Myth Meaning Roman

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Preferred Citation: Koortbojian, Michael.Myth, Meaning, and Memory on Roman Sarcophagi. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, c1995 1995. htt:!!ark.cdlib.or"!ark:!1#$#$!ft%199n9$$!

Myth, Meaning, and Memory on RomanSarcophagi

Michael Koortbojian

UNIVERSITY O !"#IORNI" $RESS

Berkeley Los Angeles London

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Preferred Citation: Koortbojian, Michael.Myth, Meaning, and Memory on Roman Sarcophagi. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, c1995 1995. htt:!!ark.cdlib.or"!ark:!1#$#$!ft%199n9$$!

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)his st4dy as first ritten in 1966, and an earlier version as s4b7itted in 1991 as a dissertation tothe &eart7ent of -rt 8istory and -rchaeolo"y of Col47bia University. M4ch of it has been rerittensince that ti7e. 0ne fort4nate conse4ence of this eriod of "estation has been 7y ability to 4tilie 8.(ichter7ann;s lon"


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-donis reliefs, has not yet aeared. +n "eneral, + have endeavored to kee 4 ith recent 4blicationsin the field, a7endin" 7y te>t here it see7ed sal4tary. )he Biblio"rahy, hoever, 7akes no clai7sto co7rehensivity, nor does it reflect all the 7aterials cons4lted? it 7erely collects the f4ll citations ofthose orks act4ally referred to in the notes.

+t has been 7y "ood fort4ne to have been able to ork in 7any e>cellent libraries, and + "ratef4llyacknoled"e the assistance + have received fro7 their staffs: the -very -rt /eference 3ibrary,

Col47bia University? the British 3ibrary? the Biblioteca -ostolica 2aticana? the Biblioteca 8ertiana?the Ca7brid"e University 3ibrary? the &e4tsches -rch@olo"isches +nstit4t in /o7e? the +nstit4te ofClassical (t4dies, 3ondon? the 3ibrary of the -7erican -cade7y in /o7e? the 3ibrary of the Aac4ltyof Classics, Ca7brid"e University? and, above all, the arb4r" +nstit4te.

Aor financial s4ort of 7y research + thank Col47bia University;s &eart7ent of -rt 8istory and-rchaeolo"y, the (a74el 8. Kress Ao4ndation, and Kin";s Colle"e, Ca7brid"e.

-t the University of California Press + o4ld like to thank &eborah Kirsh7an, ola B4r"er, andesecially 7y editor, (tehanie Aay, for all their efforts.

)o 7any friends and collea"4es + oe 74ch, and it is ith the "reatest leas4re that + thank the7 here:3eonard Barkan, -ndrea Carlino, =i4see d;-rcan"elo, =odelieve &enhaene, Melissa &olin", 3isa

Alor7an, -lfred Araer, (i"rid =oldiner, (heree aros, icholas Mann, Constantine Marinesc4, aneecol, Mark Petrini, *liabeth Mc=rath, (arah McPhee, ordana Po7eroy, &avid /osand, /4th/4binstein, Urs4la (d4nn4s, Kerry (hear, 3a4ra (latkin, ere7y )anner, *liabeth )eviotdale, . B.)ra, Mary 2accaro, /4th ebb, Phili eller, and 8anneke irtjes.

)o Marie )anner, 7y thanks are s7all reco7ense for the tr4e friendshi and ise co4nsel she hasshon 7e for so 7any years.

)o /ichard Brilliantmagister et amicus7y debt is even "reater: for the constancy of hisenco4ra"e7ent and s4ort, and no less for the challen"e of his de7andin" criticis7.

)o Christina Corsi"lia, hat + oe knos no ords.

Kings College, Cambridge, 1!

"bbre+iation)

"""rch#ologischer "n$eiger

"achKbl"achener Kunstbl#tter

"Cant"rcheologia Cantiana

"cme

"cme. "nnali della %acolt& di 'ettere e %ilosofia dell(ni)ersit& degli Studi di Milano"cta""rt*ist

"cta ad archaeologiam et artium historiam pertinenta D+nstit4t47 /o7an47 orve"iaeE"cta"rch

"cta archaeologica.Coenha"en."cta"rch*ung

"cta archaeologica academiae scientiarum hungaricae"d+

"nnali dell+stituto di Corrisponden$a "rcheologica


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".+..-.".+..-."nnali dellistituto uni)ersitario orientale di -apoli, se$ione di archeologia e storiaantica

"/""merican /ournal of "rchaeology

"M

Mitteilungen des 0eutschen "rch#ologischen +nstituts, "thenische "bteilung"m-umSocMus-"merican -umismatic Society Museum -otes

"nnisa"nnali della Scuola -ormale Superiore di isa

"-R28. )e7orini, ed.,"ufstieg und -iedergang der r3mischen 2elt FBerlin and e Gork, 19HIJ.

"ntCl'"nti4uit5 Classi4ue

"ntK"ntike Kunst

"nt"ntike lastik

"rchCl"rcheologia Classica

"rch6lott+tal"rchi)io 6lottologico +taliano

"rt78he "rt 7ulletin

"rt*"rt *istory

"SRC. /obert et al.,0ie antiken Sarkophagreliefs FBerlin, 169$J.

"SR +++.19:C. /obert,0ie mythologischen Sarkophagen,2ol. +++, ts. 1J# FBerlin, 169H, 19$%, 19$9.

"SR ++.ereins )on"ltertumsfreunden im Rheinlande

7ullComm7ullettino della Commissione "rcheologica Communale di Roma

7?7y$antinische ?eitschrift

C+'


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Memoirs of the "merican "cademy in RomeMaia

Maia. Ri)ista di letterature classicheMarb2r

Marburger 2inckelmannBrogrammMF%R"

M5langes de lGcole %ranHaise de Rome. "nti4uit5M5lRomeM5langes d"rch5ologie et d*istoire de lGcole %ranHaise de Rome

Mem-apMemorie dell"ccademia di "rcheologia, 'ettere, e 7elle "rti di -apoli

MoniotMonuments et M5moires. %ondation F. iot

M=/bM=nchener /ahrbuch der bildenden Kunst

Mus*el)Museum *el)eticum

-Sc-oti$ie degli Sca)i di "ntichit&

I/h/ahreshefte des Isterreichischen arch#ologischen +nstituts in 2ien

ap'i)'atSemapers of the 'i)erpool 'atin Seminar

R"Re)ue "rch5ologi4ue

RFaulyB2issoAa, RealBFncyclop#die der klassischen "ltertumsAissenschaft

RF"Re)ue des Gtudes "nciennes

RF'Re)ue des Gtudes 'atines

Rendont"ccRendiconti della ontificia "ccademia Romana di "rcheologia

RhMRheinisches Museum f=r hilologie

R'"CRealleEikon f=r "ntike und Christentum

RMMitteilungen des 0eutschen "rch#ologischen +nstituts, R3mische "bteilung

R3m@SchrR3mische @uartalschrift f=r christliche "ltertumskunde und Kirchengeschichte

RStompRi)ista di Studi ompeiani

SpMonSpeech Monographs

St+t%ilClStudi +taliani di %ilologia Classica

StMiscStudi Miscellanei. Seminario di archeologia di storia dellarte greca e romana dell(ni)ersit& di


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Roma8""

8ransactions of the "merican hilological "ssociation2iss?Rostock

2issenschaftliche ?eitschrift der (ni)ersit#t RostockJCS

Jale Classical Studies?F?eitschrift f=r apyrologie und Fpigraphik

Introdction

+n his descrition of a recently 4nearthed sarcoha"4s, the "reat si>teentha7les for o4r life are fo4nd in conte7lation of the dan"ers that befall others.hoever it as ho e>hibited the death of -donis on his sarcoha"4shich as fo4ndin the 2ia 3atina, and on hich as deicted that yo4n" 7an ho, havin" thron aside his4iver and bo, as killed by the boarclearly advises 4s that a 7an ho o4ld be yo4n"and bold in the face of dan"ers co4ld die as -donis, the son of Kin" Cinyras, died. Perhashoever as b4ried here died in this fashion. hatever befell hi7 on acco4nt of his "reatsirit is th4s e>c4sed, as is his 4ne>ected death, by the e>a7le of the loss of that heroho did not kno ho to take advice fro7 2en4s, ho loved hi7 so 74ch and ho desiredthat he not set hi7self to so dan"ero4s a deed for the sake of so brief a leas4re.D1E

3i"orio;s brief acco4nt to4ches on the narrative oer s4ch i7a"es hold, the very h47an desire for

e>e7la, and the ancient enchant for evokin" the7 by ay of 7ytholo"ical analo"y. Get 3i"orioavered beteen a realistic and an alle"orical readin" of the sarcoha"4s;s i7a"ery, and henconfronted by that of other 7on47ents, he as no less e4ivocal:

(everal others have 4t chariots on their 7on47ents ith 4ndo4bted si"nificance, tode7onstrate that they died 4nfort4nately, havin" been thron headlon" hen drivin":havin" tr4sted they o4ld in the al7, they had instead broken their necks. hence theyco7ared their death ith that of the ancient heroesho, altho4"h they ere consideredlike "ods beca4se of their virt4e, nevertheless had inadvertently lost their lives. )hose toho7 s4ch events occ4rred distin"4ish their to7bs by si7ilar e>a7les, th4sde7onstratin" the certainty of death and the variety of its occ4rrence, as ell as both thevices and the virt4es of those of lon" a"o, by a certain kind of arallel.DIE

hether he read the i7a"ery of the sc4lted reliefs realistically or alle"orically, for 3i"orio it as thenarrative force of the i7a"ery that drove their i7licit analo"ies.

)he corresondence beteen the dead and the i7a"ery ith hich they ere celebrated as seldo7neat, and the analo"y beteen the to rarely si7le. +n the absence of an e>lanatory inscrition orortrait, there is nothin" to infor7 the beholder that the deceased, identified ith the heroic -donis byPirro 3i"orio, had died yo4n". -nd indeed, 3i"orio;s analo"y, hich ass47es that ithin the casket layanother i7et4o4s yo4th str4ck don by an early death, is 4narrantedas an e>a7ination of the f4llcor4s of s4rvivin" sarcoha"i reveals.


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)hese brief assa"es fro7 3i"orio;s anti4arian treatise s4""est the scoe of this st4dy, hichaddresses the character and str4ct4re of 7ytholo"ical narratives as they aear on /o7an sarcoha"i.)his book is abo4t the 7eanin" of these 7on47ents and, in artic4lar, abo4t the si"nificance of theirvis4aliation of narrative. )he chaters that follo, hich atte7t to reconstr4ct the 7eanin" of the7ytholo"ical sarcoha"ifor, as e shall see, this is a historical roble7 re4irin" reconstr4ction7eas4re the stren"ths and eaknesses of s4ch an e>e7lary resonse as Pirro 3i"orio;s.D#E

- series of the7es ill be develoed thro4"ho4t. Airst, that 7ytholo"y is to be re"arded, not 7erely asa reertory of stories, b4t as an evocative force in ancient life and ancient i7a"ery. )he aeal to 7ythas f4nda7ental to an on"oin" rocess of c4lt4ral selfe7la for theresent, their e>e7lary character as s4bject to contin4in" elaboration in li"ht of resent needs. )he7ytholo"ical tradition as, in fact, a oerf4l 7eans by hich the co7licity beteen the ast and theresent as 7anifesta co7licity f4nda7ental to the very notion of tradition.D%E

(econd, essential to the 7ytholo"ical i7a"ination as an ancient enchant to see thin"s in relationshion the basis of distinctive, secific affinities? the technical ter7 elaborated by the =reeks for thearehension of s4ch rese7blances, and for ar"47ents 7ade on the basis of s4ch inferences, asanalo"y.D5E -s it likened one thin" to another, analo"y as a f4nda7ental troe for the ancientdiscovery of order, and one of its ri7ary characteristics as that it si"naled the ascendance ofsi7ilarity over difference.DLE

