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AchartwithdescriptionsofeachMyersBriggspersonalitytypeandthefourdichotomiescentraltothetheory.
CarlJungin1910.IsabelBriggsMyersandKatharineCookBriggsextrapolatedtheirMBTItheoryfromJung'swritingsinhisbook,PsychologicalTypes
MyersBriggsTypeIndicatorFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
TheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator(MBTI)assessmentisapsychometricquestionnairedesignedtomeasurepsychologicalpreferencesinhowpeopleperceivetheworldandmakedecisions.[1][2][3]ThesepreferenceswereextrapolatedbyKatharineCookBriggsandIsabelBriggsMyersfromthetypologicaltheoriesproposedbyCarlGustavJung,andfirstpublishedinhis1921bookPsychologicalTypes(Englishedition,1923[4]).Jungtheorizedthattherearefourprincipalpsychologicalfunctionsbywhichweexperiencetheworld:sensation,intuition,feeling,andthinking.[5]Oneofthesefourfunctionsisdominantmostofthetime.
TheoriginaldevelopersofthepersonalityinventorywereKatharineCookBriggsandherdaughter,IsabelBriggsMyers.AfterextensivelystudyingtheworkofJung,theyturnedtheirinterestinhumanbehaviorintoadevotiontoturnthetheoryofpsychologicaltypestopracticaluse.[2][6]TheybegancreatingtheindicatorduringWorldWarIIinthe1940s[2]throughtheirownoriginalresearch,[2]withthebeliefthataknowledgeofpersonalitypreferenceswouldhelpwomenwhowereenteringtheindustrialworkforceforthefirsttimetoidentifythesortofwartimejobsthatwouldbe"mostcomfortableandeffective"[1]:xiiiforthem.TheinitialquestionnairegrewintotheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator,whichwasfirstpublishedin1962.TheMBTIisconstructedfornormalpopulationsandemphasizesthevalueofnaturallyoccurringdifferences.[7]RobertKaplanandDennisSaccuzzostatedthat"theunderlyingassumptionoftheMBTIisthatweallhavespecificpreferencesinthewayweconstrueourexperiences,andthesepreferencesunderlieourinterests,needs,values,andmotivation."[5]
Contents
1Concepts1.1Type1.2Fourdichotomies1.3Attitudes:extraversion/introversion(E/I)1.4Functions:sensing/intuition(S/N)andthinking/feeling(T/F)
1.4.1Dominantfunction
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1.5Lifestyle:judging/perception(J/P)2Historicaldevelopment
2.1DifferencesfromJung2.1.1Judgingvs.perception
2.1.1.1Orientationofthetertiaryfunction
3Applications4Formatandadministration
4.1Additionalformats4.2Translationsintootherlanguages
5Preceptsandethics6Typedynamicsanddevelopment7Cognitivelearningstyles
7.1Extraversion/Introversion7.2Sensing/Intuition7.3Thinking/Feeling7.4Judging/Perceiving
8Correlationstootherinstruments8.1Keirseytemperaments8.2BigFive8.3Personalitydisorders
9Originsofthetheory10Criticism
10.1Terminology10.2Factoranalysis10.3Correlates10.4Reliability
11Utility12Seealso13Notes14Referencesandfurtherreading15Externallinks
Concepts
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CarlJung
Subjective Objective
Perception iNtuition/Sensing Introversion1/Extraversion1
Judging Feeling/Thinking Introversion2/Extraversion2
MyersBriggs
Subjective Objective
Deductive iNtuition/Sensing Perception/Judging
AstheMBTIManualstates,theindicator"isdesignedtoimplementatheorythereforethetheorymustbeunderstoodtounderstandtheMBTI".[8]:1
FundamentaltotheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatoristhetheoryofpsychologicaltypeasoriginallydevelopedbyCarlJung.[1]:xiiiJungproposedtheexistenceoftwodichotomouspairsofcognitivefunctions:
The"rational"(judging)functions:thinkingandfeelingThe"irrational"(perceiving)functions:sensationandintuition
Jungbelievedthatforeverypersoneachofthefunctionsareexpressedprimarilyineitheranintrovertedorextravertedform.[1]:17FromJung'soriginalconcepts,BriggsandMyersdevelopedtheirowntheoryofpsychologicaltype,describedbelow,onwhichtheMBTIisbased.
Type
Jung'stypologicalmodelregardspsychologicaltypeassimilartoleftorrighthandedness:individualsareeitherbornwith,ordevelop,certainpreferredwaysofperceivinganddeciding.TheMBTIsortssomeofthesepsychologicaldifferencesintofouroppositepairs,ordichotomies,witharesulting16possiblepsychologicaltypes.Noneofthesetypesarebetterorworsehowever,BriggsandMyerstheorizedthatindividualsnaturallypreferoneoverallcombinationoftypedifferences.[1]:9Inthesamewaythatwritingwiththelefthandishardworkforarighthander,sopeopletendtofindusingtheiroppositepsychologicalpreferencesmoredifficult,eveniftheycanbecomemoreproficient(andthereforebehaviorallyflexible)withpracticeanddevelopment.
The16typesaretypicallyreferredtobyanabbreviationoffourletterstheinitiallettersofeachoftheirfourtypepreferences(exceptinthecaseofintuition,whichusestheabbreviationNtodistinguishitfromintroversion).Forinstance:
ESTJ:extraversion(E),sensing(S),thinking(T),judgment(J)INFP:introversion(I),intuition(N),feeling(F),perception(P)
Thismethodofabbreviationisappliedtoall16types.
Fourdichotomies
Thefourpairsofpreferencesordichotomiesareshowninthetabletotheright.
NotethatthetermsusedforeachdichotomyhavespecifictechnicalmeaningsrelatingtotheMBTIwhichdifferfromtheireverydayusage.Forexample,peoplewhopreferjudgmentoverperceptionarenotnecessarilymorejudgmentalorlessperceptive.NordoestheMBTIinstrumentmeasureaptitudeitsimplyindicatesforonepreferenceoveranother.[8]:3Someonereportingahigh
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Inductive Feeling/Thinking Introversion/Extraversionscoreforextraversionoverintroversioncannotbecorrectlydescribedasmoreextraverted:theysimplyhaveaclearpreference.
Pointscoresoneachofthedichotomiescanvaryconsiderablyfrompersontoperson,evenamongthosewiththesametype.However,IsabelMyersconsideredthedirectionofthepreference(forexample,Evs.I)tobemoreimportantthanthedegreeofthepreference(forexample,veryclearvs.slight).[9]Theexpressionofaperson'spsychologicaltypeismorethanthesumofthefourindividualpreferences.Thepreferencesinteractthroughtypedynamicsandtypedevelopment.
Attitudes:extraversion/introversion(E/I)
MyersBriggsliteratureusesthetermsextraversionandintroversionasJungfirstusedthem.Extraversionmeans"outwardturning"andintroversionmeans"inwardturning".[10]Thesespecificdefinitionsvarysomewhatfromthepopularusageofthewords.NotethatextraversionisthespellingusedinMBTIpublications.
Thepreferencesforextraversionandintroversionareoftencalled"attitudes".BriggsandMyersrecognizedthateachofthecognitivefunctionscanoperateintheexternalworldofbehavior,action,people,andthings("extravertedattitude")ortheinternalworldofideasandreflection("introvertedattitude").TheMBTIassessmentsortsforanoverallpreferenceforoneortheother.
