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NicolausListenius

Musica

Translated&AnnotatedbySionM.Honea

Thistranslationisbasedontheeditionof

1549,Nuremburg:JohannPetreius

©2016

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Introduction RemarkablylittleisknownaboutNicolausListenius,consideringthathispresentbookbecameoneofthetwomostusedandinfluentialinthesixteenth-centuryLatinSchools.Ifthatwerenotenoughofanaccomplishment,thebookalsopresentedwhatwouldprovetobeamostimportantnewconceptualizationofmusicactivityastripartite,replacingtheoldBoethian,rathercondescendingdichotomy.Yet,littleisknownapartfromhisbirthinHamburgbutthatbyhismatriculationattheUniversityofWittenbergin1529hewaslistedasfromSalzwedel.1HereceivedtheMasterofArtsin1531andafterthatreturnedtoteachintheLatinSchoolatSalzwedel,presumablyuntilhisdeath.TheschoolatthattimewasstillunderthejurisdictionoftheRomanCatholicChurch,forin1536theElectorJoachimIIcensuredListeniusforintroducingtheLutheranliturgywithoutpermission,thoughin1539JoachimgrantedfreedomtoLutheranisminhisterritory.Ironically,andsurelydeliberately,ListeniusdedicatedtheMusicain1537toJohannGeorg,thenaboyoftwelve,thesonofJoachimII. Listeniusistodayprobablymoregenerallyrecognizedforhiscontributiontomusictheorythanforhiscontributiontomusiceducation.InChapter1ofthefirstpartofthebookheintroducesanovelthree-partdefinitionoftheartofmusicasdividedbetweenTheory,PracticeandPoetics.Thiswasinstarkcontrasttothelong-standingBoethiandivisionbetweenthemusicus(thetheoristwhoknewandunderstoodmusicintellectually)andthecantor(themerepractitionerwhounderstoodlittleornothing,accordingtoBoethius).Listeniusnotonlyaddsathirdtype,thePoetical,butalsoredressesthebalanceamongthethree.ThePoeticalmusicianwasthecreator,thecomposer,andListeniuswasthefirsttodefinecompositionasaseparatecategory,anideawithimportanttheologicalimplications.InListenius’scheme,thetheoristwastheonewhomerelypassivelyunderstoodmusictheoretically,whereasthePracticalandPoeticalmusiciansweredirectlyandactivelyinvolvedinmusic.Thelattertwopossessedashareoftheformer,buttheformernoshareinthelattertwo,thusde-privilegingandreducingthestatusoftheTheorist. Listeniusdoesnotelaborateonthesignificanceofthisnewcategoryofthecomposerwithinthedefinitionitself,buthedoesimplicitlyalludetoitinhisdedicationtoJohannGeorg.Amonghisratherstandardallusionstobiblical,classicalandlegendaryfigureswhopracticedmusic,hedropsaphrasethatmightwellbepassedoverasmereperfunctorywidow-dressing,“that[thespirit]mightbeexcitedtothecontemplationofharmonyofthedivinegovernorandbebenttoappropriatemotionsofcelestialdoctrine.”ThisispureLutherantheology,forLuther,contrarytothehumanists,heldthatmusicwasofdivineoriginandthatitsmathematicalnature,conformingtothemathematicalharmoniesofcreationasidentifiedbythespeculativetheorists,thuscouldrevealandmakeaudiblethenatureofGod.Byoperatingonthehumanspiritmusiccouldraiseindividualstoahigherspirituallife;thus,thecomposerbecameaveryimportantpersonasthemeansbywhichGod’sdivinenaturecouldaffecthumanlife.ThisideaofthePoeticalactivitywouldcatchholdandbecomeinvolvedinthedevelopmentofGermanmusic,contributingtotheGermanbaroqueandtheconceptoftheAffektenlehre.2Inpassing,thistheologicalunderstandingofmusicexplainstheattitudeofJ.S.Bachtowardcomposition,whyhewas

1Evenhisbirthplace,establishedbysolidauthorities,seemsoddbecauseinthebook’sdedicationhesayshewasborninBrandenburg,butHamburgwasafreecityandnotintheElectorateofBrandenburg.2JohnBartel,MusicaPoetica(Lincoln,NE:UniversityofNebraska,1997),esp.Chapter1.

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consideredsoold-fashionedbymanyofhiscontemporaries,andwhyasecular,rationalistfigureoftheenlightenmentlikeFredericktheGreatfoundhismusicsorepugnant. EvenmoreinterestinginthepresentconnectionisthedefinitionofthePracticalmusician,particularlyascomparedtotheTheorist,“UndePracticusMusicus,quiultraartiscongnitionemcaeterosdocet”“WhencethePracticalmusician[isone]whobeyondaknowledgeoftheskill[i.e.,ascomparedwiththeTheoreticalmusician]teachesothers.”Thisappearstobeaclearandspecificintegrationofthemusiceducator,Listenius’ownchosenfield,withinhistripartitesystemasatypeofpractitioner.ThoughIamfamiliarwithafairamountofthemajormusicpedagogicalliteraturepriortothis,Iamnotomniscientinit;nevertheless,Idonotrememberanyothersuchconcerntounderstandtheroleofthemusicteacher. Thetextitselfisnotdesignedasastudent’stextbookbutasateacher’stext.Assuchitpossessesbothstrengthsandweaknesses,thelatterespeciallywhencritiquedonlyinisolation,butfewerwhencomparedwithothercontemporarytexts.Fromtheperspectiveofthetranslator,firstamongitsweaknessesisListenius’commandofLatin;itisusuallyquitesufficientwhenthesubjectisfairlysimpleanduncomplicatedbutdeteriorateswhenconfrontedwithacomplexsubject.3ThedeteriorationissuchinsomecasesastomakemesuspectthatListeniusdidnothaveacompleteunderstandingoftheparticularsubject.Mostoftheseproblematicpassagesappearinthesecondpartonmensuralmusicandinthemoredifficultaspectsofit.Ascomparedwithotherauthorsinthesamefieldataboutthesametime,Listenius’LatindoesnotdisplaythesamelevelofcompetenceasthatofGeorgRhau,MartinAgricola,orevenHermannFink.Listeniusisgiventoellipsisandtobothabsoluteandquasi-absoluteconstructions,suchasparticipialphrasesandfree-standingsubordinateclausesthatcannotbeclearlybroughtintosubordinationwithanymainindependentclause.Myimmediateinclinationistoattributethistothefactthatwhentheideaiscomplexanddifficult,Listeniusfallsback,probablyunconsciously,onthelesshighlystructuredprosestyleofGermanofhisday,similartothestateofproseinallvernacularsofthetime.Forseveralreasonsthisprobablydidnottroublecontemporaryreaderssomuchasitdoesustoday:(1)manyidiosyncrasiesseemtobeinfluencedbythevernacularGermanthathisreadersshared,(2)theteacherisassumedalreadytopossesstheknowledgeinthebook,ormostofit,andtoexplainittothestudents,and(3)readingatthistimewasnotassumedtobethefacileactivitythatweassumetoday;rather,thereaderwasexpectedtograpplewiththetextinordertowrestthemeaningfromit.4 ThereweresomeoccasionswhenmyabilitytotranslateresultedmorefrommyownpriorunderstandingofwhatListeniusistryingtoexplainratherthanfromListenius’language.ParticularlyprominentexamplesarehischapteronAugmentationandportionsofthatonProportions.HisdiscussionofSemiditieunderDiminutionissimplywrongasitis,whetherthroughignoranceoroversightisunclear,thoughheisatthatpointmanifestlydependentonRhauorOrnithoparchus,whoarequiteclear.ProfessorSeayacknowledgedthathealsofounddifficultieswiththetextandquiteproperlyalertedthereaderthat“thetranslationgivenissomewhatfree.”ThisisanadmirablyprofessionalstatementsuchasfewtranslatorsmakeevenwhentheytakefargreaterlibertieswiththetextthandidSeay.Asinallmytranslationsinthisseries,Ipreferatranslationthatisclosertothe

3AsAlbertSeaytactfullyputit,“Listenius’Latinisnotalwaysofthebest.”4JosefBalogh,VocesPaginarum(Leipzig:Dieterich’scheVerlagsbuchhandlung,1927).

