Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 1

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk[[file:MustafaKemalAtaturk.jpg alt=]]

President Atatürk

1st President of Turkey

In office29 October 1923 – 10 November 1938

(15 years, 12 days)

Prime Minister Ali Fethi Okyarİsmet İnönüCelâl Bayar

Succeeded by İsmet İnönü

1st Prime Minister of Turkey

In office3 May 1920 – 24 January 1921

(0 years, 266 days)

Succeeded by Fevzi Çakmak

1st Speaker of the Parliament of Turkey

In office24 April 1920 – 29 October 1923

(3 years, 219 days)

Succeeded by Ali Fethi Okyar

1st Leader of the Republican People's Party

In office9 September 1923 – 10 November 1938

(15 years, 62 days)

Succeeded by İsmet İnönü

Personal details

Born 19 May 1881 (Conventional. This date was adopted by the president himself for official purposes in the absence of preciseknowledge concerning the real date.)Salonica, Ottoman Empire (present-day Thessaloniki, Greece)

Died 10 November 1938 (aged 57)Dolmabahçe PalaceIstanbul, Turkey

Resting place AnıtkabirAnkara, Turkey

Nationality Turkish

Political party Committee of Union and Progress, Republican People's Party

Spouse(s) Lâtife Uşaklıgil (1923–25)

Religion See Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's religious views.

Signature

Military service

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 2

Allegiance Ottoman Empire(1893 – 8 July 1919)Republic of Turkey(9 July 1919 – 30 June 1927)

Service/branchArmy

Rank Ottoman Empire: General (Pasha)Republic of Turkey: Mareşal (Marshal)

Commands 19th Division – 16th Corps – 2nd Army – 7th Army – Yildirim Army Group – commander-in-chief of Army of the GrandNational Assembly

Battles/wars Tobruk – Anzac Cove – Chunuk Bair – Scimitar Hill – Sari Bair – Bitlis – Sakarya – Dumlupınar

Awards List (24 medals)

Graphical Timeline

Detailed Chronology

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (series)

Personal life Birth date · Name · Early life (Education) · Family · Character · Religious beliefs · Will · Publications

Military career Early period · Gallipoli · Caucasus · Sinai and Palestine

Independence War Establishment · Conflicts · Peace

Atatürk's Reforms & Kemalist ideology

Gallery: Picture, Sound, Video

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (pronounced [musˈtafa keˈmaɫ ataˈtyɾk]; 19 May 1881 by a posteriori[1] –10 November1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.He is credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey.Atatürk was a military officer during World War I.[2] Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I,he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence. Having established a provisionalgovernment in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkeyindependence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking totransform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state. The principles ofAtatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.

Early lifeMustafa was born in either the Ahmed Subaşı neighbourhood or the Islahhane Street (present-day Apostolu Pavlu Street) in the Koca Kasım Pasha neighbourhood (this house is preserved as a museum) in Salonica,[3] Ottoman Empire, to his mother Zübeyde Hanım (a housewife) and father Ali Rıza Efendi (a militia officer, title deed clerk and lumber trader). Only one of Atatürk's siblings, a sister named Makbule (Atadan) survived childhood; she died in 1956.[4] According to Andrew Mango, he was born into a family which was Muslim, Turkish-speaking and precariously middle-class.[5] Time magazine states that Mustafa Kemal's father was of Albanian and his mother was of Macedonian origin,[6] and Patrick Kinross wrote that he was "as fair as any Slav from beyond the Bulgarian frontier" with "fine white skin" and "eyes of a deep but clear light blue."[7] According to Encyclopaedia Judaica, one assertion that was commonly made by many Jews of Salonika was that Kemal Atatürk was of Doenmeh origin. This

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 3

view was eagerly embraced by many of Atatürk’s religious opponents and denied by the Turkish government.[8] Hisfather Ali Rıza is thought to be of Albanian origin;[9] [10] [11] [12] [13] however, according to Falih Rıfkı Atay, AliRıza's ancestors were from Söke in the Aydın Province of Anatolia.[14] [15] His mother Zübeyde is thought to be ofTurkish origin[11] [12] and according to Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, she was of Yörük ancestry.[16]

Born Mustafa, his second name Kemal (meaning Perfection or Maturity) was given to him by his Mathematicsteacher, Captain Üsküplü Mustafa Efendi, according to Afet Inan in admiration of his capability and maturity,[17] [18]

and according to Ali Fuat Cebesoy, because his teacher Mustafa Efendi wanted to distinguish his student who carriedthe same name with him,[19] although his biographer Andrew Mango suggests that he may have chosen the namehimself as a tribute to the nationalist poet Namık Kemal.[20] In his early years, his mother encouraged Mustafa toattend a religious school, something he did reluctantly and only briefly. Later, he attended the Şemsi Efendi School(a private school with a more secular curriculum) at the direction of his father. His parents wanted him to learn atrade, but without consulting them, Atatürk took the entrance exam for the Salonica Military School (Selânik AskerîRüştiyesi ) in 1893. In 1896, he enrolled into the Monastir Military High School. On 14 March 1899,[21] he enrolledat the Ottoman Military Academy in the neighbourhood of Pangaltı[22] within the Şişli district of the Ottoman capitalcity Constantinople[23] (modern Istanbul in Turkey) and graduated in 1902. He later graduated from the OttomanMilitary College in Constantinople on 11 January 1905.[21]

Military career

Early years

Mustafa Kemal as a Senior Captain(Kolağası) in 1907.

Mustafa Kemal Bey (fourth from right) listeningto the explanation of French Colonel AugusteEdouard Hirschauer during the Picardie army

manoeuvres.

Following graduation, he was assigned to the Fifth Army based inDamascus as a Staff Captain[21] in the company of Ali Fuat (Cebesoy)and Müfit (Özdeş).[24] He joined a small secret revolutionary society ofreformist officers led by Mustafa (Cantekin) called Vatan ve Hürriyet("Motherland and Liberty"). On 20 June 1907, he was promoted to therank of Senior Captain (Kolağası) and on October 13, 1907, assignedto the headquarters of the Third Army in Manastır.[25] He joined theCommittee of Union and Progress, with membership number 322,although in later years he became known for his opposition to, andfrequent criticism of, the policies pursued by the CUP leadership. On22 June 1908, he was appointed the Inspector of the Ottoman Railwaysin Eastern Rumelia (Doğu Rumeli Bölgesi Demiryolları Müfettişi).[25]

In July 1908, he played a role in the Young Turk Revolution whichseized power from Sultan Abdülhamid II and restored theconstitutional monarchy.

In 1910 he was called to the Ottoman provinces in Albania.[26] [27] Atthat time Isa Boletini was leading Albanian uprisings in Kosovo andthere were revolts in Albania.[28] [29] In 1910 he met with EqeremVlora.[30] [31]

Later, in the autumn of 1910, he was among the Ottoman militaryobservers who attended the Picardie army manoeuvres in France.[32]

In early 1911, he worked at the Ministry of War (Harbiye Nezareti)headquarters in Istanbul for a short time.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 4

Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912)

Binbaşı Mustafa Kemal Bey (left) with anOttoman military officer and Bedouin forces in

Darnah, Tripolitania Vilayet, 1912.

Later in 1911, he was assigned to the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet(present-day Libya) to fight in the Italo-Turkish War, mainly in theareas near Benghazi (Bingazi), Darnah (Derne) and Tobruk. A massiveItalian amphibious assault force of 150,000 troops[33] had to becountered by 20,000 Bedouins[34] and 8,000 Turks[34] (a short timebefore Italy declared war, a large portion of the Ottoman troops inLibya were sent to the Ottoman province of Yemen in order to putdown the rebellion there, so the Ottoman government was caught withinadequate resources to counter the Italians in Libya; and the Britishgovernment, which militarily controlled the de jure Ottoman provincesof Egypt and Sudan since the Urabi Revolt in 1882, didn't allow theOttoman government to send additional Ottoman troops to Libya

through Egypt; causing the Ottoman soldiers like Mustafa Kemal to go to Libya either dressed as Arabs (riskingimprisonment if noticed by the British authorities in Egypt), or through very few available ferries (the Italians, whohad superior naval forces, effectively controlled the sea routes to Tripoli).) However, despite all the hardships,Mustafa Kemal's forces in Libya managed to successfully repel the Italians in a number of occasions, such as theBattle of Tobruk on 22 December 1911. During the Battle of Darnah on 16–17 January 1912, while Mustafa Kemalwas assaulting the Italian-controlled fortress of Kasr-ı Harun, two Italian planes dropped bombs on the Ottomanforces and a piece of limestone from a damaged building's rubble entered Mustafa Kemal's left eye; which caused apermanent damage on his left eye's tissue, but not a total loss of sight. After receiving medical treatment for nearly amonth (he attempted to leave the Red Crescent's health facilities early after only two weeks, but when his eye'ssituation worsened, he had to return and resume the treatment) on 6 March 1912 Mustafa Kemal became theCommander of the Ottoman forces in Darnah. He managed to defend and retain the city and its surrounding regionuntil the end of the Italo-Turkish War on 18 October 1912. Mustafa Kemal, Enver Bey, Fethi Bey and the otherOttoman military commanders in Libya had to return to Ottoman Europe following the outbreak of the Balkan Warson 8 October 1912, due to which the Ottoman government agreed to surrender the provinces of Tripolitania, Fezzanand Cyrenaica (present-day Libya) to the Kingdom of Italy with the Treaty of Ouchy (First Treaty of Lausanne)signed ten days later, on October 18.

Balkan Wars (1912–1913)On 1 December 1912, Mustafa Kemal arrived at his new headquarters on the Gallipoli peninsula and during the FirstBalkan War, he took part in the amphibious landing at Bulair on the coast of Thrace that was commanded by BinbaşıFethi Bey, but this offensive was repulsed during the Battle of Bulair by Georgi Todorov's 7th Rila InfantryDivision[35] under the command of Stiliyan Kovachev's Bulgarian Fourth Army.[36]

In June 1913, during the Second Balkan War, he took part in the Ottoman Army forces commanded by KaymakamEnver Bey that recovered Dimetoka and Edirne (Adrianople, the capital city of the Ottoman Empire between 1365and 1453, thus of utmost historic importance for the Turks) together with most of eastern Thrace from theBulgarians.In 1913, he was appointed the Ottoman military attaché to all Balkan states (his office was in Sofia, Bulgaria) andpromoted to the rank of Kaymakam (Lieutenant Colonel / Colonel) on March 1, 1914.[21]

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 5

First World War (1914–1918)

Mustafa Kemal in the trenches of Gallipoli withhis soldiers, 1915.

In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the European and Middle Easterntheatres of World War I allied with the Central Powers. Mustafa Kemalwas given the task of organizing and commanding the 19th Divisionattached to the Fifth Army during the Battle of Gallipoli. MustafaKemal became the front-line commander after correctly anticipatingwhere the Allies would attack and holding his position until theyretreated. Following the Battle of Gallipoli, Mustafa Kemal served inEdirne until 14 January 1916. He was then assigned to the command ofthe XVI Corps of the Second Army and sent to the CaucasusCampaign after the massive Russian offensive had reached theAnatolian key cities. On 7 August, Mustafa Kemal rallied his troopsand mounted a counteroffensive.[37] Two of his divisions capturedBitlis and Muş, upsetting the calculations of the Russian Command.[38]

Following this victory, the CUP government in Constantinopleproposed to establish a new army in Hejaz (Hicaz Kuvve-i Seferiyesi)and appoint Mustafa Kemal to its command, but he refused theproposal and this army was never established.[32] Instead, on 7 March1917, Mustafa Kemal was promoted from the command of the XVICorps to the overall command of the Second Army, although the Czar's

armies were soon withdrawn when the Russian Revolution erupted.[32] [37]

In July 1917 he was appointed to the command of the Seventh Army, replacing Fevzi Pasha on 7 August 1917, whowas under the command of the German general Erich von Falkenhayn's Yildirim Army Group (after the Britishforces of General Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem in December 1917, Erich von Falkenhayn was replaced byOtto Liman von Sanders who became the new commander of the Yıldırım Army Group in early 1918.)[32] MustafaKemal Pasha could not get along well with General von Falkenhayn and, together with Miralay İsmet Bey, wrote areport to Grand Vizier Talat Pasha regarding the grim situation and lack of adequate resources in the Palestinianfront; but Talat Pasha ignored their observations and suggestion that a stronger defensive line should be structured tothe north, in Ottoman Syria (in parts of the Beirut Vilayet, Damascus Vilayet and Aleppo Vilayet), with Turks ratherthan Germans in command.[32] Following the rejection of his report, Mustafa Kemal resigned from the SeventhArmy and returned to Constantinople.[32] There, he was assigned with the task of accompanying the crown prince(and future sultan) Mehmed Vahideddin during his train trip to Austria-Hungary and Germany.[32] While inGermany, Mustafa Kemal visited the German lines in the west European front and came to the conclusion that theCentral Powers would soon lose the war.[32] He did not hesitate to openly express this opinion to Kaiser Wilhelm IIand his high-ranking generals in first person.[32] During the return trip, he briefly stayed in Karlsbad and Vienna formedical treatment.[32]

When Mehmed VI became the new Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in July 1918, he called Mustafa Kemal to Constantinople, and in August 1918 assigned him to the command of the Seventh Army in Palestine.[32] Mustafa Kemal arrived in Aleppo on 26 August 1918, then continued south to his headquarters in Nablus. The Seventh Army was holding the central sector of the front lines. On September 19, at the beginning of the Battle of Megiddo, the Eighth Army was holding the coastal flank, but fell apart and Liman Pasha ordered the Seventh Army to withdraw to the north in order to prevent the British from conducting a short envelopment to the Jordan River. The Seventh Army retired towards the Jordan River in fair order and, according to the Armistice of Mudros, signed on 30 October 1918, all German and Austro-Hungarian troops in the Ottoman Empire would be given ample time to withdraw. On 31 October, he was appointed to the command of the Yıldırım Army Group, replacing Liman von Sanders. He organized the distribution of weapons to the civilians in Antep in case of a defensive conflict against the invading

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 6

Allies.[32]

Kemal's last active service in the Ottoman Army was organizing the return of the troops left behind to the south ofthis line. In early November 1918 the Yıldırım Army Group was officially dissolved and Mustafa Kemal returned toan occupied Constantinople, the Ottoman capital, on 13 November 1918.[32] For a period he worked at theheadquarters of the Ministry of War (Harbiye Nezareti) in Constantinople and continued his activities in this cityuntil 16 May 1919.[32] Along the established lines of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, the Allies (British,Italian, French and Greek forces) occupied Anatolia. The occupation of Constantinople, which was followed by theoccupation of Smyrna (the two largest Ottoman cities in that period) sparked the establishment of the Turkishnational movement and the Turkish War of Independence.[39]

Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922)

Prominent nationalists at the Sivas Congress. Leftto right: Muzaffer (Kılıç), Rauf (Orbay), Bekir

Sami (Kunduh), Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), RuşenEşref (Ünaydın), Cemil Cahit (Toydemir), Cevat

Abbas (Gürer)

TIME 24 March 1923. Atatürk, the title reads'Where is a Turk his own master?'