Peoplewhopreferextraversiondrawenergyfromaction:theytendtoact,thenreflect,thenactfurther.Iftheyareinactive,theirmotivationtendstodecline.Torebuildtheirenergy,extravertsneedbreaksfromtimespentinreflection.Conversely,thosewhopreferintroversion"expend"energythroughaction:theyprefertoreflect,thenact,thenreflectagain.Torebuildtheirenergy,introvertsneedquiettimealone,awayfromactivity.[11]
Theextravert'sflowisdirectedoutwardtowardpeopleandobjects,andtheintrovert'sisdirectedinwardtowardconceptsandideas.Contrastingcharacteristicsbetweenextravertsandintrovertsincludethefollowing:
Extravertsare"action"oriented,whileintrovertsare"thought"oriented.Extravertsseek"breadth"ofknowledgeandinfluence,whileintrovertsseek"depth"ofknowledgeandinfluence.Extravertsoftenprefermore"frequent"interaction,whileintrovertsprefermore"substantial"interaction.Extravertsrechargeandgettheirenergyfromspendingtimewithpeople,whileintrovertsrechargeandgettheirenergyfromspendingtimealonetheyconsumetheirenergythroughtheopposite
process.[12]
Functions:sensing/intuition(S/N)andthinking/feeling(T/F)
Jungidentifiedtwopairsofpsychologicalfunctions:
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Thetwoperceivingfunctions,sensingandintuitionThetwojudgingfunctions,thinkingandfeeling
AccordingtoJung'stypologymodel,eachpersonusesoneofthesefourfunctionsmoredominantlyandproficientlythantheotherthreehowever,allfourfunctionsareusedatdifferenttimesdependingonthecircumstances.
Sensingandintuitionaretheinformationgathering(perceiving)functions.Theydescribehownewinformationisunderstoodandinterpreted.Individualswhoprefersensingaremorelikelytotrustinformationthatisinthepresent,tangible,andconcrete:thatis,informationthatcanbeunderstoodbythefivesenses.Theytendtodistrusthunches,whichseemtocome"outofnowhere".[1]:2Theyprefertolookfordetailsandfacts.Forthem,themeaningisinthedata.Ontheotherhand,thosewhopreferintuitiontendtotrustinformationthatislessdependentuponthesenses,thatcanbeassociatedwithotherinformation(eitherrememberedordiscoveredbyseekingawidercontextorpattern).Theymaybemoreinterestedinfuturepossibilities.Forthem,themeaningisintheunderlyingtheoryandprincipleswhicharemanifestedinthedata.
Thinkingandfeelingarethedecisionmaking(judging)functions.Thethinkingandfeelingfunctionsarebothusedtomakerationaldecisions,basedonthedatareceivedfromtheirinformationgatheringfunctions(sensingorintuition).Thosewhopreferthinkingtendtodecidethingsfromamoredetachedstandpoint,measuringthedecisionbywhatseemsreasonable,logical,causal,consistent,andmatchingagivensetofrules.Thosewhopreferfeelingtendtocometodecisionsbyassociatingorempathizingwiththesituation,lookingatit'fromtheinside'andweighingthesituationtoachieve,onbalance,thegreatestharmony,consensusandfit,consideringtheneedsofthepeopleinvolved.Thinkersusuallyhavetroubleinteractingwithpeoplewhoareinconsistentorillogical,andtendtogiveverydirectfeedbacktoothers.Theyareconcernedwiththetruthandviewitasmoreimportant.
Asnotedalready,peoplewhopreferthinkingdonotnecessarily,intheeverydaysense,"thinkbetter"thantheirfeelingcounterparts,inthecommonsensetheoppositepreferenceisconsideredanequallyrationalwayofcomingtodecisions(and,inanycase,theMBTIassessmentisameasureofpreference,notability).Similarly,thosewhopreferfeelingdonotnecessarilyhave"better"emotionalreactionsthantheirthinkingcounterparts.
Dominantfunction
AccordingtoJung,peopleuseallfourcognitivefunctions.However,onefunctionisgenerallyusedinamoreconsciousandconfidentway.Thisdominantfunctionissupportedbythesecondary(auxiliary)function,andtoalesserdegreethetertiaryfunction.Thefourthandleastconsciousfunctionisalwaystheoppositeofthedominantfunction.Myerscalledthisinferiorfunctiontheshadow.[1]:84
Thefourfunctionsoperateinconjunctionwiththeattitudes(extraversionandintroversion).Eachfunctionisusedineitheranextravertedorintrovertedway.Apersonwhosedominantfunctionisextravertedintuition,forexample,usesintuitionverydifferentlyfromsomeonewhosedominantfunctionisintrovertedintuition.
Lifestyle:judging/perception(J/P)
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Adiagramdepictingthecognitivefunctionsofeachtype.Atype'sbackgroundcolorrepresentsitsDominantfunction,anditstextcolorrepresentsitsAuxiliaryfunction.
MyersandBriggsaddedanotherdimensiontoJung'stypologicalmodelbyidentifyingthatpeoplealsohaveapreferenceforusingeitherthejudgingfunction(thinkingorfeeling)ortheirperceivingfunction(sensingorintuition)whenrelatingtotheoutsideworld(extraversion).
MyersandBriggsheldthattypeswithapreferenceforjudgingshowtheworldtheirpreferredjudgingfunction(thinkingorfeeling).SoTJtypestendtoappeartotheworldaslogical,andFJtypesasempathetic.AccordingtoMyers,[1]:75judgingtypesliketo"havematterssettled".
Thosetypeswhopreferperceptionshowtheworldtheirpreferredperceivingfunction(sensingorintuition).SoSPtypestendtoappeartotheworldasconcreteandNPtypesasabstract.AccordingtoMyers,[1]:75perceptivetypespreferto"keepdecisionsopen".
Forextraverts,theJorPindicatestheirdominantfunctionforintroverts,theJorPindicatestheirauxiliaryfunction.Introvertstendtoshowtheirdominantfunctionoutwardlyonlyinmatters"importanttotheirinnerworlds".[1]:13Forexample:
BecausetheENTJtypeisextraverted,theJindicatesthatthedominantfunctionisthepreferredjudgingfunction(extravertedthinking).TheENTJtypeintrovertstheauxiliaryperceivingfunction(introvertedintuition).Thetertiaryfunctionissensingandtheinferiorfunctionisintrovertedfeeling.
BecausetheINTJtypeisintroverted,however,theJinsteadindicatesthattheauxiliaryfunctionisthepreferredjudgingfunction(extravertedthinking).TheINTJtypeintrovertsthedominantperceivingfunction(introvertedintuition).Thetertiaryfunctionisfeelingandtheinferiorfunctionisextravertedsensing.
Historicaldevelopment
KatharineCookBriggsbeganherresearchintopersonalityin1917.Uponmeetingherfuturesoninlaw,sheobservedmarkeddifferencesbetweenhispersonalityandthatofotherfamilymembers.Briggsembarkedonaprojectofreadingbiographies,andshedevelopedatypologybasedonpatternsshefound.Sheproposedfourtemperaments:Meditative(orThoughtful),Spontaneous,Executive,andSocial.[13][14]Then,aftertheEnglishtranslationofPsychologicalTypeswaspublishedin1923(havingfirstbeenpublishedinGermanin1921),sherecognizedthatJung'stheorywassimilarto,yetwentfarbeyond,herown.[1]:22Briggs'sfourtypeswerelateridentifiedascorrespondingtotheIs,EPs,ETJsandEFJs.[13][14]HerfirstpublicationsweretwoarticlesdescribingJung'stheory,inthejournalNewRepublicin1926(MeetYourselfUsingthePersonalityPaintBox)and1928(UpFromBarbarism).
