Mythology and the Supernatural

What is the purpose of religion from an anthropological perspective?

What is religion?“Any set of attitudes, beliefs,

and practices pertaining to supernatural power, whether they be forces, gods, spirits, ghosts, or demons”

Simple definition, extremely difficult cultural concept

Associated with all known contemporary societiesEvidence of religious practices 60,000 years ago

in early homo sapiensAnthropological concerns/questions:

Why is religion found in all societies?How and why does it vary from society to society?

Most believe religion is a human creation in response to certain needs (4):Intellectual understanding, reversion to childhood

feelings, anxiety and uncertainty, and a need for community

First 3 theories deal with psychological needsUnderstanding the world around us,

and our place in itLast theory (need for community) –

Emile DurkheimHumans living in societies feel pushed

and pulled to act a certain wayReligion arises out of this to affirm a

person’s place in society, enhance community, and give people confidence

Example: totem animalsIn aboriginal societies in Australia, an

animal comes to represent the social group

The animal on its own isn’t significant (lizard, rat, frog, etc.) but it’s representation of the social group is significant to that society

Types of supernatural forces and beingsMany societies in Polynesia believe in

manaSupernatural, impersonal force thought

to inhabit some objects and people, but not others

Think The Force in Star War…more on this later

Is there anything like this in our society?Very similar to superstitions (ex. A

baseball player’s “lucky bat” or a four-leaf clover)

Idea of a taboo is very similar to manaDifference: objects with mana are to be

touched; taboo objects are not, for their power can cause harm

Types of supernatural forces and beingsSupernatural beings fall into two categories:

nonhuman and human originNonhuman: gods and spiritsHuman: ghosts and ancestral spirits

Types of supernatural forces and beingsGods

Beliefs usually that gods created themselves, then created other things (other gods, the world, humans, plants and animals, etc.)

ExamplesMaori of New Zeland believe in 3

gods: sea, forest, agriculture They call on each god as needed

Ancient Romans: much more specialized There were 3 gods just for the plow, one

for sowing seeds, one for weeding, one for storing grain, one for manuring, etc…

Types of supernatural forces and beingsSpirits

Usually below gods in prestigeGuardian spirits, mischievous

spirits (hobgoblins)Sanpoil N.A.’s of Washington sent

little boys and girls out overnight to acquire their Guardian spirits

Types of supernatural forces and beingsGhosts and ancestor

spiritsThe idea that ghosts can be

perceived by humans is almost universal across cultures! Explanations? Many cues in everyday life

that evoke remembrance of a loved one (smells, pictures, dreams, etc.) No coincidence that ghosts

are usually close relatives, not strangers

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam – all believe in one godHowever, there is room for other supernatural

beings (ex. The Devil, angels, demons, etc.)Why do some societies have a belief in a “high

god” and others do not?G.E. Swanson: cross-cultural study of 50 societies

Societies with complex social hierarchy (ex. Family, clan, cheifdom) – 17 out of 20 believed in a “high god”

Societies without complex social hierarchy – 2 out of 19 believed in a “high god”

Conclusion? Strong suggestion that the realm of the gods parallels and reflects everyday social and political worlds

How do people interact with the supernatural?A short list (not exhaustive):

Prayer (asking for supernatural help)

Physiological experience (doing things to the body and mind; ex. trances)

Simulation (manipulating imitations of things)

FeastsSacrifices

Different than prayerPrayer is asking; magic is

compelling the supernatural to act in some intended way

We tend to associate this with “simpler” societiesKeep in mind – over 80,000

people in the U.S. take magic seriously, and claim to be witches

Magic is often employed in societies to bring about cures as well as to cause harm

Ju-ju charm protecting a canoe in Suriname, 1954

Central to many societies’ daily livesAzande of Zaire (DRoC)

Used to explain the unexplainable A man is gored by an elephant. He

must have been bewitched, because he’s never been gored by an elephant before

A man goes to his beer hut at night, lights some straw on fire, holds it up to see his beer, and his hut catches on fire. Must be witchcraft, since he has done this hundreds of times before, and his hut never caught on fire

A skilled potter produces a bowl and it cracks. Witchcraft

Cultural roots of witch craftOne theory: political turmoil

and fear of othersThe witch craze of Europe

(think Salem 1692) In 1692 the government of

Mass. was falling apart. No governor, and judicial practices broke down

Led to the accusation of hundreds, and the execution of 20

Another theory? DiseaseErgot (a fungus) when eaten

can cause hallucinations (it contains LSD). Symptoms are very similar to what we saw from the “witches” of Salem

Could have cultural roots

Why does witchcraft appear in so many societies?Beatrice Whiting: found in societies which lack

procedures to deal with crime and other offensesBasically, if you do something wrong the person

you wronged can cause you ill-willVery similar to karma

Incan society: if you do something wrong, you can bring destruction to your entire village. Great social control.

Shaman: part-time male specialist who is involved in healing (usually has high status in society) Enters into a trance, journeys to

other worlds in order to get help from guardians or spirits

Sorcerers and witches: invoke supernatural forces to cause harm or ill-will (usually low social and economic status)

Mediums: very similar to shaman, but usually female

Urarina Shaman, Amazonian rainforest, 2006

Priests: full-time male specialists who are able to relate to gods beyond the ordinary person’s control (usually high status)Dependence on memorized

ritual protects the priestIf a shaman repeatedly fails to

cure illness, he will probably lose his following

If a priest performs his ritual perfectly and the gods choose not to respond, the priest will retain his position and the ritual will preserve its assumed effectiveness

Are religions adaptive?They should be, right? If the purpose of

religion is to reduce the anxieties of a people, the religion should adapt to changes in society

Contradictions to thisHindu belief in cows as sacred

May seem to be the opposite of an adaptive customHowever, it is possible that the benefits of a live

cow still outweigh the benefits of a slaughtered cow

Revival religions = efforts to save a dying culture (perceived or real)

The Seneca and the Religion of Handsome Lake (ca. 1799, New York)Handsome Lake and his text, the Gaiwiio (“Good Word”)

Preached the evils of sin, and the path to salvation by temperance (drunkenness was a huge problem among the Seneca), peace and social unity, preservation of tribal lands, proacculturation (such as learning English), and domestic morality

Led to a rapid revival among the SenecaAgricultural production improved 10-fold, temperance was

widely accepted, public health and hygiene dramatically improved

Handsome Lake church still exists to this day Cargo Cults – and Yali’s Question

Though there are many differences from religion to religion, there are also many “archetypes”Across cultures, the great hero’s and

tales often have the same componentsJoseph Campbell: “The Hero With a

Thousand Faces”Cross-cultural analysis of world

religionsConclusion: the monomyth

“A hero ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man.” – Joseph Campbell

Three sections: Departure, Initiation, and Return

Not all myths have all components of the monomythCan be only partial, out of order, etc.

Examples: Osiris (Egyptian), Prometheus (Greek), the Buddha (Indian), Moses (Judeo-Christian), Christ (Christian)

All over the placeMany books and movies are

based, either consciously or unconsciously, on the monomythLiterature: The Odyssey, Lord of

the Rings, Beowulf, Siddhartha, Harry Potter, etc.

Music: Jerry Garcia, Jim Morrison, and Bob Dylan all attribute much of their music to Campbell’s book

Film: Aladdin, The Lion King, The Matrix

Perhaps the best (and most direct) example is Star WarsGeorge Lucas used The Hero…

deliberately in writing the scripts

How can we, from an anthropological perspective, account for the universality of religion?

What is the purpose of religion?