.C.E. to 600 C.E. you will analyzeo Will your essay show changes over the time period?

TAKE A POSITIONWere they more similar or more different in the ways they affected social hierarchies and gender roles?

PROVIDE ORGANIZATIONAL CATEGORIES (WHAT YOUR TOPIC SENTENCES WILL SAY)What ways did the two belief systems affect social hierarchies and gender roles? (Did they become more rigid or looser? Were there more or fewer levels of social classes? Did gender roles become more defined or more flexible for men and/or women?)

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DBQ GROUPING ONLY EXERCISE

DIRECTIONS: PART ONE: Identify the political and/or cultural values presented in each source, and then place them in groups according to the values they represent. You must put each source in at least one group, but you may put any source in more than one group. There must be at least TWO sources in each grouping.

Political Values (identify at least TWO political values and list the sources that show those values)

Political Value #1: _______________________ Sources:

Political Value #2: _______________________ Sources:

Cultural Values (identify at least TWO cultural values and list the sources that show those values)

Cultural Value #1: _______________________ Sources:

Cultural Value #2: _______________________ Sources:

PART TWO:Identify at least TWO other types of primary sources from ancient Greece that would help you answer the question. (Hint: official documents, more art, personal writings, etc.)

And, then explain how those types of sources would help you analyze the political and cultural values in ancient Greece

1. __________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

2. __________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________1. Predict the values.2. Read the sources.3. Group the sources by values identified.4. Notice any conflicts among the values.5. Analyze point of view.

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Sample Analysis of Sources

Document 1

Socrates, philosopher and teacher in the Greek city-state of Athens, 470 – 399 BCE

The unexamined life is not worth living.

SOAPSTONE ANALYSIS

SPEAKER – Socrates, philosopher and teacher

OCCASION – 470 – 399 BCE

AUDIENCE – Greek city-state of Athens

PURPOSE – teach philosophy

SUBJECT – purpose of life

TONE -- didactic, preachy “not worth”

Socrates POV (point of view): As a philosopher, Socrates argues that philosophy (examining the world) gives a purpose to life.

Point of View Analysis of Primary Sources

See the world through others’ eyes . . .

P = purposeWhat is the source supposed to do? What is it about? Who would gain or lose from the information in the source?

O = originWho created the source? When? Where? What kind of source is it (letter, official document, personal photograph, etc.)

V = valueHow can the source help answer the question? What other questions does the source raise for historians? How does the tone of the text affect the reader?

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WORLD HISTORY(Suggested writing time – 40 minutes)

You should spend at least 10 minutes reading, analyzing, and grouping the sources.

Directions: The following question is based on the accompanying Sources 1 - 8. (The sources have been edited for the purpose of this exercise).

The question is designed to test your ability to work with and understand historical sources. Write an essay that:

Has a relevant thesis and supports that thesis with evidence from the sources.

Uses all of the sources.

Analyzes the sources by grouping them in at least three ways as possible. Does not simply summarize the sources individually.

Takes into account both the sources of the documents and the authors’ points of view.

Explains the need for at least two additional types of source.

You may refer to relevant historical information not mentioned in the sources.

1. On the basis of the sources given, analyze the political and cultural values of Greek civilization. What other kinds of primary sources would help you analyze the political and cultural values of Greek civilization?

Historical BackgroundIn ancient Greek civilization, the polis (city-states) political system had a single ruler (tyrant) or an aristocratic council. Although they fought for control over the mountainous peninsula and islands, the people in the Greek city-states shared a written language based on letters of the Phoenician alphabet of the Middle East and they traded with each other and with neighboring states such as the Persian Empire. Under Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, Hellenism (Greek culture) spread throughout the Mediterranean and into South Asia. THIS SPACE MAY BE USED FOR PLANNING YOUR ANSWER.

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Document 1Socrates, philosopher and teacher in the Greek city-state of Athens, 470 - 399 BCE

The unexamined life is not worth living.