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original,evenatthepriceofsharingsomeoftheoriginal’sdifficulties,manyofwhichIhavetriedtoreducebymeansofbracketedexpletivewordsorphrasesandbynotes,sometimesextensiveones. Thebookalsoexhibitsstrengthsthatwillnotbeadequatelyapparentfromtheperspectiveoftoday.Certainlythefactthatitsurvivesinforty-sixknowneditions(1537-1583)andwasusedwellintotheseventeenthcenturyatteststothefactofitsperceivedquality.Wetodaymaywelllookatthebookandwonderwhyfromourvantagepointofcenturiesinthedevelopmentofmusicpedagogy,butifsoitisbecausewehavelostsightofanimportanthistoricalfact.ThemusicteachersintheLatinSchooltradition,andespeciallyintheLutheranLatinSchools,werecreatingwhatwouldbecomemodernclassroommusiceducationandpedagogicalmethod.ThefactthatmusicpedagogyhadevolvedtothelevelofListenius’MusicainonlythetwentyyearsafterLuther’sthesesisatestimonytotheschools,theirteachersandpedagogy,andtoListeniusindividually. Thefirstthingthatshouldbenoticeableisthatthebookisnotorganizedprogressivelyexceptinthebroadestterms.Thetwo-partstructureofchoralmusic(plainchant)andmensuralmusic(polyphony)wasestablishedbeforeListenius.Theorganizationofthematerialinsuccinctintelligibleunitsisamajorreasonforthebook’ssuccess,butitisnotstrictlyprogressiveinourmodernsense.ItisonlynecessarytoglancethroughafewpagesofGeorgRhau’sEnchiridion[Pt.1(1517),Pt.2(1520)]5andespeciallyCochlaeus’Tetrachordon(1511)toseethattheyrelymuchmoreheavilyonlengthydiscursiveinformation.AteachermightwellseeListenius’book,ontheotherhand,asaseriesoflessonplans.Textiskeptalmosttoaminimum,exceededinbrevityonlybyFaber’slaterCompendiolum(1548),whichintroducedthecatecheticalstyletomusiceducation.Further,illustrativemusicalexamplesandmusicforstudyarecontinuallycoordinatedandintegratedwiththetextinareasonablypedagogicalmanner. AnevidenceoftheabsenceofthemodernprogressiveapproachappearsInthefirstpartonplainchantwhenListeniusanticipatesmensuralnotationwithbriefexamplesofpolyphony.Thismayseemlike“jumpingthegun”intolerablytoateachertoday,butitisnecessarytounderstandthatourconceptofmethodisdiachronicallyprogressiveandthatofListeniusandhistimewas“synchronic.”Thebookwastobeusedasawholeasneededunderthedirectionoftheteacher.Mensuralmusicappearsintheplainchantchaptersbecausestudentsatamoreadvancedstageweresupposedtoreturntoitforfurtheramplificationofthematerialasitrelatedtopolyphony.Sometimesinformationfromlaterchaptersisnecessarytounderstandearliermaterial,asinthecaseofthetactus,whichdoesnotappearuntilPart2,Chapter10butwouldcertainlyhavebeenusefulfromthebeginningofPart2. Listenius’MusicawasoneofthetwomostsuccessfulmusictextsforclassroomteachingintheLatinSchoolsofthesixteenthcentury.TheotherwasFaber’sCompendiolumthatutilizedthecatecheticalmethodnewlyrevivedandreinvigoratedbyMelanchthonandLuther.Thetwobookswereapparentlyoftenusedinconjunction—FaberfortheearlyyearsandListeniusforthelateryears.GeorgSchünemannandFriedrichSannemannlistthemultiplicityoftextsthatthedemandoftheLatinSchoolsstimulated.Ihaveacquiredafairnumberofthemforcomparison,andthereasonforthepopularityofFaberandListeniusisclear,theauthorsclearlyaskedthemselvesthefirstoftwocriticalquestions“whatdomystudentsneedtoknowatthisstage?”Theydidnotthenencumbertheirtextswithexcessivediscursiveexplanationsofmoreadvancedmaterial,asmanycollegeundergraduatemusictextbooksstilldotoday.AcomparisoncanbeseenwithCochleausTetrachordon(1511),whichisanexcellentexample

5ThesearethedatesasgiveninRISMBVI.

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ofthehumanisttraditionofrationalorganizationandpresentation,buthaslittletodowithpedagogy.Thesecondquestion,“howdoIpresentthematerialinasequencebestsuitedforlearning,”wouldhavetowaituntilearlyinthenextcenturywhenauthorslikeHizlerandGengenbachbegantoaddressit.ThestrengthofListeniusandFaberisthattheyapparentlylargelysucceededinasking(andanswering)thecriticalfirstquestionofwhatwasnecessarytopresentatthelearner’sspecificstageofdevelopment. ThistranslationbeganbecauseofmyinterestinLutheranschoolmusicofthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.EvenaftercontinuedsearchesoverseveralyearsIwasunabletoobtainacopyofSeay’s1975translationand,strangelyenough,foundSchünemann’s1927facsimileeditionratherplentifullyavailable.6SoIsetaboutmakingmyowntranslation,thebenefitsofwhichforunderstandingandappreciatingListenius’achievementhaveprovenfargreaterascomparedtoreadingatranslation.InthepreparationofthetranslationIhaveconsistentlytriedthroughnotestoalertthereaderofproblematicpassages.SometimesmytranslationhasbeenachievedmorebyknowledgeofwhatIknewListeniuswastryingtosaythanbyhowheattemptedtosayit.Thosepassagesareusuallyfairlyobviouseitherthroughnotesorbytheheavyoccurrenceofbracketedamplifications.7Intheevent,Ifeelreasonablyconfidentthatthetranslationisreasonablycorrect.InpreparingthetranslationIfoundthatitwasnecessaryformetostudyandimprovemyownknowledgeonmanypointscoveredbyListenius,mainlythroughtheexaminationoftextsthathemighthaveused,andwasrewardedbyfindingseveralclearconnections.Idecidedtosharewiththereadertheresultsofmyownstudyinexplanatorynotesthatoffereitheramplificationofthesubjectmatterorreferencesastohistoricalcontinuityoftradition.Thishasoccasionallyresultedinnotesofextremelength. IreceivedSeay’stranslationjustintimetoreviewitbeforecompletingmyown.Asismypractice,Ididnotcollateitwordforwordbutonlyspot-checkedproblempassages.IfoundthatinmostcasesourunderstandingofListeniuswassufficientlysimilar.InaveryfewcasesIbelieveSeay’smoreflexibleapproachledhimslightlyastrayandhaveinallthosecasespreferredmyownreading.Icallthosecasestothereader’sattentionwhentheyoccur. Ihaveincludedalltheoriginalmusicalexamplesandperformancepiecesinthetextun-transcribed.Thisisnotmerelazinessonmypart.Ihadoriginallyconsideredtranscribingthemsincetheyoffernoinsurmountabledifficulties,butinthecourseoftranslationIchangedmymind.IrealizedthatmodernnotationwouldonlyservetoobscurethelearningpointsthatListeniuswastryingtoillustratebymeansofthem.Modernnotationcannotreproducethecomplexitiesofmensuralnotation,andIbelievetheplainchantnotationissufficientlyfamiliarandeasynottoneedtranscription.So,foratranslationviewedfromtheperspectiveofthehistoryofmusiceducation,Idecidednottotranscribeanymusic.Thereis,however,anotherlegitimateviewoftheissue,thatListenius’bookalsocontributestothehistoryofmusicingeneral,forwhichtranscriptionsaresuitable.ThosewhodesirethemwillfindtranscriptionsinSeay’stranslation.

6Ironicallyandamusingly,onthedaythatIfirstwrotethisitoccurredtometosearchagainforSeay’stranslation,onlyonecopyofwhichIfoundatlastandordered—fromGermany!7Ithasbeenmyexperienceindealingwithtranslationsfrommanydifferentlanguagesthattranslatorsseldomdothis—probablybecausepublisherswillnotapprovetheadditionalexpenseitcreates,whichisanadvantagetothisUniversity-publishedtranslationseries.