+n the vis4aliation of the ancient 7ytholo"ical narratives, artists, no do4bt to"ether ith their atrons,evolved a oerf4l heno7enon of abstraction,hich alloed for a looser association of ideas andi7a"es on the basis of rese7blances. )he third of this book;s the7es concerns this conco7itant toanalo"y, one 7ore s4le and s4btle, here ter7ed typology.)his reresentational 7ode as rooted inthe 4se of conventionalied vis4al for7s, or 7otifs, for the deiction of artic4lar stories. Aor e>a7le,a reclinin" 7an is a motif,hereas a 7an ho reclines in the ose devised secifically for *ndy7ion isa tye.DHE Get as e shall see, the characteristics of a tye 7i"ht be e7loyed, ith 7inor variations, inthe reresentation of a series of related tales.D6E )h4s the reco"niability of the basic tye 7i"ht serve

to s4""est f4rther relationshis beteen these stories on the basis of their vis4al si7ilarities. +n this7anner, tyolo"y rovided ancient artists ith the vis4al correlative to verbal analo"y and th4s "reatlye>anded their oers of all4sion.D9E

Ainally, a f4ll 4nderstandin" of the 7ytholo"ical sarcoha"i and their i7a"ery re4ires attention to therole of 7e7ory and its art in the lar"er c4lt4ral fra7eork in hich these objects fo4nd their lace./e7e7brance as an i7ortant factor in ancient social life and f4eled the need for s4ch 7on47entsand 7e7orials. +t as central as ell to the vis4al str4ct4res e7loyed in the creation of these7on47ents? the reresentational 7odes of analo"y and tyolo"y deended on it. (ince, as e shall see,/o7an reli"io4s ractices did not de7and s4ch caskets for the inh47ation of the dead, the eret4ationof 7e7ory not only layed a role in the creation of the 7ytholo"ical sarcoha"i b4t as 4lti7ately the7ost si"nificant of their f4nctions. -nd hen the ideas that "ave rise to the i7a"ery of s4ch 7e7orials

event4ally faded, the 7ost cr4cial and co7ellin" asect of that i7a"ery vanished as ell.)he first to of these the7es, those concernin" 7ytholo"y and analo"y, have had a lon" life and stilllay a f4nda7ental role in the vis4al arts. )he osition of tyolo"y in the history of vis4al narration hasbeen less sec4re. - 7ore co7le> 7ode of all4sion, tyolo"y 7ade lar"er de7ands of its a4dience, asshall beco7e clear, and it o4ld see7 that the "reater re4ire7ents for its s4ccess di7inished theossibilities of its e7loy7ent.

)hese are the toics, then, that are e>a7ined in the a"es that follo. )his st4dy concl4des ith so7ebrief observations on the disaearance of the tyolo"ical 7ode so central to the vis4aliation of the


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7yths on /o7an sarcoha"i and, by so doin", s4""ests the historical bo4ndaries of this artic4larasect of ancient aesthetics.

N N N

The problem o* analogy

)he enchant for co7arison, hether to stress si7ilarity or difference, fo4nd no "reater advocate inthe ancient orld than Pl4tarch. 8isarallel 'i)esrovides not only ab4ndant evidence of thisroensity, b4t a vivid acco4nt of the 4rose of s4ch a co7arative 7ode of tho4"ht. +n the roe7 tohisericles,he sets o4t the f4nction of his 4ndertakin"as as only fittin"by a broad co7arison:

04r o4tard sense cannot avoid arehendin" the vario4s objects it enco4nters, 7erely byvirt4e of their i7act and re"ardless of hether they are 4sef4l or not: b4t a 7an;sconscio4s intellect is so7ethin" hich he 7ay brin" to bear or avert as he chooses, and hecan very easily transfer it to another object if he sees fit. Aor this reason e o4"ht to seeko4t virt4e not 7erely to conte7late it, b4t to derive benefit fro7 doin" so. - colo4r, fore>a7le, is ell s4ited to the eye if its bri"ht and a"reeable tones sti74late and refresh thevision, and in the sa7e ay e o4"ht to aly o4r intellect4al vision to those 7odels hich

can insire it to attain its on roer virt4e thro4"h the sense of deli"ht they aro4se. efind these e>a7les in the actions of "ood 7en, hich i7lant an ea"er rivalry and a keendesire to i7itate the7 in the 7inds of those ho have so4"ht the7 o4t.D1$E

Aor Pl4tarch, the reresentation of )irtusco4ld itself en"ender virt4e, and co7arison co4ld breedco7arison. )he 7ind as by nat4re an or"an of discri7ination redisosed to i7itation. Pl4tarchcontin4ed: O2irt4e in action i77ediately takes s4ch hold of a 7an that he no sooner ad7ires a deedthan he sets o4t to follo in the stes of the doer.D11E

)he resentation of e>e7la th4s aealed to 7en and o7en at the 7ost f4nda7ental level. 0n the7ytholo"ical sarcoha"i, s4ch e>e7la ere intended to evoke, by Othe sense of deli"ht they aro4se,co7arisons beteen the dead and the ancient heroes.

)hey ere heroes of 7any different kinds. Aor e>a7le, 7any died yo4n" in the /o7an orld, andinterretationss4ch as Pirro 3i"orio;sthat identify the deceased ith the 7ythical rota"onist that"races his or her to7b certainly corresond ith /o7an ideas concernin" a mors immatura.D1IE - idevariety of sarcoha"4s reresentations de7onstrates the readiness ith hich these ideas ere "ivenvis4al for7. )hese concetions aear erhas 7ost clearly on sarcoha"i of the )ita humanatye thatere adated to the life of those ho died yo4n". 0n these reliefs, scenes of childbirth and ed4cationnecessarily relaced those sy7bols of ad4lt acco7lish7ent that death had denied, s4ch as 7arria"e,the c4ltivation of the M4ses, or the erfor7ance of reli"io4s rites and sacrifices.D1#E

)he 7ytholo"ical reertory as also adated secifically for the sarcoha"i of the yo4n" dead. )his isaarent in the case of a childQs sarcoha"4s in /o7e that reresents the 7yth of Pro7ethe4s, here

the dead child is celebrated by analo"y to the 7iniat4re Ofirst 7an 7olded by the hero and endoedith the stolen fire of life.D1%E +n this instance as in others, the analo"y beteen the individ4al b4riedithin the sarcoha"4s and the 7ytholo"ical rota"onist deicted on its front is 4nderscored by thes7all scale of the casket, lar"e eno4"h solely for the body of a child. (i7ilarly clear vis4al referencesare 7ade to a mors immaturaon other reliefs, here 4tti enact the roles of 7ytholo"ical heroesMelea"er or C4id and Psyche, for e>a7le. +n s4ch instances the yo4n" dead are endoed, as if byro>y, ith the )irtusthat death has ref4sed the7 the oort4nity to ac4ire in life.D15E

4st as the )irtusof the ancient heroes co4ld be aroriated for the yo4n", so too co4ld they be for theold. hile old a"e, ith the infelicities of hysical aearance it brin"s, 7i"ht see7 to render


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identification ith a yo4thf4l hero less at, a yo4thf4l the7e 7i"ht nevertheless be chosen even in lateryears, as can be seen on certain sarcoha"i hose 7ytholo"ical rota"onists bear ortraits FAi"s. 1 andI. +ndeed, one 7i"ht co7lain that death at any a"e is i77at4ra.D1LE

)he 7on47ents the7selves de7onstrate that facile co7arisons beteen the real life of the deceasedand the 7ythic life of the heroes reresented on the sc4lted caskets have little to reco77end the7.Aor as 3i"orio hi7self realied, the 7yths f4nctioned on the sarcoha"i as conventional sy7bols of

)irtusand as conventional sy7bols they ere available to be aroriated by one and all. -n old 7an7i"ht ortray hi7self as the yo4n" &ionysos FAi". #, or a o7an co4ld be b4ried in a sarcoha"4sthat ro7inently dislayed the sleein" fi"4re of *ndy7ion Fsee Ai". I9.

)he roble7 of interretation beco7es 7ore co7le> in the case of 7yths that resent no obvio4sbasis for analo"y. )he tra"ic fi"4res of Medea and Phaedra Fat ti7es bearin" the ortrait feat4res of thedeceased or a so4se scarcely s4""est a sy7athetic arallel beteen the lots of their stories and thelives of those /o7ans ho aroriated these 7yths to co77e7orate the7selves.D1HE )he 4se of thesestories as 7ore than an aeal to the classical?D16E nor is it likely that the atrons of these intenselyersonal orks of art failed to co7rehend the stories deicted.D19E )he aearance of s4ch storiesde7ands a 7ore n4anced acco4nt of all the 7yths e7loyed on the sarcoha"i and a 7ore ercetiveresonse to the co7le> nat4re of this f4nerary i7a"ery.

Aor the sarcoha"i resent analo"ies, not identifications: they do not 7erely e4ate the lives of thoseco77e7orated ith the ancient stories b4t co7el 4s to conte7late those lives in ter7s of thef4nda7ental tr4ths the 7yths reveal. Aolloin" *4riides, one sees in Medea a o7an torn byconflictin" clai7sof jealo4sy, desire for reven"e, and love of her childrenho acts, desite herj4d"7ent, co7elled by assion Fthumos.DI$E )his 7yth de7onstrated, in e>tre7e for7, hat theancients held to be the essential asect of o7en;s nat4re? so too, the tale of Phaedra and 8iolyt4s.DI1E +n the dra7atic clash of its rota"onists, this 7yth dislayed the basic dichoto7y beteen 7enand o7en so central to the ancient vie of the h47an condition: that beteen amorand )irtus.Aorthe heroines of both 7yths, the realiation of their nat4re and the f4lfill7ent of its clai7s on theircharacter is ine>tricably bo4nd to the o7niotence of Aate.DIIE

N N N

Te-t and image

)he interretation and historical st4dy of the sarcoha"4s reliefs and their i7a"ery are "4ided byestablished criteriaconcernin" the nat4re of these objects, their f4nction, and their conte>tseldo7so foc4sed in the case of other orks of art. either o4r knoled"e abo4t these objects nor theestablish7ent of these criteria is derived, hoever, fro7 ancient co77entaries devoted to these7on47ents. )here is no s4rvivin" ancient te>t that rovides a Okey to the vis4al lan"4a"e ith hichthe 7yths are related on the sarcoha"i. )he st4dy of the sarcoha"i has been forced to roceed in adifferent fashion.DI#E

)o be"in ith, the s4bject 7atter of the sarcoha"4s reliefs as ell knon to their a4dience. )he7yths ere once basic to the fabric of life itself, linked to ancient reli"ion and its vision of the cos7os.Aor /o7ans of the +7erial era, these 7yths ere "iven a hi"hly accessible for7 by 0vid in hisMetamorphoses,hose ide disse7ination, at least a7on" the 4er classes, 7ay be ass47ed.DI%E)he contin4ity of 7ytholo"ical knoled"e a7on" the literate is also attested by the evidence of the rolethat knoled"e layed in "ra77atical ed4cation, hose f4nda7ental te>ts aear to have chan"edlittle over the cent4ries fro7 the 8ellenistic a"e 4ntil as late as the si>th cent4ry.DI5E )he role of7ytholo"ical all4sion in the oetry of the first and second cent4ries, and the contin4in" i7ortance ofthis literat4re, rovide both a arallel and a roof of the recetivity to 7yth in the a"e hen the


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sarcoha"4s reliefs ere rod4ced.DILE

(econd, the consistent for7aliation of the 7ytholo"ical i7a"es ce7ented the bond beteen the verbaland the vis4al: readily reco"niable for7s facilitated the 7ythsQ identification. +n the vis4al arts the7yths ere codified in standardied desi"ns, and reertories for each 7yth ere established. )heractice co4ld f4nction at the level of details, s4ch as attrib4tes, as a assa"e fro7 Cicero 7akes clear:OAro7 yo4th e have knon the re7ainin" "odsove, 4no, Minerva, et4ne, 24lcan, -olloby

the feat4res that the ainters and sc4ltors have ished to e7loy? not only for their faces, b4t alsotheir attrib4tes, their a"e, and their "ar7ents. DIHE )he sa7e ractice also f4nctioned, as shall beco7eclear, at the level of lot. )he si7ilarity of the s4rvivin" reresentations of the 7yths in a ide varietyof 7edia de7onstrates a consistent selection and deiction of story ele7ents, and the reetition of thesei7a"es led to their fa7iliarity thro4"ho4t the ancient orld. )his lon"os4re to s4ch standardiedreresentations f4sed i7a"e and story fir7ly to"ether in the 7ind.DI9E Classical literat4re, the oetics

of -ristotle in artic4lar, s4""ests the essential role layed in the storytellin" of the ancient orld bys4ch acts of reco"nition Fanagnorisis. -s a lot device, ana"norisis served not only as a f4nda7entalstr4ct4re for narration b4t as a re7inder of the oer inherent in the dra7atic arehension of identityand ethos. )o aid in the beholdersQ reco"nitions, each 7ythQs salient eisodes, as ell as the identifyin"attrib4tes of its 7ain characters, ere treated ith re7arkable consistency.D#$E

)here is considerable debate abo4t the ori"in of these standardied i7a"es. )hey 7ay have derivedfro7 7on47ental orks of aintin" or sc4lt4re hose fa7e led to their relication, or fro7 earlyill4strated codices and ayri that resented the "reat narrative cycles and the 7ost ro7inent 7yths ineito7iin" for7.D#1E )he e7loy7ent of 7odels is recorded, hoever, by Pliny. +n his*istoria-aturalis,he rites abo4t Parrhasi4s, 7ost "ifted a7on" the ancients in the drain" of o4tlines, andseaks of the 7anygraphidis )estigiaa7on" the artist;s anels and arch7ents, fro7 hose 4se otherartists had rofited.D#IE

hile the re"4laried vis4al reertories established for the 7yths ere often 7odified by differentorkshos, sc4ltors "enerally re7ained tr4e to the f4nda7ental for74lae.D##E -t ti7es 7ore rofo4ndchan"es ere 7ade in addition to these 7inor variations. Get in every instance, artists and atrons7ade choices, hether they e7loyed standard desi"ns or co7letely reorked the7. &iscri7inationand j4d"7ent ere alays involved, hether the "oal as confor7ity ith established traditions ortheir rejection for the sake of innovation.

