Music Theory Fundamentals

ContentsArticles

Music theory 1Glossary of musical terminology 10Accent (music) 29Dynamics (music) 30List of musical symbols 34

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 46Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 47

Article LicensesLicense 50

Music theory 1

Music theoryMusic theory is the study of how music works. It examines the language and notation of music. It seeks to identifypatterns and structures in composers' techniques across or within genres, styles, or historical periods. In a grandsense, music theory distils and analyzes the fundamental parameters or elements of musicrhythm, harmony(harmonic function), melody, structure, form, texture, etc. Broadly, music theory may include any statement, belief,or conception of or about music.[1] A person who studies these properties is known as a music theorist. Some haveapplied acoustics, human physiology, and psychology to the explanation of how and why music is perceived.

Fundamentals of musicMusic has many different fundamentals or elements. These include but are not limited to: pitch, beat or pulse,rhythm, melody, harmony, texture, allocation of voices, timbre or color, expressive qualities (dynamics andarticulation), and form or structure. In addition to these "fundamentals" there are other important concepts employedin music both in Western and non-Western cultures including "Scales and/or Modes" and "Consonance vs.Dissonance."

Pitch

Middle C (261.626 Hz) Play.

Pitch is a subjective sensation, reflecting generally the lowness (slowerwave frequency) or highness (faster wave frequency) of a sound. Mostpeople appear to possess relative pitch, which means they perceiveeach note relative to some reference pitch, or as some interval from theprevious pitch. Significantly fewer people demonstrate absolute pitch(or perfect pitch), the ability to identify certain pitches withoutcomparison to another pitch. Human perception of pitch can becomprehensively fooled to create auditory illusions. Despite theseperceptual oddities, perceived pitch is nearly always closely connected with the fundamental frequency of a note,with a lesser connection to sound pressure level, harmonic content (complexity) of the sound, and to the immediatelypreceding history of notes heard.[2] In general, the higher the frequency of vibration, the higher the perceived pitchis, and lower the frequency, the lower the pitch.[3] However, even for tones of equal intensity, perceived pitch andmeasured frequency do not stand in a simple linear relationship.[4]

At and below about 1,000Hz, the perceived loudness of a tone gets lower as sound frequency decreases, but aboveapproximately 2,000Hz, the perceived loudness increases as the sound's frequency gets higher.[5] This is due to theear's natural sensitivity to higher pitched sound, as well as the ear's particular sensitivity to sound around the200400Hz area, the frequency range most of the human voice occupies.[6]

In Western music, there have long been several competing pitch standards defining tuning systems. Most made aparticular key sonorous, with increasingly remote ones more and more problematic; the underlying problem isrelated to the physics of vibrations.In addition, fixing notes to standard frequencies (required for instrument makers) has varied as well. "Concert A"was set at 435Hz by France in 1859 while in England, concert A varied between 439 and 452Hz. A frequency of440Hz was recommended as the standard in 1939, and in 1955 the International Organization for Standardizationaffirmed the choice.[7] A440 is now widely, though not exclusively, used as the A above middle C.The difference in frequency between two pitches is called an interval. The most basic interval is the unison, which issimply two of the same pitch, followed by the slightly more complex octave, which indicates either a doubling orhalving of the fundamental frequency.

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Scales and modes

Pattern of whole and half steps in the Ionianmode or major scale on C Play.

Notes can be arranged into different scales and modes. Western musictheory generally divides the octave into a series of 12 notes that mightbe included in a piece of music. This series of twelve notes is called achromatic scale. In the chromatic scale, the interval between adjacentnotes is called a half-step or semitone. Patterns of half and whole steps(2 half steps, or a tone) can make up a scale in that octave. The scalesmost commonly encountered are the seven toned major, the harmonic minor, the melodic minor, and the naturalminor. Other examples of scales are the octatonic scale, and the pentatonic or five-toned scale, which is common inbut not limited to folk music. There are scales that do not follow the chromatic 12-note pattern, for example inclassical Ottoman, Persian, Indian and Arabic music. Arabic and Persian classical traditions often make use ofquarter-tones, half the size of a semitone, as the name suggests.

In music written using the system of major-minor tonality, the key of a piece determines the scale used. (One way ofshowing how various keys relate to one another may be seen in the circle of fifths.) Transposing a piece from Cmajor to D major will make all the notes two semitones (or one full step) higher. Even in modern equaltemperament, changing the key can change the feel of a piece of music, because it changes the relationship of thecomposition's pitches to the pitch range of the instruments that play the piece. This often affects the music's timbre,as well as having technical implications for the performers. However, performing a piece in one key rather thananother may go unrecognized by the casual listener, since changing the key does not change the relationship of theindividual pitches to each other.

Consonance and dissonanceConsonance can be roughly defined as harmonies whose tones complement and increase each other's resonance, anddissonance as those that create more complex acoustical interactions (called 'beats'). A simplistic example is that of"pleasant" sounds versus "unpleasant" ones. Another manner of thinking about the relationship regards stability;dissonant harmonies are sometimes considered to be unstable and to "want to move" or "resolve" towardconsonance. However, this is not to say that dissonance is undesirable. A composition made entirely of consonantharmonies may be pleasing to the ear and yet boring because there are no instabilities to be resolved.Melody is often organized so as to interact with changing harmonies (sometimes called a chord progression) thataccompany it, setting up consonance and dissonance. The art of melody writing depends heavily upon the choices oftones for their nonharmonic or harmonic character.

Rhythm

Metric levels: beat level shown in middle with division levels aboveand multiple levels below.

Rhythm is the arrangement of sounds and silences intime. Meter animates time in regular pulse groupings,called measures or bars. The time signature or metersignature specifies how many beats are in a measure,and which value of written note is counted and felt as asingle beat. Through increased stress and attack (andsubtle variations in duration), particular tones may beaccented. There are conventions in most musicaltraditions for a regular and hierarchical accentuation ofbeats to reinforce the meter. Syncopated rhythms arerhythms that accent unexpected parts of the beat.Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called polymeter. See also polyrhythm.

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In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work inthese areas includes books by Bengt-Olov Palmqvist, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, and Jonathan Kramer.