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Ihaveadistinctantipathyforthetypicalfulsomelyobsequiousdedicationsthatarecommoninbooksofthisperiod.Ihadnotintendedtotranslatethisone,butinscanningitIfoundenoughofinteresttofeelitwasjustified.Iwasnotabletobringmyselfsimilarlytoundertaketheopeningandclosingcelebratorypoemsbyotherauthors.Asuperficialscandidnothingtoconvincemethatitwouldbeaprofitableuseoftimeoraddtothereader’sknowledgeofthecentralissues.Thosewhoareaficionadosofforcedmetaphors,stiltedclassicalallusionsandhyperbolewillfindthemtranslatedinSeay’sedition.ItisanotherreasontoadmireprofessorSeay’sdevotedscholarshipthathedidtranslatethem!

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PrefatoryPoem

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TotheIllustriousPrinceandLordJohannGeorg,

OldestsonoftheIllustriousPrinceandLordIoachimII

ElectorofBrandenburg,etc.MostgraciousLord.

NicolausListenius.

Ihavegatheredtheelementsofmusic,thepublicationofwhich,sincefriendshadentreatedfromme,Ibringforthasalittlebookmostuseful,illustriousprince,tobededicatedtoyouthatitmaygoouttothepublicmorefortunatelywiththeauspiceofyourname.Ibelieve,indeed,thatthisworkisnotgoingtobewithoutpleasuretoyou,sincealsoitisfittingthatprincescultivatethestudyofmusic,andthisperiodofyourlifeandnatureisalreadytakenwiththesweetnessofsongandisgoingtobeimbuedwiththeprinciplesoftheskill.8Manygreatandseriousreasonsarecollectedbylearnedandwisemenwhyallintelligent,andespeciallypowerful,princesshouldbeeducatedinmusicandmadefamiliarwithit.Itinclinestheirsoulstohumanity,gentleness,impartiality,preventsallimmoderateemotions,soothespain,anger,eliminatesharshnessandobscenedesires,andfinallyaccustomsthatasinsoundsandsongsoinallactionsoflifewepreserveacertainharmony.9Forwhichreasonweseeintheancientdocumentsthatthehighestkingsnotonlyforadiversionforsoothingtheearsbothsangthemselvesandgainedcredit,butbymuchmoredidtheypracticemusicasaseriousskillinordertoproduceaharmonyofthesoul.10Davidpracticedmusicinordertoexcitethemostseriousandspiritualaffections,forwhichsamereasontheuseofmusichasbeeninsacredritesamongallpeoplesandallages,notasauselesspleasureaswhatisconsideredplay,butinordertorestoremoretranquilspiritsbysongandthattheymightbeexcitedtothecontemplationofharmonyofthedivinegovernorandmaybebenttoappropriatemotionsofcelestialdoctrine,11andfinallythatthesesamefeelingsmightmovethespiritsmoreeffectivelywhensongdrawsnear.HomerdescribesAchillesasplayingthecithara,andindeedaddsevidenceandsayshewastheforemostprincetohavesungthepraiseofbravemeninwhich,whenbothinwordsandsong,hisspiritwasmoved,bywhichmoreardentlyvirtuewasenkindledwithadmirationandlove.Butfinally,inordertobringyoufromtheexampleofthesegreatestkings,IhaveseenbothyourgrandfatherJoachimIandyourfatherJoachimIIbothunderstandmusicwellandadmirablypossessedbythestudyofit.ForwhichreasonIwasresolvedthatthismylittleworkwouldbesuitableforyou,whichindeedevenifforthatreasonIhavededicatedittoyou,inordertodeclare

8JohannGeorgwouldhavebeenabouttwelveyearsold.Itisinterestingthatasayoungmanhefoundhisfather’spoliciesandpoliticalconductunacceptableandapparentlyvoluntarilywithdrewintoakindofsemi-seclusion.Whenhecametopoweruponhisfather’sdeathhereversedmuchofwhathefoundobjectionableandbecamegenerallyacceptedasagoodruler.Perhapsmusichadaneffectafterall!HealsobecameaLutheran,whereashisfatherhadstraddledthefence,neverquitegivingupCatholicismbutbreakingfreefromtheauthorityofthepope.9ThisconnectionofeducationinmusicwiththedevelopmentofwhattodaywewouldcallemotionalhealthandmaturityisinfluenceddirectlyorindirectlybyAristotle’sphilosophyofmusiceducationattheendofhisPolitics.10ThisisthePythagoreanconceptofmusic,mostlikelycomingtoListeniusthroughBoethius.11ThisisreallyasuperbexampleofLuther’stheologicalconceptionofmusicasBarteldescribesit.Lutherconstantlyremarkedthatmusicwassecondonlytoscriptureinthepowertotransformthespiritandturnittothedivine;thus,musicwasofdivineorigin.Thenumericalnatureofmusicanditspowerinhumanlife(musicahumana)heldbymedievalspeculativemusictheorydescendingfromPythagorasLutherinterpretedtheologicallyassupportingevidenceformusic’sdivineoriginandspiritualpower.LutherthussucceededincombiningtheolderGreekandmedievalspeculativetraditionofmusicwithChristiantheology.

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myzealfortheprinceofmyfatherland,sinceIwasborninyourrealm,12neverthelessIdiditfreely,alsobecause—sincethehighestgloryofyourfamilyisitspresenttalents13--Iwashopingthatthebookwouldbemoreacceptabletoallonaccountofyourname.Thenalso,IseeminsomewaytodeservewellofmycountrywhenIencourageyoutomusic.Forthisinvitesasoultovirtue,especiallyifyouwouldbegintolovethatAchilleanmusic,inwhichnotonlysoundscaresstheearsbutmuchratherthepraisesofgreatprincesrevealexamples,whichitbefitsyoutofollowandbringintoeffect,andkindleyourmindtothestudyandloveofvirtue.14Ihearyoualreadysuccessfullyarecreatingverseinwhichthedeedsofgreatmenareplacedbeforeyou.Ifyoucultivatethismusic,youwillbeworthyofyourancestors,andyouwillincreaseinthegreatgiftsofyourfather.15Therefore,Ibeseechthatyounotspurnthismyworkbutreceiveitasaspecimenofmyregardforyou.Finally,Ipraythatsinceitisfittingforanhonorableprincetopracticeskills,youmayholdmealsocommendedbecauseofthisstudy.Farewell.

12IamuncertainwhatListeniuscanmean,ifmodernscholarsarecorrectinassertingthathewasdefinitelyborninHamburg.HamburgdidnotlieinBrandenburgandhadlongbeenanindependentcity,reinforcedbybeingdeclaredafreeimperialcityin1510byMaximilianI.PerhapsheisthinkingonlyinbroadtermsasborninGermanlands,ormeansonlythatheresidesinBrandenburg,orperhapsitisapoliteandingratiatingexaggeration.13Iassumethisisaflowerymetaphormeaning“itspresentrepresentative”intheformofJohannGeorg.14ThiswasanimportantpurposeofmusiceducationinclassicalAthens.Itwasconsideredthatboysbysingingsongsthatcelebratedheroicactsofcivicvirtuewouldbecomeimbuedandimitatethosevirtues.15Thereadermayfindtheconnectioninterestingthatthebookwasfirstpublishedin1537,theyearafterJoachimIIhadcensuredListeniusforhisunauthorizedLutheraninclinationin1536.In1539JoachimpermittedLutheranismtoenterhisterritoryonequalstandingwithRomanCatholicism.