(o7e decisions led to 7ore strikin" visible res4lts than others. Aor as artists and atrons e>loitedcertain vis4al characteristics that res4lted fro7 the standardiation of 7ytholo"ical i7a"ery, theytransfi"4red the 7anner in hich the fables ere told ith i7a"es. )he si"nificance of s4ch variants

as those a7on" both the -donis and *ndy7ion sarcoha"i revealis not only that they altered theaearance of a 7yth;s i7a"ery, b4t that they artic4laried and ersonalied its se4lchral 7essa"e.D#%E

+n these innovative reresentations of the 7yths, te>t and i7a"e co7le7ented one another in arofo4ndly ne fashion. )he standardied icono"rahies enco4ra"ed vieers to re"ard the sc4ltedi7a"es as ill4strations to be reco"nied and th4s accorded an i7licit ri7acy to those secificredactions of the 7yths fro7 hich the i7a"es ere "enerated. By contrast, those sarcoha"4s reliefsthat deviated fro7 both the established 7odels and the canonical te>ts asserted the ri7acy of theiri7a"es, as they i7elled their beholders to deciher the lan"4a"e and 7eanin" of their sc4lt4ral


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for7s.

N N N

"dience, conte-t, interpretation

-nother factor "4idin" the interretation of these 7on47ents is that the sarcoha"4s reliefs, by

definition, ere intended for a secific conte>t. )hese ere orks of art to be vieed 4ndercirc47stances alays the sa7e: first at the f4neral and later on visits to the to7b. )heir i7a"ery as tobe 4nderstood in connection ith to distinct sets of ractices hose relationshi re7ains so7ethin"of a 7ystery: reli"io4s rit4al devoted to the dead and their afterlife, and social ractices dedicated totheir co77e7oration. )he recise reli"io4s si"nificance of the sarcoha"i and their i7a"ery hasre7ained el4sive on acco4nt of the tre7endo4s variation in beliefs held by the /o7ans, variation thatincreased d4rin" the +7erial eriod.D#5E +n the absence of definitive evidence linkin" the Os4rvival ofdeath the7e to knon reli"io4s beliefs, the role of the sarcoha"i as co77e7orative 7on47entsaccr4es added si"nificance.D#LE

-areness of the social classes that co4ld afford to co77ission these 7on47ents, and to dislay the7in s4itably s47t4o4s to7bs, allos a de"ree of certainty abo4t the ri7ary a4dience for their i7a"ery.

+t has lon" been held that sarcoha"i, hich ere transorted to +taly 4ite ossibly fro7 orkshos in-sia Minor, ere 4rchases of considerable e>ense in the /o7an orld.D#HE /ecent research hasshon the sit4ation to have been so7ehat 7ore co7le>. )he 4rchase of elaborate sarcoha"i asalso a consic4o4s e>ression of 7iddleense as li7ited and hi"h 4ality 7aintained by thee7loy7ent of an overall attern, as in the Ostri"ilated tye, here a reetitive desi"nhosecarvin" co4ld be rele"ated to the lesst for the adatation of =reek7ytholo"y to 7eet the ne /o7an need for i7a"ery s4ited to the for7 of sarcoha"i. B4t it as achan"e in social ractice, fro7 a reference for cre7ation to one for inh47ation, that "ave rise to therod4ction of these 7on47ents on a lar"e scale. +nh47ation as not a ne heno7enon b4t the re


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13/127

sa7e the7es in the 4rortedly a4tobio"rahical oetry of s4ch first


14/127

2.11.#% Ffor analogiaas 7erely one kind ofsimilia. - n47ber of recent orks have taken 4 theconcet of analo"y ith fr4itf4l res4lts: cf. the essays collected in "nalogie et connaissance,ed. -.3ichneroic, A. Perro4>, and B. =adoffre, I vols. FParis, 196$? K. . =4tiller, 8heocritus astoral"nalogiesD 8he %ormation of a 6enreFMadison, 1991, es. . 1#J19 FO-nalo"y as (tr4ct4re andassi7? -. (chiesaro, Simulacrum et +magoD 6li argomenti analogici nel O0e Rerum -aturaPFPisa,199$? and &. C. Aeeney, O V(hall + Co7are )heeW;: Cat4ll4s L6B and the 3i7its of -nalo"y, in

"uthor and "udience in 'atin 'iterature,ed. ). ood7an and . Poell FCa7brid"e, 199I.L. 3loyd,olarity and "nalogy,. 19Iff., I1$ff.

H. )h4s defined by 8. (ichter7ann, Sp#te FndymionBSarkophageD Methodisches $ur +nterpretationFBaden


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sy7bolis7e f4n[raire, in"-R2++.1L.I, . 1H#$.

I#. Cf. )4rcan, O3es sarcoha"es ro7ains, . 1H$6f., ho cites the sole ancient te>tan ei"ra7fro7 the"nthologia 'atinaFed. A. B4echeler and -. /iese D3eii", 169%E, . IL#, no. #19thatseaks, albeit va"4ely, abo4t the iss4e of the s4bject 7atter deicted on the sarcoha"i:

8urpia tot tumulo defiEit crimina 7albus,ost superos spurco 8artara more premens.ro facinusQ finita nihil modo )ita retraEit,'uEuriam ad Manes moecha sepulchra gerunt.FBalb4s had affi>ed on his to7b so 7any fo4l cri7es,B4rdenin" the infernal re"ions in this filthy 7anner as he had the earthly real7.hat an o4tra"e^ 8is life havin" ended, he held back nothin",D-nd th4sE these ad4ltero4s 7on47ents convey his antoness to the sirits of thedead.

Aor the idea of a Ovis4al lan"4a"e of these ancient 7on47ents, cf. the ertinent disc4ssions in P.]anker, 8he oAer of +mages in the "ge of "ugustusF-nn -rbor, 1966, . #J% and assi7? ).8Xlscher,R3mische 7ildsprache als semantisches SystemF8eidelber", 196H.

I%. 0n literacy and the readin" tastes of the /o7an era, see . 2. 8arris,"ncient 'iteracyFCa7brid"e,1969, es. . 16%f.? on the readin" of 0vid in artic4lar as art of the ed4cational c4rric4l47, see thebrief co77ents in (. A. Bonner,Fducation in "ncient RomeD %rom the Flder Cato to the Jounger linyFBerkeley and 3os -n"eles, 19HH, . I15JI1H.

I5. (ee the disc4ssion in Chater I, belo.

IL. (ee P. 2eyne,Roman Frotic FlegyD 'o)e, oetry, and the 2estFChica"o, 1966, chater 6, O)heat4re and Use of Mytholo"y, on the role of 7ytholo"ical all4sion in /o7an oetry. Aor aninterestin" disc4ssion of the ass47ed knoled"e of 7yth a7on" the readers of /o7an literat4re Finthis instance, Petroni4s, see the essay by . 8orsfall, O)he Uses of 3iteracy and the Cena8rimalchionis, 6aR,ser. ++, #L F1969: es. 61f.

IH.0e -atura 0eorum,+.I9.61f.? cf. the folloin" descrition in Philostrat4s,+magines,+.15: O-ndthere are co4ntless characteristics of &ionys4s for those ho ish to reresent hi7 in aintin" orsc4lt4re, by hose deiction, even aro>i7ately, the artist ill have cat4red the "od. Aor instance,the ivy cl4sters for7in" a cron are the clear 7ark of &ionys4s, even if the ork7anshi is oor?trans. -. Aairbanks, in'C'ed. F3ondon and e Gork, 19#1. -s s4ch details convey 7eanin", theyare to be distin"4ished fro7 7ere ictorialschemataDsee the co77ents of (ettis, O+77a"ini della7editaione, . 1H n. 5H, citin" 34cian;s 4se of the ter7schemato connote the for7 alone F34cian,hilopseudeis,2+++.

I6. -4"4stine, Contra %austum,++, in Corpus Scriptorum Fcclesiasticorum 'atinorumD Sancti"ureli "ugustini,ed. . ]ycha FPra"4e, 2ienna, 3eii", 1691, 2+, 1, . LH1: forte non ei veniret in7ente7 fact47 ita nobile, 4t et non lect47 nec 4aesit47 ani7o occ4reret, 4t deni4e tot lin"4iscantat47, tot locis ict47.

I9. )h4s it sho4ld be clear that this for7aliation reresents the antithesis of the heno7enon ofstereotyin", in hich si7lification and reetition lead toard decorative 4se itho4t resect forcontent: see the disc4ssion of this heno7enon by 2. Macchioro, O+l si7bolis7o nelle fi"4raioniseolcrali ro7ane: (t4di di er7ene4tica,Mem-ap1 F1911: es. 1%ff.

#$. (ee -ristotle,oetics,, 1%5Ia1Lff., #$ff.? 1%5Ib#ff., #Hff. Fetc.? the device of ana"norisis isdisc4ssed brilliantly by . . /ichardson, O/eco"nition (cenes in the 0dyssey and -ncient 3iteraryCriticis7,ap'i)'atSem !F196#.


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#1. )he "reat roonent of the OBilderb4ch theory has been (chefold? see K. (chefold, OBilderbYcherals 2orla"en rX7ischer (arkoha"e,MF%R"66 F19HL. Cf., hoever, the objections of 8i77el7ann,ho re"ards 7on47ental orks in sc4lt4re and aintin" as the ri7ary so4rce of the i7a"ery on thesarcoha"i: . 8i77el7ann, O(arcofa"i ro7ani a rilievo: Proble7i di cronolo"ia e icono"rafia,"nnisa,ser. +++, %?s1 F19H%? for the trans7ission of these codified i7a"es by 7eans of s7all orks inrecio4s 7etals, as ell as their rerod4ction in casts, see 8. Aronin", O&ie ikono"rahische )radition

der kaisereitlichen 7ytholo"ischen (arkoha"reliefs,/d+95 F196$.#I. Pliny,*istoria -aturalis,2.L6.

##. Aor s4ch sc4lt4ral variation, see . B. arda7les. Cf. Bercelly, O)he (o4l after &eath, . L$: Oand the 7ore4nconventional the s4bject, the 7ore reason Dthere isE to conject4re an inti7ate collaboration beteenartist and co77issioner ith re"ard to the ictorial renderin".

#5. )he sit4ation as s477aried co7ellin"ly by ock: OPa"anis7 had a 4nity of athos and ofval4es in h47an di"nity? a 7eas4re also of 4nity in "eneral s4""estion and 7etahor? not a 4nity of

belief FO(arcoha"i and (y7bolis7, . 1L6. )he diffic4lties concernin" the varied doctrines are seto4t concisely by 8okins,0eath and ReneAal,. IILff.? cf. the si7ilar vie of . Aer"4son, 8heReligions of the Roman FmpireF3ondon, 19H$, . 1#I? the doctrines the7selves are s4rveyed inC47ont,"fter 'ife;so7e of the back"ro4nd 7aterials for the st4dy of reli"io4s beliefs in the a"e of thesarcoha"i are set o4t by . 8. . =. 3iebesch4et, Continuity and Change in Roman ReligionF0>ford,19H9, chater %, altho4"h his ork bears only indirectly on the iss4es raised here.