ChordA basic chord progression in C major would be "C F G." Adding the relative minor chord to it would be A minor. Amore advanced chord for C major would be adding E minor. Most pop songs have a simple chord progression suchas "C G Am F" another one would be "C Em Am F." A basic chord progression in C major's relative minor (Am)would be "A C Dm E." All basic chords for A minor are Am C Dm E F. Choosing the right chord for a melody iseasy once gotten the hang of it. Listen to your melody and pick out the notes that stand out the most. Usually, youchoose a chord that contains the note in it. In some cases, you can choose a chord, for example, D major. If the noteis the 7th of D major (C), you can use the D major chord, creating an artificial D7 sound.

Melody

"Pop Goes the Weasel" melody[8] Play

A melody is a series of tones sounding in succession. The tones of amelody are typically created with respect to pitch systems such asscales or modes. The rhythm of a melody is often based on theintonation of language, the physical rhythms of dance, or simplyperiodic pulsation. Melody is typically divided into phrases within alarger overarching structure. The elements of a melody are pitch,duration, dynamics, and timbre.

Harmony

IV-V-I progression in C Play

Harmony is the study of vertical sonorities in music.Vertical sonority refers to considering the relationshipsbetween pitches that occur together; usually this meansat the same time, although harmony can also be impliedby a melody that outlines a harmonic structure.

The relationship between two pitches is referred to as aninterval. A larger structure involving more than twopitches is called a chord. In common practice andpopular music, harmonies are generally tertian. Thismeans that the interval of which the chords arecomposed is a third. Therefore, a root-position triad(with the root note in the lowest voice) consists of theroot note, a note a third above, and a note a third above that (a fifth above the root). Seventh chords add a third abovethe top note of a triad (a seventh above the root). There are some notable exceptions. In 20th century classical music,many alternative types of harmonic structure were explored. One way to analyze harmony in common practice musicis through a Roman numeral system; in popular music and jazz a system of chord symbols is used; and in post-tonalmusic, a variety of approaches are used, most frequently set theory.

The perception of pitch within harmony depends on a number of factors including the interaction of frequencieswithin the harmony and the roughness produced by the fast beating of nearby partials. Pitch perception is alsoaffected by familiarity of the listener with the music, and cultural associations."Harmony" as used by music theorists can refer to any kind of simultaneity without a value judgement, in contrastwith a more common usage of "in harmony" or "harmonious", which in technical language might be described asconsonance.

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Monophony is the texture of a melody heard only by itself. If a melody is accompanied by chords, the texture ishomophony. In homophony, the melody is usually but not always voiced in the highest notes. A third texture, calledpolyphony, consists of several simultaneous melodies of equal importance.

Texture

Introduction to Sousa's "Washington Post March," m. 1-7Play features octavedoubling (Benward & Saker 2003, 133) and a homorhythmic texture.

Musical texture is the overall sound of apiece of music commonly describedaccording to the number of and relationshipbetween parts or lines of music:monophony, heterophony, polyphony,homophony, or monody. The perceivedtexture of a piece may also be affected bythe timbre of the instruments, the number of instruments used, and the distance between each musical line, amongother things.

Timbre

Timbre, sometimes called "color", or "tone color" is the quality or sound of a voice or instrument.[9] The quality oftimbre varies widely from instrument to instrument, or from voice to voice. The timbre of some instruments can bechanged by applying certain techniques while playing. For example, the timbre of a trumpet changes when a mute isinserted into the bell, or a voice can change its timbre by the way a performer manipulates the vocal apparatus, (e.g.the vocal cords, mouth and diaphragm). Generally, there is no common musical notation that speaks specifically to achange in timbre, (as "pianissimo" would indicate "very soft" for a change in dynamics).

Expressive qualitiesExpressive qualities are those elements in music that create change in music that are not related to pitch, rhythm ortimbre. They include dynamics and articulation.

Dynamics

In music, the term "dynamics" normally refers to the softness orloudness of a sound or note: e.g. pianissimo or fortissimo. Untilrecently, most dynamics in written form were done so in Italian, butrecently are sometimes written or translated into English. Anothersense of the word refers to any aspect of the execution of events in agiven piece; either stylistic (staccato, legato etc.) or functional (velocity) are also known as dynamics. The term isalso applied to the written or printed musical notation used to indicate dynamics.

Articulation

Examples of articulations. From left to right:staccato, staccatissimo, martellato, marcato,

tenuto.

Articulation is the manner in which the performer applies theirtechnique to execute the sounds or notesfor example, staccato orlegato. Articulation is often described rather than quantified, thereforethere is room to interpret how to execute precisely each articulation.For example, staccato is often referred to as "separated" or "detached"rather than having a defined, or numbered amount by which the

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separation or detachment is to take place. Often the manner in which a performer decides to execute a givenarticulation is done so by the context of the piece or phrase. Also, the type or style of articulation will depend on theinstrument and musical period, e.g. the classical period, but there is a generally recognized set of articulations thatmost all instruments (and voices) have in common. They are, in order of long to short: legato ("smooth, connected");tenuto ("pressed", "lengthened but detached"); marcato (heavily accented and detached); staccato ("separated","detached"); "martel" (or "rooftop accent" or "teepee accent") for its written shape (short and hard). Any of thesemay be combined to create certain "in-between" articulations. For example, portato is the combination of tenuto andstaccato. Some instruments have unique methods by which to produce sounds, such as spicatto for strings, where thebow bounces off the string.

Form or structureForm is a facet of music theory that explores the concept of musical syntax, on a local and global level. The syntax isoften explained in terms of phrases and periods (for the local level) or sections or genre (for the global scale).Examples of common forms of Western music include the fugue, the invention, sonata-allegro, canon, strophic,theme and variations, and rondo. Popular Music often makes use of strophic form many times in conjunction withTwelve bar blues.

Theories of harmonization

Four-part writing

Four-voice texture in the Genevan psalter: Old 124th.[10] Play

Four-part chorale writing is used toteach and analyze the basicconventions of "Common-PracticePeriod music", the time period lastingfrom approximately 1650 to 1900.[11]

In the German musicology traditionreferred to as functional harmony.Johann Sebastian Bach's four-voicechorales written for liturgical purposesserve as a model for students. These chorales exhibit a fusion of linear and vertical thinking. In analysis, theharmonic function and rhythm are analyzed as well as the shape and implications of each of the four lines. Studentsare then instructed to compose chorales, often using given melodies (as Bach would have done), over a given bassline, or to compose within a chord progression, following rules of voice leading. Though traditionally conceived as avocal exercise for Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass, other common four-part writings could consist of a brass quartet(two Trumpets, French Horn, and Trombone) or a string quartet (including violin I, violin II, viola and cello).