Document 2Aristotle, philosopher from Macedonia and teacher of Alexander the Great, 384-322 BCE

Since human reason is the most godlike part of human nature, a life guided by human reason is superior to any other. ... For man, this is the life of reason, since the faculty of reason is the distinguishing characteristic of human beings.

Document 3Pericles was a ruler of the Greek city-state of Athens. He spoke the Funeral Oration to the Athenians about 430 BCE after the Peloponnesian war with a neighboring Greek city-state, Sparta.

Our plan of government favors the many instead of the few: that is why it is called a democracy .... As for social standing, advancement is open to everyone, according to ability. While every citizen has an equal opportunity to serve the public, we reward our most distinguished citizens by asking them to make our political decisions. Nor do we discriminate against the poor. A man may serve his country no matter how low his position on the social scale.

Document 4Antigone, a play by Athenian writer, Sophocles, had written around 441 BCE. Antigone defies King Creon’s order and buries her brother who was killed while leading a rebellion.

Creon: “And still you dared to overstep these laws?”

Antigone: “For me, it was not Zeus who made that order. Nor do I think your orders were so strong that you, a mortal man, could overrun the gods’ unwritten and unfailing laws. ... I know I must die. ... but if I left my brother dead and unburied, I’d have cause to grieve as now I grieve not.”

Document 5The Illiad an epic poem by Homer, a Greek poet, probably recorded 8th century BCE

Hector handed the boy to his wife, who took him to her fragrant breast. She was smiling through her tears, and when her husband saw this he was moved. He stroked her with his hand and said: “My dear, I beg you not to be too distressed. No one is going to send me down to Hades before my proper time. But Fate is a thing that no man born of woman, coward or hero, can escape. Go home now, and attend to your own work, the loom and the spindle, and see that the maidservants get on with theirs. War is man’s business; and this war is the business of every man in Ilium, myself above all.”

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Document 6The History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, Athenian historian, 431 BCE

An Athenian citizen does not neglect the state because he takes care of his own household; and even those of us engaged in business have a very fair idea of politics. We alone regard a man who takes no interest in public affairs, not as a harmless, but as a useless character. ...

Document 7The Parthenon, a temple to the goddess Athena built by Athenian ruler Pericles, 447 BCE

Document 8

Amphora (wine jar), “Myth of the hero of the Trojan War, Achilles, killing the Amazon Queen Penthesilea,” Athenian potter and painter Exekias, 540-530 BCE

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The Conrad Demarest Model of Empires

Rome Han GuptaNecessary Preconditions for rise of empire: State-level

government High

agricultural potential

Environmental mosaic

Several small states, none clearly dominant

Mutual antagonisms among those states

Adequate military resources

Primary reason for success in empire building: An ideology

supporting personal identification with state, empire, conquest, and militarism

Major rewards: Economic

rewards (especially reaped in the early years, redistributed to the elite, and often to all levels of the society

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Empires fall because: Ideology of

expansion and conquest fuels attempts at conquest beyond practical limits

Failure to continue conquest indefinitely and to continue to bring home its economic fruits erodes faith in the ideology supporting the empire

Revolutions supported by peasants or the lower class

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CLASSICAL EMPIRES

Greek City-States then Hellenistic Empire

Roman Empire

Ideology & Political Structure

Democracy City-statesEmpire under Alexander the Great

RepublicEmpire under CaesarsImperial bureaucracy

Belief System Polytheism Polytheism until Constantine made Christianity official religion

Social Structure Patriarchy;Free male citizensWomenSlaves

Patriarchy;Free male citizensWomenSlaves

Economic Interactions Trade with Greek colonies in Mediterranean

Import silver and gold from colony in Spain, grain from North African colonies

Cultural Achievements Doric, Ionic, and X columnsLifelike sculpturesDrama and philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle)

Aqueducts;Twelve Tables of law

Han Empire Gupta EmpireIdeology & Political Structure

Mandate of Heaven (dynastic cycle)Imperial bureaucracyTribute system

Theater state

Belief System Confucian & Daoist;Buddhist at the very end

Hindu, some Jains, Buddhists

Social Structure Patriarchy;Emperorscholar-officialsPeasants & artisansMerchantsSlaves