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[a3v]Chapter1

Music16istheknowledge(scientia)ofsingingproperlyandwell.17Tosingwellistoproducesongsuitablyaccordingtosomecertainrulesandmeasurebymeansofitspitches(vox)andnotes(figuras).18Itistripartite:Theoretical,Practical,Poetical.19 Theoreticalisthatwhichinvolvesthecontemplationofthemindandtheknowledgeofthesubjectonly,whoseendistoknow.Whenceatheoreticalmusicianisonewhoknowstheskill(ars)itself,butcontentinthisonly,producesnospecimenofitbyactivity. Practicalisthatwhichnotonlylieswithinthedepthofthemindbutissuesintotheworkitself,withnothingofthework,however,remainingaftertheact,whoseendisinthedoing.Whenceapracticalmusicianisonewhobeyondaknowledgeoftheskillteachesothersandinthiswayemployshimselfabouttheproductofanother’swork.20 Poeticalisthatwhichiscontainedneitherintheknowledgeofthesubjectnorinitspracticealonebutleavessomethingoftheworkafterthelabor,justaswhenbysomeonemusicorapieceofmusiciswritten,whoseendistheworkperfectandcomplete.Foritconsistsinmakingorfabricating,thatis,insuchlaboraswouldleaveevenafterit,whenthecreatorisdead,aworkwholeandperfect.Whenceapoeticalmusicianistheonewhoremainstosomedegreeinthesurvivingwork.Theselatter16Listeniusdoesnotoftenusethewordmusicabutdoessotoindicatemusicingeneral.Allreferencesinthisfirstchapteraretomusica.17ThedefinitionrecallsthelonglineageofdefinitionsbeginningwithAugustine’s“musicaestscientiabenemodulandi,”heremademorespecificbythesubstituteof“canendi,”singing.18CertainLatinterms,bothwithinthehistoryoftheLatinlanguageandinthehistoryofmusictheory,canbemisleadingtothemodernEnglishreader.Forthisreason,Ioftendirectthereader’sattentiontotheoriginalterm,whichIalwaysciteinthenominativesingularformdespiteitsnumberandinflectioninthetext.Intheopeningchaptersthreetermsareparticularlyimportantandarenotalwaysusedidenticallybydifferentauthors,norsometimesevenbythesameauthor.Thesethreeare,asListeniusmostoftenusesthem:

• Vox—Thisreferstothesyllable(s),whenusedwithoutthepitchletter,thatdefineapitchwithintheGuidonianhexachordsystem,e.g.,ut,re,solreut,singlyorincombination,asrequired.

• Clavis—Thisreferstotheletternameofthepitch(sometimestoitalone)plusitsdefiningsyllable(s),e.g.,Γ-ut,C-faut,G-solreut.

• Clavissignanda(orsignata)—thisreferstothefiveclefsignsderivedfrompitchletters:Γ,F,c,g,dd.Listeniusincludestheoutertwo,eventhoughtheyareobsoletebyhistime.

Thereaderalsomustbeaware(1)thattheparticulartermvoxalsohasothermeanings,e.g.,musicalsoundandhumanvoice,andthatListeniusisnotcompletelyconsistentinhisusage,especiallyastoprecisionintheuseofvoxandclavis.19ListeniususesGreekforthesetermsprintedintheGreekfont,thusdisplayinghisconnectiontohishumanistictraining.TheformertwowerelongtraditionalinhistimeandreflectBoethius’olddistinctionbetweenmusicusandcantor.Thethird“Poetical”maymisleadthereader;itisfromtheGreekverbmeaningtodoormake,create,andsohasnothinginthisinstancetodowithpoetry.ThisisnodoubtListenius’greatestcontributiontothehistoryofmusictheory,forheusesittoadd“composition”asathirdmembertothehistoricalpair.Thishadprofoundinfluencesonthecourseofmusictheoryandsecondarilyonmusichistoryforthenexttwocenturies,especiallyinGermanlands.Foradiscussionofmusicapoeticaanditslinktomusictheoryandpractice,seeDietrichBartel,MusicaPoetica(1997),aswellastheremarksintheintroductiontothistranslation.20AlthoughtheLatinwordscanembraceabroadermeaningthanteachingalone;nonetheless,IbelievethatListeniusisdeliberatelylinkinghisprofessionaseducatortothepracticeofmusicandtherebygivingitstatus.

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two[PracticalandPoetical]have[a4r]theformer[Theoretical]perpetuallyjoinedtothem,butnotthecontrary.21 Buttoresume,Practicalisdividedintotwoparts:choralandnotated.22“Choral”isthatwhichproducesandmeasuresitsnotesuniformlywithoutanyincreaseordecreaseindurationandiscalledbyanothername“Gregorian,”“plain,”“old”becauseitwascultivatedveryextensivelybyGregory,Ambroseandtheancients.“Notated”isthatwhichvariesthemeasureandquantityofnotesbymeansoftheinequalityofsignsandnotes,withincreaseanddecreaseofduration.Thislatteriscalled“mensural”byanothernameandbyanother“new”becauseitpermitsvariousmeasuresandnotes.Thereisneedofboth,bothininstrumentsmuteinthemselves,sothatImaybrieflyincludealltypesofthisskill(ars),aswellasinthelivinghumanvoice(vox).

Chapter2:OntheScale

Intheoutsetthescalemustbetreatedonaccountofthediversityofnote-names(clavis)andsyllables(vox).Anyonewhoisignorant[ofthescale]islikeablindmandwellinginanunknownregion;hepossessesnocertaintyaboutthenatureofanymusic(cantus)23andthedistinctionofitsparts,likewiseofsolmization,asitiscalled,ofthemutationofthesyllables(vox)andtheirprogression.Accordingly,itisveryimportanttolearnthiswellfromthestart.Thenote-names(clavis)areactuallytwentyinnumber,clearlyΓ-ut,A-re,etc.beyondwhichithasexceeded[a4v]inmensuralmusic(forchoralnevergoesbeyond).Note-names(clavis)andsyllables(vox)maybeaddedeitherupwardordownwardinthelowerorupperoftheoctaveandclass.Note-names(clavis)however,differamongthemselvesbylocation,character(figura)andmanner,forsomeareallottedalow,someamediumandsomeahighplace[i.e,theirlocation]. Somebeartheformofsinglecapitalletters,somearelowercase,andothersaredoubleletters[i.e.,theircharacter].

21ThiswouldseemclearlytoreverseBoethius’priorityofthetheorist(musicus)overthepractitioner(cantor).22Thisisatraditionaldivisionintheteachingtexts,betweenmusicachoralis(plainchant)andmusicalfiguralis(mensuralpolyphony).Astudentwouldconcentrateinearlyyearsonlearningchantanditsmonophonicnotationbeforemovingoninlateryearstopolyphonyanditsmorecomplexmensuralnotation.23Thetermcantusraisesthefirstopportunitytoalertthereadertoyetanotherterminologicalissue.Listenius’useofthetermscantusandcantilenaisnotclear,particularlytheformer,whichheseemstouseasthebroaderterm.Tinctoris’lexiconmayprovidesomehelp.Itwasfirstpublishedca.1473andwasstillinprintattheendofthecentury.ListeniuswouldcertainlyhaveknownofTinctoris’workingeneral.InthelexiconappearthetwotermsthatpresentthemostconfusioninListenius’text.CarlParrishinhisEnglishtranslationofTinctorisproposesthemas(paraphrased):Cantus—musicingeneraleithermonophonicorpolyphonic.Cantilena—asmallsongonanysubject.CarlParrish,DictionaryofMusicalTermsbyJohannesTinctoris(NewYork:DaCapo,1978).JoannesdeTinctoris,TerminorumMusicaeDiffinitorium(Ca.1494,reprint,NewYork:BroudeBrothers,1966).Cantusissometimesinotherauthorstranslatedas“song,”whichisnotatallincorrectbutwouldcreateaproblemherebecauseListeniusalsousesthetermscantilenaandcarmen,whicharemorespecifically“song.”

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Likewise,somearelowasA-re,n-mi,24etc,somearefinals,sometransposedfinals(affinales),whicharecalledbyvariousnames[i.e.,manner],asiseasytoseeinthetablebelow.

Plainlythereisthesamedistinctionoftheoctaves,whicharedesignatedwithsimilarletters,forGisanoctavedistantfromg,etc.

[a5r]Chapter3:OntheClefs(clavissignanda)inbothtypesofSong

24Thenaturalsignreallyisthecharacterforsquare-b,b-natural,thenotethatformedtheMiinthehalf-stepintheintervalmi-fa.Aswillbeseentheroundletter“b”indicatedb-flat,round-b.