#L. . -. orth, O)hese 8e Cannot )ake,/RSH# F196#: 1L9? *. Panofsky, 8omb SculptureD +tsChanging "spects from "ncient Fgypt to 7erniniF3ondon, 19L%, . #$J#6.

#H. Aor an oinion abo4t "reat e>ense, see, for e>a7le, =. /odenalt, O/X7ische /eliefs: 2orst4fen4r (@tantike,/d+55 F19%$: 1I Fcited by Koch and (ichter7ann,R3mische Sarkophage,. II. Cf.

ard vie that these too ere a rivile"e of the 4er classes? theevidence for the fo4rth cent4ry B.C. is disc4ssed in ). 8. ielsen et al., O-thenian =rave Mon47entsand (ocial Class, 6R7S#$ F1969.

#9. )he evidence is revieed in Koch and (ichter7ann,R3mische Sarkophage,. II, folloin" M.=Ytscho, O(arkoha"ford, 1991, . %69J%9#? and 8okins,0eath and ReneAal,. I$1ff. and I##ff.)he nat4re and stat4s of the cena no)endialishave recently been 4estioned by +. Bra"antini, OCenaovendialisW".+..-.1# F1991. (tati4s, Sil)ae,2.+.I#$ff., describes a sarcoha"4s Fmarmors4rro4nded by servants and tables set for the feastin"? cf. the le"islation concernin" s4ch feasts that


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s4rvives in the0igestF#%.1.16.5, hich tells of rovision and clothin" left by the deceased to hisfreed7en for an ann4al celebration in his 7e7ory, ad sarcofagum.Aor a deiction of a cere7onial visitto an early +7erial to7b, see the frescoed friee fro7 a to7b near the Porta Caena in /o7e, no inthe 3o4vre: see 2. )ran )a7 )inh, Catalogue des peintures romaines 'atium et Campanie du mus5edu 'ou)reFParis, 19H%, . HIJHH, no. P#H, and fi"s. 56JL1.

%1. (ee . M. C. )oynbee, 8he *adrianic SchoolFCa7brid"e, 19#%.

%I. 0n the co7le> history of cre7ation and inh47ation in /o7an +taly, see /. )4rcan, O0ri"ines etsens de l;inh47ation T l;[o4e i7[riale,RF"L$ F1956? cf. -. &. ock, OCre7ation and B4rial inthe /o7an *7ire,*8hRI5 F19#I? =. &avies, OB4rial in +taly 4 to -4"4st4s, in7urial in theRoman 2orld,ed. /. /eece F3ondon, 19HH. Get a sarcoha"4s Odoes not alays i7ly inh47ation, asock ointed o4t, citin" e>a7les of sarcoha"i containin" ashes, or even ash 4rns Fo. cit., . ###?ith earlier biblio"rahy.

%#. K. (chefold, O3a force cr[atrice d4 sy7bolis7e f4n[raire des /o7ains,R"I F19L1, treats theroble7 as a hole? cf. +. -. /ich7ond,"rchaeology and the "fterB'ife in agan and Christian+mageryF0>ford, 195$, . %$, on the &ionysiac sarcoha"i: O-rtistically and intellect4ally Dtheirtreat7entE de7onstrates hat /o7an humanitas co4ld do ith =reek reli"io4s concetions by

reshain" the7 to fit and to e>ress ne sirit4al needs and asirations. (ee also P. Blo7e, O]4rU7"estalt4n" "riechischer Mythen in der rX7ischen (e4lkralk4nst: -lkestis


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/ermogene).

hat do yo4 7eanW

Socrate).

hy, they ere all born beca4se a "od fell in love ith a 7ortal o7an, or a7ortal 7an ith a "oddess.

3ove affairs beteen "oddesses and 7ortals ere fra4"ht ith diffic4lties. Calyso rotests the7isfort4nes of those "oddesses ho fell in love ith 7en ith the folloin" ords:

Cr4el are yo4, 0 "ods, and 4ick to envy above all others, seein" that yo4 be"r4d"e"oddesses that they co4ld 7ate ith 7en oenly, if any takes a 7ortal as her dear bedressboth a concetion of death and the 7e7orialiation of life.

+n this f4nerary conte>t the to yo4n" heroes-donis and *ndy7ionlayed the ri7ary roles inthese 7ytholo"ical narratives, since they offered consic4o4s analo"ies for the co77e7oration of thedead. -donis rovided a literal heroic i7a"e of death, hile *ndy7ion offered an evocative 7etahor

of the afterlife. )he contrast of these to distinctive 7odes of all4sion f4rnishes an eito7e for the7ytholo"ical sarcoha"i as a hole.

)he stories of -donis and *ndy7ion also rovide the fo4ndations for a st4dy of the tyolo"icalrelationshis beteen 7ythssince, as s4rvivin" classical te>ts s4""est, the ancients re"arded the toheroes, and their "oddesses as ell, as co7le7entary. Get these relationshis ere "iven f4llerelaboration on the sarcoha"i, here the vis4aliation of the 7yths lent that co7le7entarity alablefor7. -s the folloin" chaters de7onstrate, the for7al and icono"rahic si7ilarities beteen thereresentations of the 7yths on the sarcoha"i e>tended even to the 7ore idiosyncratic e>a7les ofeach tye, those res47ably adated to the secific de7ands of individ4al clients. +ndeed, these 4ni4ereresentations not only reveal 4ne>ected affinities beteen the 7yths and their rota"onists b4tintrod4ce tyolo"ical relationshis ith other 7yths that e>and and e>tend the si"nificance of thedra7as they enact.

Note)

1. 8o7er, dyssey,2.116ff., trans. -. ). M4rray Fith *n"lish 7odernied,'C'ed. F3ondon andCa7brid"e, 19L$? cf. 8esiod, 8heogony, 9L#J1$I$? and see the disc4ssion in &. &. Boedeker,"phrodites Fntry into 6reek FpicF3eiden, 19H%, . L6f.

I. -thenae4s,0eipnosophistae, +++.5LL&, trans. C. B. =4lick, in'C'ed. F3ondon and e Gork,


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19IHJ%1.

#. )heocrit4s,+dylls,+++.%6ff., trans. -. (. A. =o FCa7brid"e, 195$.

%. )heocrit4s,+dylls,.#%ff.

5. Pl4tarch,"matoriusDZ Moralia, HL%&E.

L. D2enere7E esse l4na7: Macrobi4s, Saturnalia,+++.6.#, citin" the"tthisof Philochor4s Fearly thirdcent4ry B.C..

H. 34cian,0e Sacrificiis,2++, trans. -. M. 8ar7on, in'C'ed. F3ondon and Ca7brid"e, 19%H.

6. onnos,0ionysiaca,+2.II5, trans. . 8. &. /o4se, in'C'ed. F3ondon and Ca7brid"e, 19%$? and34cian,0ialogi 0eorum,+ F11.I#I, trans. M. &. Macleod, in'C'ed. F3ondon and Ca7brid"e,1951. 0n the Oloveford, 1951, . %%, 51, and 59.

1$.*omeric *ymn to "phrodite, 69.

11. Bion, +.1%, H1, trans. . M. *d7onds, in'C'ed. FZ 8he 6reek 7ucolic oetsD3ondon and eGork, 191IE.

0. "doni)1) Tale

-donis;s tale as an old one. )he 7yth, evidently of oriental ori"in, had been told and retold by the=reeks in a variety of for7s. )he /o7ans adoted and adated the tale, and by the 7id second cent4ryhen the sarcoha"i that are the foc4s of this st4dy be"an to be rod4cedthe story aears to havebeen a7on" the 7ost vital e>a7les of 7ytholo"y, one that fo4nd artistic e>ression in a ide ran"e of/o7an reresentations, both literary and vis4al.D1E

)he ab4ndant literary so4rces that s4rvive testify to the tale;s ide disse7ination and its aearance indiverse "enres. )he 7yth co7rised an elaborate narrative se4ence, hose ele7ents ere e>tracted,and at ti7es a7lified, for resentation in ne conte>ts. (o7e of the literary so4rces offer 7ereall4sions to the 7yth in the roverbial for7 associated ith co77onlaces abo4t the affairs of the"ods.DIE -7on" the so4rces are also fo4nd ancient co77entaries on these all4sions, s4ch as thee>lications rovided in the scholia to )heocrit4s.D#E (till others resent atte7ts at realistic, orOhistorical, acco4nts of the 7yth: so7e ancient a4thors reco4nted the "enealo"y of the ancient hero,D%E hile others atte7ted to fi> "eo"rahically the site of the river into hich he as 7eta7orhosed.D5E )he 7yth also aears in ancient te>ts as a sy7bol or 7etahor, th4s s4""estin" a basic knoled"eof the tale on the art of the a4thors; a4dience as ell as a consens4s abo4t its broad si"nificance andalicability in s4ch a for7.DLE -nd, finally, in so7e instances the tale of -hrodite and -donis for7s a

toos that served as the insiration for literary co7osition.DHE)he 7ost e>tensive acco4nt of the -donis 7yth is that "iven by 0vid in hisMetamorphoses.B4t eventhis 74st be co7bined ith ele7ents fo4nd in vario4s other so4rces to rovide a co7lete, if synthetic,narrative of the life and death of the hero.

)he narrative be"ins ith a tale of illicit assion, decetion and their 4nfort4nate conse4ences.D6EMyrrha, da4"hter of Kin" Cinyras, as overhel7ed ith desire for her father. ith the aid of hern4rse, she contrived to deceive hi7, and, takin" advanta"e of his dr4nkenness, f4lfilled her e>trava"antassion 4nder the cover of darkness. )he assions of the father once incited, the act as reeated a"ain


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and a"ain. Ainally, j4st as Psyche;s discovery of C4id had led to disaster, so the 4nittin" kin", ea"erto kno his consort, bro4"ht li"ht to his bed and discovered his da4"hter. Chased fro7 the alace byher o4tra"ed father, Myrrha leaded ith the "ods to take her fro7 both life and death, and they heardher etition. (he 4nderent a 7eta7orhosis, and -donis, the offsrin" of this incest4o4s 4nion offather and da4"hter, as born fro7 the 7yrrh tree into hich his 7other had been transfor7ed.

)his first section of the f4ll vita has the for7al character of an indeendent tale, hose central fi"4re is

the hero;s 7other, and hose real foc4s is her assion, and her fate. -donis;s assion and fatealon"ith the divine ardor he insirede7er"e a7id the story of this 7ortal yo4th beloved by a "oddess:

*>cited by the bea4ty of a 7ortal, no 7ore does she D-hroditeE care for the shores ofCythera, nor does she seek a"ain Pahos s4rro4nded by the ocean dee, nor Cnidos ith itsab4ndance of fishes, nor -7ath4s laden ith recio4s 7etals. (he avoids even the sky:-donis is referred to heaven. (he binds hi7 to her, she is his co7anion.D9E

B4t the assion of 7ore than one divinity as infla7ed by the yo4n" -donis. ot only -hrodite asoverco7e by his bea4ty, b4t Persehone as ell. 0ther ancient so4rces describe ho the to "oddessesdis4ted for his co7anionshi and ho 4iter intervened to resolve their dis4te by the decree of anann4al cycle in hich -donis assed fro7 the 4er to the loer real7, his life arceled o4t beteen

his to ara7o4rs.D1$E-hrodite arned -donis of the dan"ers of h4ntin" ild beasts, b4t the yo4th failed to heed herco4nsel. +"norin" her arnin", -donis as dran to the h4nt, killed by a ild boar, and at his deathtransfor7ed into a floer. -ccordin" to other versions of the 7yth, -donis;s death res4lted fro7 hishavin" inc4rred the rath of other "ods, and both -rte7is and -res ere at ti7es held resonsible forhis de7ise.D11E

)he f4ll 7ytholo"ical se4ence is closed by the elaborate ann4al rit4al of 7o4rnin" instit4ted by-hrodite in re7e7brance of -donis;s death, the"donaia.D1IE +n this celebration of -hrodite;s lovefor the 7ortal yo4th, o7en reveledeven if, like the "oddess, only brieflyin the retin"4ished in the heat of the s4n. )h4s, as this botanical sy7bolis7 rets, here ele7ents fro7 the overall vita ere e>tracted andreresented on their on, so too in the case of the 7on47ents. Most instances of the 7yth in the vis4al

arts reresent sin"le eisodes.D1#E (o7eti7es these are characteried by an ei"ra77atic concisionsi7ilar to that hich 7arks 7any literary all4sions to the 7yth.D1%E 0ther i7a"es, isolated fro7 theirnarrative conte>t, see7 to have been intended to ro7t one;s recollection of the 7yth as a hole.D15E