Briggs'sdaughter,IsabelBriggsMyers,addedtohermother'stypologicalresearch,whichshewouldprogressivelytakeoverentirely.MyersgraduatedfirstinherclassfromSwarthmoreCollegein1919[1]:xxandwrotetheprizewinningmysterynovelMurderYettoComein1929usingtypologicalideas.However,neitherMyersnorBriggswereformallyeducatedinpsychology,andthustheylackedscientificcredentials
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inthefieldofpsychometrictesting.[1]:xiiiSoMyersapprenticedherselftoEdwardN.Hay,whowasthenpersonnelmanagerforalargePhiladelphiabankandwentontostartoneofthefirstsuccessfulpersonnelconsultingfirmsintheU.S.FromHay,Myerslearnedtestconstruction,scoring,validation,andstatistics.[1]:xiii,xxIn1942,the"BriggsMyersTypeIndicator"wascreated,andtheBriggsMyersTypeIndicatorHandbookwaspublishedin1944.Theindicatorchangeditsnametothemodernform(MyersBriggsTypeIndicator)in1956.[15][16]
Myers'workattractedtheattentionofHenryChauncey,headoftheEducationalTestingService,andundertheseauspices,thefirstMBTIManualwaspublishedin1962.TheMBTIreceivedfurthersupportfromDonaldT.McKinnon,headoftheInstituteofPersonalityResearchattheUniversityofCaliforniaHaroldGrant,professoratMichiganStateandAuburnUniversitiesandMaryH.McCaulleyoftheUniversityofFlorida.ThepublicationoftheMBTIwastransferredtoConsultingPsychologistsPressin1975,andtheCenterforApplicationsofPsychologicalType(CAPT)wasfoundedasaresearchlaboratory.[1]:xxiAfterMyers'deathinMay1980,MaryMcCaulleyupdatedtheMBTIManual,andthesecondeditionwaspublishedin1985.[9]Thethirdeditionappearedin1998.
DifferencesfromJung
Judgingvs.perception
ThemostnotableadditionofMyersandBriggstoJung'soriginalthoughtistheirconceptthatagiventype'sfourthletter(JorP)indicatesaperson'spreferredextravertedfunction,whichisthedominantfunctionforextravertedtypesandtheauxiliaryfunctionfortheintrovertedtypes.[1]:2122
Orientationofthetertiaryfunction
Jungtheorizedthatthedominantfunctionactsaloneinitspreferredworld:exteriorfortheextraverts,andinteriorfortheintroverts.Theremainingthreefunctions,hesuggested,operatetogetherintheoppositeworld.Ifthedominantcognitivefunctionisintroverted,theotherfunctionsareextraverted,andviceversa.TheMBTIManualsummarizesreferencesinJung'sworktothebalanceinpsychologicaltypeasfollows:
ThereareseveralreferencesinJung'swritingtothethreeremainingfunctionshavinganoppositeattitudinalcharacter.Forexample,inwritingaboutintrovertswiththinkingdominant...Jungcommentedthatthecounterbalancingfunctionshaveanextravertedcharacter.[9]:29
However,manyMBTIpractitionersholdthatthetertiaryfunctionisorientedinthesamedirectionsameasthedominantfunction.[17]UsingtheINTPtypeasanexample,theorientationwouldbeasfollows:
DominantintrovertedthinkingAuxiliaryextravertedintuitionTertiaryintrovertedsensingInferiorextravertedfeeling
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Fromatheoreticalperspective,psychologistHansEysenckcalledtheMBTIamoderatelysuccessfulquantificationofJung'soriginalprinciplesasoutlinedinPsychologicalTypes.[18]
Eysenck,however,alsosaid:"This(theMBTI)creates16personalitytypeswhicharesaidtobesimilartoJung'stheoreticalconcepts.Ihavealwaysfounddifficultieswiththisidentification,whichomitsonehalfofJung'stheory(hehad32types,byassertingthatforeveryconsciouscombinationoftraitstherewasanoppositeunconsciousone).Obviouslythelatterhalfofhistheorydoesnotadmitofquestionnairemeasurement,buttoleaveitoutandpretendthatthescalesmeasureJungianconceptsishardlyfairtoJung."[19]
Bothmodelsremainhypotheses,withnocontrolledscientificstudiessupportingeitherJung'soriginalconceptoftypeortheMyersBriggsvariation.[20]
Applications
Theindicatorisfrequentlyusedintheareasofpedagogy,careercounseling,teambuilding,groupdynamics,professionaldevelopment,marketing,familybusiness,leadershiptraining,executivecoaching,lifecoaching,personaldevelopmentandmarriagecounseling.
Formatandadministration
ThecurrentNorthAmericanEnglishversionoftheMBTIStepIincludes93forcedchoicequestions(thereare88intheEuropeanEnglishversion).Forcedchoicemeansthattheindividualhastochooseonlyoneoftwopossibleanswerstoeachquestion.Thechoicesareamixtureofwordpairsandshortstatements.Choicesarenotliteraloppositesbutchosentoreflectoppositepreferencesonthesamedichotomy.Participantsmayskipquestionsiftheyfeeltheyareunabletochoose.
Usingpsychometrictechniques,suchasitemresponsetheory,theMBTIwillthenbescoredandwillattempttoidentifythepreference,andclarityofpreference,ineachdichotomy.AftertakingtheMBTI,participantsareusuallyaskedtocompleteaBestFitexercise(seebelow)andthengivenareadoutoftheirReportedType,whichwillusuallyincludeabargraphandnumbertoshowhowcleartheywereabouteachpreferencewhentheycompletedthequestionnaire.
DuringtheearlydevelopmentoftheMBTIthousandsofitemswereused.Mostwereeventuallydiscardedbecausetheydidnothavehighmidpointdiscrimination,meaningtheresultsofthatoneitemdidnot,onaverage,moveanindividualscoreawayfromthemidpoint.UsingonlyitemswithhighmidpointdiscriminationallowstheMBTItohavefeweritemsonitbutstillprovideasmuchstatisticalinformationasotherinstrumentswithmanymoreitemswithlowermidpointdiscrimination.TheMBTIrequiresfivepointsonewayoranothertoindicateaclearpreference.
Additionalformats
IsabelMyershadnotedthatpeopleofanygiventypeshareddifferencesaswellassimilarities.Atthetimeofherdeath,shewasdevelopingamoreindepthmethodofmeasuringhowpeopleexpressandexperiencetheirindividualtypepattern.
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In1987,anadvancedscoringsystemwasdevelopedfortheMBTI.FromthiswasdevelopedtheTypeDifferentiationIndicator(TDI)(Saunders,1989)whichisascoringsystemforthelongerMBTI,FormJ,[21]whichincludesthe290itemswrittenbyMyersthathadsurvivedherpreviousitemanalyses.Ityields20subscales(fiveundereachofthefourdichotomouspreferencescales),plussevenadditionalsubscalesforanewComfortDiscomfortfactor(whichpurportedlycorrespondstothemissingfactorofNeuroticism).