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Althoughthenote-names(clavis)wouldbetwentyinnumberaccordingtoGuido,ortwenty-twoaccordingtoFranchinus[Gaffurius]25,theiruse,asfaraspertainstoformingandassigningsyllables(vox),isnecessaryinallpartsofasong(cantilena),neverthelessinthebeginningofthemusic(cantus)foritsidentificationandreferenceweusenomorethanfive,namelyΓ,F,c,ganddd.Foritwouldbecumbersome,nottosayannoying,toplaceindividualonesinsuccession,26nototherwisethanifgrammarianswouldsignifywithtonesallthesyllablesofspeeches,butastheymakethejudgmentoftheremainingsyllablesfromsomeoneaccentplaced,soalsowefromsomeonenote-name(clavis),writtenconveniently,discernthosenotwritten.Thesewecalldesignatedordesignating(signataorsignanda)becausewiththemallmusic(cantus)isindicatedatthebeginning.Foraclef(clavis)27isnothingotherthanasingleordoublelettercharacterprefixedtothemusic(cantus)forthereferenceofthemusic(cantus)andsyllables(vox).Butlessdesignatingorspecialdowesaytheround-b[b-flat]andsquare-b[b-natural]are,becausetheuseofthemwouldnotbesofrequentandnecessary.Weusethem,tobesure,inmusic(cantus)onlyforsignifyingforeignandfictapitches(vox)occasionallyintroduced,sinceb-flat(bFamollem)takestheplaceofb-natural(vox)(Mi-duram)initsplaces,contrarytothepitch(clavis)pertainingthereandthenatureofthemusic(cantus).28Unlessbothsingerandcomposer29ofthesongdiscerntherediligentlyandwithdiscrimination,withoutdoubtitwillproducedissonanceandconfusioninthework.[a5v]Youwillobserve,however,[that]b-flatindicatedunderthec-clef(clavisc)anditsoctavesimposesadifferentnatureofthemusic(cantus),asweshowbelowconcerningscalesandgeneraofmusic(cantus).

25Gaffuriusenjoysawidevarietyofspellingsandformsofhisname.ForthistranslationIhavechosentheformofthemainentryinGroveexceptwhereitappearsinamoderntitleorquote.26HeisfollowingGaffurius’commentinthePracticaMusiceBk.1,Ch.3.Bythishemeansifoneweretoputapitchindicationattheheadofeverylineandspaceofthestaffitwouldbeconfusingandpointless.27ThisisthefirstinstanceofListenius’casualattitudetowardterminology,forthesenseisclearly“clavissignanda”=clef,andnotthesimplepitch-name.28IseenowaytoresolveinexactEnglishthedifficultiesofListenius’Latinconstructioninthisproblematicsentence,butthisseemstobethesenseofit.Itisalsoanexcellentexampleofthedifficultiesoftranslation,giventheterminologyandListenius’somewhatcasualattitudeinitsuse.29Thephraseis“cantilenarumconditor,”whichlookssomethinglikeconductorbutisreally“founder,”i.e.,thecomposer.

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Thesearedistantinpositionbyafifth,FtoΓexcluded.30 Lettheboys,31thendirecttheirattentiontotheseclefs(clavissignanda)asiftoatarget,andletthemaccordinglylearnthosenotindicatedbytheintervaloftheseandgraspbyacertaincalculation.

30ItisremarkablethatListeniuscouldcreateobscurityinsoshortasentence.ThesentenceisHaedistantpositu,perquintamtolliturF,Γ.First,thecommaintrudesinthewrongplaceandshouldbe,bymodernpunctuation,“haedistantposituperquintam,”“thesestandapartinpositionbyafifth.”Thenextmisfortuneishisuseoftollitur,whichmeansboth“toraise”and“todoawaywith.”Theformerseemsrelatedtothefirstidea,butitcanotbeincludedinthesameclause.Thus,ItaketolliturFΓtomeansomethinglike“FtoΓexcluded.”31Themasculinegenderisexclusive.OnlyboysattendedtheLatinschoolsofthedaywheremusicwastaught.Therewerealsohumblevernacularschoolsthatdidacceptgirlsasstudentsforamoreutilitarianeducation.

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[a6r]Chapter4:OntheSyllables(vox) Sincetherationaleofallmusic(Musica)involvesvocalquantity,32itispropertosaysomefewthingsconcerningthesyllables(vox).Thesyllable(vox)isthenomenclatureofthenotes,ofwhichthereareonlysix,namely:33

32Thephrase“QuumomnisMusicaeratiocircavocalemnumerumversetur....”hasthesoundofaquote—possiblyfromOrnithoparchuswhodoesusethequumform—strengthenedbythefactthatListeniusdoesnotusethisalternatespelling“quum”for“cum,”butIamunabletolocateitinTictoris,Gaffurius,OrnithoparchusorRhau,whoalongwithAgricolaseemtobeListenius’mostidentifiablesources.ThephraseissotransparentlyclosetoEnglishsynonymsthatthetranslation“sincetherationaleofallmusicturnsuponvocalnumber”isespeciallytempting,butitrendersthesubsequentclausesomethingofanonsequitur.WhyshouldvocalnumberbeanintroductiontotheGuidoniansyllables?Seayreadsvocalemnumerumas“thenumberofsyllables,”butthiscannotbebecausevocalemisanadjectiveinobviousagreementwithnumerum.Seay’sreadingwouldrequirethegenitiveofvoxasvocumnumerum.Ibelievethetwokeytermsareratioandnumerum,theformerawordofextremelydiversepossiblemeaningsandthelatternotfarbehind.Further,asahumanistListeniusiswellawareofmusic’spositionasthefourthmemberofthemathematicalquadrivium,andsoanumericalassociationisfarmoreevidenttohimthattous.Thetranslationhereattemptstoembraceaswideameaningforthephraseaspossiblewhilekeepingwithintheboundsofrelevancetomusictheartandmusicthemathematicalstudy.Therelevancetothesecondclause,Ibelieve,derivesfromtheconnectionwith“vocal.”Ontheotherhand,itmaybethatSeayiscorrectastowhatListeniusmeantbutfailedtocommunicatebecausehemisunderstoodthepassagethathe,thelatter,foundinsomeoneelse’stext.33TheearliestformofthisideathatIhaveyetfoundappearsinCochlaeus’Tetrachordon(1511),Tract2,Chapter6,followedinthosetextsthatIhavebeenabletoexaminebyRhau,Enchiridion(1517),[Part1]Chapter1,theninOrnithoparchus,Micrologus,(1517),Part1,Chapter3,whoaddsachart,theninListenius’earlierRudimenta(1535)inchartform,theninFaber’s,Compendiolum(1548),Chapter2,andcontinuestoappearinGumpelzhaimer’sreworkingofFaber’sbookasCompendiumMusicae(1591),Chapter2,alongwiththechart.Significantly,itdoesnotappearinAgricola’sRudimentaMusices(1539),theLatintranslationofhisearlierMusicachoralisdeudsch,norinSebaldHeyden’searlierMusicae(1537),norinthebetterknownDeartecanendi(1540),norinDressler’sMusicaepracticaeelementa(1574),norinGengenbach’sMusicaNova:NeweSingekunst(1626),norinHizler’sNeweMusicaoderSingkunst(1628).Ornithoparchuslistsasthesourcesforhisdiscussionofthesyllables(vox)asGaffuriusTheoricaBk.5,Ch.6andPracticaBk.1,Ch.2,inneitherofwhichcanIfindaconceptsimilartothisbriefternarydescription.Dowland’sEnglishtranslationofOrnithoparchus(p.6)offersnofurtherelucidation.Rhau’spassagetranslatesas:“Thesaidsixdifferentsyllables(vox)arelocatedbythrees,forcertainonesofferaverygentle(mollissimam)resonanceandareUtandFa;certainonesreportaveryhard(durissimam)sound,suchasMiandLa;certainonescauseanatural(naturalem)andmedium(mediocrem)melody,namelyRe,Sol,Whence[inverse]:

UtwithFaisgentle(mollis)pitch(vox)sinceitsoftenssongs.MiwithLaishard(dura)foritproduceshardOdes.SolandRemakenatural(naturales)onessincetheyareneutrals.