Fahri Yaver-i Hazret-i Şehriyari ("Honorary Aide-de-camp to HisMajesty Sultan") Mirliva Mustafa Kemal Pasha was assigned as theinspector of the Ninth Army Troops Inspectorate to reorganize whatremained of the Ottoman military units and to improve internalsecurity on 30 April 1919.[40] On 19 May 1919, he reached Samsun.His first goal was the establishment of an organized national resistancemovement against the occupying forces. In June 1919, he issued theAmasya Circular, declaring the independence of the country was indanger. He resigned from the Ottoman Army on 8 July and theOttoman government issued a warrant for his arrest. Later, he wascondemned to death.

The last election to the Ottoman parliament held in December 1919gave a sweeping majority to candidates of the "Association for Defenseof Rights for Anatolia and Roumelia (Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-iHukuk Cemiyeti)", headed by Mustafa Kemal, who himself remained inAnkara. The fourth (and last) term of the Parliament opened inConstantinople on 12 January 1920. It was dissolved by British forceson 18 March 1920, shortly after it adopted the Misak-ı Milli ("NationalPact"). Mustafa Kemal called for a national election to establish a newTurkish Parliament seated in Ankara[41] – the "Grand NationalAssembly" (GNA). On 23 April 1920, the GNA opened with MustafaKemal as the speaker; this act effectively created the situation ofdiarchy in the country.

On 10 August 1920, the Ottoman Grand Vizier Damat Ferid Pashasigned the Treaty of Sèvres, finalizing plans for the partitioning of theOttoman Empire, including the regions that Turkish nationals viewedas their heartland. Mustafa Kemal insisted on the country's completeindependence and the safeguarding of interests of the Turkish majorityon "Turkish soil". He persuaded the GNA to gather a National Army.The GNA Army faced the Caliphate army propped up by the Alliedoccupation forces and had the immediate task of fighting the Armenians forces in the Eastern Front and the Greekforces, that advanced eastward from Smyrna (modern day Izmir) that they had occupied in May 1919, on theWestern Front.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 7

The GNA military successes against the Democratic Republic of Armenia in the autumn of 1920 and later againstthe Greeks were made possible[42] by a steady supply of gold and armaments to the kemalists from the RussianBolshevik government from the autumn 1920 onwards.After a series of battles during the Greco-Turkish war, the Greek army advanced as far as the Sakarya River, justeighty kilometers west of the GNA. On 5 August 1921, Mustafa Kemal was promoted to Commander in chief of theforces by the GNA.[43] The ensuing Battle of Sakarya was fought from 23 August to 13 September 1921 and endedwith the defeat of the Greeks. After this victory, on 19 September 1921, Mustafa Kemal Pasha was given by theGrand National Assembly the rank of "Marshal" and the title of "Ghazi". The Allies, ignoring the extent of Kemal'ssuccesses, hoped to impose a modified version of the Treaty of Sèvres as a peace settlement on Ankara, but theproposal was rejected. In August 1922, Kemal launched an all-out attack on the Greek lines at Afyonkarahisar in theBattle of Dumlupınar and Turkish forces regained control of Smyrna on 9 September 1922.[44] On 10 September1922, Mustafa Kemal sent a telegram to the League of Nations saying that the Turkish population was so worked upthat the Ankara Government would not be responsible for massacres.[45]

Establishment of the Republic of TurkeyThe Conference of Lausanne began on 21 November 1922. Turkey, represented by İsmet İnönü of the GNA, refusedany proposal that would compromise Turkish sovereignty,[46] such as the control of Turkish finances, theCapitulations, the Straits and other issues. On 24 July 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed by the Powers withthe GNA, thus recognising the latter as the government of Turkey.On 29 October 1923, the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed.

Presidency

In 1930, leaving the parliament after the 7th-yearcelebration meeting. İsmet İnönü, the second

President of Turkey, is to the left.

With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, efforts to modernisethe country started. The new government analyzed the institutions andconstitutions of Western states such as France, Sweden, Italy, andSwitzerland and adapted them to the needs and characteristics of theTurkish nation. Highlighting the public's lack of knowledge regardingKemal's intentions, the public cheered: "We are returning to the days ofthe first caliphs."[47] Mustafa Kemal placed Fevzi Çakmak, KâzımÖzalp and İsmet İnönü in political positions where they could institutehis reforms. Mustafa Kemal capitalized on his reputation as an efficientmilitary leader and spent the following years, up until his death in1938, instituting political, economic, and social reforms. In doing so,he transformed Turkish society from perceiving itself as a Muslim partof a vast Empire into a modern, democratic, and secular nation-state.

Domestic policies

Kemal's basic tenet was the complete independence of the country.[48]

He clarified his position:

“...by complete independence, we mean of course complete economic, financial, juridical, military, cultural independence and freedom in allmatters. Being deprived of independence in any of these is equivalent to the nation and country being deprived of all its independence.[49] ”

He led wide-ranging reforms in social, cultural, and economical aspects, establishing the new Republic's backbone oflegislative, judicial, and economic structures.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 8

Mustafa Kemal created a banner to mark the changes between the old Ottoman and the new republican rule. Eachchange was symbolized as an arrow in this banner. This defining ideology of the Republic of Turkey is referred to asthe "Six Arrows", or Kemalist ideology. Kemalist ideology is based on Mustafa Kemal's conception of realism andpragmatism.[50] The fundamentals of nationalism, populism and etatism were all defined under the Six Arrows.These fundamentals were not new in world politics or, indeed, among the elite of Turkey. What made them uniquewas that these interrelated fundamentals were formulated specifically for Turkey's needs. A good example is thedefinition and application of secularism; the Kemalist secular state significantly differed from predominantlyChristian states.

Emergence of the state, 1923–1924

A political satire from the single-party perioddepicting Mustafa Kemal, the leader of the RPP,choosing the party's candidates for prospective

MPs, to be elected in the incoming parliamentaryelections. During the single-party state, the

candidates had only one party's (RPP) list to join.

Mustafa Kemal's private journal entries dated before the establishmentof the republic in 1923 show that he believed in the importance of thesovereignty of the people. In forging the new republic, the Turkishrevolutionaries turned their back on the perceived corruption anddecadence of cosmopolitan Constantinople and its Ottomanheritage.[51] For instance, they made Ankara the country's new capital.A provincial town deep in Anatolia, it was turned into the center of theindependence movement. Atatürk wanted a "direct government by theAssembly"[52] and visualized a representative democracy,parliamentary sovereignty, where the National Parliament would be theultimate source of power.[52]

In the following years, he altered his stance somewhat; the countryneeded an immense amount of reconstruction, and that "directgovernment by the Assembly" could not survive in such an environment. The revolutionaries faced challenges fromthe supporters of the old Ottoman regime, and also from the supporters of newer ideologies such as communism andfascism. Mustafa Kemal saw the consequences of fascist and communist doctrines in the 1920s and 1930s andrejected both.[53] He prevented the spread into Turkey of the totalitarian party rule which held sway in the SovietUnion, Germany and Italy.[54] Some perceived his opposition and silencing of these ideologies as a means ofeliminating competition; others believed it was necessary to protect the young Turkish state from succumbing to theinstability of new ideologies and competing factions.

The heart of the new republic was the GNA, established during the Turkish War of Independence by MustafaKemal.[55] The elections were free and used an egalitarian electoral system that was based on a general ballot.[55]

Deputies at the GNA served as the voice of Turkish society by expressing its political views and preferences. It hadthe right to select and control both the government and the Prime Minister. Initially, it also acted as a legislativepower, controlling the executive branch and, if necessary, acted as an organ of scrutiny under the TurkishConstitution of 1921.[55] The Turkish Constitution of 1924 set a loose separation of powers between the legislativeand the executive organs of the state, whereas the separation of these two within the judiciary system was a strictone. Mustafa Kemal, then the President, occupied a powerful position in this political system.The single-party regime was established de facto in 1925 after the adoption of the 1924 constitution. The onlypolitical party of the GNA was the "Peoples Party", founded by Mustafa Kemal in the initial years of theindependence war. On 9 September 1923 it was renamed the Republican People's Party (Turkish Cumhuriyeti HalkPartisı).

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 9

Civic independence and the Caliphate, 1924–1925

In 1924, during his speech in Bursa.

Abolition of the Caliphate was an important dimension in MustafaKemal's drive to reform the political system and to promote thenational sovereignty. By the consensus of the Muslim majority in earlycenturies, the caliphate was the core political concept of SunniIslam.[56] Abolishing the sultanate was easier because the survival ofthe Caliphate at the time satisfied the partisans of the sultanate. Thisproduced a split system with the new republic on one side and anIslamic form of government with the Caliph on the other side, andKemal and İnönü worried that "it nourished the expectations that thesovereign would return under the guise of Caliph.[57] " CaliphAbdülmecid II was elected after the abolishment of the sultanate(1922).

The caliph had his own personal treasury and also had a personal service that included military personnel; MustafaKemal said that there was no "religious" or "political" justification for this. He believed that Caliph Abdülmecid IIwas following in the steps of the sultans in domestic and foreign affairs: accepting of and responding to foreignrepresentatives and reserve officers, and participating in official ceremonies and celebrations.[58] He wanted tointegrate the powers of the caliphate into the powers of the GNA. His initial activities began on 1 January 1924,when[58] İnönü, Çakmak and Özalp consented to the abolition of the caliphate. The caliph made a statement to theeffect that he would not interfere with political affairs.[59] On 1 March 1924, at the Assembly, Mustafa Kemal said

“The religion of Islam will be elevated if it will cease to be a political instrument, as had been the case in the past.[60]”On 3 March 1924, the caliphate was officially abolished and its powers within Turkey were transferred to the GNA.Other Muslim nations debated the validity of Turkey's unilateral abolition of the caliphate as they decided whetherthey should confirm the Turkish action or appoint a new caliph.[59] A "Caliphate Conference" was held in Cairo inMay 1926 and a resolution was passed declaring the caliphate "a necessity in Islam", but failed to implement thisdecision.[59]

Two other Islamic conferences were held in Mecca (1926) and Jerusalem (1931), but failed to reach a consensus.[59]

Turkey did not accept the re-establishment of the caliphate and perceived it as an attack to its basic existence; whileMustafa Kemal and the reformists continued their own way.[61]

The removal of the caliphate was followed by an extensive effort to establish the separation of governmental andreligious affairs. Education was the cornerstone in this effort. In 1923, there were three main educational groups ofinstitutions. The most common institutions were medreses based on Arabic, the Qur'an and memorization. Thesecond type of institution was idadî and sultanî, the reformist schools of the Tanzimat era. The last group includedcolleges and minority schools in foreign languages that used the latest teaching models in educating pupils. The oldmedrese education was modernized.[62] Mustafa Kemal changed the classical Islamic education for a vigorouslypromoted reconstruction of educational institutions.[62] Kemal linked educational reform to the liberation of thenation from dogma, which he believed was more important than the Turkish war of independence.

“Today, our most important and most productive task is the national education [unification and modernization] affairs. We have to besuccessful in national education affairs and we shall be. The liberation of a nation is only achieved through this way."[63] ”

In the summer of 1924, Mustafa Kemal invited American educational reformer John Dewey to Ankara to advise him on how to reform Turkish education.[62] His public education reforms aimed to prepare citizens for roles in public life through increasing the public literacy. He wanted to institute compulsory primary for both girls and boys; since

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 10

then this effort has been an ongoing task for the republic. He pointed out that one of the main targets of education inTurkey had to be raising a generation nourished with what he called the "public culture". The state schoolsestablished a common curriculum which became known as the "unification of education."Unification of education was put into force on 3 March 1924 by the Law on Unification of Education (No. 430).With the new law, education became inclusive, organized on a model of the civil community. In this new design, allschools submitted their curriculum to the "Ministry of National Education", a government agency modelled afterother countries' ministries of education. Concurrently, the republic abolished the two ministries and made clergysubordinate to the department of religious affairs, one of the foundations of secularism in Turkey. The unification ofeducation under one curriculum ended "clerics or clergy of the Ottoman Empire", but was not the end of religiousschools in Turkey; they were moved to higher education until later governments restored them to their formerposition in secondary after Mustafa Kemal's death.

Atatürk with his Panama hat just after theKastamonu speech in 1925.

Beginning in the fall of 1925, Mustafa Kemal encouraged the Turks towear modern European attire.[64] He was determined to force theabandonment of the sartorial traditions of the Middle East and finalizea series of dress reforms, which were originally started by MahmudII.[64] The fez was established by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 as part ofthe Ottoman Empire's modernization effort. The Hat Law of 1925introduced the use of Western-style hats instead of the fez. MustafaKemal first made the hat compulsory to civil servants.[64] Theguidelines for the proper dressing of students and state employees werepassed during his lifetime; many civil servants adopted the hatwillingly. In 1925, Mustafa Kemal wore his "Panama hat" during apublic appearance in Kastamonu, one of the most conservative townsin Anatolia, to explain that the hat was the headgear of civilizednations. The last part of reform on dress emphasized the need to wearmodern Western suits with neckties as well as Fedora and Derby-stylehats instead of antiquated religion-based clothing such as the veil and turban in the Law Relating to ProhibitedGarments of 1934.

