Myth and History - ActiveHistory · several world records in the face of Hitler’s claim. Then, outraged at Owens’s performance, Hitler refused to shake his hand or be photographed

Sample History Internal Assessment by student at IST via www.activehistory.co.uk

- 1 -

Myth and History

Did Hitler really snub Jesse Owens at the 1936 Olympics?


- 2 -

Myth and History ............................................................................................................ 1

A. Plan of Investigation ...................................................................................................... 3

B. Summary of Evidence .................................................................................................... 4

C. Evaluation of Sources .................................................................................................... 7

D. Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 8

E. Conclusion................................................................................................................... 11

F. Appendices ................................................................................................................... 12

Appendix 1: Source A: Germany 1919-1945 ............................................................... 12

Appendix 2: Source B: Heroes of Ohio – 23 true tales of courage and character ........ 13

Appendix 3: 110,000 See Owens Set World Record At Olympic Games.................... 14

Appendix 4: “Letters to the Sports Editor” Calls for Fair Play .................................... 15

G. Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 16


- 3 -

A. Plan of Investigation This investigation focuses on the myth surrounding Jesse Owens and Adolph Hitler

during the 1936 Olympics. In order to evaluate what actually happened many different

sources have been used including interpretations of the event as well as newspaper

clippings and sources from the time period. Then we will asses these interpretations in an

attempt to discover the truth of the event. In doing so, we will look at the purpose of the

creation of the myth and also the effect of myth on history.

This investigation does not consider the differences in ideologies of any countries

mentioned.

- 97 -


- 4 -

B. Summary of Evidence

In 1936, the world was slowly moving towards World War II. The 1936

Olympics provided a ‘battlefield’ for the ideological struggle between the Aryan race and

the rest of the world1. Hitler made the claim that his Aryan race was going to rule the

Olympics.2 The popular belief is that Jesse Owens won four gold medals and broke

several world records in the face of Hitler’s claim. Then, outraged at Owens’s

performance, Hitler refused to shake his hand or be photographed with him.3 However,

Rick Shenkman’s Legends, Lies, and cherished Myths of American History counterclaims

that the myth concerning Mr. Owens and Adolph Hitler was completely unfounded.

However, the synopsis was slightly different. He explains that Hitler had not left

Olympic stadium in order to avoid congratulating Owens4. Rather, the event was the

result of a previously committed offence against the African Americans5. In addition,

Germany outdid the United States in every medal category that year. Hitler had little

reason to be angry with his country’s performance. In comparison, the GCSE textbook

had apparently left out and changed details.

Many texts, of both accounts and historical analyses, have been written on the

event. Particularly disturbing were those created for the education of children, the

conclusions of which were hauntingly similar to those in Germany 1919-1945. Most

portrayd the Fuhrer as an angry racist6. Although, he may have been as such, writers

tended to leave out factual evidence in order to strengthen this outlook. Present day 1 “Jesse Owens, a black American athlete, won four gold medals at the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games. His achievement undermined the Nazi belief in the superiority of Aryan athletes and Hitler refused to congratulate Owens.” Grey, Paul and Little, Rosemary ‘Germany 1919-1945’ (p.257) 2 Streissguth, Thomas, Jesse Owens (A and E biography – The United States had dominated Olympic competition since the early part of the century. 3 “When an aide suggested he invite Owens up to congragulate him (as he had with successful German athletes), Hitler was outraged. ‘Do you really think I will allow myself to be photographed shaking hands with a black man?’ He hissed.” – Dowswell, Paul, True stories of heroes 4 A common misconception 5 “Five minutes before the United States jumpers moved in for the ceremony of the Olympic triumph Hitler left his box [because] Johnson and Albritton are negroes. None of the others were.” Daley, Arthur J., 110,000 See Owens Set World Record At Olympic Games August 3, 1936; The New York Times 6 “The Americans should be ashamed of themselves, letting Negroes win their medals for them. I shall not shake hands with this Negro…Do you really think that I will allow myself to be photographed shaking hands with this Negro?” (Adolph Hitler – www.Historylearningsite.com)