Thisverydifferenceofthepitches(vox)whenwell-observedmakeseverysong(cantus)sweet-sounding,forwhichreasonboysdonotneglecttheuseofthem,butexercisethemselvesconstantlyinthem.” Thisclearlyinlanguageandcontextinalltheauthorswhomentionitreferstopitchesandnotthethreegeneraofthescale.Nextandbriefly:(1)itcannotrefertoqualitiesofabsolutepitchesbecausetherewasnostandardpitchatthetime,and(2)itcannotrefertovowelqualitybecauseboth“verygentle”Faand“veryhard”Lasharethesamevowel.Icanonlyseethisasapassagefromanearlierworkthatwaseitherpoorlystatedorsimplymisunderstoodandpassedonasaresultofthesheerpowerofolderauthorityandtradition.Itisnotuncommontofindthesixsyllablesreferredtoasintwogroups:lower=Ut,Re,Mi,higher=Fa,Sol,Lawiththestatementthatthelowerareusedwhenascendingandthehigherwhendescending.HeydeninDeartecandendi,Book1,Chapter2istheonlyonewhomIhavefoundwhomakesthisadmirablyclear,whichisworthquotinginfullfromClementMiller’sexcellenttranslation.“WecalltheloweronesUt,Re,Mi;ifonkeysoftwoorthree

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Upper

La Theseareintriple

series

SolFa

Lower

MiReUt

ForUtandFacalledb-molle,fromthegentlesound,ReandSolnaturalbythetemperedsoundofhardandsoft,MiandLab-duralis,fromthehardsound. Thesearesufficientforthesolmizationandmodulatingofanymusic(cantus).Further,thebeginningofeachnote-name(clavis)isaletter,butthesyllablesfollowingitarethesolmizationsyllables(vox).34AsanexampleGistheletterandthenote-name(clavis)[sic],representingthesyllables(vox)SolReUt.35 Further,Ithinkitmustnotbeoverlookedthatanynote-name(clavis)ofthreesyllables(vox)insolmizationofanymusic(cantus)alwaysexcludesoneofthose[syllables].AsinasonginGb-mollarisexcludesUt[but]inb-duralisretainsitandexcludesRe.Soalsoa-lamirerejectsRe,c-solfautrejectsFa,

vocables,theycannotcontinueupwardthroughFa,Sol,La,asfarasnecessary,thentheyusuallysubstituteforthemissingvocables.WecalltheupperonesFa,Sol,La:inthesamewaytheysubstituteforlowervocableswheneverinkeysoftwoorthreevocablestheycannotbeloweredthroughMi,Re,Ut,asfarasthemelodyrequires.”This,however,doesnotyetsolvetheproblem,butIbelieveitisinvolvedintheotherauthors’confusion.Iproposequitespeculativelythatanasyetunidentifiedfirstauthororiginallyconfusedthisideawithothersperhapsinvolvingthenatureoftetrachordsandtheircharacteristicintervalpatternswhenbegunoncertainpitches.InthehexachordsystemtetrachordsonUtandFayieldTTS,onReandSolyieldTST,andonMiandLayieldSTT.Itwouldcertainlybenecessaryforboystoanchorthesecharacteristicintervalpatternsintheearthroughpractice,buttheanalogyofsoft,hardandnatural—probablyobtainedfromthethreescalegenera--seemsfanciful,atleasttoday,butmuchinearliertheoryislinkedtofancifulanalogy.Ifthisunderstandingiscorrect,ofwhichIamfarfromcertain,thenithasavaguesimilaritytoGuido’sdiscussionoftheaffinitiesinChapters7&8oftheMicologus,butitisdefinitelynotthesameasGuido’sconcept.ThatsomeconfusionisinvolvedseemssupportedbythefactthatAgricolaomittedanyfurtherreferencetoitinhisRudimentaMusices(1539),thatitisnotpresentinSebaldHeyden’sinfluentialDeartecanendi(1540),andthatwithnoexceptionsasyetidentifieditdisappearsafterFaberexceptforGumpelzhaimer.34HereListeniusmakesaclearadistinctionbetweenclavisandvox,whichhedoesnotalwaysmaintain.35TheonlywaythatIcaninterpretthisapparentimmediatecontradictionofusingtheletteraloneastheclavis,isthatinhissystemofoctavesexpressedbyupper-case,lower-caseanddouble-letters,only“G”canpossessthesyllables(vox)SolReUt,asalsocanitsoctave“g.”Thus,Listeniusappearstopresentthepossibilityofconsideringeither“G”aloneor“G-SolReUt”asequalrepresentationsofthenote-name(clavis).Thiswouldaccountforsomeofthesubsequentconfusionoftermsinthetext.

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d-lasolrerejectsSolwheninb-mollaris,[but]inb-duralistheypreserve[thesesyllables]and[instead]rejectMi,Sol,La[respectively],etc.Thesame[istrue]intheoctaves.36

[a6v-7v]AnExerciseofSyllables(vox)

Acanoninunison.Thetenor[enters]afteronetempus,thediscantaftertwo,thealtusafterthree,theseconddiscantafterfourtempora.

Another[Exercise]inMensural[Notation]

36Listeniusisprovidingadescriptionwithoutanexplanation.Hispointisthatinthenatureofmutationbetweentwohexachords,itisnotpossibleforallthreesyllablestofunction.InthisparagraphListeniusrevealsclearlywhatSchünemannobservedintheintroductiontohis1927facsimileofthetext—thisisnotintendedasastudent’stextbookbutratherasateacher’stext.SuddenlyinthisparagraphListeniusjumpsfaraheadintheorytodiscussapointthatastudentcouldnotyetpossiblyunderstandwithouttheteacher’shelp,forListeniushasnotyetpresentedtheunderlyingtheory.Theteacherhowever,isassumedalreadytopossesstherelevantknowledge,forwhichthisisonlyapedagogicalreminder.Thisalsoprovidesaninterestingexampleofaweaknessinpedagogicalconception.Adescriptionisnotanexplanation,forwhichwecannotfaultListeniusbecausethefaultisstillmuchinevidencetoday.

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AnotherExampleContaininganExerciseandDistinctionoftheSixMusicalSyllables(vox)

[a8r]Chapter5:OnMutation Mutationisthecon-sonantvariationofasyllable(vox)toasyllable(vox),suchaswhenonD-Sol[it]properlymutateseithertoLaorRe.37Itisdoneonaccountofthelackofsyllables(vox)andmultiplicityofpitches(nota).38Inmusic(cantus)inB-duralis(B-natural)itismadeonDanda[i.e.,thesyllableRe]butwhendescendingonE,a[i.e.,thesyllableLa]andtheiroctaves.Inmusic(cantus)inB-mollaris(b-flat)itismadewhenascendingonDandG[i.e.,thesyllableRe]andwhendescendingonD,a[i.e.,thesyllableLa]andtheiroctaves.39

37Listenius’tenuousgrammarandsyntaxdonotprovidemuchhelpwiththisreading.TheonlypossiblesenseisthatDofthelowestoctave,asindicatedbyuppercase,whosefullnote-name,omittedbyListenius,isD-solre,assuchcanproceedinitsownhexachordtoLa,oritcanmutateintotheC-fauthexachordwhereitbecomesRe.Thefactthatthisexplanatorysentenceofabout50wordsisnecessarytoclarifyListenius’ownexplanationof18wordsdoessomethingtodemonstratetheproblematicellipticalnatureofhisstyle.38FiftyyearsormorebeforeListeniuswrote,RamisdePareiainhisMusicaPractica(1482)hadcogentlyarguedagainstthedeficienciesofthehexachordsystemandproposedafulloctavesystem.FranchinusGaffurius,whoappearstobeListenius’primarytheoreticalauthority,bitterlyarguedagainsttheaudacityofthesuggestion,withtheresultthatthecumbersomehexachord,dysfunctionalforthemusic,persistedanother300years.39TheremainderoftheparagraphsuffersfromListenius’obscurestyle,notleastbythefactthatthenexttwosentencesbothlackafiniteverbtodeterminetheirproperconstruction.Tomakewhatsenseofthepassagecanbemade,Ihavesupplied“fit,”“ismade,”retroactivelyfromtheparagraph’slastsentence.ThereadermustconsultthefollowinghexachordchartinChapter2andalsotheexplanationinChapter6anditsscalechartsinordertounderstandthispassage.

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Rule1 Everymutationwhenascendingisproperlymadeonthesyllable(vox)Re,whendescendingonLa.Improperly[theyaremade]onneighboring[syllables],andthis[isdone]whentheproperarelacking.Thenote-names(clavis)andlocations,however,mustbeobservedwithwhichmutationsarecontiguous.

Rule2 Ifanynoteexceedsthesyllable(vox)Labyonlyoneinterval,thatissungasfawithoutmutation,mostlyinmusicofthefirstandsecondmodes(tonus).40[a8v]

40Therewasanoldtheorist’sjingletotheeffect“UnanotasupraLasemperestcandendumFa.”Inotherwordsitistobesungasahalf-step,seeGaffurius,PracticaMusice,trans.IrwinYoung,p.xxxv.GaffuriuscoversthepresentsubjectatlengthinPracticaMusiceBk.1,Ch.2.