There are seven chords used in four-part writing that are based upon each note of the scale. The chords are usuallygiven Roman Numerals I, II, III, IV, V, VI and VII to refer to triadic (three-note) chords based on each successivenote of the major or minor scale the piece is in. Chords may be analyzed in two ways. Case-sensitive harmonicanalysis would state that major-mode chords (I, IV, V7, etc.), including augmented (for example, VII+), would benotated with upper-case Roman numerals, and minor-mode chords, including diminished (ii, iii, vi, and thediminished vii chord, viio), would be notated with lower-case Roman numerals. When a scale degree other than theroot of the chord is in the bass, the chord is said to be in inversion, and this is indicated by numbers written above theroman numeral. With triads a 6 indicates first inversion, and 6 4 indicates second inversion. With seventh chords, 6 5indicates first inversion, 4 3 indicates second inversion, and 4 2 indicates third inversion. ( I6, IV4/3,V 4/2 , etc.)Schenkerian harmonic analysis, patterned after the theories of Heinrich Schenker, would state that the mode does notmatter in the final analysis, and thus all harmonies are notated in upper-case.

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The skill in harmonizing a Bach chorale lies in being able to begin a phrase in one key and to modulate to anotherkey either at the end of the first phrase, the beginning of the next one, or perhaps by the end of the second phrase.Each chorale often has the ability to modulate to various tonally related areas: the relative major (III) or minor (vi),the Dominant (V) or its relative minor (iii), the Sub-Dominant (IV) or its relative minor (ii). Other chromatic chordsmay be used, like the diminished seventh (made up of minor thirds piled on top of each other) or the Secondarydominant (the Dominant's Dominant a kind of major version of chord II). Certain standard cadences are observed,most notably IIb7 V7 I. The standard collection of J. S. Bach's chorales was edited by Albert Riemenschneiderand this collection is readily available, e.g. here [12].

Music perception and cognitionFurther information: Music cognition,Fred Lerdahl,andRay Jackendoff

Serial composition and set theoryFurther information: serialism,set theory (music),Arnold Schoenberg,Milton Babbitt,David Lewin,andAllenForte

Tone row from Alban Berg's Lyric Suite, mov. I.Play

Musical semiotics

Further information: music semiologyandJean-Jacques Nattiez

Music subjects

Notation

Tibetan musical score from the 19th century.

Musical notation is the symbolic representation of music (not to beconfused with audio recording). Historically, and in the narrow sense,this is achieved with graphic symbols. Computer file formats havebecome important as well.[13] Spoken language and hand signs are alsoused to symbolically represent music, primarily in teaching.

In standard Western music notation, music is represented graphically by notes placed on a staff or staves with thevertical axis roughly corresponding to pitch and the horizontal axis roughly corresponding to time. Note head shapes,stems, flags, and ties are used to indicate duration. Additional symbols represent key, tempo, dynamics, accents,rests, etc.

Music theory 7

MathematicsIn music history mathematics were the foundation of the first understanding of tones, intervals, and scales developedby the Greeks between 530 and 500 BC. This discovery was based upon shortening a harps string by a half, creatingan octave. Further, separating the same string into two-thirds or four equal parts produced intervals known as fifthsand fourths, respectively.

Analysis

Bass prolongation: IIVVI Play as elaborationof IVI Play.

Analysis is the effort to describe and explain music. Analysis at once isa catch-all term describing the process of describing any portion of themusic, as well as a specific field of formal analysis or the field ofstylistic analysis. Formal analysis attempts to answer questions ofhierarchy and form, and stylistic analysis attempts to describe the styleof the piece. These two distinct sub-fields often coincide.Analysis of harmonic structures is typically presented through a romannumeral analysis. However, over the years, as music and the theory ofmusic have both grown, a multitude of methods of analyzing musichave presented themselves. Two very popular methods, Schenkerian analysis and Neo-Riemannian analysis, havedominated much of the field. Schenkerian analysis attempts to "reduce" music through layers of foreground,middleground, and, eventually and importantly, the background. Neo-Riemannian (or Transformational) analysisbegan as an extension of Hugo Riemann's theories of music, and then expanding Riemann's concepts of pitch andtransformation into a mathematically rich language of analysis. While both theories originated as methods ofanalysis for tonal music, both have been extended to use in non-tonal music as well.

Ear trainingAural skills the ability to identify musical patterns by ear, as opposed to by the reading of notation form a keypart of a musician's craft and are usually taught alongside music theory. Most aural skills courses train the perceptionof relative pitch (the ability to determine pitch in an established context) and rhythm. Sight-singing the ability tosing unfamiliar music without assistance is generally an important component of aural skills courses. Absolutepitch or perfect pitch describes the ability to recognise a particular audio frequency as a given musical note withoutany prior reference.

Notes[1][1] Boretz 1995, .[2][2] Lloyd and Boyle 1978, 142.[3][3] Benade 1960, 31.[4] Stevens, Volkmann, and Newman 1937, 185; Josephs 1967, 5354.[5] Olson 1967, 24851 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=RUDTFBbb7jAC& pg=PA248).[6] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ sound/ maxsens. html[7] Cavanagh (1999). (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090325223741/ http:/ / www. wam. hr/ Arhiva/ US/ Cavanagh_440Hz. pdf)[8][8] Kliewer 1975,.[9][9] Harnsberger 1997.[10] Benward & Saker (2003), p.159.[11][11] Kostka and Payne 2004, .[12] http:/ / www. jsbchorales. net/[13] Castan 2009 (http:/ / www. music-notation. info/ en/ compmus/ notationformats. html).