- 5 -

writers aiming for a mature audience attempted to set the record straight7. In other cases

after Owens proved Hitler’s Aryan race to be little more than hot air, the myth succeeded

adding to his already larger than life persona.8

Journalists of the period varied in terms of bias. Some were devoted to pursuing

the facts; but a majority fed on the melee that ensued.9 The result was a blend of

American and Nazi propaganda. Although the original offence was against Albright and

Johnson, Jesse Owens ran soon after and was snubbed by Hitler. While denying the snub

at first, Owens reportedly grew tired of the hassle and began to affirm Hitler’s racist

atrocity.10 Facts were mingled and Owens, the most well known of the three, emerged as

the primary icon of the insult. He came to represent, for the American culture, everything

that was wrong with the concept of Aryanism11. On the other hand, the German media

seized the opportunity to declare the collapse of the white American athletes12.

The fallacy in Germany 1919-1945 opened the door to a new world of question

marks. If the past is all of the presents that have been lost due to the passage of time,

History then, is the present’s way of discovering the truth of the past. The current debate

is whether History is already in existence, and simply waiting to be discovered, or, as the

postmodernists argue, that History is an invention created by the historian13. It is not a

7 “The U.S. press, particularly the tabloid newsreels which embraced the propaganda spin of the moment, wrote that Hitler had ‘stormed’ out of the stadium in a ‘tantrum’. The New York Times proclaimed, ‘Hitler greets all medallists except Americans.” Entine, John, Taboo – Why black athletes dominate sports and why we’re afraid to talk about it (p. 184 ) 8– Although Shaap labels Owens a “true revolutionary”, a hero of the US ideology at the time, he argues, after looking at past sources, that a direct snub probably never occurred. Shaap, Jeremy, Triumph: The Untold Story of Jesse Owens and Hitler’s Olympics 9 “ Reams of insanity have been prevalent in the press recently as a result of the failure of Reichsfuehrer Hitler to greet and congratulate Jesse Owens for his Olympic triumphs.” – Calls for Fair Play – The New York Times – Slaughter, Henry A. [Letters to the Sports Editor] – Possibly the myth is due to the fact that Owens was more well known than Johnson and Albritton, thus the American public reacted more strongly to this event, and it was thought that Owens was the primary bearer of the snub. 10 “Owens himself originally insisted it wasn't true, but eventually he began saying it was, apparently out of sheer boredom with the issue.” – Shenkman, Rick, Legends, Lies, and Cherished Myths of American History 11 “The 1936 U.S. Olympic relay team’s victory was…one for humanity.” 12 “German reporters scrambled to turn around the embarrassment and shape it according to Nazi propaganda. They pumped up the myth of the invincible black athlete as an excuse. There were stories of a sorrowful ‘physical decline’ in white American athletes that was so serious that the United States could not hope to compete in sports or war without its ‘black legion’ of ‘differently bred’ gladiators. ‘If the American team had not brought along ‘black auxilaries,’ editorialized one Nazi paper, ‘one would have regarded the United States as the biggest disappointment of the Games.” Entine, John, Taboo – Why black athletes dominate sports and why we’re afraid to talk about it (p. 185) 13 “He sifts, analyses, makes something coherent out of traces which are not in themselves coherent.”


- 6 -

contest of right or wrong, rather it is a question of the quality of truth that can be gleaned

from the discipline of History.

This led me to the question: to what extent is history a myth? The two are very

much the same. Both are subject to the simplifying and editing of the historian, or in the

case of myth, the story teller. Consider the sources and relics from the past; many facts

can be known about ancient civilizations, their cultures, and ways of life. History clearly

transmits knowledge from writer to reader. Indeed, myth also conveys knowledge of the

past in a much more informal setting. And yet how much of the past has been lost,

confused, or purposefully changed in the recording14. Given that history contains gaps, it

appears unavoidable that historians be given to drawing conclusions to fill in the spaces.

Therefore the ability to know anything about the past becomes maimed at best. And

History remains “the great propagator of doubt”15.