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[b1v]Chapter6:OntheScalesandGeneraofMusic AscaleisnothingotherthanacertainunderstandingofMiandFaonb-flat/fa-b-natural/mi[bb-Fa/bn-Mi]41anditsoctaves.Asthatnote-name(clavis)isdouble,thusalsoisthescale,forsomeareb-flatandothersab-natural,andeachisrecognizedbymeansoftheb-flat(round–b)orb-natural(square-b).Furthermore,mutationsofthesearemadeasthescalesindicate. [b2r]Fromthisthedispositionandarrangementofthescalesandsyllables(vox),itisclearthatmusic(cantus)isnotofonekindbutofthreekinds,forasitsnatureandrangevary,soalsodoesthemusic(cantus).42

I. ForoneiscalledNaturalis,whoseoriginfromthenote-name(clavis)C,iscalledUtbecauseofthesyllable(vox),themiddleonFisFaandhasitsfinalona.

II. [Another]iscalledB-Mollaris,whoseinitialis[thesyllable]onF,itsmiddleFaisonb-flat,anditsfinalLaond.Itisrecognizedbymeansofthelessspecialnote-name(clavis)“b[flat],”immediatelyatthebeginningunderthenote-name(clavis)canditsoctaves.43

41Listenius’“term”isverydifficulttorenderinmoderncharacters.ThesemitoneinthehexachordsystemalwaysoccurredbetweenMiandFa.Intheb-duralishexachordtheMi/FahalfstepisbetweenB-CandE-F.IntheB-mollarishexachordtheMi-Fahalf-stepisbetweenA-B-flatandE-F.42Thisisactuallyeasiertoexplainintermsofmoderntheory.Thereareonlythreebasichexachords,allwiththeintervalstructureofthefirstsixnotesofthemajorscale.ThesehexachordsbeginonC,FandG.ChasnoB-flatorb-naturalandsonaturallyhasthemajorscaleintervals;thatonGmusthaveaBnaturaltopreservetherequiredintervalstructure;thatonFmusthaveab-flatinordertopreservetherequiredintervalstructure.TheentireGuidoniansystemofsevenhexachordsincludes3onG,2onC,and2onF.43Listenius’subsequentmusicalexamplemakescompletelyclearthatheismisusingthetermclavisinreferenceto“c”andreallymeans“clavissignanda,”clef.Otherwise,theexampleshowsexactlywhathesays:rightatthe

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III. [b2v]B-Duralisis[thescale]whoseUtisonG,itsFaonc,anditsLaone.Therecognitionofitisbytheabsenceofb-flatundertheclef(clavis)canditsoctaves,whencetheoldverse:InC[itis]natural,Fitisflat,andGitishard[i.e.,b-natural].

Iassert,however,thatitmustbynomeansbeomittedthatveryfrequentlymusic(cantus)isfoundthatassumesadoubledistinctionandmovement.Itiscalledmixtuscantus44becausethenaturalgoestogetherwiththeb-flat[form],asitwere,sometimes—asitpleasessome—intermixedwithboth,whichtomeisnotentirelyproven,andIthinkcannotpossiblyadequatelybe[proven].[Thisis]notbecauseIamunaware45thatoftenb-flatandb-naturalintheprogressofsomesong(cantilena)[appeartogether]contrarytothescaleinwhichthemusic(cantus)proceeds,thatthenaturalisfoundtointroduceaforeignpitch(vox),neverthelessapitch(vox)ofthiskinddoesnotimmediately—asitpleasessomepeople—effectanewscale,justthesameasoneswallowdoesn’t[make]asummeroronesyllableorwordaspeech.Rather,such46[aone]andmanylikeitpermit47[that]atonetime48necessityoftheharmoniesrequiresit,atanothertimethesweetnessandgravityofthemusic(cantus)requires[it],asisto[be]seen49inmanyresponsoriesandantiphons.50

beginningundertheC-clefappearsab-flat,i.e.,whatinmoderntermswecallthekeysignature.InChapter3hehasalreadysaidthatb-flatandb-naturalarelessspecialclavessignandae.44IthinkitisbesttopreserveListenius’terminologyhereratherthangiveatranslationthatwouldprobablyintroduceconfusion.45FromthispointtotheendoftheparagraphListenius’syntaxbecomesincreasinglyproblematic,complicatedbythenon-syntacticalrhetoricalpunctuationofthetime,whichconstantlyinterruptsandconfusesthestructureofclauses,theirsequenceandmeaning.Throughoutthebook,itseemsthatwhentheideaismostdifficulttodescribe,Listenius’Latinbecomesmoreimpreciseandobscure.46Thereisnoclearreferentherefortheaccusativetalem,“such.”47Thereisnoclearfiniteverbonwhichtheinfinitiveadmittere,“permit”depends.48Theaccentonaliàsindicatesitsadverbialuse,astranslatedhere,whichListeniususesfairlyfrequently,andnotitspronominaluse.49Asmallpoint.Listenius’nativeGermanseemstoslipinoccasionallybytheuseoftheinfinitivetomeaneitheractiveorpassive,whereasLatindistinguishesthetwoformally.50Thisseemstorelatetotheage-oldalternativejustificationformusicaficta:causanecessitates(becauseofnecessity)andcausapulchritudinis(becauseofbeauty).SeeHarvardDictionary4thed.s.v.“MusicaFicta.”

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[b4v]OnFictiveMusic[MusicaFicta] Thereremainsfictivemusic(cantusfictus)ormusicaficta,aboutwhichIwillspeakasbrieflyasIcan.Surelynothinginvolvestheuseofsomanyandsogreatambiguitiesinasubjectnotwhollyobscure,northeuseofwhichissoverygreat.51Musicafictais,therefore,music(cantus)executedcontrarytothescaleofitsstructures,52itis[as]suchinwhichsyllables(vox),whichhaverightfulpositions,arenotallotted[tothem],53aswhenUtisonE,ReonF,MionG,etc.,orissungotherwise.Oneproducesthisonanynote-name(clavis)whatever,andwhateverforeignsyllable(vox)onewishes,contrarytothenatureandhexachord,54whosechangeandavoidanceinmanysongs(cantilena)istransposition.55Incertainonesitcannotbechangedentirelywithoutanalteration.Onemeetsexampleseverywhere,onaccountofwhichIpresentonlythis56exampleforitsclarificationandchange.51Listenius’attemptatrhetoricaleloquenceproducesapassageratherconfusingtomodernears.Whatheissayingis“thereisnootherpracticesoimportantandextensivelyusedthatpossessessomanyandlargeambiguities,whichambiguitiesdonototherwiserenderthatotherpracticewhollyobscure.52Thecriticalphrase“cantuscontrascalaesitumaeditus”isunfortunatelyperplexed.Mytranslationisbasedonthefollowingdecisions.

(a) Thesenseofcantusasapredicatenominativeisclear.(b) ContraregularlyandasListeniususesittakesthedative,somustgovern“scalae.”(c) Situmisthefourthdeclensionnounsitūs,whoseaccusativesingularsitumcannotbeconstruedhere.The

onlyalternativeisthatthisisthepoeticformofthegenitiveplural–uminplaceoftheregular–uum.(d) Aeditusappearsinthededicationinitsmorefamiliarsenseof“edition,”butitisderivedfromtheclassical

verbēdo,bringforth,produce.Hereitisa“hyperform”createderroneouslybythehumanists.IntheMiddleAgestheclassicalLatindiphthong“ae”hadbeenreducedto“ē.”Thehumanistssoughttorestorethesebutwenttoofar,alteringoriginaē’stoerroneous“ae”insomecases,ashere,andincaeteraforcetera.

IseenowaytoresolvethisphraseexceptthroughtheawkwardconstructionofsitumwithscalaeStructuresItaketorefertotheorganizationsystemsofhexachords,scalesandmodes.AtthispointthereadermayhavebeguntoglimpsetheproblemsthatcanariseintranslatingListenius’text.53Giventhelengthofthepreviousfootnote,Iwillforthereader’ssakeeschewanothersuch.54IassumethatTinctoris’useofproprietasforhexachordisstillvalid.GaffuriusinPracticaMusiceBk1.Ch.4givesalongdiscussionofpropriety,oneofwhosemeaningsishexachord.“Verumproprietatemhuiusmodimodulationisdicimusessesingularemuniuscuiusqueexachordiinintroductoriodispositideductionem.”Indeed,wesayaproprietyofthiskindofmodulation[i.e.,stepwise/diatonic]isasinglepatternofaspecifichexachordsituatedinanarrangement.55Musicafictaisalsoawayofachievingtransposition,particularlydevelopedduringthesixteenthcentury.56Hicinsteadofthecorrecthocexemplum.