Music theory 8

Sources Benade, Arthur H. (1960). Horns, Strings, and Harmony. Science Study Series S 11. Garden City, New York:

Doubleday & Company, Inc. Boretz, Benjamin (1995). Meta-Variations: Studies in the Foundations of Musical Thought. Red Hook, New

York: Open Space. Benward, Bruce, and Marilyn Nadine Saker (2003). Benward, Bruce, and Marilyn Nadine Saker (2009). Music in Theory and Practice, eighth edition, vol. 2. Boston:

McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-310188-0. Bent, Ian D., and Anthony Pople (2001). "Analysis." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second

edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers. Castan, Gerd (2009). " Musical Notation Codes (http:/ / www. music-notation. info/ en/ compmus/

notationformats. html)". Music-Notation.info (Accessed 1 May 2010). Cavanagh, Lynn ([1999]). "A Brief History of the Establishment of International Standard Pitch A=440 Hertz"

(http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090325223741/ http:/ / www. wam. hr/ Arhiva/ US/ Cavanagh_440Hz. pdf)(PDF). (Accessed 1 May 2010)

Harnsberger, Lindsey C. (1997). "Articulation". Essential Dictionary of Music: Definitions, Composers, Theory,Instrument and Vocal Ranges, second edition. The Essential Dictionary Series. Los Angeles: Alfred PublishingCo. ISBN 0-88284-728-7.

Jackendoff, Ray and Fred Lerdahl (1981). "Generative Music Theory and Its Relation to Psychology." Journal ofMusic Theory 25, no.1:4590.

Josephs, Jess L. (1967). The Physics of Musical Sound. Princeton, Toronto, London: D. Van Nostrand Company,Inc.

Kliewer, Vernon (1975). "Melody: Linear Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music". In Aspects of Twentieth-CenturyMusic, edited by Gary Wittlich, 270-301. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.

Kostka, Stefan, and Dorothy Payne (2004). Tonal Harmony, fifth edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Kramer, Jonathan (1988). The Time of Music. New York: Schirmer Books. Lerdahl, Fred (2001). Tonal Pitch Space. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lewin, David (1987). Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations. New Haven: Yale University Press. Lloyd, Llewellyn S., and Hugh Boyle (1978). Intervals, Scales and Temperaments. New York: St. Martin's Press.

ISBN 0-312-42533-3 Mazzola, Guerino (1985). Gruppen und Kategorien in der Musik: Entwurf einer mathematischen Musiktheorie

(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ktPuAAAAMAAJ). Heldermann. ISBN978-3-88538-210-2. Retrieved 26February 2012.

Mazzola, Guerino; Daniel Muzzulini (1990). Geometrie der Tne: Elemente der mathematischen Musiktheorie(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LOkDNQAACAAJ). Birkhuser. ISBN978-3-7643-2353-0. Retrieved 26February 2012.

Mazzola, Guerino, Stefan Gller, and Stefan Mller (2002). The Topos of Music: Geometric Logic of Concepts,Theory, and Performance, Vol. 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6I9U9-Rls8oC). Basel, Boston, andBerlin: Birkhuser. ISBN978-3-7643-5731-3 (Basel), 978-0-8176-5731-4 (Boston). Retrieved 26 February 2012.

Olson, Harry F. (1967). Music, Physics and Engineering (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=RUDTFBbb7jAC).New York: Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-21769-8.

Olson, Steve (2011). " A Grand Unified Theory of Music (http:/ / paw. princeton. edu/ issues/ 2011/ 02/ 09/pages/ 6550/ index. xml)". Princeton Alumni Weekly 111, no. 7 (February 9) (Online edition accessed 25September 2012).

Stevens, S. S., J. Volkmann, and E. B. Newman (1937). "A Scale for the Measurement of the PsychologicalMagnitude Pitch". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 8, no. 3:18590.

Music theory 9

Yamaguchi, Masaya (2000). The Complete Thesaurus of Musical Scales. New York: Charles Colin.ISBN0-9676353-0-6.

Further reading Apel, Willi, and Ralph T. Daniel (1960). The Harvard Brief Dictionary of Music. New York: Simon & Schuster

Inc. ISBN 0-671-73747-3 Benward, Bruce, Barbara Garvey Jackson, and Bruce R. Jackson. (2000). Practical Beginning Theory: A

Fundamentals Worktext, 8th edition, Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-697-34397-9. [First edition 1963] Brown, James Murray (1967). A Handbook of Musical Knowledge, 2 vols. London: Trinity College of Music. Chase, Wayne (2006). How Music REALLY Works!, second edition. Vancouver, Canada: Roedy Black

Publishing. ISBN 1-897311-55-9 (book) Hewitt, Michael (2008). Music Theory for Computer Musicians. USA: Cengage Learning. ISBN

139781598635034. Lawn, Richard J., and Jeffrey L. Hellmer (1996). Jazz Theory and Practice. [N.p.]: Alfred Publishing Co. ISBN

0-88284-722-8. Miguel, Roig-Francoli (2011). Harmony in Context, Second edition, McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN

0073137944 Owen, Harold (2000). Music Theory Resource Book. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511539-2. Seashore, Carl (1933). Approaches to the Science of Music and Speech. Iowa City: The University. Seashore, Carl (1938). Psychology of Music (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=p9gUknYfpjYC&

printsec=frontcover), New York, London, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Sorce, Richard (1995). Music Theory for the Music Professional. [N.p.]: Ardsley House. ISBN 1-880157-20-9. Taylor, Eric (1989). AB Guide to Music, vol 1. England: Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music. ISBN

1-85472-446-0 Taylor, Eric (1991). AB Guide to Music, vol 2. England: Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music. ISBN

1-85472-447-9 Yamaguchi, Masaya (2006). The Complete Thesaurus of Musical Scales, revised edition. New York: Masaya

Music Services. ISBN 0-9676353-0-6.

External links Dillen, Oscar van, Outline of basic music theory (http:/ / www. oscarvandillen. com/

Outline_of_basic_music_theory) (2011) http:/ / www. musictheoryhelp. co. uk

Glossary of musical terminology 10

Glossary of musical terminologyThis is a list of musical terms that are likely to be encountered in printed scores, music reviews, and program notes.Most of the terms are Italian (see also Italian musical terms used in English), in accordance with the Italian origins ofmany European musical conventions. Sometimes, the special musical meanings of these phrases differ from theoriginal or current Italian meanings. Most of the other terms are taken from French and German, indicated by "(Fr)"and "(Ger)", respectively. Others are from languages such as Latin and Spanish.Unless specified, the terms are Italian or English. The list can never be complete: some terms are common, andothers are used only occasionally, and new ones are coined from time to time. Some composers prefer terms fromtheir own language rather than the standard terms here. For a list of terms used in jazz, country, rock, and otherpopular music genres, see the Glossary of jazz and popular musical terms.