Thisfactor'sscalesindicateasenseofoverallcomfortandconfidenceversusdiscomfortandanxiety.Theyalsoloadontooneofthefourtypedimensions:[22]guardedoptimistic(alsoT/F),defiantcompliant(alsoT/F),carefreeworried(alsoT/F),decisiveambivalent(alsoJ/P),intrepidinhibited(AlsoE/I),leaderfollower(AlsoE/I),andproactivedistractible(alsoJ/P)
Alsoincludedisacompositeofthesecalled"strain."Therearealsoscalesfortypescaleconsistencyandcomfortscaleconsistency.Reliabilityof23ofthe27TDIsubscalesisgreaterthan0.50,"anacceptableresultgiventhebrevityofthesubscales"(Saunders,1989).
In1989,ascoringsystemwasdevelopedforonlythe20subscalesfortheoriginalfourdichotomies.ThiswasinitiallyknownasFormK,ortheExpandedAnalysisReport(EAR).ThistoolisnowcalledtheMBTIStepII.
FormJortheTDIincludedtheitems(derivedfromMyersandMcCaulleysearlierwork)necessarytoscorewhatbecameknownasStepIII.[23](The1998MBTIManualreportedthatthetwoinstrumentswereoneandthesame[24])Itwasdevelopedinajointprojectinvolvingthefollowingorganizations:CPP,thepublisherofthewholefamilyofMBTIworksCAPT(CenterforApplicationsofPsychologicalType),whichholdsallofMyers'andMcCaulley'soriginalworkandtheMBTITrust,headedbyKatharineandPeterMyers.StepIIIwasadvertisedasaddressingtypedevelopmentandtheuseofperceptionandjudgmentbyrespondents.[25]
Translationsintootherlanguages
TheMBTIhasbeensuccessfullytranslatedintoover20languages,[26]coveringmanycountriesacrosstheworld.However,itismoretruetosaythatthecreationofanewquestionnairelanguageisadaptation,[27]whichincludestranslationtheotherstagesincludereviewsbysubjectmatterexpertsfluentinthenativelanguage,andstatisticalanalysistocheckthatthequestionsstillmeasurethesamepsychologicalconceptsastheoriginalUSEnglishquestionnaire.[28]
Preceptsandethics
ThefollowingpreceptsaregenerallyusedintheethicaladministrationoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator:
TypenottraitTheMBTIsortsfortypeitdoesnotindicatethestrengthofability.Thequestionnaireallowstheclarityofapreferencetobeascertained(Billclearlyprefersintroversion),butnotthestrengthofpreference(Janestronglyprefersextraversion)ordegreeofaptitude(Harryisgoodatthinking).Inthissense,itdiffersfromtraitbasedtoolssuchas16PF.Typepreferencesarepolaropposites:a
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TheSixteenTypes
USPopulationBreakdown
preceptofMBTIisthatpeoplefundamentallypreferonethingovertheother,notabitofboth.
OwnbestjudgeIndividualsareconsideredthebestjudgeoftheirowntype.WhiletheMBTIquestionnaireprovidesaReportedType,thisisconsideredonlyanindicationoftheirprobableoverallType.ABestFitProcessisusuallyusedtoallowrespondentstodeveloptheirunderstandingofthefourdichotomies,toformtheirownhypothesisastotheiroverallType,andtocomparethisagainsttheReportedType.Inmorethan20%ofcases,thehypothesisandtheReportedTypedifferinoneormoredichotomies.Usingtheclarityofeachpreference,anypotentialforbiasinthereport,andoften,acomparisonoftwoormorewholeTypesmaythenhelprespondentsdeterminetheirownBestFit.
NorightorwrongNopreferenceortotaltypeisconsideredbetterorworsethananother.TheyareallGiftsDiffering,asemphasizedbythetitleofIsabelBriggsMyers'bookonthissubject.
VoluntaryItisconsideredunethicaltocompelanyonetotaketheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator.Itshould
alwaysbetakenvoluntarily.[29]
ConfidentialityTheresultoftheMBTIReportedandBestFittypeareconfidentialbetweentheindividualandadministratorand,ethically,notfordisclosurewithoutpermission.
NotforselectionTheresultsoftheassessmentshouldnotbeusedto"label,evaluate,orlimittherespondentinany
way"(emphasisoriginal).[29]Sincealltypesarevaluable,andtheMBTImeasurespreferencesratherthanaptitude,theMBTIisnotconsideredaproperinstrumentforpurposesofemploymentselection.Manyprofessionscontainhighlycompetentindividualsofdifferenttypeswithcomplementarypreferences.
ImportanceofproperfeedbackIndividualsshouldalwaysbegivendetailedfeedbackfromatrainedadministratorandanopportunitytoundertakeaBestFitexercisetocheckagainsttheirReportedType.Thisfeedbackcanbegiveninpersonor,wherethisisnotpractical,bytelephoneorelectronically.
Typedynamicsanddevelopment
Theinteractionoftwo,three,orfourpreferencesisknownastypedynamics.Althoughtypedynamicshasreceivedlittleornoempiricalsupporttosubstantiateitsviabilityasascientifictheory,[31]MyersandBriggsassertedthatforeachofthe16fourpreferencetypes,onefunctionisthemostdominant
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ThetableorganizingthesixteentypeswascreatedbyIsabelMyers(anINFP
person).
ISTJ11
14%
ISFJ9
14%
INFJ13%
INTJ24%
ISTP46%
ISFP59%
INFP45%
INTP35%
ESTP45%
ESFP49%
ENFP68%
ENTP25%
ESTJ812%
ESFJ9
13%
ENFJ25%
ENTJ25%
Estimatedpercentagesofthe16
typesintheU.S.population.[30]
andislikelytobeevidentearliestinlife.Asecondaryorauxiliaryfunctiontypicallybecomesmoreevident(differentiated)duringteenageyearsandprovidesbalancetothedominant.Innormaldevelopment,individualstendtobecomemorefluentwithathird,tertiaryfunctionduringmidlife,whilethefourth,inferiorfunctionremainsleastconsciouslydeveloped.Theinferiorfunctionisoftenconsideredtobemoreassociatedwiththeunconscious,beingmostevidentinsituationssuchashighstress(sometimesreferredtoasbeinginthegripoftheinferiorfunction).
Howevertheuseoftypedynamicsisdisputed:intheconclusionofvariousstudiesonthesubjectoftypedynamics,JamesH.Reyniersewritesthat"Typedynamicshaspersistentlogicalproblemsandisfundamentallybasedonaseriesofcategorymistakesitprovides,atbest,alimitedandincompleteaccountoftyperelatedphenomena"andthat"typedynamicsreliesonanecdotalevidence,failsmostefficacytests,anddoesnotfittheempiricalfacts".Hisstudiesgavetheclearresultthatthedescriptionsandworkingsoftypedynamicsdonotfittherealbehaviorofpeople.Hesuggestsgettingcompletelyridoftypedynamics,becauseitdoesnothelpbuthindersunderstandingofpersonality.Thepresumedorderoffunctions1to4didonlyoccurinoneoutof540testresults.[32]
Thesequenceofdifferentiationofdominant,auxiliary,andtertiaryfunctionsthroughlifeistermedtypedevelopment.Notethatthisisanidealizedsequencethatmaybedisruptedbymajorlifeevents.