Even though he personally promoted modern dress for women, Mustafa Kemal never made specific reference towomen’s clothing in the law, as he believed that women would adapt to the new clothing styles of their own freewill. He was frequently photographed on public business with his wife Lâtife Uşaklıgil, who covered her head inaccordance with Islamic tradition. He was also frequently photographed on public business with women wearingmodern Western clothes. But it was Atatürk's adopted daughters, Sabiha Gökçen and Afet İnan, who provided thereal role model for the Turkish women of the future. He wrote: "The religious covering of women will not causedifficulty ... This simple style [of headcovering] is not in conflict with the morals and manners of our society."[65]

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 11

In 1923, with members of the Mevlana orderbefore its institutional expression became illegaland their dervish lodge changed into the Mevlana

Museum. The Mevlevi order managed totransform itself into a nonpolitical organization

which still exists.

On 30 August 1925, Mustafa Kemal's view on religious insignia usedoutside places of worship was introduced in his Kastamonu speech.This speech also had another position. He said:

“In the face of knowledge, science, and of the whole extent of radiant civilization, I cannot accept the presence in Turkey's civilized communityof people primitive enough to seek material and spiritual benefits in the guidance of sheiks. The Turkish republic cannot be a country ofsheiks, dervishes, and disciples. The best, the truest order is the order of civilization. To be a man it is enough to carry out the requirements ofcivilization. The leaders of dervish orders will understand the truth of my words, and will themselves close down their lodges [tekke] andadmit that their disciplines have grown up.[48] ”

On 2 September the government issued a decree closing down all Sufi orders and the tekkes. Mustafa Kemal orderedtheir dervish lodges to be converted to museums, such as Mevlana Museum in Konya. The institutional expression ofSufism became illegal in Turkey; a politically neutral form of Sufism, functioning as social associations, waspermitted to exist.The abolition of the caliphate and other cultural reforms were met with fierce opposition. The conservative elementswere not happy and they launched attacks on the Kemalist reformists.[59]

Opposition to Kemal in 1924–1927

In 1924, while the "Issue of Mosul" was on the table, Sheikh Said Piran began to organize the Sheikh Said Rebellion.Sheikh Said Piran was a wealthy Kurdish Tribal chief of a local Naqshbandi order. Piran emphasized the issue ofreligion; he not only opposed the abolition of the Caliphate, but also the adoption of civil codes based on Westernmodels, the closure of religious orders, the ban on polygamy, and the new obligatory civil marriage. Piran stirred uphis followers against the policies of the government, which he considered anti-Islamic. In an effort to restore Islamiclaw, Piran's forces moved through the countryside, seized government offices and marched on the important cities ofElazığ and Diyarbakır.[66] Members of the government saw the Sheikh Said Rebellion as an attempt at acounter-revolution. They urged immediate military action to prevent its spread. The "Law for the Maintenance ofPublic Order" was passed to deal with the rebellion on 4 March 1925. It gave the government exceptional powersand included the authority to shut down subversive groups, but was repealed on 4 March 1929.There were also parliamentarians in the GNA who were not happy with these changes. So many members were denounced as opposition sympathizers at a private meeting of the Republican People's Party (CHP) that Mustafa Kemal expressed his fear of being among the minority in his own party.[67] He decided not to purge this group.[67]

After a censure motion gave the chance to have a breakaway group, Kazım Karabekir, along with his friends, established such a group on 17 October 1924. The censure became a confidence vote at the CHP for Mustafa Kemal. On 8 November, the motion was rejected by 148 votes to 18, and 41 votes were absent.[67] CHP held all but one seat in the parliament. After the majority of the CHP chose him[67] Mustafa Kemal said, "the Turkish nation is firmly

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 12

determined to advance fearlessly on the path of the republic, civilization and progress".[67]

On 17 November 1924, the breakaway group established the Progressive Republican Party (PRP) with 29 deputiesand the first multi-party system began. The PRP's economic program suggested liberalism, in contrast to the statesocialism of CHP, and its social program was based on conservatism in contrast to the modernism of CHP. Leadersof the party strongly supported the Kemalist revolution in principle, but had different opinions on the culturalrevolution and the principle of secularism.[68] The PRP was not against Mustafa Kemal's main positions as declaredin its program; they supported establishing secularism in the country and the civic law, or as stated, "the needs of theage" (article 3) and the uniform system of education (article 49).[67] These principles were set by the leaders at theonset. The only legal opposition became a home for all kinds of differing views.During 1926, a plot to assassinate Mustafa Kemal was uncovered in İzmir. It originated with a former deputy whohad opposed the abolition of the Caliphate. Investigation shifted from an inquiry into the planners to an investigationostensibly to uncover subversive activities but in truth used to undermine those disagreeing with Kemal's culturalrevolution. The sweeping investigation brought a number of political activists before the tribunal, includingKarabekir, the leader of PRP. A number of surviving leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress, who were atbest second-rank in the Turkish movement, including Cavid, Ahmed Şükrü, and Ismail Canbulat, were found guiltyof treason and hanged.[69] The investigations found a link between the members of the PRP and the Sheikh SaidRebellion. The PRP was dissolved following the outcomes of the trial. The pattern of organized opposition, however,was broken. This action was the only broad political purge during Atatürk's presidency. Mustafa Kemal's saying,"My mortal body will turn into dust, but the Republic of Turkey will last forever," was regarded as a will after theassassination attempt.[70]

Modernization efforts, 1926–1930

In the years following 1926, Mustafa Kemal introduced a radical departure from previous reformations establishedby the Ottoman Empire.[71] For the first time in history, Islamic law was separated from secular law, and restricted tomatters of religion.[71] Mustafa Kemal said

“We must liberate our concepts of justice, our laws and our legal institutions from the bonds which, even though they are incompatible withthe needs of our century, still hold a tight grip on us.[72] ”

On 1 March 1926, the Turkish penal code was passed. It was modelled after the Italian Penal Code. On 4 October1926, Islamic courts were closed. Establishing the civic law needed time, so Kemal delayed the inclusion of theprinciple of laïcité until 5 February 1937.Ottoman practice discouraged social interaction between men and women in keeping with Islamic practice of sexsegregation. Mustafa Kemal began developing social reforms very early, as was evident in his personal journal. Heand his staff discussed issues like abolishing the veiling of women and the integration of women into the outsideworld. The clue on how he was planning to tackle the issue was stated in his journal on November 1915;

“The social change can come by (1) educating capable mothers who are knowledgeable about life; (2) giving freedom to women; (3) a man canchange his morals, thoughts, and feelings by leading a common life with a woman; as there is an inborn tendency towards the attraction ofmutual affection.[73] ”

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 13

President Kemal at the 1927 opening of the StateArt and Sculpture Museum.

Mustafa Kemal needed a new civil code to establish his second majorstep of giving freedom to women. The first part was the education ofgirls and was established with the unification of education. On 4October 1926, the new Turkish civil code passed. It was modelled afterthe Swiss Civil Code. Under the new code, women gained equalitywith men in such matters as inheritance and divorce. Mustafa Kemaldid not consider gender a factor in social organization. According tohis view, society marched towards its goal with men and womenunited. He believed that it was scientifically impossible for him toachieve progress and to become civilized if the gender separationcontinued as in Ottoman times.[74] During a meeting he declaimed:

“To the women: Win for us the battle of education and you will do yet more for your country than we have been able to do. It is to you that Iappeal.To the men: If henceforward the women do not share in the social life of the nation, we shall never attain to our full development. We shallremain irremediably backward, incapable of treating on equal terms with the civilizations of the West.[75] ”

In 1927, the State Art and Sculpture Museum (Turkish: Ankara Resim ve Heykel Müzesi) opened its doors. Themuseum highlighted sculpture, which was little practised in Turkey owing to the Islamic tradition of avoidingidolatry. Kemal believed that "culture is the foundation of the Turkish Republic."[76] and described modern Turkey'sideological thrust as "a creation of patriotism blended with a lofty humanist ideal." He included both his own nation'screative legacy and what he saw as the admirable values of global civilization. The pre-Islamic culture of the Turksbecame the subject of extensive research, and particular emphasis was laid upon Turkish culture widespread beforethe Seljuk and Ottoman civilizations. He instigated study of Anatolian civilizations--Phrygians and Lydians,Sumerians and Hittites. To attract current public attention to past cultures, he personally named the "Sümerbank"(1932) after the Sumerians, and the "Etibank" (1935) after the Hittites. He also stressed the folk arts of thecountryside as a wellspring of Turkish creativity.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 14

President Gazi Mustafa Kemal introducing thenew Turkish alphabet to the people of Kayseri

(20 September 1928.)

In the spring of 1928, Mustafa Kemal met in Anakara with severallinguists and professors from all over Turkey where he unveiled tothem a plan of his to implement a new alphabet for the written Turkishlanguage based on a modified Latin alphabet. The new Turkishalphabet would serve as a replacement for the old Arabic script and asa solution to the literacy problem in Turkey. When he asked how longit would take to implement the new alphabet into the Turkish language,most of the professors and linguists said between three to five years.Kemal was said to have scoffed and openly stated, "we shall do it inthree to five months".

Over the next several months, Mustafa Kemal pressed for theintroduction of the new Turkish alphabet as well as made publicannouncements to the upcoming overhaul of the new alphabet. On 1November 1928, Mustafa Kemal introduced the new Turkish alphabetand abolished the use of Arabic script. At the time, literate citizens ofthe country comprised as little as 10% of the population. Dewey notedto Kemal that learning how to read and write in Turkish with theArabic script took roughly three years with rather strenuous methods atthe elementary level.[62] They used the Ottoman Language written inthe Arabic script with Arabic and Persian loan vocabulary.[62] The creation of the new Turkish alphabet as a variantof the Latin alphabet was undertaken by the Language Commission (Turkish: Dil Encümeni) with the initiative ofMustafa Kemal.[62] The tutelage was received from an Ottoman-Armenian calligrapher.[77] The first Turkishnewspaper using the new alphabet was published on 15 December 1928. Kemal himself travelled the countryside inorder to teach citizens the new alphabet. The country's adaptation to the new alphabet was very quick, and literacy inTurkey jumped from 10% to over 70% within two years. Beginning in 1932, the People's Houses (Turkish: HalkEvleri) opened throughout the country in order to meet the requirement that people between the ages of four and 40were required to learn the new alphabet as mandated. There were congresses for discussing the issues of copyright,public education and scientific publishing. Literacy reform was also supported by strengthening the privatepublishing sector with a new law on copyrights.

Mustafa Kemal promoted modern teaching methods at the primary education level, and Dewey took a place ofhonour.[62] Dewey presented a paradigmatic set of recommendations designed for developing societies that aremoving towards modernity in his "Report and Recommendation for the Turkish educational system."[62] He wasinterested in adult education for the goal of forming a skill base in the country. Turkish women were taught not onlychild care, dress-making and household management, but also skills needed to join the economy outside the home.Turkish education became a state-supervised system, which was designed to create a skill base for the social andeconomic progress of the country.[78] His "unified" education program was designed to educate responsible citizensas well as useful and appreciated members of society.[62] Turkish education became an integrative system, aimed toalleviate poverty and used female education to establish gender equality.Mustafa Kemal generated media attention to propagate modern education during this period. He instigated officialeducation meetings called "Science Boards" and "Education Summits." to discuss the quality of education, trainingissues and certain basic educational principles. He said, "our schools [curriculum] should aim to provideopportunities for all pupils to learn and to achieve." He was personally engaged with the development of twotextbooks. The first one was Turkish: Vatandaş İçin Medeni Bilgiler (1930). The second, Geometry (1937), was atext for high schools. The Vatandaş İçin Medeni Bilgiler (Civic knowledge for the citizens) introduced the science ofcomparative government and explained the means of administering public trust by explaining the rules ofgovernance as applied to the new state institutions.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 15

Opposition to Kemal in 1930–1931

Mustafa Kemal with the Liberal Republican Partyleader Ali Fethi Okyar and his daughter in

Yalova, on 13 August 1930.

On 11 August 1930, Mustafa Kemal decided to try a multipartymovement once again and asked Ali Fethi Okyar to establish a newparty. He insisted on the protection of secular reforms. The brand-newLiberal Republican Party succeeded all around the country. Withoutthe establishment of a real political spectrum, once again, the partybecame the center to opposition of Atatürk's reforms, particularly inregard to the role of religion in public life.

On 23 December 1930, a chain of violent incidents occurred, startingwith the rebellion of Islamic fundamentalists in Menemen, a smalltown in the Aegean region. This so-called Menemen Incident wasconsidered a serious threat against secular reforms.

In November 1930, Ali Fethi Okyar dissolved his own party. A more lasting multi-party period of the Republic ofTurkey began in 1945. In 1950, the RPP released the majority position to the Democratic Party. There are argumentsthat Kemal's single party rule did not promote direct democracy. The experiments with pluralism failed during thisperiod was that not all groups in the country had agreed to a minimal consensus regarding shared values (mainlysecularism) and shared rules for conflict resolution. In response to such criticisms, Mustafa Kemal's biographerAndrew Mango said: "between the two wars, democracy could not be sustained in many relatively richer andbetter-educated societies. Atatürk's enlightened authoritarianism left a reasonable space for free private lives. Morecould not have been expected in his lifetime."[79] Even though, at times, he did not appear to be a democrat in hisactions, he always supported the idea of building a civil society: a system of voluntary civic and social organizationsand institutions as opposed to the force-backed structures of the state. In one of his many speeches about theimportance of democracy, Mustafa Kemal said in 1933:

“Republic means the democratic administration of the state. We founded the Republic, reaching its tenth year. It should enforce all therequirements of democracy as the time comes.[80] ”

Modernization efforts, 1931–1938

Atatürk at the library of the Çankaya PresidentialResidence in Ankara, 1929.

In 1931, Mustafa Kemal established the Turkish Language Associationfor conducting research works in the Turkish language (Turkish: TürkDil Kurumu). The Turkish Historical Society (Turkish: Türk TarihKurumu) was established in 1931, and began maintaining archives in1932 for conducting research works on the history of Turkey.[81] On 1January 1928, he established the Turkish Education Association.[81]

The Association supported intelligent and hard-working children infinancial need, as well as making material and scientific contributionsto the educational life.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 16

In 1931, during the establishment ceremony ofthe Turkish History Institution.