A a, (Fr): at, to, by, for, in, in the style of... a 2: see a due in this list a battuta: return to normal tempo after a deviation; same as 'a tempo' abbandonatamente, con abbandono: free, relaxed aber (Ger): but a bene placito: up to the performer a cappella: in the manner of singing in a chapel; i.e., without instrumental accompaniment accarezzvole: expressive and caressing accelerando, accel.: accelerating; gradually increasing the tempo accent: emphasize, make a particular part more important accentato/accentuato: accented; with emphasis acceso: ignited, on fire acciaccato: broken down, crushed; the sounding of the notes of a chord not quite simultaneously, but from

bottom to top. acciaccatura: crushing; i.e., a very fast grace note that is "crushed" against the note that follows and takes up no

value in the measure accompagnato: accompanied; i.e., with the accompaniment following the soloist, who may speed up or slow

down at will adagietto: rather slow adagio: at ease; i.e., play slowly adagissimo: very, very slow ad libitum (commonly ad lib; Latin): at liberty; i.e., the speed and manner of execution are left to the performer a due: intended as a duet; for two voices or instruments; together; two instruments are to play in unison after a

solo passage for one of the instruments affannato, affannoso: anguished affettuoso, affettuosamente, or affectueusement (Fr): with affect (that is, with emotion); see also con affetto affrettando: hurrying, pressing onwards agile: swiftly agitato: agitated al, alla: to the, in the manner of (al before masculine nouns, alla before feminine) alla breve: in cut-time; two beats per measure or the equivalent thereof alla marcia: in the style of a march allargando: broadening, becoming a little slower each time


allegretto: a little lively, moderately fast allegretto vivace: a moderately quick tempo allegrezza: cheerfulness, joyfulness allegro: cheerful or brisk; but commonly interpreted as lively, fast allegrissimo: very fast, though slower than presto all' ottava: "at the octave", see ottava als (Ger): than alt (English) (also alt dom or altered dominant): a jazz term which instructs chord-playing musicians such as a

jazz pianist or jazz guitarist to perform a dominant (V7) chord with altered upper extensions (e.g., sharp 11th, flat13th, etc.).

altissimo: very high alto: high; often refers to a particular range of voice, higher than a tenor but lower than a soprano alzate sordini: lift or raise the mutes; i.e., remove mutes am Steg (Ger): at the bridge; i.e., playing a bowed string instrument near its bridge, which produces a heavier,

stronger tone (see sul ponticello in this list) amabile: amiable, pleasant amoroso: loving anacrusis: a note or notes that precede the first full bar; a pickup andamento: used to refer to a fugue subject of above-average length andante: at a walking pace; i.e., at a moderate tempo andantino: slightly faster than andante (but earlier it is sometimes used to mean slightly slower than andante) ngstlich (Ger.): anxiously a niente: to nothing; an indication to make a diminuendo which fades to pppp a nessuna cosa: to nothing; an indication to hold a fermata until it dies away (this only works with instruments

which cannot sustain a note) anima: feeling animandosi: animated, lively animato: animated, lively antiphon: a liturgical or other composition consisting of choral responses, sometimes between two choirs; a

passage of this nature forming part of another composition; a repeated passage in a psalm or other liturgical piece,similar to a refrain.[1]

apais (Fr): calmed a piacere: at pleasure; i.e., the performer need not follow the rhythm strictly, for example in a cadenza appassionato: passionately appoggiatura also called a "leaning note": one or more grace notes that take up some note value of the next full

note. a prima vista: Sight-read (lit. "at first sight"); i.e., (to be) played or sung from written notation but without prior

review of the written material arco: the bow used for playing some string instrument; i.e., played with the bow, as opposed to pizzicato

(plucked), in music for bowed instruments; normally used to cancel a pizzicato direction arietta: a short aria arioso: airy, or like an air (a melody); i.e., in the manner of an aria; melodious armonioso: harmoniously arpeggio: like a harp; i.e., the notes of the chords are to be played quickly one after another (usually ascending)

instead of simultaneously. In music for piano, this is sometimes a solution in playing a wide-ranging chord whosenotes cannot be played otherwise. Arpeggios are frequently used as an accompaniment. See also broken chord inthis list.


arpeggiato: a way of playing a chord: starting with the lowest note, and with successively higher notes rapidlyjoining in. Sometimes the effect is reversed, so that the highest note is played first.

assai: very assez (Fr): enough, sufficiently a tempo: in time; i.e., the performer should return to the main tempo of the piece (after an accelerando or

ritardando, etc.); also may be found in combination with other terms such as a tempo giusto (in strict time) or atempo di menuetto (at the speed of a minuet)

attacca: attack or attach; go straight on; i.e., at the end of a movement, a direction to attach the next movement tothe previous one, without a gap or pause

Ausdruck (Ger): expression ausdrucksvoll/mit Ausdruck(Ger): expressively, with expression avec (Fr): with or with another

B B: German for B flat (also in Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, Icelandic, Danish, Croatian, and Hungarian); H in

German is B natural barbaro: barbarous (notably used in Allegro barbaro by Bla Bartk) Bartk pizzicato: a term which instructs string performers to play a pizzicato note to pull the string away from

the fingerboard so that it snaps back percussively on the fingerboard. bass: the lowest of the standard four voice ranges (bass, tenor, alto, soprano); the lowest melodic line in a musical

composition, often thought of as defining and supporting the harmony; in an orchestral context, the term usuallyrefers to the double bass.

basso continuo: continuous bass; i.e., a bass part played continuously throughout a piece to give harmonicstructure, used especially in the Baroque period

battement (Fr.): used in the 17th-century to refer to ornaments consisting of two adjacent notes, such as trills ormordents

beat: (1) the pronounced rhythm of music; (2) one single stroke of a rhythmic accent bellicoso: warlike, aggressive ben or bene: well; in ben marcato ("well marked") for example bend: jazz term referring either to establishing a pitch, sliding down half a step and returning to the original pitch

or sliding up half a step from the original note. beschleunigte (Ger): accelerated, as in mit beschleunigter Geschwindigkeit, at an accelerated tempo bewegt (Ger): moved, with speed binary: a musical form in two sections: AB bird's eye: a slang term for fermata, which instructs the performer to hold a note or chord as long as they wish bis (Lat): twice; i.e., repeat the relevant action or passage bisbigliando: whispering; i.e., a special tremolo effect on the harp where a chord or note is rapidly repeated at a

low volume bocca chiusa: with closed mouth bravura: boldness; as in con bravura, boldly breit (Ger): broad bridge: Transitional passage connecting two sections of a composition, also transition. Also the part of a stringed

instrument that holds the strings in place and transmits their vibrations to the resonant body of the instrument. brillante: brilliantly, with sparkle brio: vigour; usually in con brio brioso: vigorously (same as con brio)


broken chord: A chord in which the notes are not all played at once, but in some more or less consistentsequence. They may follow singly one after the other, or two notes may be immediately followed by another two,for example. See also arpeggio in this list, which as an accompaniment pattern may be seen as a kind of brokenchord; see Alberti bass.