(c4lted /o7an sarcoha"i foc4s, as is only aroriate, on -donis;s death, as the cor4s of s4rvivin"e>a7les that reresent the 7yth reveals.D1LE Get other asects of the tale, also ertinent in a f4neraryconte>t, fo4nd no lace in the story told by these 7on47ents. )he ro7ance of the yo4th and the"oddess, the "oddess;s 4r"ent desire, and the i7licit eroticis7 of the co4le;s loveeach soelo4ently e>ressed by 0vidlay a 7inor role on the sarcoha"4s reliefs. or does any reference to-donis;s incest4o4s ori"ins have a art. -nd the the7e of 7eta7orhosis, so f4nda7ental to the


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0vidian acco4nt, 7akes no aearance either. 0n the sin"le e>tant e>a7le that incl4des thePersehone eisode, one of the 7ajor variants reco4nted by the =reek so4rces, this ele7ent of the fableis rele"ated to the ends of the casket here the scene a4"7ents b4t does not alter the si"nificance of the7yth as it as e7loyed in the se4lchral conte>t.D1HE Ainally, reresentations of the"donaia,described in "reat detail by Bion and other =reek so4rces s4rely knon in the /o7an orldand iththeir i7a"ery of rebirth, see7in"ly so ell s4ited to a f4nerary settin"these too never aear on the

sarcoha"i.D16E)h4s the sarcoha"4s reliefs; reresentation of the 7yth had a 4ni4e character. Aor this selectiverendition the artists e>certed the three scenes that ertained to the death of -donishis deart4re forthe h4nt desite -hrodite;s arnin"? the o4ndin" by the boar? and his death in the "oddess;s ar7sand resented this ortion of the 7yth in the condensed for7 of an eito7e. )he tale;s f4ll co7le>ity,trans7itted by the n47ero4s so4rces, re7ained art of the literary back"ro4nd and layed scarcely anydirect role in the for7 the tale ass47ed as it as adated on the sarcoha"i. Aor it as the death of thehero that rovided the tye: the close of -donis;s lifenot the close of the co7lete 7ytholo"icalnarrative in hich that life as e7beddedas linked to the death -donis as enlisted toco77e7orate.

0ne of the oldest of the -donis sarcoha"i, a relief that 7ay be dated circa 15$J1L$, is no fo4nd atthe Casino /osi"liosi in /o7e FAi". %.D19E 0n its front anel the story is told in the three scenes thatco7rised the standard reertory, and hich follo each other across the sarcoha"4s;s front fro7ri"ht to left. +n the first of these, at the far ri"ht, e see -donis abo4t to deart for the h4nt desite-hrodite;s arnin". -t the center, consic4o4sly lar"er, is the deiction of the boar h4nt and theo4ndin" of -donis. -t the left, finally, -donis lan"4ishes at the oint of death in the ar7s of his"oddess, in the co7any of her attendants, ho stand by hellessly.

)he reresentation of each of these three events is desi"ned so as to aear searated fro7 the ne>t.)he to scenes at either end are desi"nated as interiors by a parapetasmastretched behind the fi"4resthat distin"4ishes the7 fro7 the landscae settin" of the h4nt scene beteen the7.DI$E -ll three arefra7ed as ell by the oses of the fi"4res, ho foc4s their attention, and the beholder;s too, on the

individ4ated incidents of the tale deicted side by side. )his effectively rovides a transition beteenscenes, as the shift fro7 one to another is 7arked by a s4dden reversal of the fi"4res; orientation.

*ach of the scenes e7loyed for the vis4aliation of this tale as co7osed on the basis of establishedfi"4ral 7otifs.DI1E )his ori"in of the i7a"ery acco4nts for both the vis4al and icono"rahic differencesthat searate the three scenes. )h4s, in the contin4ity of the friee as a hole, each deicted 7o7ent ofthe tale e>4des the for7al character of an indeendent tablea4. *ach of the scenes is treated as if it erea 4nit selflain the s4btlechan"es in scale beteen the7. -nd in this fashion each of the three scenes is i7b4ed ith a for7alclarity that is essential for the evocation of the narrative;s sy7bolis7 and the establish7ent of itsf4nerary si"nificance.

N N N

The departre

+n the first of the three scenes, the deart4re, the lovers confront one another face


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ith si7ilar "est4res they debate the yo4th;s intentions. Get the differences to be read in these "est4resare additional si"ns of their i7endin" searation, of the diver"ent nat4re of their assions. -s -donist4rns back toard -hrodite, he si"nals his deart4re ith his o4tstretched hand? ith hers, the "oddessreaches o4t and enjoins hi7 to stay.DIIE

0n several of the reliefs FAi"s. 5JH -donis aears n4de before the draed "oddessDI#Eacharacteristic reserved on the Casino /osi"liosi sarcoha"4s FAi". % for the to other scenes. Aor

altho4"h it is -hrodite ho is so often fo4nd n4de in ancient orks of art, here her hysical bea4tyserves as a fittin" attrib4te for the "oddess of love, here n4dity characteries her 7ortal lover. 8ere heis the object of desire and the fi"4re of se>4al all4re, ith ho7 -hrodite has so hoelessly fallen inlove.

-donis;s n4dity is another si"n, erhas the clearest, of the artificial, sy7bolic character of the scene.+n the conte>t of the 7yth, n4dity is his roer costume,and in and aro4nd its consic4o4s dislay arecondensed the to conflictin" asects of the tale.DI%E 0n the one hand, this n4dity stands for the eroticnat4re of their divinely "ifted 4nion. +t sy7boliesindeed literaliesthe aeal of kalos "donis,toho7 the "oddess is so assionately dran. 0n the other hand, -donis;s n4dity is a si"n of the innatelyheroic character of the 7ortal yo4th. -s his nakedness distin"4ishes hi7 fro7 the other fi"4res 7oreroerly attired for the h4nt, it recalls =reek heroic for7s and the ideals they reresent and th4s servesas a vis4al 7etahor for his heroiation.DI5E

)hese relations of scale, of ose, and of n4dity and dress are all for7s of abstraction. )hey s4btlydivorce the actions and the 7otifs ith hich they are deicted fro7 the secific narrative content ofthe 7yth. )hey are the st4ff of art, not life? their 4sa"e 4nder7ines a resonse to the i7a"e that isconfined to the cate"ories of nat4ralistic reresentation, hich s4ch for7s of abstraction so clearlycontradict. )hese abstractions enlar"e the i7a"e;s fra7e of reference, for they render the essence of thecharacters; nat4res and interrelationshis as "eneral 4alities. (4ch abstractions constit4te a distinctive7ode of vis4al reresentation, one that di7inishes the roles of the rota"onists as secific individ4alsand instead e7hasies their roles as tyes.DILE -nd as the tyes e7er"e ith "reater clarity, thethe7es they are 7eant to evokeherois7, eroticis7, and above all, )irtusare 7anifest ith

corresondin" force.)h4s these abstractions introd4ce to the i7a"es another 7odality, hich itself conveys additionalsi"nificance. )hese abstractions are not derived fro7 the 7yth, in the sense that they serve as asects ofits reresentation. /ather, they are intended to s4""est those f4nda7ental traits and ideas that the taleand its rota"onists are held to e>e7lify. )hese abstractions evokeby association and by analo"ythe "rander sche7e of si"nificance in hich the reresentation of the 7yth is 7eant to oerate. Bythese 7eans the desi"ners of the reliefs have contrived to establish the vis4al co7osition accordin" tothe "eneral str4ct4re of the lot, as oosed to the details of the story. Ohat haened takesrecedence over the secificity of Oho did hat, and to ho7? the "eneral nat4re of eventsredo7inates over the secific actions of individ4al characters in artic4lar tales.DIHE

)he e7hasis on lot is confir7ed by this for74la of contrastin" fi"4resfe7ale and 7ale, seated andstandin", dressed and n4dehich d4licated the one established for the reertory of sarcoha"4sreliefs reresentin" 8iolyt4s;s ref4sal of Phaedra, a scene that foc4ses on a si7ilar clash of diver"entassions. )he aearance of -hrodite, re"ally enthroned, deended on the role the sa7e 7otif layedin the reresentation of Phaedra, ho sits, ith an eros in the ose of (koas;s fa7o4s othos at herknee, and declares her love for 8iolyt4s, ho stands before her FAi". 6.DI6E Both 7yths tell ofOlove


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the "est4res of one of the h4nters ho conventionally aear on the reliefs Fcf. Ai". % ith Ai"s. 5 and9. )he si"nificance of his raised ar7, oised to h4rl his eaon, 4nder"oes a for7 of inversion, andthe "est4re beco7es a si"n of her horror and an e>ression of her "rief.D#9E )he "est4rethe raisedar7 ith oen al7rovided apathosformulathat served as the hysio"no7ic si"nal of heran"4ished 7ental state.D%$E

)he dra7atic fi"4re of -hrodite increases the athos of the scene and reinforces the contrast beteen

this i77ortal and her nocellenttrainin" in the art of ar, as enohon had clai7ed in the fo4rth cent4ry B.C.D%IE +n the sa7e eriod

that sa the rise of sc4lted sarcoha"i, the boar h4nt beca7e a stale of +7erial icono"rahy, as itentered the 8adrianic tri47hal reertory in the early second cent4ry.D%#E ot only did the boar h4ntaear in the 7on47ental ro4ndels that no e7bellish the -rch of Constantine, b4t 8adrian alsoiss4ed brone 7edallions ith very si7ilar icono"rahy.D%%E )hat the h4nt contin4ed to lay this rolein se4lchral sy7bolis7 is attested by the n47ero4s sarcoha"i hich "ive ro7inence to si7ilari7a"es of the 4rs4it of other ild beasts, artic4larly the lion, as ell as those reresentin" the tales ofboar h4nters s4ch as -donis or Melea"er.D%5E )he h4nt as not only the foc4s of the 7ytholo"icalreertories, for its fa7iliar 7otifs ere detached fro7 their narrative conte>ts and alloed to stand inisolation. +n this sense the dead boar co4ld even serve as a 4nnin" 7etahor of )irtuson a rivate"ravestone, to all4de to the deceased as alter MeleagerFAi". 1$.D%LE

+n all these instances the h4nt served as an e>e7l47as both a si"n of )irtusand a 7odel forcond4ct.D%HE )he consistent and consic4o4s 4blic dislay of these i7a"es s4""ests their f4nction asparadeigmata.D%6E )he oer of s4ch e>e7la lay in the ability of individ4al instances to de7onstratea "eneral r4le, and to acco7lish this s4fficiently ell so that their intended 4blic 7i"ht be caable ofreco"niin" the si7ilarity.D%9E )he 7ytholo"ical e>e7la ill4strate ancient events, hich, as they erecontin4ally held 4 for e74lation, ere contin4ally aroriated to serve ne 4roses in ever neconte>ts. -nd hatever the conte>t into hich they ere inserted, they i7osed a ne, secific, fra7eof referenceZ7as it ere, fro7 ithin. )h4s these 7ytholo"ical e>e7la served as aradi"7s for theessentially 7i7etic character of h47an action. 0nly hen envisioned in the li"ht of the le"endarye>loits of heroes and "ods can s4ch h47an actions disclose their f4ll si"nificance and take theirri"htf4l lace in the scale of h47an val4es vo4chsafed by halloed traditions.D5$E

)he 4se of e>e7la layed a f4nda7ental role in the rhetorical trainin" of anti4ity, esecially in theOreli7inary e>ercises, orprogymnasmata,hich ere the standard co4rse st4died by /o7an yo4thsbe"innin" as early as the second cent4ry B.C. and contin4in" itho4t interr4tion into late /o7anti7es.D51E -7on" these e>ercises the e>e7lary character of 7ythand the ers4asive oer ofe>e7la in "eneralheld an i7ortant lace, notably in the e>ercises knon as fabella, narratio,chria,andsententia.D5IE )rainin" in s4ch a c4rric4l47 no do4bt rod4ced, in addition to a readyfa7iliarity ith the standard rhetorical for74lae, a redisosition to think in ter7s of these for74lae.0ne as trained not only to 4se e>e7la effectively b4t to reco"nie and resond to the7 hen theyere e7loyed.D5#E