Thedynamicsequenceoffunctionsandtheirattitudescanbedeterminedinthefollowingway:
Theoveralllifestylepreference(JP)determineswhetherthejudging(TF)orperceiving(SN)preferenceismostevidentintheoutsideworldi.e.,whichfunctionhasanextravertedattitudeTheattitudepreference(EI)determineswhethertheextravertedfunctionisdominantorauxiliaryForthosewithanoverallpreferenceforextraversion,thefunctionwiththeextravertedattitudewillbethedominantfunction.Forexample,foranESTJtypethedominantfunctionisthejudgingfunction,thinking,andthisisexperiencedwithanextravertedattitude.ThisisnotatedasadominantTe.ForanESTP,thedominantfunctionistheperceivingfunction,sensing,notatedasadominantSe.TheAuxiliaryfunctionforextravertsisthesecondarypreferenceofthejudgingorperceivingfunctions,anditisexperiencedwithanintrovertedattitude:forexample,theauxiliaryfunctionforESTJisintrovertedsensing(Si)andtheauxiliaryforESTPisintrovertedthinking(Ti).Forthosewithanoverallpreferenceforintroversion,thefunctionwiththeextravertedattitudeistheauxiliarythedominantistheotherfunctioninthemainfourletterpreference.SothedominantfunctionforISTJisintrovertedsensing(Si)withtheauxiliary(supporting)functionbeingextravertedthinking(Te).TheTertiaryfunctionistheoppositepreferencefromtheAuxiliary.Forexample,iftheAuxiliaryisthinkingthentheTertiarywouldbefeeling.TheattitudeoftheTertiaryisthesubjectofsomedebateandthereforeisnotnormallyindicatedi.e.iftheAuxiliarywasTethentheTertiarywouldbeF(not
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FeorFi)TheInferiorfunctionistheoppositepreferenceandattitudefromtheDominant,soforanESTJwithdominantTetheInferiorwouldbeFi.
Notethatforextraverts,thedominantfunctionistheonemostevidentintheexternalworld.Forintroverts,however,itistheauxiliaryfunctionthatismostevidentexternally,astheirdominantfunctionrelatestotheinteriorworld.
Someexamplesofwholetypesmayclarifythisfurther.TakingtheESTJexampleabove:
Extravertedfunctionisajudgingfunction(TF)becauseoftheoverallJpreferenceExtravertedfunctionisdominantbecauseofoverallEpreferenceDominantfunctionisthereforeextravertedthinking(Te)Auxiliaryfunctionisthepreferredperceivingfunction:introvertedsensing(Si)TertiaryfunctionistheoppositeoftheAuxiliary:intuition(N)InferiorfunctionistheoppositeoftheDominant:introvertedfeeling(Fi)
ThedynamicsoftheESTJarefoundintheprimarycombinationofextravertedthinkingastheirdominantfunctionandintrovertedsensingastheirauxiliaryfunction:thedominanttendencyofESTJstoordertheirenvironment,tosetclearboundaries,toclarifyrolesandtimetables,andtodirecttheactivitiesaroundthemissupportedbytheirfacilityforusingpastexperienceinanorderedandsystematicwaytohelporganizethemselvesandothers.Forinstance,ESTJsmayenjoyplanningtripsforgroupsofpeopletoachievesomegoalortoperformsomeculturallyupliftingfunction.Becauseoftheireaseindirectingothersandtheirfacilityinmanagingtheirowntime,theyengagealltheresourcesattheirdisposaltoachievetheirgoals.However,underprolongedstressorsuddentrauma,ESTJsmayoverusetheirextravertedthinkingfunctionandfallintothegripoftheirinferiorfunction,introvertedfeeling.AlthoughtheESTJcanseeminsensitivetothefeelingsofothersintheirnormalactivities,undertremendousstress,theycansuddenlyexpressfeelingsofbeingunappreciatedorwoundedbyinsensitivity.
Lookingatthediametricallyoppositefourlettertype,INFP:
Extravertedfunctionisaperceivingfunction(SN)becauseofthePpreferenceIntrovertedfunctionisdominantbecauseoftheIpreferenceDominantfunctionisthereforeintrovertedfeeling(Fi)Auxiliaryfunctionisextravertedintuition(Ne)TertiaryfunctionistheoppositeoftheAuxiliary:sensing(S)InferiorfunctionistheoppositeoftheDominant:extravertedthinking(Te)
ThedynamicsoftheINFPrestonthefundamentalcorrespondenceofintrovertedfeelingandextravertedintuition.ThedominanttendencyoftheINFPistowardbuildingarichinternalframeworkofvaluesandtowardchampioninghumanrights.Theyoftendevotethemselvesbehindthescenestocausessuchascivilrightsorsavingtheenvironment.Sincetheytendtoavoidthelimelight,postponedecisions,andmaintainareservedposture,theyarerarelyfoundinexecutivedirectortypepositionsoftheorganizationsthatserve
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thosecauses.Normally,theINFPdislikesbeing"incharge"ofthings.Whennotunderstress,theINFPradiatesapleasantandsympatheticdemeanorbutunderextremestress,theycansuddenlybecomerigidanddirective,exertingtheirextravertedthinkingerratically.
Everytype,anditsopposite,istheexpressionoftheseinteractions,whichgiveeachtypeitsunique,recognizablesignature.
Cognitivelearningstyles
Thetestisscoredbyevaluatingeachanswerintermsofwhatitrevealsaboutthetaker.Eachquestionisrelevanttooneofthefollowingcognitivelearningstyles.Eachisnotapolaropposite,butagradualcontinuum.
Extraversion/Introversion
Thefirstcontinuumreflectswhatgenerallyenergizesaperson.Extravertedtypeslearnbestbytalkingandinteractingwithothers.Byinteractingwiththephysicalworld,extravertscanprocessandmakesenseofnewinformation.Introvertedtypespreferquietreflectionandprivacy.Informationprocessingoccursforintrovertsastheyexploreideasandconceptsinternally.
Sensing/Intuition
Thesecondcontinuumreflectswhatapersonfocusestheirattentionson.Sensingtypesenjoyalearningenvironmentinwhichthematerialispresentedinadetailedandsequentialmanner.Sensingtypesoftenattendtowhatisoccurringinthepresent,andcanmovetotheabstractaftertheyhaveestablishedaconcreteexperience.Intuitivetypespreferalearningatmosphereinwhichanemphasisisplacedonmeaningandassociations.Insightisvaluedhigherthancarefulobservation,andpatternrecognitionoccursnaturallyforIntuitivetypes.
Thinking/Feeling
Thethirdcontinuumreflectsthepersonsdecisionpreferences.Thinkingtypesdesireobjectivetruthandlogicalprinciplesandarenaturalatdeductivereasoning.Feelingtypesplaceanemphasisonissuesandcausesthatcanbepersonalizedwhiletheyconsiderotherpeople'smotives.
Judging/Perceiving
Thefourthcontinuumreflectshowthepersonregardscomplexity.Judgingtypeswillthrivewheninformationisorganizedandstructured,andtheywillbemotivatedtocompleteassignmentsinordertogainclosure.Perceivingtypeswillflourishinaflexiblelearningenvironmentinwhichtheyarestimulatedbynewandexcitingideas.Judgingtypesliketobeontime,whileperceivingtypesmaybelateand/orprocrastinate.