bruscamente: brusquely

C cadenza: a solo section, usually in a concerto or similar work, that is used to display the performer's technique,

sometimes at considerable length calando: falling away, or lowering; i.e., getting slower and quieter; ritardando along with diminuendo calore: warmth; so con calore, warmly cambiare: to change; i.e., any change, such as to a new instrument canto:chorus; choral; chant canon or kanon (Ger): a theme that is repeated and imitated and built upon by other instruments with a time

delay, creating a layered effect; see Pachelbel's Canon. cantabile or cantando: in a singing style capo:

1. Capo: a key-changing device for guitars and banjos;2. head; i.e. the beginning (of a movement, normally).

capriccioso: capriciously, unpredictable, volatile cdez (Fr): yield, give way cesura or caesura (Latin form): break, stop; i.e., a complete break in sound (sometimes nicknamed "railroad

tracks" in reference to their appearance) chiuso: closed; i.e., muted by hand (for a horn, or similar instrument; but see also bocca chiusa, which uses the

feminine form, in this list) coda: a tail; i.e., a closing section appended to a movement codetta: a small coda, but usually applied to a passage appended to a section of a movement, not to a whole

movement col, colla: with the (col before a masculine noun, colla before a feminine noun); (see next for example) colla parte: with the soloist; as an instruction in an orchestral score or part, it instructs the conductor or orchestral

musician to follow the rhythm and tempo of a solo performer (usually for a short passage) colla voce: with the voice; as an instruction in a choral music/opera score or orchestral part, it instructs the

conductor or orchestral musician to follow the rhythm and tempo of a solo singer (usually for a short passage) col legno: with the wood; i.e., the strings (for example, of a violin) are to be struck with the wood of the bow,

making a percussive sound; also battuta col legno: beaten with the wood coloratura: coloration; i.e., elaborate ornamentation of a vocal line, or (especially) a soprano voice that is

well-suited to such elaboration colossale: tremendously col pugno: with the fist; i.e., bang the piano with the fist come prima: like the first (time); i.e., as before, typically referring to an earlier tempo come sopra: as above; i.e., like the previous tempo (usually) common time: the time signature 4/4: four beats per measure, each beat a quarter note (a crotchet) in length. 4/4

is often written on the musical staff as . The symbol is not a C as an abbreviation for common time, but abroken circle; the full circle at one time stood for triple time, 3/4.

comodo (or, commonly but less correctly, commodo): comfortable; i.e., at moderate speed; also, allegrocomodo, tempo comodo, etc.


con: with; used in very many musical directions, for example con allegrezza (with liveliness), con amore (withtenderness); (see also col, colla, above)

con accuratezza: with precision; with accuracy con affetto: with affect (that is, with emotion) con amore, or (in Spanish and sometimes in Italian) con amor: with love, tenderly con anima: with feeling con brio: with spirit, with vigour con dolore: with sadness con forza: with force con (gran, molta) espressione: with (great, much) expression con fuoco: with fire, in a fiery manner con larghezza: with broadness; broadly con moto: with motion con somma passione: with great passion con slancio: with enthusiasm con spirito: with spirit; with feeling con sordina, or con sordine (plural): with a mute, or with mutes; several orchestral instruments can have their

tone muted with wood, rubber, metal, or plastic devices (for string instruments, mutes are clipped to the bridge,and for brass instruments, mutes are inserted in the bell); compare senza sordina in this list (which instructs themusicians to remove their mutes); see also Sordino. Note: sordina, with plural sordine, is strictly correct Italian,but the forms con sordino and con sordini are much more commonly used as terms in music.

con sordino, or con sordini (plural) (incorrect Italian): see con sordina, above con variazioni: with variations/changes conjunct: an adjective applied to a melodic line that moves by step (intervals of a 2nd) rather in disjunct motion

(by leap). contralto: lowest female singing voice type contrapuntalism: see counterpoint corda: string. On piano refers to use of the soft pedal which controls whether the hammer strikes one or three

strings; see una corda, tre corde below. coperti (plural of coperto, which may also be seen): covered; i.e., on a drum, muted with a cloth crescendo: growing; i.e., progressively louder (contrast diminuendo) cuivr: brassy. Used almost exclusively as a French Horn technique to indicate a forced, rough tone. A note

marked both stopped and loud will be cuivr automatically[1]

cut time: Same as the meter 2/2: two half-note (minim) beats per measure. Notated and executed like common

time (4/4), except with the beat lengths doubled. Indicated by . This comes from a literal cut of the symbol ofcommon time. Thus, a quarter note in cut time is only half a beat long, and a measure has only two beats. See alsoalla breve.


D da capo: from the head; i.e., from the beginning (see capo in this list) D.S.: Dal Segno, from the sign ( ) D.S. al fine or dal segno al fine: from the sign to the end; i.e., return to a place in the music designated by the

sign and continue to the end of the piece D.S.S. al coda or dal segno al coda: same as D.S. al coda, but with a double segno D.S.S. al fine or dal segno al fine: from the double sign to the end; i.e., return to place in the music designated by

the double sign (see D.S. al coda) and continue to the end of the piece deciso: decisively decelerando: slowing down; decelerating; opposite of accelerando (same as ritardando or rallentando) decrescendo or decresc.: same as diminuendo or dim. (see below) deest: from the Latin deesse meaning absent; placed after a catalogue abbreviation to indicate that this particular

work does not appear in it.[2] The plural,desunt is used when referring to several works. delicatamente or delicato: delicately detach: act of playing notes separately devoto: religiously diminuendo, dim.: dwindling; i.e., with gradually decreasing volume (same as decrescendo) disjunct: an adjective applied to a melodic line which moves by leap (intervals of more than a 2nd) as opposed to

conjunct motion (by step) dissonante: dissonant divisi or div.: divided; i.e., in a part in which several musicians normally play exactly the same notes they are

instead to split the playing of the written simultaneous notes among themselves. It is most often used for stringinstruments, since with them another means of execution is often possible. (The return from divisi is markedunisono: see in this list.)