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)he transfer of e>e7lary rhetoric fro7 the verbal to the vis4al real7 layed an act4al art in thec4rric4l47.Fkphrasisthe rhetorical techni4e of descrition that 4rorted to resent vis4al i7a"esthro4"h the 7edi47 of ordsaears a7on" theprogymnasmataby the first cent4ry a.d.D5%E B4tdescritions of i7a"es, aintin"s in artic4lar, had layed a cr4cial role in earlier literary for7s. )he7ost notable is erhas the 8ellenistic ro7ance, here the enco4nter ith a ainted i7a"e establishesthe the7e, if not the lot, that is abo4t to 4nfold.D55E

)he vis4al e>e7la on the 7ytholo"ical sarcoha"i co4ld e4ally lay clai7 to the ers4asive oerthat roficiency in these e>ercises 7i"ht event4ally rovide the o4lda7le in Blera FAi". 5, here a ashbasin lies at the co4leQs feet. 0n so7e e>a7les erotes

take 4 the task FAi". 9.DL$E-ll these i7a"es recall the laintive sirit of Bion;s'ament for "donis,in hich the "oddess leads fora final kiss fro7 the e>irin" yo4th. +n each of these variants of the scene he dies in the ar7s of hisdivine ara7o4r, ho is helless to rest hi7 fro7 his fate.DL1E )h4s the sarcoha"4s i7a"ery for the7yth dra7aties a series of aarent fail4res: -donis;s ref4sal to heed co4nsel, his fail4re to kill theboar, and -hrodite;s inability to save hi7 fro7 death. Get -donis re7ains an eEemplum )irtutisbeca4se he reresents a challen"e to the aeso7e oers of inel4ctable Aate.DLIE *ven the desires ofthe "ods are s4bject to it, as the 7yth so lainly reveals. )he valiant deed of the herohis boldaccetance of the deadly challen"e of the h4ntis s4ndered fro7 its secific role in the 7ytholo"icalnarrative, and stands as a si"n of character.DL#E )he e>e7lary nat4re of the i7a"ery in its se4lchralconte>t transfor7s this series of aarent fail4res into a vehicle of heroic sy7bolis7. +n offerin" aheroic i7a"e of death, the sarcoha"i th4s recast the vision of an individ4al;s life. Aor even 8eraklesdied? e)eryonedies. )hese i7a"es acknoled"e that in 7e7ory it is the 4ality of lifeand deaththat s4rvives and is orthy of co77e7oration and re7e7brance.DL%E

)he aearance of the e7bracin" co4le constit4tes the only reference on the sarcoha"i to that "reateros that bo4nd to"ether "oddess and 7ortal. )he i7a"e of the intertined airdesite differences inits settin", in its ose, and above all in its obvio4s role in the narrativeendos this artic4lar sceneith an e7otional tenor not 4nlike that of 0vid;s descrition. )he oet tells ho -hrodite entreated-donis to lie ith her, and ho, Oilloin" her head a"ainst his breast and 7in"lin" kisses ith her


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ords, she tells hi7 the tale of 8io7enes that concl4des ith her arnin" abo4t the dan"ers of theh4nt.DL5E )he 7otif re"4larly e7loyed by the sarcoha"4s desi"ners for the final scene of his death inthe "oddess;s ar7s is strikin"ly re7iniscent of scenes deictin" the love of -hrodite and -donis inother orks of ancient art. +n the i7a"es dislayed on vases, in frescoes, and in sc4lt4re, the tolovers are often fo4nd raed in si7ilar e7braces, knon assymplegmata.DLLE +t as the for74laic4ality of the 7otif that alloed )heocrit4s to ass47e his readers o4ld reco"nie the scene, in +dyll

2, here he seaks of a taestry deictin" -hrodite and -donis as they recline to"ether in l4>4riantreose.DLHE - very si7ilar scene co4ld be e7loyed for the deiction of -donis;s final 7o7ents, as in afresco fro7 Po7eii FAi". 1#. ot only is -hrodite discovered co4led ith -donis in s4ch a ose,b4t this sa7e "eneric tye of intertined fi"4res as also the standard for74la for the reresentation ofall of her love affairs, and those of other "oddesses as ell.DL6E )h4s as the final e7brace of the tolovers deicts -donis;s death and -hrodite;s "rief, it recallsif only s4btlythe i7a"ery of the "reatlove they once shared and have lost.

)he sarcoha"4s desi"ners clearly related this third and final scene of the cycle to the first of these4ence. 0n a n47ber of the s4rvivin" -donis sarcoha"i, the first and third scenes are resented asendants that fra7e the scene of the yo4n" hero;s de7ise.DL9E Both reresent interior actions, indicatedby theparapetasmastretched across the back of the relief "ro4nd FAi". %? each deicts one or both of

the rota"onists seated and on a lar"er scale than in the scene of the boar h4nt. )his Oinvention of ane settin" for the final scene 7ay be re"arded as one 7ore e>a7le of the /o7an taste for the dislayof endants since, as has already been observed, the literary so4rces for the final scene of -donis;sdeath call for it to occ4r in the "rove here he as o4nded by the boar. )he for7al role of theparapetasmais revealed 7ost clearly on a fra"7ent, no in the 2atican, here it aears stretchedbehind not only the fi"4res b4t the tree that secifies their o4tdoor settin" FAi". 11.DH$E

)his vis4al co7le7entarity of first and final scenes evoked a corresondin" co7le7entarity of senseand served to reiterate the si"nificance of the deart4re scene. *ach of these scenes s4""ests theinescaability of -donis;s fate. 4st as -hrodite as 4nable to revent -donis;s deart4re for the h4nt,so too she as helless to revent his Odeart4re fro7 life. 0nly ith the second of these scenes is thesi"nificance of the first f4lfilled, as the e>ectations evoked by its i7a"ery are realied. )he artists;

Oinvented co7osition for the final scene i7osed certain details on the story and sacrificed others tosi"nal the analo"y, hich reveals the corresondence of both scenes as tyes of deart4re.DH1E -s in thecase of the deart4re scene, here too the i7a"ery evokes the tra"ic reality that even heroesdie: to beloved by the "ods is not eno4"h to save the7.

N N N

3eginning at the end

)he reco"nied corresondence beteen the to scenes that oen and close the talecorresondencein sense as ell as in for7e>lains the 4se of one or the other on the three s4rvivin" reliefs thatdeict only to of the three scenes of the cycle.DHIE )he vis4al reertory for the 7yth co4ld be red4cedyet re7ain effective beca4se, desite deictin" different narrative 7o7ents, these to scenes dislaythe sa7e tyolo"ical character, share the sa7e sy7bolic f4nction, and reresent the sa7e ideaandtherefore roved interchan"eable.

Get the eli7ination fro7 the cycle of one scene or the other had a 7arked effect on the 7yth;sreresentation and on that reresentation;s si"nificance. )he final scene 7i"ht be o7itted, as on thesarcoha"4s at the 2illa =i4stiniani, for e>a7le FAi". 1%, ith a res4ltin" e7hasis on the tore7ainin" i7a"es of -donis;s fail4res: to heed the "oddess;s arnin" and to kill the ild boar.DH#E )hedeart4re scene is "iven ne ro7inence by the intr4sion of forei"n ele7ents: -donis is shon dressed


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and abo4t to leave, leadin" a horse. )he scene is nearly identical to those reresentin" 8iolyt4s;sdeart4re fro7 Phaedra FAi". 6, hich the -hrodite and -donis desi"ners borroed fro7 the Phaedrareertoryj4st as they borroed the enthrone7ent 7otif ith hich this one as ori"inally conjoined.Get hile 8iolyt4s h4nted on horseback, -donislike Melea"erh4nted the boar on foot and th4se>e7lified the brave h4nter ho stands alone in the face of dan"er.

Unlike the re4se of the enthrone7ent 7otif, in hich the secifics of the 7ytholo"ical narrative ere

abandoned in favor of the lar"er "eneral si"nificance of the i7a"e, in this instance the e>chan"e of7otifs "ave ro7inence to details that 4nder7ined the "rander sense of the scene. 0nce clothed FAi".1%, the fi"4re of -donis forfeits the heroic connotations of n4dity, as ell as its erotic aeal.&erived of this for7 of idealiation and the sche7atic series of contrasts it established on other reliefsFcf. Ai"s. 5JH, this reresentation of the -donis 7yth ver"es on the anecdotal. )his Oborroin"sho4ld be re"arded, not as another e>ercise in tyolo"y, 7arked by its characteristic 4ality ofsynthesis, b4t as an instance of conta7inationone bred by a fail4re to co7rehend the 7ore rofo4ndconnections beteen the to 7yths that had been established on other sarcoha"i.DH%E

)he o7ission of the deart4re scene had a rather different effect, as can be seen on the sarcoha"4s inMant4a FAi". 9. )he to re7ainin" scenes are divided by a ilaster, hich 7arks the te7oral shiftand the chan"e in settin" fro7 one to the ne>t. )he boar h4nt here takes recedence, as it is e>andedto fill al7ost toansive "est4re, hich, as it crosses in front of the ilaster, see7s to thr4stitself beyond the bo4ndaries of relief and enter real sace. (he is set aart by the reflective 4ality ofher torso;s s7ooth, olished s4rface, hich contrasts decidedly ith the b4sy interlay of li"ht andshado that characteries the relief as a hole. )he 7on47ental 4ality of her 4ri"ht for7, hichfills the relief fro7 to to botto7, is f4rther e7hasied by its contrast ith the ilaster, darfedalon"side her. (he vis4ally do7inates the friee, and it is to her for7 that the vieer;s eye isi77ediately dran and his attention directed.

)h4s the fi"4re of -hrodite, as it en"a"es the beholder, effects an Oentrance to the story at its verycenterith resect to the te7orality of the narrative as ell as the co7osition of the friee. )he"oddess arrives dra7atically, b4t too late to save -donisas the earlier 7o7ent of the disastro4s h4nt,ith hich her aroach is co4led, 7akes clear. -s the vieer scans across the friee toard the ri"htend, his eye led by the deicted 7ove7ent of the central "ro4 of fi"4res, he follos the story;s4nfoldin", yet he see7s to 7ove backard in narrative ti7e.

)he retrosective character of the ri"ht


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contents, dislayed in a series of the7atically related fra"7ents, hich the readerlike the beholder ofthe tri47h74st reasse7ble into a coherent vision of the ar.DHHE

)he artists resonsible for the Mant4a sarcoha"4s clearly e>loited this interlay beteen synoticvision and discri7inatin" foc4s. )he initial vie of the hole is disr4ted by the ro7inence of-hrodite, hose fi"4re co77ands attention. evertheless, the "eneral 7ove7ent of the fi"4res in thefriee dras one;s vision aay toard the ri"ht end. )his 7ove7ent 4nderscores the nat4ral i74lse to

read the linear ro"ression of the entire narrative, folloin" the 7odel of ritin", fro7 left to ri"ht. -sthe beholder be"ins to scr4tinie the i7a"ery and onder its si"nificance, his scansion of the entireanel be"ins invariably at the left end, and therefore the first scene confronted as he s4rveys the frieereresents the end of the story. )he conte7lation of the i7a"ery th4s e>ands, ith resect to for7and to content, si74ltaneo4sly forard and backard, as ell as satially and te7orally. Aor on theMant4a sarcoha"4sj4st as on the 7ajority of the early -donis reliefshile the e>erience of thei7a"ery 7oves fro7 left to ri"ht, the te7oral se4ence of the 7ytholo"ical narration is dislayed inthe oosite direction, fro7 ri"ht to left.DH6E

+n their narrative sol4tions, the sarcoha"4s desi"ners de7onstrated "reat ability and illin"ness totake advanta"e of this heno7enon of scansion, so f4nda7ental to vis4al narration, hich as inherentin the ictorial or"aniation of the sc4lt4res; for7. 0ne of the 7ost co7le> of these sol4tions 7ay bediscerned on a relief no in the 2atican FAi". 15.DH9E )his sarcoha"4s dislays in a different for7 theconta7ination of the -hrodite and -donis reertory by that of the Phaedra and 8iolyt4s sarcoha"i.D6$E 0n the ri"ht is the fa7iliar boar h4nt? on the left, hoever, the i7a"ery see7s to have beco7econf4sed. 0nce a"ain the borroed horse7an 7otif aears? b4t instead of e>tendin" the deart4rescene as it had on the =i4stiniani sarcoha"4s FAi". 1%, here it is aended to the 7otif of e7bracin"loversc4sto7arily the final scene of the cycle.

hile the inte"rity of the h4nt scene is rendered ith "reat clarity, there are no for7al divisionsbeteen the to ele7ents that 7ake 4 the lefta7le, is act4ally another variant of the 7ore c4sto7ary three


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7ytholo"ical s4bjects, one sho4ld reco"nie the artists; aareness that both the deart4re and the finale7brace had 4lti7ately the sa7e si"nificance for the se4lchral interretation of the 7yth. +n bothscenes, -donis is abo4t to deart fro7 the "oddess ho loves hi7, desite her desire to revent theirsearation, a desire 7ade alable on the reliefs by the erotic overtones of the symplegma7otif. (4chare the li7its of even divine love? s4ch is the e>tent and the oer of Aate.D6IE

)hat the vis4aliation of the story on the sarcoha"i 7i"ht be"in at the end is not in itself s4rrisin".