Attending a class at the Law School of theIstanbul Darülfünunu in 1930.

Atatürk visits the Istanbul University after itsreorganization with the University Law of 31

May 1933 that introduced mixed-sex education tothe academies, colleges and universities in

Turkey. In 1915, during the Ottoman period, aseparate section for girl students named the İnas

Darülfünunu was opened as a branch of theİstanbul Darülfünunu, the predecessor of the

modern Istanbul University.

In 1933, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk ordered the reorganization of IstanbulUniversity into a modern institution and later established AnkaraUniversity in the capital city.[82]

Mustafa Kemal dealt with the translation of scientific terminology intoTurkish.[83] He wanted the Turkish language reform to bemethodologically based. Any attempt to "cleanse" the Turkishlanguage of foreign influence without modelling the integral structureof the language was inherently wrong to him. He personally oversawthe development of the Sun Language Theory (Turkish: Güneş DilTeorisi), which was a linguistic theory which proposed that all humanlanguages were descendants of one Central Asian primal language. Hisinterest started with the works by the French scientist Hilaire deBarenton entitled L'Origine des Langues, des Religions et des Peuples,which postulates that all languages originated from hieroglyphs andcuneiform used by Sumerians,[84] and the paper of Austrian linguistDr. Hermann F. Kvergić of Vienna entitled "La psychologie dequelques elements des langues Turques" ("the psychology of someelements of the Turkic Languages").[85] He introduced the SunLanguage Theory into Turkish political and educational circles in1935, although he did later correct the more extremist practices.[83]

Beginning in 1932, several hundred "People's Houses" (Turkish: HalkEvi) and "People's Rooms" (Halk Odası) across the country allowedgreater access to a wide variety of artistic activities, sports, and othercultural events. Atatürk supported and encouraged the visual and theplastic arts, which had been suppressed by the Ottoman leaders, whoregarded depiction of the human form as idolatry. Many museumsopened, architecture began to follow modern trends, and classicalWestern music, opera, and ballet, as well as the theatre, also tookgreater hold. Book and magazine publications increased as well, andthe film industry began to grow.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 17

The original 1935 print of the first Quran inTurkish language, ordered by Atatürk.

In 1932, a Qur'an in the Turkish language was read before a liveaudience and broadcast over the radio.[86] That same year, MustafaKemal wanted to "teach religion in Turkish to Turkish people who hadbeen practising Islam without understanding it for centuries"[87] AllQur'ans at the time were printed in Old Arabic. There was a rarepolyglot Qu'ran written in Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Latin in thetetrapla style, prepared by savant Andrea Acolutho of Bernstadt andprinted at Berlin in 1701.[88] In 1924, three Turkish translationspublished in Istanbul created controversy. Several renderings of theQur'an in the Turkish language were read in front of the public.[86]

These Turkish Qur'ans were fiercely opposed by religious people. Thisincident impelled many leading Muslim modernists to call upon theTurkish Parliament to sponsor a Qur'an translation of suitable quality.[89] With the support of Mustafa Kemal, theParliament approved the project and the Directorate of Religious Affairs enlisted, Mehmet Akif (Ersoy), to composea Qur'an translation and a Islamic scholar Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır to author a Turkish language Qur'anic commentary(tafsir) titled "Hak Dini Kur'an Dili." It was only in 1935 that the version read in public found its way to print.[90]

Mustafa Kemal believed that the understanding of religion was too important to be left to a small group of people.[87]

This included the central religious text of Islam. Mustafa Kemal's objective was to make the Qu'ran accessible tomodern people, and therefore to translate it into modern languages.[87]

In 1934, Mustafa Kemal commissioned the first Turkish operatic work, Özsoy. The opera, which was staged at thePeople's House in Ankara, was composed by Adnan Saygun and performed by soprano Semiha Berksoy.[91]

Eighteen female MPs joined the TurkishParliament with the 1935 general elections.

On 5 December 1934, Turkey moved to grant full political rights towomen, before several other European nations. The equal rights ofwomen in marriage had already been established in the earlier Turkishcivil code.[92] Women's place in Mustafa Kemal's cultural reforms wasbest expressed in the civic book prepared under his supervision.[93]

Mustafa Kemal said that

“There is no logical explanation for the political disenfranchisement of women. Any hesitation and negative mentality on this subject is nothingmore than a fading social phenomenon of the past. ...Women must have the right to vote and to be elected; because democracy dictates that,because there are interests that women must defend, and because there are social duties that women must perform.[94] ”

Change came slowly; in the 1935 elections there were only 18 female MPs out of a total of 395 representatives.

Foreign policiesAtatürk's foreign policy followed his motto, "peace at home and peace in the world."[95] a perception of peace linkedto his project of civilization and modernization.[96] The outcomes of Kemal's policies depended on the power of theparliamentary sovereignty established by the Republic.[97] The Turkish War of Independence was the last timeAtatürk used his military might in dealing with other countries. Foreign issues were resolved by peaceful methodsduring his presidency.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 18

Issue of Mosul

During the visit of Abdullah I of Jordan.

The "Issue of Mosul", a dispute with the United Kingdom over controlof Mosul Province, was one of the first foreign affairs-relatedcontroversies of the new Republic. During the Mesopotamiancampaign, General Marshall followed the British War Office'sinstruction that "every effort was to be made to score as heavily aspossible on the Tigris before the whistle blew", capturing Mosul threedays after the signature of the Armistice of Mudros (30 October1918).[98] In 1920, the Misak-ı Milli, which consolidated the "Turkishlands", declared that Mosul Province was a part of the historic Turkishheartland. The British were in a precarious situation with the Issue ofMosul, and were adopting almost equally desperate measures to protecttheir interests. The Iraqi revolt against the British was put down by theRAF Iraq Command during the summer of 1920. From the Britishperspective, if Mustafa Kemal Atatürk stabilized Turkey, he wouldthen turn his attention to Mosul and penetrate Mesopotamia, where thenative population would probably join him thus bringing an insurgentand hostile Muslim nation to the very gates of India.

In 1923, Mustafa Kemal tried to persuade the GNA that accepting thearbitration of the League of Nations at the Treaty of Lausanne over Mosul did not mean relinquishing Mosul, butrather waiting for a time when Turkey might be stronger. The artificially drawn border had an unsettling effect onboth sides of the population. Later, it was claimed that Turkey began where the oil ends as the border was drawn bythe British geophysicists based on the oil reserves. Atatürk did not want this separation.[99] The British ForeignSecretary attempted to disclaim any existence of oil in the Mosul area. On 23 January 1923, Lord Curzon argued thatthe existence of oil was no more than hypothetical.[98] However, according to Armstrong, "England wanted oil.Mosul and Kurds were the key."[100]

While three inspectors from the League of Nations Committee were sent to the region to oversee the situation in1924, the Sheikh Said rebellion, beginning in 1924 and escalating until 1927, set out to establish a new governmentpositioned to cut Turkey's link to Mesopotamia. The relationship between the rebels and Britain was questioned.British assistance was sought after the rebels realised that the rebellion, or its expected outcome, could not stand byitself.[101]

In 1925, the League of Nations formed a three-member committee to study the case while the Sheikh Said Rebellionwas on the rise. Partly because of the continuing uncertainties along the northern frontier (present-day northern Iraq),the committee recommended that the region should be connected to Iraq with the condition that the UK would holdthe British Mandate of Mesopotamia. By the end of March 1925, the necessary troop movements were completed,and the whole area of the Sheikh Said rebellion was encircled.[102] As a result of these manoeuvres, the revolt wasput down. Britain, Iraq and Kemal made a treaty on 5 June 1926, which mostly followed the decisions of the LeagueCouncil. In 1926, Kemal faced growing opposition to his reform policies, a continuing precarious economicsituation, and a defeat in the Mosul issue. A large section of the Kurdish population and the Iraqi Turkmen were lefton the other side of the border. The Sheikh Said Rebellion hastened both the imposition of the Republican Party andthe speed of Atatürk's reforms. In 1925, the population was largely illiterate and disparate. Turkey was in ruins,reconstruction was difficult, poverty was everywhere and people were in pain, which fed separatist violence.[103]

Mustafa Kemal attributed the rebellion to certain notables rather than a section of the population, who had beenfound guilty by the courts (kanunen mucrim olan bazi muteneffizan) and who used the mask of religion to concealthe interests of landlords, feudal tribal leaders and other "reactionaries" on 7 March 1925.[104]

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 19

Relations with the RSFSR/Soviet Union

During a reception at the USSR Embassy inAnkara, on 7 November 1927.

In his message to Vladimir Lenin, Russian bolsheviks' leader and headof the RSFSR's government, dated 26 April 1920, Kemal promised tocoordinate his military operations with the Bolsheviks' "fight againstimperialist governments" and requested 5 million lira in gold as well asarmaments "as first aid" to his forces.[105] In 1920 alone, the Leningovernment supplied the Kemalists with 6,000 rifles, over 5 millionrifle cartridges, 17,600 projectiles as well as 200.6 kg of gold bullion;in the subsequent 2 years the amount of aid increased.[106]

In March 1921, the GNA representatives in Moscow signed the "Friendship and Brotherhood" Treaty with SovietRussia, which was a major diplomatic breakthrough for the Kemalists. The Treaty of Moscow, followed by theidentical Treaty of Kars in October the same year, gave Turkey a favourable settlement of its north-eastern frontier atthe expense the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, then nominally an independent state.The two country's relations were friendly but were based on the fact that they were fighting against a commonenemy: Britain and the West.[107] In 1920, Kemal toyed with the idea to use a state-controlled Turkish CommunistParty to forestall the perceived spread of communist ideas in the country and gain access to the Comintern'sfinancing;[108] nevertheless, the entire Turkish communist leadership were assassinated on 28 January 1921 atKemal's behest.[109]

"Friendship with Russia," said Mustafa Kemal, "is not to adopt their ideology of communism for Turkey."[107] Hedeclared: "Communism is a social issue. Social conditions, religion, and national traditions of our country confirmthe opinion that Russian Communism is not applicable in Turkey."[110] In a 1 November 1924 speech he said: "Ouramicable relations with our old friend the Soviet Russian Republic are developing and progressing every day. As inpast our Republican Government regards genuine and extensive good relations with Soviet Russia as the Keynote ofour foreign policy."[107]

After the Turks, on 16 December 1925, withdrew their delegation from Geneva, thus leaving the League of NationsCouncil to grant a mandate for the Mosul region to Britain without their consent, Kemal countered[111] byconcluding a non-aggression pact with the USSR on 17 December the same year.[112] In 1935, the pact wasprolonged for another 10 years.[113]

Exchanges on the concept of a Balkan Federationduring the visit of Voroshilov, a vision of

Kemal's which was never achieved.

In 1933, the Soviet War minister Kliment Voroshilov visited Turkeyand attended the tenth year celebrations of the Republic.[114] Kemalexplained his position regarding the realization of his plan for a BalkanFederation economically uniting Turkey, Greece, Romania, Yugoslaviaand Bulgaria.[114]

During the second half of the 1930s, Mustafa Kemal tried to establish acloser relationship with Britain and other major western powers, whichcaused displeasure on the part of the Soviets. The second edition of theGreat Soviet Encyclopedia (Volume 20, 1953) was unequivocallycritical of Kemal's policies in the last years of his rule, calling hisdomestic policies "anti-popular" and his foreign course as aimed atrapprochement with the "imperialist powers."[115]

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 20

Turkish-Greek alliance

Hosting the Greek Prime Minister EleftheriosVenizelos (at left) in October 1932.

The post-war leader of Greece, Eleftherios Venizelos, was alsodetermined to establish normal relations between the two states. Thewar devastated Western Anatolia, and the financial burden of OttomanMuslim refugees from Greece blocked rapprochement. Venizelosmoved forward with the agreement despite accusations of concedingtoo much on the issues of the naval armaments, and the properties ofthe Ottoman Greeks from Turkey according to the Treaty ofLausanne.[116] Kemal resisted the pressures of historic enmities oratrocity-mongering between the societies. In spite of Turkish animosityagainst the Greeks, Kemal showed acute sensitivity to even theslightest allusion to these tensions; at one point, he ordered the removalof a painting showing a Turkish soldier plunging his bayonet to aGreek soldier by stating, "What a revolting scene!".[117]

Ultimately, many Greeks consider the reconciliation with Turkey among the greatest foreign policy achievements ofVenizelos' final term as Prime Minister. Greece renounced all its claims over Turkish territory and the two sidesconcluded an agreement on 30 April 1930. On 25 October, Venizelos visited Turkey, and signed a treaty offriendship.[118] Venizelos even forwarded Atatürk's name for the 1934 Nobel Peace Prize,[119] Even after his fallfrom power, Greco-Turkish relations remained cordial. Indeed, Venizelos' successor Panagis Tsaldaris came to visitAtatürk in September 1933 and signed a more comprehensive agreement, called the Entente Cordiale, a steppingstone for the Balkan Pact.Greek Premier Ioannis Metaxas said of Atatürk and the Turkish-Greek alliance, that "...Greece, which has the highestestimation of the renowned leader, heroic soldier, and enlightened creator of Turkey. We will never forget thatPresident Atatürk was the true founder of the Turkish-Greek alliance based on a framework of common ideals andpeaceful cooperation. He developed ties of friendship between the two nations which it would be unthinkable todissolve. Greece will guard its fervent memories of this great man, who determined an unalterable future path for thenoble Turkish nation."

Neighbours to the east

During the visit of Faisal I of Iraq in 1931.

From 1919, Afghanistan was in the midst of a reformation periodunder Amanullah Khan. Afghan Foreign Minister Mahmud Tarzi was afollower of Mustafa Kemal's domestic policy. He encouragedAmanullah Khan in social and political reform but urged that reformsshould build upon the basis of a strong government. During the late1920s, Anglo-Afghan relations soured over British fears of anAfghan-Soviet friendship. On 20 May 1928, Anglo-Afghan politicsgained a positive perspective, when Amanullah Khan and the Queenwere received by Mustafa Kemal in Constantinople. This meeting wasfollowed by a Turkey-Afghanistan Friendship and Cooperation pact on22 May 1928. Mustafa Kemal supported Afghanistan's integration intointernational organizations. In 1934, Afghanistan's relations with the international community gained a huge boostwhen it joined the League of Nations.[120] In 1937, King Zahir Shah became a signatory of the Treaty of Saadabad.Mahmud Tarzi received Mustafa Kemal's personal support until he died on 22 November 1933 in Istanbul.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 21

During the visit of Reza Pahlavi I, The Shah ofIran.