- 670 -

14 “Even if the writer wanted to present a truthful picture did prejudice, bias or exaggeration distort what was written?” (The Past and History - http://www.history-ontheweb.co.uk/histtheory/histtheory_6.htm ) 15 A.J.P. Taylor - http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Whatishistory/research.html


- 7 -

C. Evaluation of Sources

The extract from Germany 1919-1945 is little more than a footnote. The textbook

was written by Paul Grey and Rosemarie Little. Its original purpose was clearly to

educate young people, ages 15 or 16 on the culture and experience of Germany between

the years 1919 and 1945. It is valuable because it demonstrates a western view of Nazi

society. It confirms the popular belief about the event under investigation, but also shows

the power of the textbook.

The source also has several limitations. It is very brief and holds very little

information concerning the 1936 Olympics. For instance, Owens could not have been the

only black American athlete to win a medal, and indeed he was not. So did Hitler only

refuse to shake the hand of Owens, or every black American’s hand? The final sentence

is simply added on at the end of the footnote.16 It suggests that the textbook lacks detail.

This considerably weakens the factual validity of the source.

Heroes of Ohio, like Germany 1919-1945, is also intended for younger readers,

but in an informal setting. The account was put together by Rick Sowash, ‘Storyteller of

the heartland’. The purpose is clearly to educate a younger generation on events of the

past, specifically, events of their heritage which they should be proud of. This source’s

value lies in its strictly American approach to the event. Although it is undeniably

biased, it gives insight into the American viewpoint of not only this particular event, but

also the Nazis in general.17

The source is limited, however, by its biased nature. It becomes discredited in

terms of its ability to reproduce the truth of the past. This is enhanced by the title of the

book itself: Heroes of Ohio – 23 true tales of courage and character. The placement of

the word ‘true’ into the title immediately suggests to the reader that one can trust the

ideas and facts in this book. In addition, the use of words such as ‘courage’ in the title

suggests that the book is of a noble character itself. - 343 -

16 “…And Hitler refused to congratulate Owens.” Grey, Paul and Little, Rosmarie, Germany 1919-1945 (p. 257) 17 “Filled with hate, Hitler would rather shake no one’s hand than have to shake hands with a black athlete.” Sowash, Rick, Heroes of Ohio (p. 104)


- 8 -

D. Analysis The Owens affair has been a highly publicized event. However, the question

remains: did Hitler personally snub Jesse Owens? Two separate parties of interpretations

emerge: those supporting the personal snub18, and those who claim that the snub was

never personal. A variety of resources acknowledge that Hitler had previously stopped

shaking hands with the black American athletes.19 Many newspaper articles of the day

admitted that Owens was certainly not the first to have been snubbed. In fact Hitler was

asked by the Olympic committee to shake everyone’s hand or no one’s hand, he chose to

shake no one’s.20 Essentially, the implication of Hitler as a racist is factual, clearly as he

refused to shake hands first with the Johnson and Albritton and again with Owens. The

myth, however, that Hitler was only concerned with insulting Jesse Owens is untrue, yet

it simplifies the total message of the event, that Hitler was racist.

The media hype concerning the event was outstanding, and that particular side of

the story has been well documented. However, Jesse Owens own opinion on the matter

has not been so highly reviewed. During the event Owens is said to have gotten so tired

of the press that he eventually played along, saying that Hitler did refuse to shake his

hand. In the bigger picture, the evidence that Hitler did personally snub Owens, or that it

even mattered to him, is increasingly non-evident. Yet more often than not, a country is

externally judged through the lense of its political leaders. Thus through the creation of

this myth, not only is the Nazi regime criticized, but the moral goodness of the German

people is also brought into question.21 In fact many sources talk about the German’s

18 “German leader Hitler snubbed Jesse Owens by refusing to shake his hand at the Olympic medal awards ceremony.” Robinson, Sharon, Promises to Keep (p. 17) 19 “Cornelius Johnson…won the high jump and…Dave Albritton…and Delos Thurber…took the other two medals. But five minutes before …the ceremony…Hitler left his box.” Daley, Arthur J., 110,000 See Owens Set World Record At Olympic Games August 3, 1936; The New York Times 20 “The adverse publicity led to an unusual rebuke of the Fûhrer by the IOC, which asked that Hitler publicly greet all or none of the winners. Hitler decided that thereafter he would not personally greet any of the gold-medal winners.” Entine, John, Taboo – Why black athletes dominate sports and why we’re afraid to talk about it (p. 185) 21 “When the SS Manhattan, carrying the U.S. team arrived in Bremerhaven on August 24, friendly German autograph-seekers mobbed Owens and his seventeen black teammates.” Entine, John, Taboo – Why black athletes dominate sports and why we’re afraid to talk about it (p. 185)


- 9 -

warm welcome of Owens.22 Owens himself placed the event into context. “When I came

back, after all those stories about Hitler and his snub, I came back to my native country

and I could not ride in the front of the bus. I had to go to the back door. I couldn't live

where I wanted. Now, what's the difference?”23

Thus we must ask the questions: who and why in terms of the myth’s creation.