doit: jazz term referring to a note that slides to an indefinite pitch chromatically upwards. dolce: sweetly dolcissimo: very sweetly dolente: sorrowfully, plaintively dolore: pain, distress, sorow, grief doloroso: sorrowfully, plaintively doppio movimento: twice as fast double stop: the act of playing two notes simultaneously on a melodic percussion instrument or string instrument downtempo: a slow, moody, or decreased tempo or played or done in such a tempo. It also refers to a genre of

electronic music based on this (downtempo). drammatico: dramatically drop: jazz term referring to a note that slides to an indefinite pitch chromatically downwards. Dur (Ger): major; used in key signatures as, for example, A-Dur (A major), B-Dur (B major), or H-Dur (B

major). (See also Moll (minor) in this list.) duolo: (Ital) grief dumpf (Ger): dull dynamics: the relative volume in the execution of a piece of music


E e (Ital), or ed (Ital used before vowels): and eco: the Italian word for "echo"; an effect in which a group of notes is repeated, usually more softly, and perhaps

at a different octave, to create an echo effect ein wenig (Ger): a little Empfindung (Ger): feeling encore (Fr): again; i.e., perform the relevant passage once more en dehors (Fr): prominently energico: energetic, strong enfatico: emphatically en pressant (Fr): hurrying forward en retenant (Fr): slowing eroico: heroically espansivo: effusive; excessive in emotional expression; gushy. espirando: expiring; i.e., dying away espressione: expressively espressivo or espr.: expressively estinto: extinct, extinguished; i.e., as soft as possible, lifeless, barely audible etwas (Ger): somewhat

F facile: easily, without fuss fall: jazz term describing a note of definite pitch sliding downwards to another note of definite pitch. falsetto: vocal register above the normal voice fermata: finished, closed; i.e., a rest or note is to be held for a duration that is at the discretion of the performer or

conductor (sometimes called bird's eye); a fermata at the end of a first or intermediate movement or section isusually moderately prolonged, but the final fermata of a symphony may be prolonged for twice its printed lengthor more for dramatic effect.

feroce: ferociously feurig (Ger): fiery festivamente: cheerfully, celebratory fieramente: proudly fill (English): a jazz or rock term which instructs performers to improvise a scalar passage or riff to "fill in" the

brief time between lyrical phrases, the lines of melody, or between two sections fine: the end, often in phrases like al fine (to the end) flat: a symbol () that lowers the pitch of a note by a semitone. The term may also be used as an adjective to

describe a situation where a singer or musician is performing a note in which the intonation is an eighth or aquarter of a semitone too low.

flautando (may also appear as flautendo): flutelike; used especially for string instruments to indicate a light,rapid bowing over the fingerboard

flebile: mournfully focoso or fuocoso: fiery; i.e., passionately forte or f (usually): strong; i.e., to be played or sung loudly fortepiano or fp (usually): strong-gentle; i.e., 1. loud, then immediately soft (see dynamics), or 2. an early

pianoforte fortissimo or ff: very loud (see note at pianissimo in this list)


fortississimo or fff: as loud as possible forza : musical force forzando or fz: see sforzando in this list freddo: cold(ly); hence depressive, unemotional fresco: freshly frhlich: lively, joyfully fugue (Fr), fuga (Latin and Italian): literally "flight"; hence a complex and highly regimented contrapuntal form

in music. A short theme (the subject) is introduced in one voice (or part) alone, then in others, with imitation andcharacteristic development as the piece progresses.

funebre: funeral; often seen as marcia funebre (funeral march), indicating a stately and plodding tempo. fuoco: fire; con fuoco means with fire furia: fury furioso: furiously

G G.P.: Grand Pause, General Pause; indicates to the performers that the entire ensemble has a rest of indeterminate

length, often as a dramatic effect during a loud section gaudioso: with joy gemendo: groaningly gentile: gently geschwind (Ger): quickly geteilt (Ger): See divisi getragen (Ger): sustained giocoso or gioioso: gaily giusto: strictly, exactly, e.g. tempo giusto in strict time glissando (simulated Italian): a continuous sliding from one pitch to another (a true glissando), or an incidental

scale executed while moving from one melodic note to another (an effective glissando). See glissando for furtherinformation; and compare portamento in this list.

grandioso: grandly grave: slowly and seriously grazioso: gracefully gustoso: with happy emphasis and forcefulness

H H: German for B natural; B in German means B flat Hauptstimme (Ger): main voice, chief part; i.e., the contrapuntal line of primary importance, in opposition to

Nebenstimme hemiola (English, from Greek): the imposition of a pattern of rhythm or articulation other than that implied by the

time signature; specifically, in triple time (for example in 3/4) the imposition of a duple pattern (as if the timesignature were, for example, 2/4). See Syncopation.

hervortretend (Ger): prominent, pronounced Homophony: A musical texture with one voice (or melody line) accompanied by chords; also used as an

adjective (homophonic). Compare with polyphony, in which several voices or melody lines are performed at thesame time.


I immer (Ger): always imperioso: imperiously impetuoso: impetuously improvvisando: with improvisation improvvisato: improvised, or as if improvised in altissimo: in the highest; i.e., play or sing an octave higher incalzando: getting faster and louder innig: intimately, heartfelt insistendo: insistently, deliberate in modo di: in the art of, in the style of intimo: intimately intro: opening section irato: angrily -issimo: a suffix meaning 'extremely', e.g. fortissimo or prestissimo -issimamente: a suffix meaning 'as...as can be', e.g. leggerissimamente, meaning 'as light as can be'

J Jazz standard (or simply "standard"): a well-known composition from the jazz repertoire which is widely played

and recorded.