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[b5r]Chapter7:OnSolmization Solmizationistheappropriateutteranceofthenotesbymeansofspecificsyllables(vox).Forwhichfirstofallanunderstandingofthemodeisrequired,which,whenonedoesnotknow,itisnecessarythathewilloftenconfusethesyllables(vox)andtheirpositions,andsomixupandchangehardwithsoftandsoftwithhard[i.e.,b-mollariswithb-duralisandviceversa].Sincethisrelatestothescaleandnatureofthemusic(cantus),namelyfifthandsixth[modes]b-mollaris—allthoseleftareb-duralis—whichwhenunderstood,therangeofthesong(cantilena)alsoisunderstood—foravoidingshoutingandscreeching[this]isofnolittleimportance.Forthefifthwithitsremainingodd-numbered57companionsprogresseshigherthanthesixthandthesethattheycalleven-numberedandplagal,they58onthecontraryarelower.Nextitmustbeseen,whetheritisregularorirregular,thatis,whetheritistransposed59ornot,fortranspositionmostfrequentlyalsotransposesthescale.Lastofall,itmustnotbeoverlookedthattheforeigntones(vox)—ifanyintrudeonthesolmization—andtheremainingsubsequentonesgoalongtogetheruntiltheymayconvenientlychangeintheproper[hexachord]60orareabletochange,ormaybeplacedinanothernote-name(clavis).

ExamplesofMode(Tonus)orMusic(Cantus)Transposition[b5v]

57Heisspeakingoftheodd-numberedauthenticmodes(1,3,5,7)andtheevennumberedplagalmodes(2,4,6,8).Bydefinitiontherangeoftheformerextendshigherthanthatofthelatter.58Theoriginalisilliapronouncommonlycorrelatedwiththeformsofhic,asinhic...ille...meaning“thelatter...theformer.”HereitisnotsocorrelatedbutcouldleadastrayonereferringtotheLatin.Listeniususuallyadherestothismeaningofthecorrelateswhenheusesthem.InPart2,Chapter6,however,heapparentlyforgetsordepartsfromthepracticewiththeresultofapossiblegreatandimportantconfusion.59TheonlywaythatthisuseoftranspositioncanmakesenseisifitisnotasdefinedinChapter8,transpositionbyclef,whichlattertypedoesnotresultinanychangeofthepitches.Itisnotourmodernideaoftransposition.Listeniusdoesnotfurtherexplainwhatchangehereferstohereastranspositionapartfromthenextsentence.60IamassumingthathisuseofthewordpropriasimplieshexachordonthebasisofTinctoris’usageasalludedtoabove.

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[b6r]Chapter8:OnTranspositionofClefs(Clavis)61 Transpositionisthetransferofapositionalclef(clavis)fromalowerpositiontoahigher,orfromahighertoalower,whichisdonebecauseofanexcessiveascentordescentofthemusic(cantus)becauseofthelackoflines[ofthestaff].62Ofwhich[anexample]isgiven.

RuleAsfarasaclef(clavis)ascendsordescendsfromitsposition,soalsodothenotes,althoughthe[clef]inthemusicascendsasfarasthenotedescendsinposition,andthereverse.6361Listeniusonceagainavoidshisspecificterminology,usingthetermclavisalonetomeanclavissignanda,clef.Thatthelatterisintendedthesubsequenttextamplydemonstrates.62Theideaisforthemusictoappearsofaraspossiblewithintherangeofthestaffsothattheperformerneednotbetroubledreadingledgerlines.Clearly,thisisnotthemodernconceptoftransposition.63Listeniushasawayofmakingtheclearobscure.Thefirstpartoftheruleiscrystalclear,butthenListeniusaddsthesecondsupposedlyamplifyingclause,whichinitiallysoundslikeacontradictionofthefirstsentence.The

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[b6v]Chapter9:OnModes(modus)orIntervals(intervallum) Modeisthedistanceofonepitch(vox)toanotherbyacertaininterval.OrasBoethius[says],itisthedistanceofahighandalowsound.Bywhichdefinitiontheunisonisexcludedasfirstoftheintervals,[being]inoneandthesameposition.Havingalinkingmadewithintheraisingorloweringofthesound(vox)bymeansoftwoormorenotesisaninterval.64Musiciansvary,however,onthenumberoftheintervals.Severalcountfifteen,othersnine,someonlysix.Nevertheless,themorecommonlyusedonesinourtimeare:tonus,hemitonus,ditonus,hemiditonus,diatessaron,diapente,tonus-diapente,hemitonus-diapente,diapason[whole-step,half-step,majorthird,minorthird,fourth,fifth,majorsixth,minorsixth,octave].65Thereisnogreatuseintheremainingones,asIalsowillnotmentionthoseprohibited.66

secondsentencemeansthatifthemelodiclinedescends,thentheclefmustascendto“pullitup”backintothestaffandviceversa.ItakethistobeanotherinstanceofthecontinuedmedievalinfluenceonListenius’style.Itwasacommonpracticeinmedievalpedagogytopresentanexplanationinmultiplewaysandbyanalogies,whichsometimesbecomeratherforced.64Thisisclearlytheintendedsense,thoughitismostlyexpressedinaseriesofgrammatically“absolute”phrases,thatis,withoutclearsyntacticrelationshiptoeachother.65ListeniusfollowsRhauintheuseoftheGreeknames.Thataloneisnotsomuchaself-consciousexpressionofthehumanists’renewedinterestinGreektheory,buthisuseoftheGreekcharactersis.ThetermshadlongsincepassedintoLatin.66PresumablyListeniusmeanssuchastheaugmentedfourth/diminishedfifthandthesevenths.

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[b7v]Further,ifanyintervalsextendmorefullyormoredistant,namelyninth,tenth,twelfth,addawhole-step,majorthird,fifth,etc.andsoundanoctavealongwiththeformer.

Chapter10:OnModes(Tonus) Inthisplacemusiciansareaccustomedtomentionmanythingsconcerningthenumberofthemodes,theirrecognition,combination,etc.SothatImaynotseemtoobscuremorethanclarifythesubjectbymeansofsuperfluouswords,67Iwillbrieflysaywhatpertainstothesubjectandbusinesspartlyinproseandpartlyinverseforthesakeofaidingthememory.Now[b8r]firstastothenumberofthemodes:thereare,then,eightmodes,althoughtheancientscountedonlyfour,ofwhichfourarecalledplagalonaccountofthegreaterfreedomindescending,fortheydescendtoafourthorfifthbelowthefinal,stretchingupwardtoafifthorsixth[abovethefinal],andtheyareeven-numbered.Theremainingfourarecalledauthenticbecauseoftheirgreaterfreedominascending,fortheyascendtotheoctaveabovethefinal,andattimestothetenth,downwardscarcelyextendingtoasecond[belowthefinal],andtheyareodd-numbered.Further,thatascentanddescentconsistmoreinthepotentialthaninreality.Indeed,somesongs(cantilena)arefoundinwhichneitherauthenticnorplagalfulfillsitsnumber.

TheDefinitionofMode,fromwhichitappearsTobeatripleidentificationofthemodes

Letthisbearuleofthefirst,middleandfinal[pitches]

IdentitiesoftheModes

Thefirstnoteascendingtothefifthidentifiesanoddmode,Everyevenoneusuallydescendstothethirdorfourth[below].Oddonesaresuitedtogototheoctaveinthemiddle,Althoughevenonesareidentifiedbythereturnoftheirpitches(vox)inthatplace.68OddandEvenwillproperlyrestonDEFG:Thefirst[mode]withitspartneronD,Eendsthethirdandfourth,Thefifthandsixthfollow,thusinordertheseventhandeighth.

Examples

67Listeniusiswellknownasoneofthefirsttodevelopamoresuccinctapproachtothetextinsteadofthelongdiscursivelecturestypicaloftheearlierhumanists.SuchconcisionwasencouragedintheLutheranLatinSchools.68Ibelievehemeansthattheplagalsdonotrisesohighasanoctavebut“return”downwardbeforegoingsohigh.

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