Patriarchy;PriestsWarriors & KingsMerchants PeasantsUntouchablesSlaves

Economic Interactions Export silk across silk roads; bribed Xiongnu with silk

Export pepper

Cultural Achievements Great Wall, wheelbarrow, civil service exam,

drama

Complete the following tasks:1. Circle the elite group(s) in each empire2. Which empires did not have slavery as an important part of their economy?3. Why was slavery very important in the Roman empire?

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Compare causes for collapse of empires (review Conrad-Demarest model), including role of nomads (invading barbarians)

Results of collapse

Causes for the collapse of the Han Dynasty:

period of disunity; rise of Buddhism; continuation of Confucian bureaucratic model; Sui and then Tang dynasty

Causes for the collapse of the western part of the Roman Empire: rise of Christianity; creation of Byzantine

empire; feudalism in Latin West; rise of Arab caliphates

Causes for the collapse of the Gupta Empire: Invasion of the White Huns Overexpansion (empire got too big to

control) Empire could not raise enough money

to pay salaries of armies at the borders Rajput (regional princes) grew more

powerful than the Gupta central government

Spread of Islam (Delhi Sultanate); rise of regional and local political structures in the southern half of South Asia; increase in merchant activity with China

Write a generalization about the causes of the decline of the classical empires:

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Essay Test on Empires

The time allotted for this essay is 40 minutes, 5 minutes of which should be spent planning and/or outlining the answer.

Directions: You are to answer the following question. You should spend 5 minutes organizing or outlining your essay. Write an essay that:

Has a relevant thesis and supports that thesis with appropriate historical evidence. Addresses all parts of the question. Uses world historical context to show change over time and continuities. Analyzes the processes of change over time and continuity.

1. According to the Conrad-Demarest Model, there are three major reasons why empires collapse. Pick ONE of the following empires and analyze the process of the decline and fall of that empire.

Gupta EmpireHan EmpireRoman Empire

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Directions: Use the primary and secondary sources in the folder to answer the following questions:

Questions:1. What policies and actions did Han rulers use to enforce their ideology (political

values) and keep themselves in power?2. How did their policies and actions affect social and gender structures?3. Did their policies and actions change over time?

Primary Sources: Han Fei Tzu (Han Feizi), Memorials, c. 230 BCE

[http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/hanfei.html] Tsai Yen, poetess, “Eighteen Verses Sung to a Tatar Reed Whistle,” 3rd

century BCE http://books.google.com/books -- you can find the book authored by Sarah and

Brady Hughes Women in World History Letter from Shan-yu (Mo Tun), Ruler of the Hsiung-nu (Xiongnu) to the Han

Emperor Wen, 177 BCE and Letter from Han Emperor Wen to Shan-yu (Mo Tun), Ruler of the Hsiung-nu (Xiongnu), 177 BCE http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hantxt1.html

Ssu-Ma Ch’ien (Sima Qian), The Records of the Grand Historian of China, 110 – 85 BCE [http://www.humanistictexts.org/simaqian.htm]

Excerpts from the salt and iron debate, 81 BCE, the learned men [http://www.staff.hum.ku.dk/dbwagner/EncIt/EncIt.html] and Excerpts from the salt and iron debate, 81 BCE, the Minister

Emperor Wang Mang, bronze knife coin inlaid with gold, 7 CE [http://www.cultural-china.com/chinaWH/html/en/Arts1802bye3636.html]

Ban Zhao, Lessons for Women, c 45 – 116 CE [http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/banzhao.html]

Secondary Sources: Chinese Agricultural Techniques, 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE Chart showing Han Chinese gifts of silk to the Xiongnu Diagram of salt mining during the Han The Trung sisters [http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/heroine10.html] Illustrations of Chinese houses

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Answer the questions with information from the primary and secondary sources listed below. Keep track of which sources helped you answer each question. These notes will help you gather evidence for the comparative essay you are going to write on the causes of the decline of classical empires.