Mustafa Kemal and Reza Shah had a common approach regardingBritish imperialism and its influence in their region, creating a slow butcontinuous rapprochement between Ankara and Tehran. Bothgovernments sent diplomatic missions and messages of friendship toeach other during the Turkish war of independence.[121] The policy ofthe Ankara government in this period was to give moral support inorder to assure Iranian independence and territorial integrity.[122] Therelations were strained after the abolishment of the Caliphate. Iran'sShi'a clergy did not accept Kemal's position. Iranian religious powercentres perceived the real motive behind Atatürk's reforms was toundermine the power of the clergy.[122] An admirer of Mustafa Kemaland close student of his reforms, Reza Shah followed the same type of modernization efforts. By the mid-1930s,Reza Shah's efforts had upset the clergy throughout Iran, thus widening the gap between religion andgovernment.[123] Mustafa Kemal feared the occupation and dismemberment of Iran as a multi-ethnic/multi-tribalsociety by Russia or Great Britain.[122] Like Mustafa Kemal, Reza Shah wanted to secure Iran's borders. Reza Shahvisited him in 1934. In 1935, the draft of what would become the Treaty of Saadabad was paragraphed in Geneva,but the signing of it was delayed because of the border dispute between Iran and Iraq. Iran challenged the validity ofboth the Treaty of Erzerum and the Constantinople Protocol in 1934.

On 8 July 1937, Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan signed the Saadabad Pact at Tehran. The signatories undertookto preserve their common frontiers, to consult together in all matters of common interest and to commit noaggression against one another’s territory. The treaty united the Afghan king’s call for greater Oriental-MiddleEastern cooperation, Reza Shah's goal in securing relations with Turkey that would help Iran free herself from Sovietand British influence, and Mustafa Kemal's foreign policy of securing stability in the region. The immediate outcomewas to deter Mussolini from adventures in the region.[124]

Turkish Straits

During the visit of King Edward VIII.

On 24 July 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne included the Lausanne StraitsAgreement. The Lausanne Straits Agreement stated that theDardanelles should remain open to all commercial vessels: seizure offoreign military vessels was subject to certain limitations duringpeacetime, and, even as a neutral state, Turkey could not limit anymilitary passage during wartime. The Lausanne Straits Agreementstated that the waterway was to be demilitarized, and its managementleft to the Straits Commission. The demilitarized zone heavilyrestricted Turkey's domination and sovereignty over the Straits. Thedefence of Constantinople was impossible without having thesovereignty over the water that passed through it.

In March 1936, Hitler's reoccupation of the Rhineland gave Mustafa Kemal the opportunity to resume full controlover the Straits. "The situation in Europe", he declared "is highly appropriate for such a move. We shall certainlyachieve it".[125] Tevfik Rüştü Aras, who was the foreign minister, initiated a move to revise the Straits' regime. Arasclaimed that he was directed by the President, rather than his Prime Minister, Ismet Inönü. Inōnü was worried aboutharming relations with Britain, France, and Balkan neighbors over the Straits. However, the signatories agreed tojoin the conference, since unlimited military passage had become unfavourable to Turkey with the changes in worldpolitics. Mustafa Kemal demanded that the members of the Turkish Foreign Office devise a solution that wouldtransfer full control over the waterway to Turkey.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 22

On 20 July 1936, the Montreux Convention was signed, with the participation of Bulgaria, Great Britain, Australia,France, Japan, Romania, the Soviet Union, Turkey, Yugoslavia and Greece. It became the primary instrumentgoverning the passage of commercial and war vessels through the Dardanelles Strait. It was ratified by the GNAT on31 July 1936. It went into effect on 9 November 1936, and is still valid today.

Balkan Pact

During the visit of Alexander I of Yugoslavia in1931.

Until the early 1930s, Turkey followed a modern neutral foreign policywith the West by developing joint friendship and neutralityagreements. These bilateral agreements were aligned with MustafaKemal's worldview. By the end of 1925, Turkey had signed fifteenjoint agreements with Western states.In the early 1930s, changes and developments in world politicsrequired Turkey to make multilateral agreements to improve itssecurity. Mustafa Kemal strongly believed that a close cooperationbetween the Balkan states based on the principle of equality wouldhave an important effect on European politics. These states had beenruled by the Ottoman Empire for centuries, and had formed a powerfulforce. While the origins of the Balkan agreement may date back as far as 1925, the Balkan Pact came to being in themid-1930s. Several important developments in the Balkan Peninsula and in Europe helped the original idea tomaterialize, such as improvements in the Turkish-Greek alliance and the rapprochement between Bulgaria andYugoslavia.The Balkan Pact was negotiated by Mustafa Kemal with Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia. This mutual-defenceagreement intended to guarantee the signatories' territorial integrity and political independence against attack byanother Balkan state such as Bulgaria or Albania. It countered the increasingly aggressive foreign policy of fascistItaly and the effect of a potential Bulgarian alignment with Nazi Germany. He thought of the Balkan Pact as amedium of balance in the relations with the European countries.[126] Mustafa Kemal was particularly anxious toestablish a region of security and alliances in the west of Turkey and in Balkan Europe, which would extend as far asDobruja.[127]

The Balkan Pact provided for regular military and diplomatic consultations. It was regarded as a significant stepforward in consolidating the free world's position in southeast Europe, although it contained no specific militarycommitments. The importance of the agreement was best displayed in the message which Atatürk sent to the GreekPremier, Ioannis Metaxas:

“The borders of the allies in the Balkan Pact are a single border. Those who covet this border will encounter the burning beams of the sun. Irecommend avoiding this. The forces that defend our borders are a single and inseparable force.[128] ”

It was signed by GNA on 28 Feb. The Greek and Yugoslav Parliaments ratified the agreement a few days after. Theunanimously ratified Balkan pact became a reality on 18 May 1935 and lasted until 1940.The Balkan Pact turned out to be ineffective for reasons that were beyond Atatürk’s control. What he wanted toprevent with the Balkan Pact was realized by Bulgaria’s attempt to put the Dobruja issue into the agenda after aseries of international events ending with the Italian invasion of Albania on 7 April 1939. These conflicts spreadrapidly, ending with World War II. The goal of Atatürk, to protect southeast Europe, failed with the dissolution ofthe pact. The only state which arose intact after the war was Atatürk's Republic of Turkey.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 23

Issue of Hatay

Telegram sent by Atatürk after the locallegislative assembly accepted his proposal for the

Hatay State's flag.

Turkish Prime-Minister Ismet Inonu was very conscious of foreignpolicy issues. During the second half of the 1930s, Atatürk tried toform a closer relationship with Britain. The risks of this policy changeput the two men at odds. The Hatay issue and the Lyon agreementwere two important developments in foreign policy that played asignificant role in the severing of relations between Atatürk and Ismet.

In 1936, Atatürk raised the "Issue of Hatay" at the League of Nations.Hatay was based on the old administrative unit of the Ottoman Empirecalled the Sanjak of Alexandretta. On behalf of the League of Nations,the representatives of France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands,Belgium and Turkey prepared a constitution for Hatay, whichestablished it as an autonomous sanjak within Syria. Despite some inter-ethnic violence, in the midst of 1938 anelection was conducted by the local legislative assembly. The cities of Antakya (Antioch) and İskenderun(Alexandretta) joined Turkey in 1939.

Economic policiesFor conceptual analysis, see Economic reforms

Mustafa Kemal instigated economic policies to develop small and large scale businesses, but also to create socialstrata (industrial bourgeoisie along with the peasantry of Anatolia) that were virtually non-existent during theOttoman Empire. The primary problem faced by the politics of his period was the lag in the development of politicalinstitutions and social classes which would steer such social and economic changes.[129] Mustafa Kemal's visionregarding early Turkish economic policy was apparent during the İzmir Economic Congress of 1923 which wasestablished before the signing of the Lausanne Treaty. The initial choices of Mustafa Kemal's economic policiesreflected the realities of his period. After World War I, due to the lack of any real potential investors to open privatesector factories and develop industrial production, Kemal established many state-owned factories for agriculture,machinery, and textile industries.

State intervention, 1923–1929

Atatürk and Celâl Bayar visiting the Bursa plant,which was established as a part of the

cotton-related industry.

Mustafa Kemal and İsmet İnönü pursuit of state controlled economicalpolicies was guided by a national vision; they wanted to knit thecountry together, eliminate the foreign control of the economy, andimprove communications. Constantinople, a trading port withinternational foreign enterprises, was abandoned and resources werechannelled to other, less developed cities, in order to establish a morebalanced development throughout the country.[130]

For Mustafa Kemal, as for his supporters, tobacco remained wedded tohis policy in the pursuit of economic independence. Turkish tobaccowas an important industrial crop, while its cultivation and manufacturewere French monopolies under capitulations of the Ottoman Empire.The tobacco and cigarette trade was controlled by two French companies: the "Regie Compagnie interessee destabacs de l'empire Ottoman" and "Narquileh tobacco."[131] The Ottoman Empire gave the tobacco monopoly to theOttoman Bank as a limited company under the "Council of the Public Debt". Regie, as part of the Council of the

Public Debt, had control over production, storing, and distribution (including export) with an unchallenged price control. Consequently, Turkish farmers were dependent on the company for their livelihood.[132] In 1925, this

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 24

company was taken over by the state and named "Tekel". The control of tobacco was the biggest achievement of theKemalist political machinery's "nationalization" of the economy for a country that did not produce oil. Theyaccompanied this achievement with the development of the cotton industry, which peaked during the early 1930s.Cotton was the second biggest industrial crop in Turkey.In 1924, with the initiative of Mustafa Kemal, the first Turkish bank İş Bankası was established. He was the firstmember of İş Bankası. The bank's creation was a response to the growing need for a truly national establishment andthe birth of a banking system which was capable of backing up economic activities, managing funds accumulated asa result of policies providing savings incentives and, where necessary, extending resources which could triggerindustrial impetus.In 1927, Turkish State Railways was established. Because Mustafa Kemal considered the development of a nationalrail network as another important step in industrialization, it was given high priority. This institution developed anextensive railway network in a very short time. In 1927, Kemal also ordered the integration of road constructiongoals into development plans. The road network consisted of 13,885 km of ruined surface roads, 4.450 km ofstabilized roads, and 94 bridges. In 1935, a new entity was established under the government called "Sose veKopruler Reisligi" which would drive development of new roads after World War II. However, in 1937, the22,000 km of roads in Turkey augmented the railways.The national group, which had Kemal as the leader, developed many projects within the first decade of the republic.However, the Turkish economy was based on agriculture, with primitive tools and methods; roads and transportationfacilities were far from sufficient and management of the economy was inefficient. The Great Depression broughtmany changes to this picture.

Great Depression, 1929–1931

Atatürk supported large-scale governmentsubsidized industrial complexes, such asSümerbank, increasingly after the Great

Depression.

The young republic, like the rest of the world, found itself in a deepeconomic crisis during the Great Depression. Mustafa Kemal reactedto conditions of this period by moving toward integrated economicpolices, and establishing a central bank to control exchange rates.However, Turkey could not finance essential imports; its currency wasshunned and zealous revenue officials seized the meagre possessions ofpeasants who could not pay their taxes.[130]

In 1929, Mustafa Kemal signed a treaty that resulted in therestructuring of the nation's debt with the Ottoman Public DebtAdministration. He did not fault the Ottoman debt. He had to deal withthe turbulent economic issues of the Great Depression along with the payment of the high debt known as theOttoman public debt. Until the early 1930s, Turkish private business could not acquire exchange credits. It wasimpossible to integrate the Turkish economy without a solution to this problem. This increased the credibility of thenew Republic.

In 1931, Mustafa Kemal's intention to establish the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey was realized. The bank'sprimary purpose was to have control over the exchange rate, and Ottoman Bank's role during its initial years as acentral bank was phased out. Later specialized banks such as the Sümerbank (1932) and the Etibank (1935) werefounded.From the political economy perspective, Mustafa Kemal had to face the same problems which all countries faced: political upheaval. The establishment of a new party with a different economic perspective was needed; he asked Ali Fethi Okyar to fulfil. The Liberal Republican Party (August, 1930) came out with a liberal program and proposed that state monopolies should be ended, foreign capital should be attracted, and that state investment should be curtailed. Mustafa Kemal supported İnönü's point of view: "it is impossible to attract foreign capital for essential development." In 1931, he proclaimed: "In the economic area ...the programme of the party is statism."[133]

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 25

However, the effect of free republicans was felt strongly and state intervention became more moderate, more akin toa form of state capitalism. One of his radical left-wing supporters, Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu from the Kadro (TheCadre) movement, claimed that Mustafa Kemal found a third way between capitalism and socialism.[134]

Liberalization and planned growth, 1931–1939

Atatürk at the Etimesgut Airport in Ankara, builtby the Turkish Aircraft Association. His famousquote, "the future is in the skies", is embossed

today on the airport's façade.

The first (1929–1933) and second five year economic plans wereperformed under the supervision of Mustafa Kemal. The first five yeareconomic plan promoted consumer substitution industries. However,these economic plans changed drastically with the death of Kemal andthe rise of World War II. Subsequent governments took measures thatharmed the economic productivity of Turkey in various ways.[135] Theachievements of the 1930s were credited to early (1920s)implementation of the economic system based on the national policiesof Mustafa Kemal and his team.[136]

In 1931, Mustafa Kemal watched the first national aircraft, MMV-1,develop. He realized the important role of aviation. In his words, "thefuture lies in the skies".[137] Turkish Aeronautical Association wasfounded in 16 February 1925 by his directive.[138] He ordered theestablishment of the Turkish Aircraft Association Lottery. Instead ofthe traditional raffle prizes, this new lottery paid money prizes. Themajor part of its income was used to establish a new factory fund aviation projects. Mustafa Kemal did not see theflight of the first Turkish military aircraft built at the factory. Operational American Curtiss Hawk fighters werebeing produced soon after his death and before the onset of World War II.