Both the American and the German media attempted to put forth their own

interpretations. The Germans claimed that the “Black auxillaries”24 presence at the

Games showed the decline of white American athletes. The American media turned

Owens into a national hero.25

From an American point of view, the myth does three things. It simplifies the

overall reality of events, while preserving the desired message.26 In addition, it

simultaneously glorifies American heritage and defies Nazi ideals. Heritage27 is the

highly disputed branch of History which lends itself to the self-aggrandizement of a

culture regarding its own past. Similar, you will note, to the way that myth is presented

in popular memory28. In ‘Heroes of Ohio’29, for example, the lines between the two have

been blurred, resulting in the further development of myth.

22 “In Berlin, Owens awoke in the morning to find people shoving autograph books through his open bedroom window. Boys and girls mobbed him. German soldiers asked for his signature. Young women sent perfumed letters and marriage proposals, not caring that he already was married.” http://www.runohio.com/news/5-5-01-JesseOwens_a_timeless_hero.html 23 http://www.runohio.com/news/5-5-01-JesseOwens_a_timeless_hero.html - See New York Times article in appendix 4 to see an American perspective concerning Owen’s observation. Owens also perceptively said, "I wasn't invited up to shake hands with Hitler, but I wasn't invited to the White House to shake hands with the president, either." - http://www.cleveland.com/homegrown/index.ssf?/homegrown/more/jowens/reality.html 24 “There were stories of a sorrowful ‘physical decline’ in white American athletes that was so serious that the United States could not hope to compete in sports or war without its ‘black legion’ of ‘differently bred’ gladiators.” Entine, John, Taboo – Why black athletes dominate sports and why we’re afraid to talk about it (p. 185) 25 Oddly enough, both reactions appear to reflect the reactions of the respective political leaders at that time. 26 And, while it still conveys the ‘facts’ of the past, for the historical purist it must be considered fatally flawed. 27 “A ‘Disneyfied’ version of History…” Samuel, Raphael, Theatres of Memory (p. 259) 28 “...on the face of it the very antithesis of written history.” Ibid ( p. 6) 29 That is not to say that truth is not contained in the article. Yet ultimate truth is not obtained, where room has been made for speculation and assumption.


- 10 -

In the past, what we think happened and what actually came to pass are two

completely different worlds. As interpretations have been added, the past has become

diluted. Therefore the quality of a source that exhibits the appearance of truth is highly

relevant to the development of myth. In the Owens/Hitler narrative, the success of the

transfer of knowledge depends on the willingness of the audience to cooperate with the

speaker. In myth, the ‘audience’ is willing to suspend judgment because the storyteller30

claimed that it happened.31

Cultures inevitably evolve over time, which poses an enormous problem for

historians. Words gain and lose connotations in relation to the popular culture of the

period and translation may become tricky. Evidence of this is apparent in the

Owens/Hitler myth, simply through Hitler’s reaction to Owens’s victories. Some sources

state that Hitler was in a “tantrum”32 while others claim that he “slipped” out of the

Olympic stadium after Owens ran.33 Still others claim that he was “angry” and “filled

with hate”.34 There is no question of Hitler’s being a racist, but the range of language

used to describe him paints many different pictures of his character. His true reaction has

been lost amongst the many different interpretations.