)he rhetorical device 7ay be as old as storytellin" itself.D6#E More secifically, the artists ere free toreorder the ro"ression of scenes on the reliefs beca4se the -donis 7yth, like 7ost 7oraliin" tales,as 4nderstood retrosectively, ith its concl4sion already established. +ndeed, the i7a"es; 7oralsi"nificance and e>e7lary val4e deend on this, and it is the reason that s4ch fa7iliar 7ythsand7oral tales in "eneralare invoked a"ain and a"ain.D6%E )his concetion of the 7yth;s character helsto e>lain the ri"htt. -s the i7a"esthe7selves s4""ested associations beteen tales, they rovided the str4ct4ral "4idelines for theirinterretation. +n these ictorial renditions of 7yth one 74st reco"nie orks of art 4nb4rdened of as4bservience to te>ts so that they 7i"ht rod4ce ori"inal and rofo4nd effects of their on. )hose hovieed these i7a"es ere intended not 7erely to reco"nie the 7yth b4t to "ras that the sc4lted


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fi"4res and their actions e>e7lified certain ideas and val4es that are the tr4e s4bjects of the se4lchralsy7bolis7: these are tales told ith concets as ell as ith characters. )he three scenes of the-hrodite and -donis reertory collectively render a story of heroic )irtus,the amorof the "ods, andthe con4est of both by the oer of Aate. )he reliefs 74st be conceived as the 7anifestation of thesethe7es. )he real si"nificance of their eito7iin" for7 of narration is revealed only if their stories areconsidered as the vehicles, rather than as the content, of the se4lchral 7essa"e.

Note)

1. (ee the 7aterials collected in the articles by A. &Y77ler, O-donis, inRF,+? and B. (ervaisergilii 7ucolica,.16.

9. 0vid,Metamorphoses,.5I9ff.? cf. )heocrit4s,+dylls,+++.%Lff.? -ollodor4s,7ibliotheca,+++.1%.%.

1$. )he 7ost i7ortant of the =reek so4rces for the Persehone eisode are -ollodor4s, 7ibliotheca,

+++.1%.%? Bion, + F8he 'ament for "donis? and )heocrit4s,+dylls,2.6Lf. Cf. also the inscrition fro7the "rave altar of Pedana FC+'2+, 1H$5$, ith its all4sion to 2en4s and Persehone;s Obattle over a7ortal;s fate: +n"ratae 2enaeri sondeba7 74nera s4le> ereta coi4> vir"initate tibi Persehonevotis invidit allida nostris et rae7at4ro f4naere te ra4it.FO)o 4n"ratef4l 2en4s + as 7akin"offerin"s as a s4liant, on the occasion hen yo4 lost yo4r vir"inity, ife. Pale Persehone envied o4rrayers and snatched yo4 aay in an 4nti7ely death.? translation fro7 =. B. ayell, O- /o7an=rave -ltar /ediscovered,"/"6L F196I: I%1.

11. Aor -rte7is;s role, see -ollodor4s,7ibliotheca,+++.1%.%? for -res;s, see (ervi4s,+n >ergilii"eneidos,2.HI? -thoni4s,rogymnasmata,++.1$ff? onnos,0ionysiaca,3+.I$%JI11?"nthologia'atinaFed. B4echeler and /iese, +, L6 and I5#.#Iff. Aor f4rther references in the ritin"s of late

anti4ity Fes. Christian a4thors, see P. . 3eh7ann,Roman 2all aintings from 7oscoreale in theMetropolitan Museum of "rtFCa7brid"e, 195#, . %L n. LL.

1I. Aor disc4ssions of the"donaia,see . eill, O-d?afoniao4sai o4 les fe77es s4r le toit,7C*9$F19LL? eade7, O3a f_te d;-donis dans la Samiennede M[nandre,7C*9% F19H$? and cf. M.&etienne, 8he 6ardens of "donisD Spices in 6reek MythologyF-tlantic 8i"hlands, 19HH. )hese riteso4ld aear to be the oint of 0vid;s all4sion at Metamorphoses,.HI5f.

1#. Cf. the 7aterials resented in the s4rvey by (ervaisa7le, ibid., nos. 1I, 15, 19, #5.


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15. Cf., ibid., nos. ##, %$.

1L. )he -donis sarcoha"i ere collected by C. /obert in"SR+++.1? a revised catalo"4e, by &.=rassin"er, is d4e to aear as"SR++.1. )he folloin" 7on47ents 7ay be added to those listed by/obert: fra"7ents in Berkeley, Colo"ne, Maniana, and /o7e and a casket in /ostock? see Koch and(ichter7ann,R3mische Sarkophage,. 1#1J1##, ith earlier biblio"rahy. ote that cat. no. 16 in"SR+++.1, listed as -donis Ffolloin" the 19$% British M4se47 catalo"4e of -. 8. (7ith, does not

reresent this 7yth: cf. no alker, Catalogue of the Roman Sarcophagi,. I#, no. 1L, as O8yas FWafter /obert;s s4""estion Fhich still re7ains 4nconvincin".

1H. )his casket, no in /ostock Fsee . /ichter, O&er -donissarkoha",%estschrift 6ottfried )on'=ckenD/ostock, 19L6E, is the only e>a7le a7on" the -donis sarcoha"i on hich the end anelslay a clear role in the overall ro"ra7 and e>tend the te7orality of the narrative dislayed in thescenes of the front anel. )hat on the ri"ht end F/ichter, late #I recedes the conventional se4enceand deicts -hrodite, holdin" the infant -donis and seated beteen ]e4s and Persehone? th4s itreresents the to "oddesses; rivalry over the yo4th and the resol4tion of the case by the leader of the"ods Fcf. -ollodor4s,7ibliotheca,+++.1%.%? Bion, +? )heocrit4s,+dylls,2.6Lff.. )he left end F/ichter,late #L deicts an event s4bse4ent to those on the front anel yet not fo4nd in any of the s4rvivin"so4rces: there Charon, identified by the r4dder he holds, stands before the seated -donis, and the boar;shead han"s fro7 a tree as a trohy to si"nal the scene;s lace in the narrative.

0n one end anel of another sarcoha"4s a solitary fi"4re is shon fi"htin" a boar, a scene that 7ayreresent -donis Fsee"SR+++.1, no. 1%, ri"ht end. Get this is 7ore likely a O"eneric i7a"e of a h4nter,s4ch as those fo4nd on the end anels of another sarcoha"4s Fcf."SR+++.1, no. I1? the si"nificance ofa fra"7entary scene F"SR+++.1, no. 1H is 4nclear? all ere robably incl4ded as i7a"es aroriate tothe 7ytholo"ical conte>t.

)he re7ainin" end anels of -donis sarcoha"i dislay i7a"ery derived fro7 the decorative reertoryof /o7an art, s4ch as the in"ed "riffin F"SR+++.1, no. 1I? for the si"nificance of hich see C.&ellace,'e 6riffon de larchasme & l5po4ue imp5rialeD Gtude iconographi4ue et essaidinterpretation symboli4ueDBr4ssels and /o7e, 196$E, or C4id and Psyche F"SR+++.1, no. 1%? for

hich see Chater % belo.

16. Aor reresentations of the"donaiain ancient orks of art, see (ervais


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of =. *lse,"ristotles oeticsD 8he "rgumentFCa7brid"e, M-, 195H, . 51%J51L.

I6. )he connection beteen the -donis and Phaedra reertories is disc4ssed by C. /obert, in"SR+++.1,. 1%f? f4rther ar"47ent for the ri7acy of the Phaedra!8iolyt4s i7a"ery ill be advanced belo.0n the reco"niability of a O4otation s4ch as that of (koas;sothose7loyed here, see &.Bosch4n", O-obilia peraD]4r irk4n"s"eschichte "riechischer Meistererke i7 kaisereitlichen/o7, -ntK #ID1E F1969.

I9. +t is not only these to tales that are so conjoined a7id the cor4s of 7ytholo"ical sarcoha"4sreliefs. 3on" a"o, . -y7ard FO3a le"ende de Bell[rohon s4r 4n sarcoha"e d4 M4s[e d;-l"er,M5lRom5I D19#5E ointed o4t the si7ilar conta7ination of the Bellerohon i7a"ery by that of8iolyt4s.

#$. *. Bart7an, O&ecor et &4licatio: Pendants in /o7an (c4lt4ral &islay, "/"9I F1966.

#1. +bid., II%JII5? . /aeder,0ie statuarische "usstattung der >illa *adriana bei 8i)oliFArankf4rt a7Main, 196#, . 6HJ66, lates 11J1I cf., f4rther, M. Marvin, OAreestandin" (c4lt4res fro7 the Bathsof Caracalla,"/"6H F196#, for the aired stat4es of 8erakles that stood in the Baths of Caracalla.

#I. )h4s the to variants of the enthroned Phaedra fo4nd on the sarcoha"4s reliefs and elsehere

sho4ld be distin"4ished: one reresents her confrontation ith, and confession to, 8iolyt4s? the otheri7a"e, its se4el, deicts Phaedra ith head t4rned aay in resi"nation at the threshold of doo7. 0nthe a7bivalence and 74ltile si"nificances of the Phaedra 7otif, see no P. =hiron e>e7les d;4n sch[7a icono"rahi4eclassi4e 4tilis[ dans l;art hell[nisti4e et ro7ain, inR"K8+K"F-thens, 1966.

##. Aor the tye of O7an;s last


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36/127

e>e7l47 aears as early as 8o7er, here F+liad,+.5IHff. he serves as the e>e7l47 for -chilles?see /. Brilliant, >isual -arrati)esD Storytelling in Ftruscan and Roman "rtF+thaca, 196%, . 1%5.

%6. -ristotle,Rhetorica,+.I.6 and esecially ++.I$.1ff. Aor disc4ssions of the literary e7loy7ent ofparadeigmata,see belo, n. H1.

%9. (ee the disc4ssion in . &. 3yons, 8he Rhetoric of FEample in Farly Modern %rance and +talyFPrinceton, 1969, . 1IJ15, IH.

5$. .ts into late anti4ity, see 8. Marro4,*istoire de l5ducationdans lanti4uit5, Lth ed. FParis, 19L5, . IL$.

5I. 8er7o"enes,eri MuthonDOMyth is the aroved thin" to set first before the yo4n", beca4se it canlead their 7inds into better 7eas4res Ftrans. fro7 Baldin,Medie)al Rhetoric,. IIJ%$? cf.

4intilian,+nstitutio ratoria,2.11.19. Aor the 4se of e>e7la in the chria,seeRhetorica ad*erennium,+2.%%.5H. )he na7es for the vario4s e>ercises, hile fi>ed in the =reek ter7inolo"y, havevario4s 3atin translations? those e7loyed here are taken fro7 4intilian,+nstitutio ratoria,+.9.1ff.and ++.%.1ff.

5#. (ee the disc4ssion of the effects of /enaissance trainin" ith these te>ts in M. Ba>andall, 6iottoand the ratorsF19H1? 0>ford, 196L, es. . #Iff.

5%. -s *. Ke4ls, O/hetoric and 2is4al -ids in =reece and /o7e, in Communication "rts in the"ncient 2orld,ed. *. -. 8avelock and . P. 8ershbell Fe Gork, 19H6, 1II and n. I, oints o4t,hoever, aintin"s and sc4lt4res do not see7 to have aeared in these handbooks as e>licit the7es4ntil the fifth cent4ry.