In 1932, liberal economist Celal Bayar became the Minister of Economy at Mustafa Kemal's request and served until1937.[139] During this period, the country moved toward a mixed economy with its first private initiatives. Textile,sugar, paper and steel factories (financed by a loan from Britain) were the private sectors of the period. Besides thesegovernment owned power plants, banks, and insurance companies were established.In 1935, the first Turkish cotton print factory "Nazilli Calico print factory" opened. Cotton planting was promoted tofurnish raw material for future factory settlements, part of the industrialization process.[140] Nazilli became a majorcenter beginning with the establishment of cotton mills and was followed by a calico print factory by 1935.[141] [142]

In 1936 Nuri Demirağ established the first Turkish aircraft factory in the Beşiktaş district of Istanbul.[143] The firstTurkish airplanes, Nu D.36 and Nu D.38, were produced in this factory.[143]

On 25 October 1937, Mustafa Kemal appointed Celal Bayar as the prime minister of the 9th government. Integratedeconomic policies reached their peak with the signing of the 1939 Treaty with Britain and France.[135] This signaleda turning point in Turkish history.[135] It was the first step towards an alliance with the "West".[135] Celal Bayarserved as prime minister until Mustafa Kemal's death. The differences of opinion between Inönü (state control) andCelal Bayar (liberal) came to the forefront after İnönü became president in 1938. On 25 January 1939, PrimeMinister Bayar resigned.Mustafa Kemal supported the establishment of the automobile industry. He wanted it to become a center in theregion. The motto of the Turkish automobile association was: "The Turkish driver is a man of the most exquisitesensitivities."[144]

During 1935, Turkey was becoming an industrial society on the Western European model set out by Atatürk.[145] At the time of his death, most regions of Turkey had viable micro-economic stability and some macro economic stability. These signs of sound economic policies were marked by the first-ever emergence of local banks. However, the gap between Mustafa Kemal’s goals and the achievements of the socio-political structure of the country was not

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 26

closed.[145]

Personal life

Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) and his wife Lâtife Uşaklıgil(Uşşaki) in Afyonkarahisar, 23 March 1923.

On 29 January 1923, Mustafa Kemal married Latife Uşaklıgil;they were divorced on 5 August 1925.[146] He never remarried.During his lifetime, Atatürk adopted twelve daughters and a son.In his leisure time, he enjoyed reading and writing (books and apersonal journal), horseback riding, chess, and swimming. He wasalso an avid dancer and enjoyed both the waltz and traditionalZeybek folk dances.

During 1937, indications that Atatürk's health was worseningstarted to appear. In early 1938, while he was on a trip to Yalova,he suffered from a serious illness. He went to İstanbul fortreatment, where he was diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver dueto heavy alcohol consumption.[147] [148] During his stay in İstanbul, he made an effort to keep up with his regularlifestyle for a while. He died on 10 November 1938, at the age of 57, in the Dolmabahçe Palace, where he spent hislast days.[149] The clock in the bedroom where he died is still set to the time of his death, 9:05 in the morning.Atatürk's funeral called forth both sorrow and pride in Turkey, and seventeen countries sent special representatives,while nine contributed armed detachments to the cortège.[95] Mustafa Kemal's remains were originally laid to rest inthe Ethnography Museum of Ankara, and transferred on 10 November 1953, 15 years after his death in a 42-tonsarcophagus, to a mausoleum that overlooks Ankara,[150] Anıtkabir. In his will, he donated all of his possessions tothe Republican People's Party, providing that the yearly interest of his funds would be used to look after his sisterMakbule and his adopted children, and fund the higher education of the children of İsmet İnönü. The remainder ofthis yearly interest was willed to the Turkish Language Association and the Turkish Historical Society.

Legacy

Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Kemal Atatürk, inAnkara, Turkey.

Turkey

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is commemorated by many memorialsthroughout Turkey, such as the Atatürk International Airport inIstanbul, the Atatürk Bridge over the Golden Horn (Haliç), the AtatürkDam, and Atatürk Stadium. Atatürk statues have been erected in allTurkish cities by Turkish Government, and most towns have their ownmemorial to him. His face and name are seen and heard everywhere inTurkey; his portrait can be seen in all public buildings, in all schoolsand classrooms, on all school books, on all Turkish lira banknotes, andin the homes of many Turkish families.[151] At the exact time of hisdeath, on every 10 November, at 09:05 am, most vehicles and peoplein the country's streets pause for one minute in remembrance.[152]

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 27

Atatürk's statues are erected in every town ofTurkey. The Monument of the Republic, crafted

by the famous Italian sculptor Pietro Canonica, islocated at the Taksim Square in Istanbul.

Outlawing insults to his reminiscence

In 1951, the Turkish Parliament issued a law (5816) outlawing insultsto his reminiscence (Turkish: Hatırası) or destruction of objectsrepresenting him.[153] The demarcation between a criticism and aninsult was defined as a political argument and the minister of Justice (apolitical position) was assigned in Article 5 to execute the law ratherthan the public prosecutor. A government website [154] was created todenounce the websites that violate this law.

In 2007 YouTube, Geocities, and several blogger webpages wereblocked by a Turkish court due to the violation of this law. TheYouTube ban in the country lasted for 30 months, in retaliation for fourvideos on Atatürk. In the last week of October 2010, a Germancompany, following a request from the Turkish Internet Board,exploited YouTube automatic copyright-enforcement mechanism totake down the videos. On 30 October, shortly after the removal, a courtlifted the ban. But a few days later, Google concluded that the videosdid not infringe copyright and restored them on YouTube.[155]

In 2010 the French-based NGO Reporters Without Borders declaredthat the Turkish laws to protect the memory of Kemal Ataturk are in contradiction with the current European Unionstandards of freedom of speech in news media.[156]

Worldwide

In 1981, the centennial of Atatürk's birth, his memory was honoured by the UN and UNESCO, which declared it TheAtatürk Year in the World and adopted the Resolution on the Atatürk Centennial. The Atatürk Memorial inWellington, New Zealand (which also serves as a memorial to the ANZAC troops who died at Gallipoli); the AtatürkMemorial in the place of honour on ANZAC Parade in Canberra, Australia; the Atatürk Forest in Israel; and theAtatürk Square in Rome, Italy, are only a few examples. He has roads named after him in several countries, like theKemal Atatürk Marg in New Delhi, India, Kemal Atatürk Avenue in Dhaka, Bangladesh, the Atatürk Avenue in theheart of Islamabad in Pakistan, the Atatürk Road in the southern city of province of Sindh of Pakistan called Larkanawhere Atatürk visited back in 1923, Mustafá Kemal Atatürk street in the Naco district of Santo Domingo, DominicanRepublic, and the street and memorial Atatürk in the Amsterdam-Noord borough of Amsterdam, Netherlands. Theentrance to Princess Royal Harbour in Albany, Western Australia is named Atatürk Channel. Barack Obama, the44th President of the United States, who visited his tomb and praised him, also expressed his view regardingAtatürk's legacy at his speech towards "the Muslim world" by stating Atatürk's "greatest legacy is Turkey's strongand secular democracy, and that is the work that this assembly carries on today."[157] [158]

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 28

Notes[1] A. Afetinan, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti ve Türk Devrimi, Başbakanlık Basımevi, 1973, p. 27. (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=C0UBAAAAMAAJ& q="üzerine+ verilen+ cevap+ Å�udur:+ 12/ XI/ 1936+ tarihli+ yazıda,"& dq="üzerine+ verilen+cevap+ Å�udur:+ 12/ XI/ 1936+ tarihli+ yazıda,"& hl=en& ei=UHoYTqzEEPGNmQWc8MUM& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&resnum=1& ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA), M. Kemal'in doğum günü için Cumhurbaşkanlığı Genel Sekreterliğinden bir soru üzerine verilen cevapşudur: 12/XI/1936 tarihli yazıda, "Atatürk'ün doğum günü 19 Mayıs 1881 olduğu" kaydedilmiştir. (Turkish)

[2] Zürcher, Turkey : a modern history, 142[3] Mango, ibid, p. 29, about neighbourhoods of Salonica, cf. Meropi Anastassiadou, Salonique, 1830–1912: une ville ottomane à l'âge des

Réformes, Brill, 1997, ISBN 90-04-10798-3, p. 71. (http:/ / books. google. com. tr/ books?id=qSjAqaQTI7EC& pg=PA71& dq=Ahmed+SubaÅ�ı& hl=tr& ei=HvTGTLD8CI_GvQP8zOnMDw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q& f=false) (French)

[4] Cemal Çelebi Granda, Cemal Granda anlatıyor, Pal Medya ve Organizasyon, 2007, ISBN 9789944203012, p. (http:/ / books. google. com. tr/books?id=hFcwAQAAIAAJ& q=1956+ yılında+ kanser+ hastalıÄ�ına+ tutularak+ Ankara+ Gülhane+ Hastanesi'nde+ölmüÅ�tür. & dq=1956+ yılında+ kanser+ hastalıÄ�ına+ tutularak+ Ankara+ Gülhane+ Hastanesi'nde+ ölmüÅ�tür.& hl=tr& ei=NCfATOH_H8PQcYWUiY0M& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA)

[5] Andrew Mango Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey, Overlook Press, 2002, ISBN 9781585673346, p. 25 (http:/ /books. google. com. tr/ books?ei=ZhvATKOVHcelcN3GoPkL& ct=result& id=nu68vd_AmuYC& dq=Andrew+ Mango& q=Turkish+speaking+ family+ #search_anchor), p.27ff. – Feyzullah's family is said to have come from the country near Vodina (now Edhessa in westernGreek Macedonia). The surname Sofuzade, meaning son of a pious man, suggests that the ancestors of Zübeyde and Ali Rıza had a similarbackground. Cemil Bozok, son of Salih Bozok, who was a distant cousin of Atatürk and, later, his ADC, claims to have been related to both AliRıza's and Zübeyde's families. This would mean that the families of Atatürk's parents were interrelated. Cemil Bozok also notes that hispaternal grandfather, Safer Efendi, was of Albanian origin. This may have a bearing on the vexed question of Atatürk's ethnic origin. Atatürk'sparents and relatives all used Turkish as their mother tongue. This suggests that some at least of their ancestors had originally come fromTurkey, since local Muslims of Albanian and Slav origin who had no ethnic connection with Turkey spoke Albanian, Serbo-Croat orBulgarian, at least so long as they remained in their native land., But in looks Ataturk resembled local Albanians and Slavs.[...] But there isno evidence that either Ali Riza or Zübeyde was descended from such Turkish nomads. page 28; It is much more likely that Atatürk inheritedhis looks from his Balkan ancestors.[...] But Albanians and Slavs are likely to have figured among his ancestors.

[6] "Turkey: The land a dictator turned into a democracy" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,860057-2,00. html). Time. 12October 1953. . Retrieved 19 May 2010.

[7] Patrick Kinross: Ataturk: the Rebirth of a Nation. London: Phoenix, 2001, p. 3.[8] Gershom Scholem, "Doenmeh", Encyclopaedia Judaica, 2nd ed.; Volume 5: Coh-Doz, Macmillan Reference USA, Thomson Gale, 2007,

ISBN 0-02-865933-3, p. 732.[9] Mango, Andrew, Ataturk: the biography of the founder of modern Turkey, (Overlook TP, 2002), p. 27.[10] Lou Giaffo: Albania: eye of the Balkan vortex[11] Jackh, Ernest, The Rising Crescent, (Goemaere Press, 2007), p. 31, Turkish mother and Albanian father (http:/ / books. google. com. tr/

books?id=Pxs-DAIVxqYC& printsec=frontcover& dq=The+ Rising+ Crescent& hl=tr& ei=bI7GTNu-J4i8vgPS0dzQDw& sa=X&oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Turkish mother& f=false)

[12] Isaac Frederick Marcosson, Turbulent Years, Ayer Publishing, 1969, p. 144. (http:/ / books. google. com. tr/ books?id=399LkTqBLdAC&printsec=frontcover& dq=inauthor:"Isaac+ Frederick+ Marcosson"& hl=tr& ei=inXGTMnzJYSuvgPPvLTZDw& sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Ali Riza& f=false)

[13] Richmond, Yale, From Da to Yes: understanding the East Europeans, (Intercultural Press Inc., 1995), p. 212.[14] Falih Fırkı Atay, Çankaya: Atatürk'ün doğumundan ölümüne kadar, İstanbul: Betaş, 1984, p. 17. (Turkish)[15] Vamik D. Volkan & Norman Itzkowitz, Ölümsüz Atatürk (Immortal Ataturk), Bağlam Yayınları, 1998, ISBN 975-7696-97-8, p. 37, dipnote

no. 6 (Atay, 1980, s. 17)[16] Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, Tek Adam: Mustafa Kemal, Birinci Cilt (1st vol.): 1881–1919, 14th ed., Remzi Kitabevi, 1997, ISBN

975-14-0212-3, p. 31. (Turkish)[17] Afet Inan, Atatürk hakkında hâtıralar ve belgeler, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1959, p. 8. (http:/ / books. google. com. tr/

books?id=EWwaAAAAIAAJ& q="Matematik+ ö�retmeni+ Mustafa+ Efendi"& dq="Matematik+ ö�retmeni+ Mustafa+ Efendi"&hl=tr& ei=LC3ATIvwB4a8cM6EnewL& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CDsQ6AEwAw)

[18] "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070927211519/ http:/ / www. turkishembassy. org/ index.php?option=com_content& task=view& id=300& Itemid=317). Turkish Embassy website. Archived from the original (http:/ / www.turkishembassy. org/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=300& Itemid=317) on 27 September 2007. . Retrieved 7 August 2007.

[19] Ali Fuat Cebesoy, Sınıf arkadaşım Atatürk: okul ve genç subaylık hâtıraları, İnkılâp ve Aka Kitabevleri, 1967, p. 6. (http:/ / books. google.com. tr/ books?id=-D4NAQAAIAAJ& q="Kemal+ koyalım"& dq="Kemal+ koyalım"& hl=tr& ei=kzHATNPbAYaHcdXrkJMM&sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA) Benim adım Mustafa. Senin adın da Musfata. Arada bir fark olmalı,ne dersin, senin adının sonuna bir de Kemal koyalım.