- 700 -

30 A comparison of the following quotes about myth and history - “Over years, tellers drop details that don’t fit the plot…or they adapt the legend to fit local conditions, thus making it a bit more plausible.” Brunvand, Harold Jan, The Baby Train and other lusty urban legend, (p. 14) and “In thesis work, the problematic is likely to come from within. Often it is suggested by ‘gaps’ which the young researcher is advised to fill, or else by an established view which he or she is encouraged to challenge.” Samuel, Raphael, Theatres of Memory (p.3) 31 In History much the same occurs when the historian fits together traces of the past into a narrative. Although historians have attempted to limit the creation of myth, as Arthur Marwick states: “The past as we know it from the interpretations of historians based on the critical study of the widest range of relevant sources, every effort having been made to challenge and avoid the perpetuation of myth”. 32 “Hitler had ‘stormed’ out of the stadium in a ‘tantrum’.” Entine, John, Taboo – Why black athletes dominate sports and why we’re afraid to talk about it (p. 184) 33 “Before the playing of the U.S. national anthem, Hitler and his entourage slipped out of the stadium.” Entine, John, Taboo – Why black athletes dominate sports and why we’re afraid to talk about it (p. 184) 34 “No wonder Hitler was angry… Filled with hate, Hitler would rather shake no one’s hand than have to shake hands with a black athlete.” Sowash, Rick, Heroes of Ohio- 23 true tales of courage and character (p. 104)


- 11 -

E. Conclusion

As in the case of all past events, there are many conflicting accounts. In the case

of Jesse Owens and Adolph Hitler, there is no question about the snub. Hitler snubbed

Owens. Yet, interpretations have served to distort what actually happened, making

Hitler’s snub of Owens much more personal than it actually was. Many interpretations

omit the previous absence of Hitler from the awards ceremony the day before when two

other black Americans also won medals. Additionally, Hitler had no real reason to be

outraged at the black American’s dominance in the Olympics due to Germany’s own

performance. They beat the Americans in every medal category 89-56. Finally, why

then, if it was a personal snub, did Owens only conform to that idea after the media had

blown the entire event out of proportion? In fact, he was treated far better by the

Germans, than by his own countrymen. Therefore Jesse Owens was not personally

snubbed by Hitler, although that is not to say that Hitler was not a racist.

- 170 -


- 12 -

F. Appendices

Appendix 1: Source A: Germany 1919-1945

Footnote reads: “Jesse Owens, a black American athlete, won four gold medals at the

1936 Berlin Olympic Games. His achievement undermined the Nazi belief in the

superiority of Aryan athletes and Hitler refused to congratulate Owens.”


- 13 -

Appendix 2: Source B: Heroes of Ohio – 23 true tales of courage and character

From his seat among his generals, Hitler saw it all. There was no way to deny

Jesse Owens his victories. He had defeated the best white athletes of Hitler’s Nazi

Germany, the same people who called themselves ’The Master Race.’ These people

claimed their race was better than any other. All by himself; Jesse Owens had shown the

world that such an idea was nonsense.

No wonder Hitler was angry. He turned away. His generals turned with him.

They left the stadium. Hitler would not shake hands with black athletes, even if they had

won fairly. He returned in the days that followed. But he would shake no more hands.

There would be no more photos for the newspapers. Filled with hate, Hitler would

rather shake no one’s hand than have to shake hands with a black athlete.


- 14 -

Appendix 3: Daley, Arthur J., 110,000 See Owens Set World Record At Olympic Games

– The New York Times: August 3, 1936

“But for politically minded persons in the crowd there was one rather disquieting

incident connected with the march of these three Americans to the victory pedestal. The

Fuehrer had greeted all three medallists in the other events –the Germans and the Finns-

with a handclasp and words of congratulation. But five minutes before the United States

jumpers moved in for the ceremony of the Olympic triumph Hitler left his box.

Johnson and Albritton are Negroes. None of the others were. Press box

interpreters of this step chose to put two and two together and arrive at the figure 4. In

this they may be correct, but there will be enough future Negro winners to warrant

delaying passing judgement for the present…

…All in all, it was a great day for sports as the United States took command in the

men’s track and field team race for the first time with a total of 46 points to 31 ½ for

Finland. But if one elects to score the women’ tests with the men’s then Germany,

moving along on the wings of a sports renaissance, deeply rooted in nationalistic fervour;

is at the head of the parade with 47 ¼ points.