Correlationstootherinstruments
Keirseytemperaments
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DavidW.Keirseymappedfour"temperaments"totheexistingMyersBriggssystemgroupings:SP,SJ,NFandNTthisoftenresultsinconfusionofthetwotheories.However,theKeirseyTemperamentSorterisnotdirectlyassociatedwiththeofficialMyersBriggsTypeIndicator.
ISITEJ ISIFEJ INIFEJ INITEJInspector Protector Counselor MastermindISETIP ISEFIP INEFIP INETIPCrafter Composer Healer ArchitectESETIP ESEFIP ENEFIP ENETIPPromoter Performer Champion InventorESITEJ ESIFEJ ENIFEJ ENITEJ
Supervisor Provider Teacher Fieldmarshal
BigFive
McCraeandCosta[33][34]presentcorrelationsbetweentheMBTIscalesandtheBigFivepersonalityconstruct,whichaimstoorganizethecompletesetofbasicpersonalitydomains.Thefivepersonalitycharacteristicsareextraversion,openness,agreeableness,conscientiousness,andemotionalstability(orneuroticism).Thefollowingstudyisbasedontheresultsfrom267menfollowedaspartofalongitudinalstudyofaging.(Similarresultswereobtainedwith201women.)
Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness NeuroticismEI 0.74 0.03 0.03 0.08 0.16SN 0.10 0.72 0.04 0.15 0.06TF 0.19 0.02 0.44 0.15 0.06JP 0.15 0.30 0.06 0.49 0.11Thecloserthenumberisto1.0or1.0,thehigherthedegreeofcorrelation.
ThesedatasuggestthatthefourMBTIscalesaresubsumedwithintheBigFivepersonalitytraits,butthattheMBTIlacksameasureforemotionalstabilitydimensionoftheBigFive(thoughtheTDI,discussedabove,hasaddressedthatdimension).Emotionalstability(orneuroticism)isacoredomainpredictiveofdepressionandanxietydisorders.Thesecorrelationsrefertothesecondlettershown,i.e.thetableshowsthatIandPhavenegativecorrelationtoextraversionandconscientiousnessrespectively,whileFandNhavepositivecorrelationtoagreeablenessandopennessrespectively.
ThesefindingsledMcCraeandCosta,theformulatorsoftheFiveFactorModel(aBigFivetheory),[35]toconclude,"correlationalanalysesshowedthatthefourMBTIindicesdidmeasureaspectsoffourofthefivemajordimensionsofnormalpersonality.ThefivefactormodelprovidesanalternativebasisforinterpretingMBTIfindingswithinabroader,morecommonlysharedconceptualframework."However,"therewasnosupportfortheviewthattheMBTImeasurestrulydichotomouspreferencesorqualitativelydistincttypes,instead,theinstrumentmeasuresfourrelativelyindependentdimensions."
Personalitydisorders
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OnestudyfoundpersonalitydisordersasdescribedbytheDSMoveralltocorrelatemodestlywithI,N,T,andP,thoughtheassociationsvariedsignificantlybydisorder.TheonlytwodisorderswithsignificantcorrelationsofallfourMBTIdimensionswereschizotypal(INTP)andobsessivecompulsivepersonalitydisorder(ISTJ).[36]
Originsofthetheory
Jung'stheoryofpsychologicaltype,aspublishedinhis1921book,wasnottestedthroughcontrolledscientificstudies.[20]Jung'smethodsprimarilyincludedclinicalobservation,introspectionandanecdotemethodsthatarelargelyregardedasinconclusivebythemodernfieldofpsychology.[20]
Jung'stypetheoryintroducedasequenceoffourcognitivefunctions(thinking,feeling,sensation,andintuition),eachhavingoneoftwoorientations(extraversionorintroversion),foratotalofeightdominantfunctions.TheMyersBriggstheoryisbasedontheseeightfunctions,althoughwithsomedifferencesinexpression(seeDifferencesfromJungabove).However,neithertheMyersBriggsnortheJungianmodelsofferanyscientific,experimentalprooftosupporttheexistence,thesequence,theorientation,orthemanifestationofthesefunctions.[20]
Criticism
ThestatisticalvalidityoftheMBTIasapsychometricinstrumenthasbeenthesubjectofcriticism.IthasbeenestimatedthatbetweenathirdandahalfofthepublishedmaterialontheMBTIhasbeenproducedforconferencesoftheCenterfortheApplicationofPsychologicalType(whichprovidestrainingintheMBTI)oraspapersintheJournalofPsychologicalType(whichiseditedbyMyersBriggsadvocates).[37]Ithasbeenarguedthatthisreflectsalackofcriticalscrutiny.[37][38]ManyofthestudiesthatendorseMBTIaremethodologicallyweak.[38][39]A1996reviewbyGardnerandMartinkoconcluded:"Itisclearthateffortstodetectsimplisticlinkagesbetweentypepreferencesandmanagerialeffectivenesshavebeendisappointing.Indeed,giventhemixedqualityofresearchandtheinconsistentfindings,nodefinitiveconclusionregardingtheserelationshipscanbedrawn."[38][39]
Forexample,someresearchersexpectedthatscoreswouldshowabimodaldistributionwithpeaksneartheendsofthescales,butfoundthatscoresontheindividualsubscaleswereactuallydistributedinacentrallypeakedmannersimilartoanormaldistribution.Acutoffexistsatthecenterofthesubscalesuchthatascoreononesideisclassifiedasonetype,andascoreontheothersideastheoppositetype.Thisfailstosupporttheconceptoftype:thenormisforpeopletolienearthemiddleofthesubscale.[33][38][40][41][42]"AlthoughwedonotconcludethattheabsenceofbimodalitynecessarilyprovesthattheMBTIdeveloperstheorybasedassumptionofcategoricaltypesofpersonalityisinvalid,theabsenceofempiricalbimodalityinIRTbasedMBTIscoresdoesindeedremoveapotentiallypowerfullineofevidencethatwaspreviouslyavailabletotypeadvocatestociteindefenseoftheirposition."[42]
In1991,theNationalAcademyofSciencescommitteerevieweddatafromMBTIresearchstudiesandconcludedthatonlytheIEscalehashighcorrelationswithcomparablescalesofotherinstrumentsandlowcorrelationswithinstrumentsdesignedtoassessdifferentconcepts,showingstrongvalidity.Incontrast,theSNandTFscalesshowrelativelyweakvalidity.The1991reviewcommitteeconcludedatthetimetherewas"notsufficient,welldesignedresearchtojustifytheuseoftheMBTIincareercounseling
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programs".[43]Thisstudybaseditsmeasurementofvalidityon"criterionrelatedvalidity(i.e.,doestheMBTIpredictspecificoutcomesrelatedtointerpersonalrelationsorcareersuccess/jobperformance?)."[43]Studieshavefoundthatthereisinsufficientevidencetomakeclaimsaboututility,particularlyofthefourlettertypegivenafterthetest.[38]
TheaccuracyoftheMBTIdependsonhonestselfreportingbythepersontested.[8]:5253Unlikesomepersonalitymeasures,suchastheMinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventoryorthePersonalityAssessmentInventory,theMBTIdoesnotusevalidityscalestoassessexaggeratedorsociallydesirableresponses.[44]Asaresult,individualsmotivatedtodosocanfaketheirresponses,[45]andonestudyfoundthattheMBTIjudgment/perceptiondimensioncorrelatesweaklywiththeEysenckPersonalityQuestionnaireliescale.[46]Ifrespondents"feartheyhavesomethingtolose,theymayanswerastheyassumetheyshould."[8]:53However,theMBTIethicalguidelinesstate,"ItisunethicalandinmanycasesillegaltorequirejobapplicantstotaketheIndicatoriftheresultswillbeusedtoscreenoutapplicants."[29]TheintentoftheMBTIistoprovide"aframeworkforunderstandingindividualdifferences,andadynamicmodelofindividualdevelopment".[47]
Terminology