55. +bid? see also M. C. Mittelstadt, O3on"4s: &ahnis and Chloe and /o7an arrative Paintin",'atomusIL F19LH? =. (teiner, O)he =rahic -nalo"4e fro7 Myth in =reek /o7ance, in ClassicalStudies resented to 7en FdAin erryFUrbana, 19L9.

5L. 4intilian,+nstitutio ratoria,2+.I.#I and 2+++.#.L#.

5H."SR+++.1, nos. 9, 1I, 1%, 15, and 1H.

56."SR+++.1, nos. 15 and 1H. Cf. the scene of Ofinal e7brace on the Casino /osi"liosi sarcoha"4sFAi". L ith a fra"7ent fro7 a all aintin", no in the 3o4vre: see (ervais


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38/127

H5. 0n the interrelation of synotic and se4ential ercetion of the sarcoha"4s reliefs, see Brilliant,>isual -arrati)es,. 1L1J1LI. - concise disc4ssion of these iss4es, ith resect to the co7le>or"aniation of the i7a"ery of )rajan;s Col47n, is fo4nd in (. (ettis,'a Colonna 8raianaF)4rin,1966.

HL. Alavi4s oseh4s,7ellum +udaicum,2++.1#9ff., es. 1%HJ1%6 Ftrans. 8. (t. . )hackeray, in'C'ed.DCa7brid"e and 3ondon, 19IH? 19LHE.

HH. (ettis,'a Colonna 8raiana,. I#IJI#%. Cf. the si7ilar ainted anels 7entioned by 8erodian,*istoriae,+++.9.1I, 2++.I.6.

H6."SR+++.1, nos. #, %, 5, L, 9, 1$, I$, and the sarcoha"4s in /ostock.

H9."SR+++.1, no. 1I.

6$. )4rcan, O&[for7ation des 7od\les, . %#$J%#1.

61. )h4s Blo7e, OA4ner@rsy7bolische Colla"en, . 1$LHf.

6I. Blo7e;s s4""estion FOA4ner@rsy7bolische Colla"en, . 1$LHf. that this conflation of scenesreresents a sta"e in the ro"ressive transfor7ation of the 7yth;s narration on the sarcoha"i, hen theri"htt, and the s4bse4ent e7hasis of the vis4ali7a"ery on the concet of heroic death. +n artic4lar, -donis;s botanical 7eta7orhosis, and thesy7bolic rebirth in the"donaiathat as to co7le7ent it, are nohere reresented on the 7arblereliefs. Get resonances of these ele7ents of the 7yth, 4ndeniably ertinent to a se4lchral conte>t, atti7es e7er"ed a7id the i7a"ery dislayed on the sarcoha"i.

)here are to variants a7id this "ro4 of s4rvivin" sarcoha"4s reliefs that reflect, albeit di7ly, the


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rit4al f4nction and 4rose of the"donaia.)his cere7ony as enacted in the belief that it o4ld brin"abo4t -donis;s res4rrection, if only 7o7entarily and only in the fervent i7a"inations of thosearticiatin" in the c4lt rit4al. Both variant i7a"es dra7atically alter the standardied reresentation ofthe 7ytholo"ical narrative. )hey chan"e the order of the deicted scenes, and they derive thereresentation of the boar h4nt of its c4sto7ary riority in scale and osition at the center of thetriartite reliefs. Most si"nificantly, they introd4ce forei"n ele7ents to effect startlin" analo"ies that

holly transfor7 the sense of the tale and redict a very different c4l7ination of the 7ytholo"icaldra7a. )hese variations on the conventional i7a"ery of the -hrodite and -donis 7yth no lon"er7erely celebrate the life of the deceased retrospecti)ely,by 7eans of 7ythic analo"y. /ather, the4ni4e versions of the story they resent offer, in addition, aprospecti)evision that a4"7ents the7ytholo"ical analo"y and evokes, alon" ith a f4rther eisode of the tale, a ne fate for itsrota"onist.D1E

N N N

"potheo)i)

0n a lar"e early


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)he sarcoha"4s desi"ners have effected the novel co7osition on the 2atican relief by thearoriation of this reco"niable 7odel, and ith it they have recast the i7a"eand the senseof-donis dyin" in the ar7s of -hrodite. )he enthroned co4le confor7 to that secial i7a"ery inventedby /o7an art that de7onstrated vis4ally the r4ler;s allts. By these 7eans they conceived ne i7a"es fa7iliar in for7 and resonant ith the content ofthe 7ost hi"hly trenchant orks of official icono"rahy. +n this instance, the reresentational for74lafor the 7ytholo"iation of the e7eror is Oborroed, not only to rovoke the conscio4s e4ation ofthis hero of 7yth and the hero of state, b4t to serve as a vis4al 7etahor that f4nctions here as thesi"nal of -donis;s ne fate.D1$E )he vis4al i7lication of the hero;s aotheosis is testi7ony to theoer of the "ods to revive the dead and to render the7 i77ortal.D11E +n the resence of the beardedOhysician, the eros ho on other reliefs banda"ed -donis;s o4nded thi"h here ashes his feet. )hisis not the rit4al ashin" of the corse in rearation for its inter7ent, b4t, as the refor74lation of the

scene s4""ests, the cleansin" of his revivified body for its resence a7on" the "ods.D1IE-ltho4"h the official ideolo"y of the divineprinceps7ay have 7otivated the vis4al for7 adoted onthe 2atican sarcoha"4s, in the 7ytholo"ical conte>t the for7 had additional connotations, halloed by74ch older traditions. hile -donis;s revival as not art of the 7ain /o7an version of the 7yth0vid;sit had a definite lace in the fable;s =reek herita"e, and nothin" co4ld be better s4ited to thetellin" of the tale in this se4lchral settin".D1#E )h4s this artic4lar sarcoha"4s i7a"e tells the tale of-hrodite;s oers, if not to forestall Aate, at least to have the final say in the dra7a.

N N N

/eroic )**ering

+n the oi"nancy of his s4fferin", the nat4re of his o4nd, andin this artic4lar versionthe i7a"eof his s4ccor ith its i7lications of revival, -donis;s li"ht is aralleled by that of other ancientheroes.

0n an ivory la4ette fo4nd at Po7eii FAi". 1H, there is an i7a"e strikin"ly si7ilar to the scene onthe 2atican sarcoha"4s FAi". H.D1%E )his ork also deicts a hysician ho tends a fi"4re o4nded inthe thi"h? yet here -hrodite stands at the left and "est4res i7lorin"ly, hile an attendant behind thehero steadies hi7. +t has lon" been tho4"ht that this la4ette as a reresentation of the o4nded-donis,D15E yet -donis as not the only ancient hero th4s o4nded. -eneas, the beloved son of


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-hrodite, as also o4nded in the thi"h, b4t it as his "reat fort4ne to then be saved fro7 death bythe "oddess. )he corresondence beteen these tales and their deictions as not lost on the ancientartists, as e shall see.

+n Book 2 of the+liad,8o7er tells ho, hen -eneas;s thi"h had been cr4shed by the 7i"hty&io7edes, -hrodite, his 7other, sooed don into the fray to resc4e hi7.D1LE 2er"il as to re4sethe the7e and recall the scene in Book ++ of the"eneid.hen an arro la4nched Oby an 4nknon

hand o4nds -eneas in the thi"h, the old hysician ais labors, 4ns4ccessf4lly, to revive hi7:-eneas stood roed on his h4"e sear, ra"in" bitterly, a7id a "reat thron" of arriorsand "rievin" +4l4s, 4n7oved by their tears. )he old hysician, his cloak 4lled back, and"irt in the Paeonian 7anner, ith healin" hand and the otent herbs of -ollo, actsh4rriedly, ith "reat a"itation, to no avail.o Aort4ne "4ides his ay, nor does his7entor -ollo offer aido 2en4s, his 7other, str4ck by her son;s 4ndeserved ain,seies fro7 Cretan +da so7e dittany, a stalk l4>4riant ith dony leaves and 4rle floer.)his 2en4s bro4"ht don, her face enveloed in shadoy clo4d? this, ith secretscience, she dis in ater o4red into a shinin" vessel, and srinkles ith beneficial j4icesand fra"rant anacea. ith that li4id, ancient ais caressed the o4nd, 4nknoin"ly, ands4ddenly, all ain fled fro7 the body, all blood ceased to flo fro7 the o4nd. -nd nothe arro, folloin" his hand, 4nforced, fell o4t, and ne stren"th ret4rned, as before.O4ick, s477on ar7s for the 7an^ hy stand stillW cries aisO)his arises not fro77ortal 7eans, not by the 7aster;s art, nor are yo4, -eneas, saved by 7y hand? a "reater onea "odacts, and sends yo4 back to "reater deeds.D1HE

(ave that the hero does not stand b4t sits, the ivory la4ette;s co7osition echoes the scene describedby 2er"il? it as not the only ork of art to do so Fcf. Ai". IH.

)he i7a"e on the la4ette;s reverse stron"ly s4""ests this identification of the scene, for other ivoryla4ettes of this kind are knon, and in all cases the 7ytholo"ical i7a"ery on their to sides aearsto be related.D16E 0n the reverse is a scene FAi". 16 derived fro7 the /o7ans; vis4al reertory for8o7eric eic, here it reresented Pria7;s ret4rn ith the body of 8ector after its ranso7 fro7

-chilles FAi". 19.D19E

)he basic tye of the dead hero;s body borne by his co7rades as ell knon and idely e7loyed,not only for the reresentation of this 8o7eric scene b4t for the reresentation of a hole series ofdead heroes, and th4s has a lon" history.DI$E +t has been ointed o4t that this scene, ith the toarriors ho carry 8ector;s body, does not act4ally corresond to 8o7er;s narrative, for Pria7conveyed the body back to )roy on a 74le


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the7 to ret4rn to ac4ire it.DI5E

)he tendin" of Philoctetes; o4nds as a standard scene of that 7yth;s vis4al reertory and aears ona variety of ancient orks of art: *tr4scan cinerary 4rns FAi". I1 and 7irrors, an ornate silver c4 ofthe -4"4stan eriod FAi". II as ell as its rerod4ctions in -rretine are, and to s4rvivin" /o7ansarcoha"i FAi"s. I$, I#.DILE )he tra"ic i7a"e of the hero, s4fferin" in isolation yet destined torecover, served as a otent sy7bol of hoe in the face of an 4nfatho7able e>istence after death. )he

7yth no do4bt served as ell as an ele"ant re7inder of the 7erit of stoic ideals and the virt4e inherentin the ability to rise above the s4fferin"s of this life for the sake of hi"her val4es.DIHE hile theall4sion to stoic ideals had secial si"nificance in a se4lchral conte>t, the inti7ation of s4fferin"transcended had the 7erit of resentin" the deceased to his heirs and descendants as an e>e7l47 forthe end4rance of their sorros.

)hat a secial relationshi bo4nd to"ether the tales of these to heroesPhiloctetes and 8ectorisde7onstrably acknoled"ed a"ain on the to fa7o4s silver c4s fro7 8oby, one of hich dislays theranso7 of 8ector FAi". I% as a endant to the o4nd tendin" of Philoctetes FAi". II. )he tyolo"icalaffinity beteen the s4fferin"s of -eneas and 8ector s4""ested by the ales ivory la4ettecorresonds e>actly ith the analo"y beteen 8ector and Philoctetes established on these 7iniat4resilver 7asterorks, as ell as on the Basel sarcoha"4s FAi". I$.

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The intermingling o* iconographic tradition)

-ll three of these ancient heroes-eneas, 8ector, and Philoctetesere related as e>e7la. )heirarallel stories offered 7odels for the revision of the -donis tale told by the 2atican sarcoha"4s. +f thee7eror co4ld rovide the analo"y of aotheosis, these other 7yths co4ld rovide analo"ies ofs4fferin" overco7e and death con4ered. )he reversal of -donis;s fate, as he is healed 4nder thea4sices of -hrodite, corresonds to, and aears to derive fro7, the tye established by the otherthree 7ytholo"ical fi"4res, all resc4ed fro7 their a"ony, their o4nds healed.

)he corresondence beteen these stories r4ns deeer still. +n -hrodite;s resc4e of -donis there 7aybe seen, if only 7etahorically, a arallel to the ele7ent o

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