German nationalism and the prejudice that seems to go with it revealed

themselves somewhat disagreeably this afternoon. On the surface all was serene. The

Fuehrer apparently played no favourites. He did not publicly receive the winning

Germans, nor did he greet the decidedly non-Aryan American Negroes, Owens and

Metcalfe.

But an investigation was made by some who had taken his departure yesterday as

meaning he wished to avoid shaking hands with the Negro high jumpers, Cornelius

Johnson and David Albritton. This investigation produced information, which seemed

corroborative. In the seclusion of his quarters under the stands the Reich’s dictator did

congratulate Hein and Blask, the hammer throwers. Perhaps two and two do make four,

after all.”


- 15 -

Appendix 4: “Letters to the Sports Editor” Calls for Fair Play – The New York Times:

August 15, 1936

“Reams of insanity have been prevalent in the press recently as a result of the

failure of Reichsfuehrer Hitler to greet and congratulate Jesse Owens for his Olympic

triumphs. Writers who previously had never mentioned fair play and the Negro in the

same columns jumped on the band-wagon for a short ride in the reflected glare of the

publicity that sought out this unusual athlete.

One unfamiliar with the facts would assume that this situation was an uncommon

one, and that Jesse Owens was being subjected to some strange and novel treatment; that

the countless words written by numerous American columnists, commentators and

reporters were the sincere, indignation of honest, fair-minded people. On the contrary,

however, it is in truth the epitome of hypocrisy.

It is, to the thinking negro, more detestable than the honest though deplorable

actions of Hitler. In face of the entire world, he had the courage to align his conduct with

his philosophy and pursue a consistent policy both in words and in actions. This

consistency, however, is surpassed only by the rank inconsistency and hypocrisy of the

press and of a large part of the public in our own country.

Have all forgotten that this same Jesse Owens in sections of his own country

would fail to be congratulated only because he would not even be allowed to participate

in officially sanctioned A.A.U. competition? Is it a startling revelation that the Owens

who was only snubbed in Berlin is denied the privilege of rising to the full height of his

ability in the social, political, and economic fields of his homeland?

The writer, speaking for only one of America’s millions of Negroes, would

welcome tolerance in fact rather than meaningless words.”

- Henry A. Slaughter


- 16 -

G. Bibliography

Books: Grey, Paul and Little, Rosmarie. “Modern World History – Combined Edition” Germany 1019-1945. UK: Cambridge University press, 2001. Sowash, Rick. Heroes of Ohio – 23 true tales of courage and character. 1998. Warren, John. History and the Historians. UK: 1999. Streissguth, Thomas. Jesse Owens (A and E biography). US: Lerner Publications, 1999. Shenkman, Rick. Legends, Lies, and Cherished Myths of American History. Robinson, Sharon. Promises to Keep. New York: Scholastic, 2004. Entine, John. Taboo – Why black athletes dominate sports and why we’re afraid to talk about it. US: 2000. Brunvand, Jan Harold. The Baby Train and other lusty urban legends. US: Norton and Co., 1989. Samuel, Raphael. Theatres of Memory. London: Verso, 1994. Shaap, Jeremy. Triumph: The Untold Story of Jesse Owens and Hitler's Olympics. US: 2007. Dowswell, Paul. True stories of heroes. US: 2002. Websites: www.history-ontheweb.co.uk/histtheory/histtheory_6.htm - An Article: “The past and

History”

www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Whatishistory/research.html - An article: “What History

Is”

www.runohio.com/news/5-5-01-JesseOwens_a_timeless_hero.html

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verisimilitude

www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Whatishistory/munslow6.html

chatna.com/author/taylorajp.htm

www.Historylearningsite.com


- 17 -

www.cleveland.com/homegrown/index.ssf?/homegrown/more/jowens/reality.html

Newspaper articles: Daley, Arthur J., Owens Captures Olympic Title, Equals World 100-Meter Record. The New York Times: August 4, 1936. Daley, Arthur J., 110,000 See Owens Set World Record At Olympic Games. The New York Times: August 3, 1936. Slaughter, Henry A., “Letters to the Sports Editor”. Calls for Fair Play. The New York Times: August 15, 1936.

Documents

Myth and History - ActiveHistory · several world records in the face of Hitler’s claim. Then, outraged at Owens’s performance, Hitler refused to shake his hand or be photographed