TheterminologyoftheMBTIhasbeencriticizedasbeingvery"vagueandgeneral",[48]soastoallowanykindofbehaviortofitanypersonalitytype,whichmayresultintheForereffect,whereindividualsgiveahighratingtoapositivedescriptionthatsupposedlyappliesspecificallytothem.[20][38]OthersarguethatwhiletheMBTItypedescriptionsarebrief,theyarealsodistinctiveandprecise.[49]:1415Sometheorists,suchasDavidKeirsey,haveexpandedontheMBTIdescriptions,providingevengreaterdetail.Forinstance,Keirsey'sdescriptionsofhisfourtemperaments,whichhecorrelatedwiththesixteenMBTIpersonalitytypes,showhowthetemperamentsdifferintermsoflanguageuse,intellectualorientation,educationalandvocationalinterests,socialorientation,selfimage,personalvalues,socialroles,andcharacteristichandgestures.[49]:32207
Factoranalysis
Withregardtofactoranalysis,onestudyof1291collegeagedstudentsfoundsixdifferentfactorsinsteadofthefourusedintheMBTI.[50]Inotherstudies,researchersfoundthattheJPandtheSNscalescorrelatewithoneanother.[33]
Correlates
AccordingtoHansEysenck:"ThemaindimensionintheMBTIiscalledEI,orextraversionintroversionthisismostlyasociabilityscale,correlatingquitewellwiththeMMPIsocialintroversionscale(negatively)andtheEysenckExtraversionscale(positively)(EysenckandEysenck,1985).Unfortunately,thescalealsohasaloadingonneuroticism,whichcorrelateswiththeintrovertedend.Thusintroversioncorrelatesroughly(i.e.averagingvaluesformalesandfemales).44withdominance,.24withaggression,+.37withabasement,+.46withcounsellingreadiness,.52withselfconfidence,.36withpersonaladjustment,and
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.45withempathy.ThefailureofthescaletodisentangleIntroversionandNeuroticism(infactthereisnoscaleforneuroticandotherpsychopathologicalattributesintheMBTI)isitsworstfeature,onlyequalledbythefailuretousefactoranalysisinordertotestthearrangementofitemsinthescale."[18]
Reliability
Someresearchershaveinterpretedthereliabilityofthetestasbeinglow,particularlywithregardstothetestretestreliabilityofthetest.Studieshavefoundthatbetween39%and76%ofthosetestedfallintodifferenttypesuponretestingsomeweeksoryearslater,[38][41]andlargenumbersofindividualshavefoundthattheygetdifferentclassificationswhenretakingthetestafterjustfiveweeks.Thereisalsostrongevidencethatthedifferentscalesarecorrelated,andnotindependentasclaimed.[38]InFortuneMagazineonMay15,2013,anarticleonthetest,entitled"HaveweallbeendupedbytheMyersBriggsTest",saidthat:
"TheinterestingandsomewhatalarmingfactabouttheMBTIisthat,despiteitspopularity,ithasbeensubjecttosustainedcriticismbyprofessionalpsychologistsforoverthreedecades.Oneproblemisthatitdisplayswhatstatisticianscalllow"testretestreliability."Soifyouretakethetestafteronlyafiveweekgap,there'sarounda50%chancethatyouwillfallintoadifferentpersonalitycategorycomparedtothefirsttimeyoutookthetest."
Theconsequenceisthatthescoresoftwopeoplelabelled"introvert"and"extravert"maybealmostexactlythesame,buttheycouldbeplacedintodifferentcategoriessincetheyfalloneithersideofanimaginarydividingline.[51]
OnestudyreportsthattheMBTIdichotomiesexhibitgoodsplithalfreliabilityhowever,thedichotomyscoresaredistributedinabellcurve,andtheoveralltypeallocationsarelessreliable.Also,testretestreliabilityissensitivetothetimebetweentests.Withineachdichotomyscale,asmeasuredonFormG,about83%ofcategorizationsremainthesamewhenindividualsareretestedwithinninemonths,andaround75%whenindividualsareretestedafterninemonths.About50%ofpeopletestedwithinninemonthsremainthesameoveralltype,and36%remainthesametypeaftermorethanninemonths.[52]ForFormM(themostcurrentformoftheMBTIinstrument),theMBTIManualreportsthatthesescoresarehigher(p.163,Table8.6).
Inonestudy,whenpeoplewereaskedtocomparetheirpreferredtypetothatassignedbytheMBTIassessment,onlyhalfofpeoplepickedthesameprofile.[53]CriticsalsoarguethattheMBTIlacksfalsifiability,whichcancauseconfirmationbiasintheinterpretationofresults.
AnumberofscholarsarguethatcriticismsregardingtheMBTImostlycomedowntoquestionsregardingthevalidityofitsorigins,notquestionsregardingthevalidityoftheMBTI'susefulness.[54]OthersarguethattheMBTIcanbeareliablemeasurementofpersonalityitjustsohappensthat"likeallmeasures,theMBTIyieldsscoresthataredependentonsamplecharacteristicsandtestingconditions".[55]
Utility
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Inherresearch,IsabelMyersfoundthattheproportionofdifferentpersonalitytypesvariedbychoiceofcareerorcourseofstudy.[1]:4051[9]However,someresearchersexaminingtheproportionsofeachtypewithinvaryingprofessionsreportthattheproportionofMBTItypeswithineachoccupationisclosetothatwithinarandomsampleofthepopulation.[38]Someresearchershaveexpressedreservationsabouttherelevanceoftypetojobsatisfaction,aswellasconcernsaboutthepotentialmisuseoftheinstrumentinlabelingindividuals.[38][56]
CPPbecametheexclusivepublisheroftheMyersBriggsinstrumentin1975.Theycallit"theworld'smostwidelyusedpersonalityassessment",withasmanyastwomillionassessmentsadministeredannually.[57]CPPandotherproponentsstatethattheindicatormeetsorexceedsthereliabilityofotherpsychologicalinstrumentsandcitereportsofindividualbehavior.[58][59][60]
Somestudieshavefoundstrongsupportforconstructvalidity,internalconsistency,andtestretestreliability,althoughvariationwasobserved.[61][62]However,someacademicpsychologistshavecriticizedtheMBTIinstrument,claimingthatit"lacksconvincingvaliditydata",[33][40][41][63]whilesomestudieshaveshownthestatisticalvalidityandreliabilitytobelow.[38][41][64]
StudiessuggestthattheMBTIisnotausefulpredictorofjobperformance.[38][43][65]AsnotedaboveunderPreceptsandethics,theMBTImeasurespreference,notability.TheuseoftheMBTIasapredictorofjobsuccessisexpresslydiscouragedintheManual.[8]:78However,theMBTIcontinuestobepopularbecausemanypeoplearequalifiedtoadministerit,itisnotdifficulttounderstand,andtherearemanysupportingbooks,websitesandotherusefulsourceswhicharereadilyavailabletothegeneralpublic.[66]
Seealso
AdjectiveCheckList(ACL)BirkmanMethodCPI260DISCassessmentEnneagramofPersonalityRisoHudsonEnneagramTypeIndicatorFIROBForereffectFortProfileHollandCodesHumorismInteractionStylesInterpersonalcompatibilityKingdomalityListofpersonalitytests
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Notes
MinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventory(MMPI)PearsonMarrArchetypeIndicator(PMAI)PersonalityAssessmentSystemPersonalityclashPersonalitypsychologyRevisedNEOPersonalityInventorySocionicsStrongInterestInventoryThomasKilmannConflictModeInstrument
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Referencesandfurtherreading
Hunsley,J.Lee,C.M.andWood,J.M.(2004).Controversialandquestionableassessmenttechniques.ScienceandPseudoscienceinClinicalPsychology,LilienfeldSO,LohrJM,LynnSJ(eds.).Guilford,ISBN1593850700
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54. Dawes,Robyn(2004)."TimeforacriticalempiricalinvestigationoftheMBTI:CaseandPhillipsonarerighttohighlighttheprescientificrootsoftheMBTI,buttheyfailtoseparatetheissueofthevalidityorusefulnessoftheMBTIfromtheissueofthevalidityofitsorigins.(MyersBriggsTypeIndicator)".EuropeanBusinessForum(18).