[20] Mango, Atatürk, p. 37.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 29

[21] T. C. Genelkurmay Harp Tarihi Başkanlığı Yayınları, Türk İstiklâl Harbine Katılan Tümen ve Daha Üst Kademlerdeki KomutanlarınBiyografileri, Ankara: Genkurmay Başkanlığı Basımevi, 1972, p. 1. (Turkish)

[22] Falih Fırkı Atay, Çankaya: Atatürk'ün doğumundan ölümüne kadar, İstanbul: Betaş, 1984, p. 29. (Turkish)[23] The Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. 7, edited by Hugh Chisholm, (1911), 3; "Constantinople, the capital of the Turkish Empire...".[24] Mango, ibid, p. 37.[25] T.C. Genelkurmay Başkanlığı Yayınları, ibid, p. 2.[26] http:/ / albania. dyndns. org/ Presse/ 2004/ 01102004. htm "1910, Albania broke a major uprising. Minister of War, Shefqet Mahmut Pasha,

was personally involved in its printing. For this purpose decided to call his war headquarters Qemali Mustafa who was known as one of thegenerals prepared and laid him drafting the plan of operations. Mustafa at this time was in the Fifth Army Headquarters in Thessaloniki."

[27] http:/ / www. zeriyt. com/ mustafa-ataturku-krijuesi-i-turqise-moderne-t37510. 0. html M. Kamal had assisted in the military operation inAlbania in 1910.

[28] http:/ / www. albanianhistory. net/ texts20_1/ AH1912_3. html[29] Enstehung und Ausbau der Königsdiktatur in Albanien, 1912–1939 Von Michael Schmidt-Neke[30] http:/ / www. albislam. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=1137:prezantim-per-librin-kujtime-& catid=580:libri&

Itemid=774 "I remember well the meeting very interesting, I had casually with Mustafa Qemali in 1910, at the time, still a mere lieutenant.[31] KUJTIME nga: Eqrem Bej Vlora. Ekrem Bey Vlora, Lebenserinnerungen – Teilband II: 1912–1925[32] Ana Britannica (1987) Vol. 2 (Ami – Avr): Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal. Page: 490.[33] The History of the Italian-Turkish War, William Henry Beehler, page 96[34] The History of the Italian-Turkish War, William Henry Beehler, page 14[35] Richard C. Hall, The Balkan Wars 1912–1913: Prelude to the First World War, Routledge, 2002, p. 81. (http:/ / books. google. com. tr/

books?id=2-zAeObDX_gC& pg=PA81& dq=Georgi+ Todorov+ Bulair& hl=tr& ei=JZvHTJ6-HJTovQPGsYjVDw& sa=X&oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Georgi Todorov Bulair& f=false)

[36] Edward J. Erickson, Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913, Praeger, 2003, ISBN 0-275-97888-5, p. 255.[37] Lengyel, They called him Atatürk, 68[38] Kinross, Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation, 100[39] Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Ankara in November 1919[40] Andrew Mango, Atatürk, John Murray, 1999, ISBN 978-0-7195-6592-2, p. 214.[41] Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey, 50[42] В. Шеремет. Босфор. Moscow, 1995, p. 241.[43] editorial staff. "A short history of AA" (http:/ / www. aa. com. tr/ tarihce_en/ ). Anadolu Ajansı Genel Müdürlüğü. . Retrieved 1 January

2008. "Ikdam newspaper dated 9 August 1921, reproducing the dispatches of AA dated 5 August and 6th, 1921, announced that MustafaKemal Pasha was promoted to Chief Commander"

[44] Greco-Turkish wars, Britannica CD 99[45] James, Edwin L. " Kemal Won't Insure Against Massacres (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract.

html?res=980DEED81039EF3ABC4952DFBF668389639EDE)," New York Times, September 11, 1922.[46] Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, 365[47] Mango, Atatürk, 394[48] Mango, Atatürk, 367[49] Gerd Nonneman, Analyzing Middle East foreign policies and the relationship with Europe, Published 2005 Routledge, p. 204 ISBN

0714684279[50] Webster, The Turkey of Atatürk: social process in the Turkish reformation, 245[51] Mango, Atatürk, 391–392[52] Mango, Atatürk, 362[53] Landau, Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey, 252[54] Mango, Atatürk, 501[55] Koçak, Cemil (2005) "Parliament Membership during the Single-Party System in Turkey (1925–1945)", European Journal of Turkish

Studies[56] John O. Voll: Professor of Islamic history at Georgetown University http:/ / www. nationalinterest. org/ Article. aspx?id=13296[57] Mango, Atatürk, 403[58] Mango, Atatürk, 401[59] Majid Khadduri (2006) War and peace in the law of Islam, The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., ISBN 1584776951 page 290-291[60] Mango, Atatürk, 404[61] Eksi, Oktay (16 April 2008). "Paralardaki resimler" (http:/ / hurarsiv. hurriyet. com. tr/ goster/ haber. aspx?id=8711441& yazarid=1).

Hurriyet. . Retrieved 24 April 2008. "İsmet Paşa "kurumlaşma" ile neyi kastettiğini de şöyle anlattı:Biz Cumhuriyeti kurduğumuz zaman onu yaşatıp yaşatamayacağımız en büyük sorun idi. Çünkü Saltanatın ve Hilafetin lağvına karşı olanlarınsayısı çoktu ve hedefleri de Cumhuriyetti. Cumhuriyetin 10 yaşına bastığını görmek o yüzden önemliydi. Nitekim büyük Atatürk'ün emriyle10'uncu yıl kutlamaları çok büyük bir bayram oldu. Biz de Cumhuriyetin ve devletin kurumlaştığını göstermeye bundan sonra hep itinaettik..."

[62] Wolf-Gazo, John Dewey in Turkey: An Educational Mission, 15–42.

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[63] Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National Education. "Atatürk’s views on education" (http:/ / www. meb. gov. tr/ Stats/ apk2001ing/Section_0/ AtaturksViewon. htm). T.C. Government. . Retrieved 20 November 2007.

[64] İğdemir, Atatürk, 165–170[65] Quoted in Atatürkism, Volume 1 (Istanbul: Office of the Chief of General Staff, 1982), 126.[66] Patrick Kinross, Atatürk, The Rebirth of a Nation, 397[67] Mango, Ataturk, 418[68] Weiker, Book Review of Zürcher's "Political Opposition in the Early Turkish Republic: The Progressive Republican Party, 1924–1925",

297–298[69] Touraj Atabaki, Erik Jan Zürcher, 2004, Men of Order: authoritarian modernization under Atatürk and Reza Shah, I.B.Tauris, ISBN

1860644260, page 207[70] http:/ / www. tsk. mil. tr/ eng/ Anitkabir/ p24. html TSK Anitkabir sayfa 24[71] Daisy Hilse Dwyer, (1990), "Law and Islam in the Middle East", page 77, ISBN 9780897891516[72] Atillasoy, Atatürk : The First President and Founder of the Turkish Republic, 13.[73] Mango, Atatürk, 164[74] Tüfekçi, Universality of Atatürk's philosophy[75] Kinross, Ataturk, The Rebirth of a Nation, p. 343[76] Atillasoy, Atatürk : first president and founder of the Turkish Republic, 15[77] Dundar, Can (25 April 2005). "Türkeş, Atatürk'ün imzasını hatırlattı" (http:/ / www. milliyet. com. tr/ 2005/ 04/ 25/ yazar/ dundar. html) (in

Turkish). Milliyet. . "Atatürk'ün imzasını bir Ermeni güzel yazı hocasının çizdiğini duymuş muydun?"[78] Özelli, The Evolution of the Formal Educational System and Its Relation to Economic Growth Policies in the First Turkish Republic, 77–92[79] Mango, Atatürk, 536[80] İnan, Atatürk Hakkında Hatıralar ve Belgeler, 260[81] "About Us" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071117232115/ http:/ / www. ted. org. tr/ EN/ BelgeGoster.

aspx?17A16AE30572D313AAF6AA849816B2EF01E9BE68C047FEF5). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ted. org. tr/ EN/BelgeGoster. aspx?17A16AE30572D313AAF6AA849816B2EF01E9BE68C047FEF5) on 17 November 2007. . Retrieved 1 February 2008.

[82] Saikal, Democratization in the Middle East: Experiences, Struggles, Challenges (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qFhU3kWXLvEC&printsec=frontcover& dq=ataturk+ and+ islam& as_brr=1), 95

[83] Geoffrey L. Lewis (1999), The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success, Oxford University Press ISBN 0198238568 page 66[84] "Turks Teach New Theories". The New York Times (Istanbul). 9 February 1936.[85] Laut (2002)[86] Cleveland, A History of the Modern Middle East, 181[87] Michael Radu, (2003), "Dangerous Neighborhood: Contemporary Issues in Turkey's Foreign Relations", page 125, ISBN 9780765801661[88] S. M. Zwemer: Translations of the Koran (http:/ / www. muhammadanism. org/ Quran/ translations_koran. pdf), The Moslem World, 1915[89] Wilson M. Brett. "The First Translations of the Qur'an in Modern Turkey (1924–1938)". International Journal of Middle East Studies 41

(03): 419–435.[90] Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır, (1935), "Hak dini Kur'an dili: Yeni mealli Turkce tefsir" 9 volumes, printed in Istanbul[91] Paydak, Selda (January 2000). "Interview with Semiha Berksoy" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20030418082022/ http:/ / www. deltur.

cec. eu. int/ english/ guncel/ ghaber-jan00_18. html). Representation of the European Commission to Turkey. Archived from the original(http:/ / www. deltur. cec. eu. int/ english/ guncel/ ghaber-jan00_18. html) on 18 April 2003. . Retrieved 11 February 2007.

[92] Omur, Modernity and Islam: Experiences of Turkish Women (http:/ / www. theturkishtimes. com/ archive/ 02/ 12_01/ c_women. html)[93] Atatürk, Vatandaş İçin Medeni Bilgiler[94] İnan, Medeni bilgiler ve M. Kemal Atatürk'ün el yazıları[95] Mango, Atatürk 526[96] Prof. Dr. Hamza Eroğlu. "Peace at home and peace in the world" (http:/ / www. atam. gov. tr/ index. php?Page=DergiIcerik& IcerikNo=72)

(in Turkish). . Retrieved 1 January 2008. "“Yurtta Sulh” herşeyden önce ülkede, o insanın, insanca yaşamasını, insanlık tıynetinin gereğinintanınmasını ifade eder"."

[97] Enver Ziya Karal (in Turkish). Atatürk’ten Düşünceler. p. 123. "“Haricî siyaset bir heyet-i içtimaiyenin teşekkülü dahilisi ile sıkı surettealâkadardır. Çünkü teşekkül-ü dahiliyeye istinat etmeyen haricî siyasetler daima mahkûm kalırlar. Bir heyet-i içtimaiyenin teşekkül-ü dahilisine kadar kuvvetli olursa, siyaset-i hariciyesi de o nisbette kavi ve rasin olur.”"

[98] Peter Sluglett, "The Primacy of Oil in Britain’s Iraq Policy", in the book "Britain in Iraq: 1914–1932" London: Ithaca Press, 1976, pp.103–116

[99] Can Dundar. "Atatürk yaşasaydı" (http:/ / www. candundar. com. tr/ index. php?Did=766) (in Turkish). . Retrieved 1 January 2008. "...Ata'nın öncelikli dış politika sorununun Musul olduğunu söylüyor. Musul'u bırakmama konusunda aktif bir politika izlenmesinden yanaolduğunu belirtiyor..."

[100] Harold Courtenay Armstrong Gray Wolf, Mustafa Kemal: An Intimate Study of a Dictator. page 225[101] Olson, Robert W. (1989) The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism and the Sheikh Said Rebellion, 1880–1925, p.45[102] Kinross, 401[103] ASD: Speeches and statements by Ataturk, volume I pages 361–363 published by Ataturk Culture, language and history Higher Institute,

Ankara 1989

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[104] Andrew Mango, Atatürk and the Kurds, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.35, No.4, 1999, 20[105] Международная жизнь (the Soviet Foreign Minisrty's magazine). Moscow, 1963, № 11, pp. 147–148. The first publication of Kemal's

letter to Lenin in excerpts, in Russian.[106] Международная жизнь. Moscow, 1963, № 11, p. 148.[107] Yılmaz Altuğ, Foreign Policy Of Atatürk, Ataturk arastirma merkezi dergisi, Vol VI, No 16, November 1989[108] В. Шеремет. Босфор. Moscow, 1995, p. 227-228.[109] В. Шеремет. Босфор. Moscow, 1995, p. 228.[110] Yılmaz Altuğ, Türk Devrim Tarihi Dersim, 1919–1938, 1980 s. p. 136.[111] John P. Kinross. Atatürk: a biography of Mustafa Kemal, father of modern Turkey. New York, 1965, p. 464.[112] БСЭ, 1-st edition, Moscow, Vol. 55, 1947, column 374.[113] БСЭ, 1-st edition, Moscow, Vol. 55, 1947, column 377.[114] "Oh, What Happiness!" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,746241-1,00. html). Time Magazine: pp. 37–39. 6

November 1933. . Retrieved 7 August 2007.[115] БСЭ, 2-st edition, Moscow, Vol. 20, 1953, p. 504.[116] Karamanlis, 1995, p. 95-97[117] Sosyal, Ismail, 1983, "Turkey's Diplomatic treaties", TTK, Ankara page 29[118] Clogg, Richard (2002). A Concise History of Greece. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521004799. p. 107[119] Nobel Foundation. The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Peace, 1901–1955. (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nomination/ peace/

nomination. php?action=show& showid=2046)[120] Jentleson, Bruce W.; Paterson, Thomas G. (1997). The American Journal of International Law. Oxford University Press. p. 24.