Questions: 1. What policies and actions did Roman rulers use to enforce their ideology

(political values) and keep themselves in power?

2. What are some examples of their policies and actions changing over time?

3. What are some examples of their subjects rebelling? Why did they rebel?

4. What were the greatest weaknesses of the Roman empire?

Primary Sources:o The Twelve Tables, Roman Republic, c. 450 BCE

[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/12tables.html] The Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar, 1st century BCE

[http://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/gallic.html] Roman coins, early 2nd century CE

[http://www.coinsandhistory.com/Roman_coins1.html] Description of the Rebellion of Boudicca by Tacitus, 2nd century CE

[www.athenapub.com/britsite/tacitus1.htm] Letter of Pliny the Younger, 112 CE; Letter of Emperor Trajan, 112 CE

[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/pliny1.html] The Roman Oration, by Aelius Aristides, 155 CE

[http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst205/readings/RomanOration.html] The Luxury of the Rich in Rome by Ammianus Marcellinunus 5th century CE

[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/ammianus-history14.html] Chronicle by Prosper, 455 CE; Biography of Leo the Great by Anonymous, c. 450

CE

Secondary Sources: Martin Gilbert, maps of Jewish Risings Against Roman Rule (66 – 135 CE) [go to

www.googlebooks.com and search for The Routledge Atlas of Jewish History By Martin Gilbert]

Zenobia (3rd century CE) [http://womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/ucbio_zenobia.htm]

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Directions: Answer the questions about the maps.

Map A: Empires and Trade c. 100 C.E.

Questions for Map A:1. What is the name of the routes from Changan to Alexandria?2. What motivated merchants to trade goods along these routes?3. What benefit did the imperial governments get from protecting the routes inside their borders?4. Which bodies of water would merchants use to transport their goods?5. In which regions were camels used effectively for travel along these routes?

Greek sculpture of Alexander the Great in India, 325 B.C.E.

Gandharan Buddha, Afghanistan, 4th century B.C.E.

What is similar about these two sculptures?What is different about these two sculptures?

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SouthChina Sea

Straits of Malacca

Bay of Bengal

Map B: Trade Routes of the Classical and Postclassical Periods

Questions for Map B:1. What role did nomadic peoples play along the Silk Roads and Gold Roads?2. Which empire did the Gold Roads go through?3. Which empires did the Silk Roads go through?

Map C: Spread of World Religions, c. 600 C.E.

Questions for Map C:1. Pick three different colors for the key and then color in the lines for the three belief systems.2. Which belief systems spread to the same regions?3. To which regions did Buddhism spread?4. To which region did Hinduism spread?5. To which regions did Christianity spread?

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APWH, Unit 2, Name: _____________________________ Period: __

Interactions in the Classical PeriodEssential Question: How did trading networks and geographic factors influence maritime trade from Southeast Asia to other areas in the classical world from 100 B.C.E. to 100 C.E.? 

For more than three thousand years, the ancient world was linked by elaborate trading routes that connected most parts of AfroEurasia. As caravans carried luxury goods on the Silk Roads to old markets in South Asia and to burgeoning markets in the Roman Empire, a parallel maritime trade linked Asian markets to Africa and the Mediterranean region. A complex network of sailing ships, dependent on seasonal monsoon winds, carried cargoes from India and Southeast Asia to ports throughout the ancient world. Most notable about the sea routes conducted by intermediaries (Arab, Indian, and Malay seafarers) was that they concealed the source of their goods to protect that lucrative trade. The demand for these fragrant spices and aromatic resins, worth their weight in gold, also spurred geographers, astronomers, and merchant sailors to chart new understandings of their physical world.

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What is the most common source of change in this earliest period of history? Did changes happen from diffusion of ideas from one place to other locations? Or, did changes come from independent invention of innovations like sedentary agriculture or centralized governments in many different places around the same time?

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