55. Capraro,RobertMargaretCapraro(2002)."MYERSBRIGGSTYPEINDICATORSCORERELIABILITYACROSSSTUDIES:AMETAANALYTICRELIABILITYGENERALIZATIONSTUDY".EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurement(62):590602.
56. Druckman,D.andR.A.Bjork,Eds.(1992).IntheMindsEye:EnhancingHumanPerformance.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.ISBN0309047471.
57. "CPPProducts"(https://www.cpp.com/products/index.aspx).Retrieved20090620.58. Schaubhut,NancyA.NicoleA.HerkandRichardC.Thompson(2009)."MBTIFormMManualSupplement"
(https://www.cpp.com/pdfs/MBTI_FormM_Supp.pdf).CPP.p.17.Retrieved20100508.59. Clack,GillianJudyAllen."ResponsetoPaulMatthews'criticism"(http://www.bmj.com/rapid
response/2011/10/30/mbtiflawedmeasurepersonality).Retrieved20080514.60. BarronTieger,BarbaraTieger,PaulD.(1995).Dowhatyouare:discovertheperfectcareerforyouthrough
thesecretsofpersonalitytype.Boston:Little,Brown.ISBN0316845221.61. Thompson,BruceGloriaM.Borrello(Autumn1986)."ConstructValidityoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator".
EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurement(SAGEPublications)46(3):745752.doi:10.1177/0013164486463032(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0013164486463032).
62. Capraro,RobertM.MaryMargaretCapraro(August2002)."MyersBriggsTypeIndicatorScoreReliabilityAcross:StudiesaMetaAnalyticReliabilityGeneralizationStudy".EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurement(SAGEPublications)62(4):590602.doi:10.1177/0013164402062004004(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0013164402062004004).
63. HunsleyJ,LeeCM,WoodJM(2004)."Controversialandquestionableassessmenttechniques".ScienceandPseudoscienceinClinicalPsychology,LilienfeldSO,LohrJM,LynnSJ(eds.).Guilford.ISBN1593850700.,p.65
64. Kline,Paul,Thehandbookofpsychologicaltesting,PsychologyPress,2000,ISBN0415211581,ISBN9780415211581
65. LetterstotheEditor:It'sNotYou,It'sYourPersonality."(1992,February3).WallStreetJournal(EasternEdition),p.PAGEA13.RetrievedNovember8,2008,fromWallStreetJournaldatabase.(DocumentID:27836749).
66. CorieLok(2012)."Careerdevelopment:What'syourtype?"(http://www.nature.com/naturejobs/science/articles/10.1038/nj7412545a).Nature488,545547.
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Bess,T.L.andHarvey,R.J.(2001,April).BimodalscoredistributionsandtheMBTI:Factorartifact?(http://harvey.psyc.vt.edu/Documents/SIOPhandoutBessHarveyMBTI2001.pdf)PaperpresentedattheAnnualConferenceoftheSocietyforIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology,SanDiego.Bess,T.L.Harvey,R.J.andSwartz,D.(2003).HierarchicalConfirmatoryFactorAnalysisoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator(http://harvey.psyc.vt.edu/Documents/BessHarveySwartzSIOP2003.pdf)PaperpresentedattheAnnualConferenceoftheSocietyforIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology,Orlando.Bourne,Dana(2005).PersonalityTypesandtheTransgenderCommunity(http://www.webdotgal.com/html/mb.html).RetrievedNovember14,2005Falt,Jack.BibliographyofMBTI/TemperamentBooksbyAuthor(http://www.trytel.com/~jfalt/topics.html).RetrievedDecember20,2004GeorgiaStateUniversity.GSUMasterTeacherProgram:OnLearningStyles(http://www2.gsu.edu/~dschjb/wwwmbti.html).RetrievedDecember20,2004.Jung,CarlGustav(1965).Memories,Dreams,Reflections.VintageBooks:NewYork,1965.p.207Jung,C.G.(1971).Psychologicaltypes(CollectedworksofC.G.Jung,volume6).(3rded.).Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.FirstappearedinGermanin1921.ISBN0691097704Krauskopf,CharlesJ.andSaunders,DavidR.(1994)PersonalityandAbility:ThePersonalityAssessmentSystem.Maryland:UniversityPressofAmerica.ISBN0819192821Matthews,Paul(2004).TheMBTIisaflawedmeasureofpersonality'.'(http://www.bmj.com/rapidresponse/2011/10/30/mbtiflawedmeasurepersonality).bmj.comRapidResponses.RetrievedFebruary9,2005Myers,IsabelBriggs(1980).GiftsDiffering:UnderstandingPersonalityType.DaviesBlackPublishingReprintedition(May1,1995).ISBN089106074XMyers,IsabelBriggs,MaryH.McCaulley,NaomiQuenk,andAllanHammer.(1998)MBTIHandbook:AGuidetothedevelopmentanduseoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatorConsultingPsychologistsPress,3rdedition.ISBN0891061304Pearman,R.Lombardo,M.andEichinger,R.(2005).YOU:BeingMoreEffectiveInYourMBTIType.Minn.:LomingerInternational,Inc.Pearman,R.andAlbritton,S.(1996).I'mNotCrazy,I'mJustNotYou:TheRealMeaningoftheSixteenPersonalityTypes.MountainView,Ca:DaviesBlackPublishing.PersonalityPlus.Employerslovepersonalitytests.Butwhatdotheyreallyreveal?(http://www.gladwell.com/pdf/personality.pdf)Saunders,D.(1989).TypeDifferentiationIndicatorManual:AscoringsystemforFormJoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator.PaloAlto,CA:ConsultingPsychologistsPress,Inc.SkepticsDictionary."MyersBriggsTypeIndicator"[2](http://skepdic.com/myersb.html)VirginiaTech.TheRelationshipBetweenPsychologicalTypeandProfessionalOrientationAmongTechnologyEducationTeachers(http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/jtev7n1/wicklein.jtev7n1.html).RetrievedDecember20,2004ThomasG.Long(October1992)."MyersBriggsandotherModernAstrologies".TheologyToday49(3):29195.doi:10.1177/004057369204900301(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F004057369204900301).
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