ISBN 0195110552.[121] Narli, Nilüfer (1993): "Turco-Iranian Relations from the Islamic Revolution to Gulf War and Beyond: Co-operation or Competition in the

Muslim World". CEMOTI. (15): 265–295[122] Gokhan Cetinsaya "Essential friends and natural enemies: the historical roots of Turkish-Iranian relations." Middle East Review of

International Affairs Volume 7, No. 3 – September 2003[123] Rajaee, Farhang, Islamic Values and World View: Farhang Khomeyni on Man, the State and International Politics, Volume XIII (http:/ /

webstorage1. mcpa. virginia. edu/ library/ mc/ forums/ published/ americanvalues13. pdf) (PDF), University Press of America. ISBN0-8191-3578-X

[124] Mango, Ataturk, page 510[125] Sosyal, Ismail, 1983, "Turkey's Diplomatic treaties", TTK, Ankara page 493[126] Yilmaz Altuð, "Atatürk'ün Dis Politikasý," B.Ü. Uluslararasi Atatürk Konferansý Tebligleri, 10–11 November 1980, Vol. II, Istanbul 1981,

p. 486.[127] Þevket Süreyya Aydemir, Tek Adam, Vol. 3, Ýstanbul 1988, p. 331.[128] Atatürk'ün Milli Dýþ Politikasý, Vol. 2, p. 355[129] Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, 347–357[130] Mango, Atatürk, 470[131] Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, 232–233.[132] Aysu, Abdullah (29 January 2003). "Tütün, İçki ve Tekel" (http:/ / www. bianet. org/ 2003/ 01/ 30/ 16340. htm) (in Turkish). BİA Haber

Merkezi. . Retrieved 10 October 2007.[133] Ibrahim Kaya, Social Theory and Later Modernities, page 90[134] Mango, Atatürk, 478[135] Barlas, Etatism and Diplomacy in Turkey: Economic and Foreign Policy Strategies in an Uncertain World, 1929–1939[136] Emrence, Turkey in economic crisis (1927–1930): a panoramic vision. Journal Middle Eastern Studies[137] "Skylife" (http:/ / www. thy. com/ en-INT/ skylife/ archive/ en/ 2000_1/ konu10. htm#1). . Retrieved 26 November 2007.[138] "History of Turkish Aeronautical Association" (http:/ / www. thk. org. tr/ yeni/ tarihce/ tarihceeng. htm). . Retrieved 26 November 2007.[139] Dilek Barlas, Etatism and Diplomacy in Turkey: Economic and Foreign Policy Strategies p. 61[140] Webster, The Turkey of Atatürk: Social Process in the Turkish Reformation, 260[141] Doğan, Formation of factory settlements within Turkish industrialization and modernization in 1930s: Nazilli printing factory[142] Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism. "Aydın – Historical Ruins" (http:/ / www. kultur. gov. tr/ EN/ BelgeGoster.

aspx?17A16AE30572D313679A66406202CCB09837F9A3538A2623). T.C. Government. . Retrieved 2007. "Nazilli cotton print factory wasestablished over an area of 65.000 m2 on the Nazilli Bozdoğan highway. It is the "first Turkish cotton print factory" the foundation of whichwas laid on 25 August 1935 and which was opened by Atatürk with great ceremony."

[143] Nuri Demirağ Aircraft Factory (http:/ / www. nuridemirag. com/ fotograf. asp)[144] Stone, Norman "Talking Turkey". National Interest, Fall2000, Issue 61.[145] Eastham, The Turkish Development Plan: The First Five Years, 132–136[146] Akhtar, Salman (2008). The Crescent and the Couch: Cross-Currents Between Islam and Psychoanalysis. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 68.

ISBN 0765705745.[147] Volkan, Vamik D. (1981). "'Immortal' Atatürk—Narcissism and Creativity in a Revolutionary Leader". The Psychoanalytic Study of

Society 9: 221–255.

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[148] Post, Jerrold M.; Robert S. Robins (1995). When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=SvU-aEsPWdoC& pg=PA84#v=onepage& q=). Yale UP. p. 84. ISBN 9780300063141. .

[149] Atatürk'ün Hayatı (http:/ / www. turizm. gov. tr/ TR/ Genel/ BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF62979E318A6960C3) (Atatürk's Life). Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Turkey)(Turkish).

[150] "The Burial of Atatürk" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,860125,00. html). Time Magazine: pp. 37–39. 23November 1953. . Retrieved 7 August 2007.

[151] Navaro-Yashin, Yael (2002). Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey. Princeton University Press. pp. 196–99.ISBN 0691088454.

[152] Morrison, Terry; Conaway, Wayne A. (1994). Kiss, Bow, Or Shake Hands: How to Do Business in Sixty Countries. Adams Media. p. 392.ISBN 1558504443.

[153] Yonah, Alexander (2007). Turkey: Terrorism, Civil Rights, and the European Union. Routledge. p. 137. ISBN 0415441633.[154] http:/ / www. ihbarweb. org. tr/ eng/ ihbar_en. php?subject=8[155] Cade Metz Google defies Turkey, reinstates Atatürk insult videos (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2010/ 11/ 02/

google_reposts_ataturk_insulting_youtube_videos/ ) in theregister.co.uk, 2 November 2010[156] Time to break out of legislative straitjacket that is stifling media freedom (http:/ / en. rsf. org/

turkey-time-to-break-out-of-legislative-01-12-2010,38933. html), Reporters Sans Frontières, 1 December 2010[157] Chen, Edwin (7 April 2009). "Obama Praises Modern Turkey’s Founder Ataturk" (http:/ / www. bloomberg. com/ apps/

news?pid=20601087& sid=aau7JxTiWhW8& refer=home). . Retrieved 8 April 2009.[158] RAUM, TOM (6 April 2009). "Obama to Muslim world: No US war with Islam" (http:/ / news. yahoo. com/ s/ ap/ 20090406/

ap_on_go_pr_wh/ eu_obama). . Retrieved 8 April 2009.

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• Wolf-Gazo, Ernest (1996). "John Dewey in Turkey: An Educational Mission" (http:/ / www. bilkent. edu. tr/~jast/ Number3/ Gazo. html). Journal of American Studies of Turkey (Ankara, Turkey: American StudiesAssociation of Turkey) 3: 15–42. ISSN 1300-6606.

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Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 34

External links• Memorial room in Bitola (Monastir) (http:/ / bitolatourist. info/ things/ museum/ ataturk. html)kbd:Мустафа Кемал Ататюрк

Article Sources and Contributors 35

Article Sources and ContributorsMustafa Kemal Atatürk  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=444190057  Contributors: (:Julien:), (jarbarf), 06singhk, 172GAL, 19cody70, 1j1z2, 2p0rk, 3210, 5 albert square, 52Pickup, 7, A.Garnet, A8UDI, ABCD, AC1, AK Auto, AR, ARAGONESE35, AUG, Aaron Schulz, Aaronjsussman, Abrech, Academic Challenger, Acidparty, Adam Carr, Adam Keller,Addshore, Adeneus, Adoniscik, Adrian.benko, Afghana, Afiler, Agatha doppelganger, Agha Nader, Ahmet1992, Ahmet9596, Ahoerstemeier, Aiman abmajid, Aitias, Aivazovsky, Ajcfreak,Alansohn, Aldux, AlefZet, AlexR, Alexander Domanda, Alexander323, Alexandros, AlexiusHoratius, Algebra, Alhutch, All Hallow's Wraith, Alphachimp, AltayAtli, Altenmann, Amalthea,Amenotep, Amillar, Amir.Hossein.7055, Amuhy001, AnarchyRowe, Anarkisto, Andersmodin, Andonic, Andy Marchbanks, Andyjsmith, Andykram, Anetode, Anglepush, Anglius, Angr,Anjadrame, Ankara kolejli, Anonymous editor, AnotherSolipsist, Antandrus, AntonioMartin, AnıL97, Apocolocynthosis, AppleJuggler, Aragorn2, Aramgar, Arczi, Ardatancan, ArielGold,Armanalp, Armbrust, Arnold Reisman, Arsenic99, Artaxiad, Atheism101, Athenean, Atif.t2, AtilimGunesBaydin, Ato, Auntof6, Avenged Eightfold, AvicAWB, Awiseman, Axxxion, Ayannako,Ayasi, Aykutmen, BD2412, Bachrach44, Badseed, BalancingAct, Barcod, Barfly, Baristarim, Barras, BarrettBrown, Basawala, Batmanand, Batsnumbereleven, Bb2dorion, Bcinar, Beamathan,Begoon, Belegur, Ben Ben, Ben10withapen, Bendel boy, Bender235, Benne, Bento00, BeratHuseyin, Bertilvidet, Bettymnz4, Beyond My Ken, Bfinn, Bhadani, BigHaz, Bigjimr, Bigtimepeace,Bilgehantok, Biosketch, Biruitorul, Bishonen, Bissinger, Blackbeltsockpuppet, BlarghHgralb, Blobglob, Blood sliver, Bloodofox, Bluerasberry, Bluezy, Bobblewik, Bobcats 23, Bobianite,Bobo192, Bogdangiusca, Bombasa, Bonhumm, Bookandcoffee, Boris Barowski, Brendanconway, Brettirmo, Brheed Zonabp84, Brian0918, BrianKnez, BrianZ, Brianga, Brighton12, Brutannica,Bubblebuster, Bugbug150, 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Signature of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Signature_of_Mustafa_Kemal_Atatürk.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Mustafa Kemal AtatürkFile:timeline icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Timeline_icon.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Dschwen,Mdd, Str4nd, 5 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 36

File:Ataturk2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk2.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Dsmurat, Rateslines, Shaolin128, 2 anonymous editsFile:Les Manoeuvres de Picardie.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Les_Manoeuvres_de_Picardie.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dsmurat,MetalGearLiquid, Rateslines, 3 anonymous editsFile:Ataturk5.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk5.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Dsmurat, Rateslines, Shaolin128, Takabeg, 4 anonymous editsFile:GMK Gallipoli.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GMK_Gallipoli.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: en:User:DADASHIMFile:Bekir Sami Mustafa Kemal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bekir_Sami_Mustafa_Kemal.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: T.C.File:Time Ataturk.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time_Ataturk.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: A.Garnet, AtilimGunesBaydin, Dsmurat, MikeRosoft, Swtpc6800, Zscout370, とある白い猫, 1 anonymous editsFile:AtaturkwithMembersofParliament.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AtaturkwithMembersofParliament.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Ori~, RateslinesFile:Mustafa Kemal golden scoop political caricature of single party system.png  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mustafa_Kemal_golden_scoop_political_caricature_of_single_party_system.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Undisclosed at the sourceFile:Ataturk-1924-Bursa-public.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk-1924-Bursa-public.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Docu, OttomanReference,Rateslines, TakabegFile:Ataturk-hatreform.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk-hatreform.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original photographer unknown. It isgovernment property, which original photographer may not be listed.File:Mustafa Kemal and Mevlevi Order March 1923.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mustafa_Kemal_and_Mevlevi_Order_March_1923.png  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Photographer unlisted in the source.File:Ataturk opens Ankara Museum of Fine Arts and Sculpture.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk_opens_Ankara_Museum_of_Fine_Arts_and_Sculpture.gif License: unknown  Contributors: Not givenFile:Ataturk-20 September 1928.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk-20_September_1928.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:Ataturk and Fethi Okyar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk_and_Fethi_Okyar.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Docu, Nosferatü, Ori~, Молох, 4anonymous editsFile:Ataturk at Cankaya Library 16 July 1929.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk_at_Cankaya_Library_16_July_1929.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:Original uploader was Shuppiluliuma at en.wikipediaFile:Mustafa Kemal and establishment of Turkish History Institution.png  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mustafa_Kemal_and_establishment_of_Turkish_History_Institution.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Turkish government; Originalphotographer unknown. Original photographer may not be listed as it is government material.File:Ataturk attends a university class.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk_attends_a_university_class.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:CalicoJackRackham, CeeGee, Flavius Belisarius, Kimchi.sg, Shuppiluliuma, 1 anonymous editsFile:Ataturk visits a school.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk_visits_a_school.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Not givenFile:Elmalı 35 baskısı.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elmalı_35_baskısı.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 3210File:First female MPs of the Turkish Parliament (1935).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_female_MPs_of_the_Turkish_Parliament_(1935).jpg  License:unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Kemalist Yurtsever at en.wikipediaFile:Abdullah I of Jordan and Mustafa Kemal on 1937.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abdullah_I_of_Jordan_and_Mustafa_Kemal_on_1937.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Original photographer unknown. It is government property, which original photographer may not be listed.File:Ataturk hosts kings and presidents.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk_hosts_kings_and_presidents.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:en:User:ShuppiluliumaFile:Mustafa Kemal and Voroshilovon 29_october_1933.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mustafa_Kemal_and_Voroshilovon_29_october_1933.jpg  License:unknown  Contributors: Original photographer unknown. It is government property, which original photographer may not be listed.File:AtaturkAndVenizelos.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AtaturkAndVenizelos.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was AtilimGunesBaydin aten.wikipediaFile:Faisal I of Iraq and Mustafa Kemal Ankara Depot on 1931.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Faisal_I_of_Iraq_and_Mustafa_Kemal_Ankara_Depot_on_1931.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original photographer unknown. It isgovernment property, which original photographer may not be listed.File:رضا شاه و آتاترک.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:آتاترک_و_شاه_رضا.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: نامعلوم

File:King Edward VIII and Mustafa Kemal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:King_Edward_VIII_and_Mustafa_Kemal.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Original photographer unknown. It is government property, which original photographer may not be listed.File:Alexander I of Yugoslavia and Mustafa Kemal in 1933.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alexander_I_of_Yugoslavia_and_Mustafa_Kemal_in_1933.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original photographer unknown. It is government property, which original photographer may not be listed.File:Kemal Ataturk congratulation of the Hatay's decision.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kemal_Ataturk_congratulation_of_the_Hatay's_decision.png  License:unknown  Contributors: Mustafa Kemal AtaturkFile:Ataturk-Bursa-Cottonfactory.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk-Bursa-Cottonfactory.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original photographerunknown. It is government property, which original photographer may not be listed.File:Ataturk-Organized industrial complex.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk-Organized_industrial_complex.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Docu, OttomanReference, Rateslines, TakabegFile:1932 Mustafa Kemal Etimesgut airport.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1932_Mustafa_Kemal_Etimesgut_airport.png  License: unknown  Contributors:Original photographer unknown. It is government property, which original photographer may not be listed.File:Mustafa Kemal and Latife.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mustafa_Kemal_and_Latife.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: T.C.File:Anitkabir.HB.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anitkabir.HB.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Helen P. BettsFile:Cumhuriyet Aniti.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cumhuriyet_Aniti.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Scisa

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