K keyboardist (Eng) : a musician who plays any instrument with a keyboard. In Classical music, this may refer to

instruments such as the piano, pipe organ, harpsichord, and so on. In a jazz or popular music context, this mayrefer to instruments such as the piano, electric piano, synthesizer, Hammond organ, and so on.

krftig (Ger): strongly Klangfarbenmelodie (Ger): "tone-color-melody", distribution of pitch or melody among instruments, varying

timbre

L lacrimoso or lagrimoso: tearfully; i.e., sadly laissez vibrer, l.v. (Fr): allow the sound to continue, do not damp; used frequently in harp music, occasionally in

piano or percussion. For percussion & electric guitar, "let ring" is more common.[1]

lamentando: lamenting, mournfully lamentoso: lamenting, mournfully langsam (Ger): slowly largamente: broadly; i.e., slowly (same as largo) larghetto: somewhat slowly; not as slow as largo larghissimo: very slowly; slower than largo largo: broadly; i.e., slowly leap (skip): a melodic interval greater than a major 2nd, as opposed to a step. Melodies which move by a leap are

called "disjunct". Octave leaps are not uncommon in florid vocal music. lebhaft (Ger): briskly, lively legato: joined; i.e., smoothly, in a connected manner (see also articulation)


leggiero, leggiermente or leggiadro: lightly, delicately (The different forms of this word, including leggierezza,"lightness", are properly spelled in Italian as legger- without the i.)

leggierissimo: very lightly and delicately lent (Fr): slowly lentando: gradual slowing and softer lentissimo: very slowly lento: slowly liberamente: freely libero: free, freely lilt: a jaunty rhythm l'istesso: see lo stesso, below loco: [in] place; i.e., perform the notes at the pitch written, generally used to cancel an 8va or 8vb direction. In

string music, also used to indicate return to normal playing position (see Playing the violin).[1]

long accent Hit hard and keep full value of note (>) lontano: from a distance; distantly lo stesso (or commonly, but ungrammatically, l'istesso): the same; applied to the manner of articulation, tempo,

etc. lo stesso tempo (or l'istesso tempo): the same tempo, despite changes of time signature, see metric modulation lugubre: lugubrious, mournful luminoso: luminously lunga: long (often applied to a fermata) lusingando: coaxingly

M ma: but ma non troppo: but not too much maestoso: majestically, in a stately fashion magico: magically maggiore: the major key magnifico: magnificent main droite (French): [played with the] right hand (abbreviation: MD or m.d.) main gauche (French): [played with the] left hand (abbreviation: MG or m.g.) malinconico: melancholic mancando: dying away mano destra: [played with the] right hand (abbreviation: MD or m.d.) mano sinistra: [played with the] left hand (abbreviation: MS or m.s.) marcatissimo: with much accentuation marcato, marc.: marked; i.e., with accentuation, execute every note as if it were to be accented marcia: a march; alla marcia means in the manner of a march martellato: hammered out marziale: martial, solemn and fierce mssig (German): moderately (also: mig) MD: see mano destra and main droite melancolico: melancholic melisma: the technique of changing the note (pitch) of a syllable of text while it is being sung measure (US): also "bar" the period of a musical piece that encompasses a complete cycle of the time signature,

e.g., in 4/4 time, a measure has four quarter note beats


medesimo tempo: same tempo, despite changes of time signature medley: piece composed from parts of existing pieces, usually three, played one after another, sometimes

overlapping. meno: less; see meno mosso, for example, less mosso messa di voce: in singing, a controlled swell, i.e. crescendo then diminuendo, on a long held note, especially in

Baroque music and in the bel canto period[1]

mesto: mournful, sad meter (or metre): the pattern of a music piece's rhythm of strong and weak beats mezza voce: half voice; i.e., with subdued or moderated volume mezzo: half; used in combinations like mezzo forte (mf), meaning moderately loud mezzo forte: half loudly; i.e., moderately loudly. See dynamics. mezzo piano: half softly; i.e., moderately softly. See dynamics. mezzo-soprano: a female singer with a range usually extending from the A below middle C to the F an eleventh

above middle C. Mezzo-sopranos generally have a darker vocal tone than sopranos, and their vocal range isbetween that of a soprano and that of an contralto.

MG: see main gauche misterioso: mysteriously mit Dmpfer (Ger): with a mute mobile: flexible, changeable moderato: moderate; often combined with other terms, usually relating to tempo; for example, allegro moderato modere (Fr): moderately modesto: modest modulation is most commonly the act or process of changing from one key (tonic, or tonal center) to another.

This may or may not be accompanied by a change in key signature. Moll (German): minor; used in key signatures as, for example, a-Moll (A minor), b-Moll (B minor), or h-Moll

(B minor) (see also Dur (major) in this list) molto: very morendo: dying; i.e., dying away in dynamics, and perhaps also in tempo mosso: moved, moving; used with a preceding pi or meno (see in this list), for faster or slower respectively MS: see mano sinistra moto: motion; usually seen as con moto, meaning with motion or quickly movement: a section of a musical composition (such as a sonata or concerto) munter (German): lively Mussete (Fr) a dance or tune of a drone-bass character, originally played by a musette muta [in...]: Change: either a change of instrument, e.g. flute to piccolo, horn in F to horn in Bb; or a change of

tuning, e.g. guitar muta 6 in D. Note: does not mean "mute", for which con sordina or con sordino is used.[1]

Muta comes from the Italian verb mutare (to change into something).


N narrante: narratingly natural: a symbol () that cancels the effect of a sharp or a flat (see in this list) naturale or nat.: natural; i.e., discontinue a special effect, such as col legno, sul tasto, sul ponticello, or playing

in harmonics N.C.: no chord, written in the chord row of music notation to show there is no chord being played, and no implied

harmony Nebenstimme (Ger): secondary part; i.e., a secondary contrapuntal part, always occurring simultaneously with,

and subsidiary to, the Hauptstimme nicht (Ger): not niente: "nothing", barely audible, dying away nobile or nobilmente: in a noble fashion nocturne (Fr): a piece written for the night notes ingales (Fr): unequal notes; a principally Baroque performance practice of applying long-short rhythms to

pairs of notes written as equal; see also swung note notturno: same as nocturne (see above) number opera: an opera consisting of "numbers," e.g. arias, intermixed with recitative

O obbligato: required, indispensable octave: interval between one musical pitch and another with half or double its frequency. 12 semitones equals an

octave, so does the first and eighth (hence "oct"ave) note in a major or minor scale. ohne Dmpfer (Ger): without a mute omaggio: homage, celebration one-voice-per-part, or OVPP: the practice of using solo voices on each musical line or part in choral music. ordinario, or ord. (It.): in bowed string music, an indication to discontinue extended techniques such as sul

ponticello, sul tasto or col legno, and return to normal playing. The same as "naturale". organ trio: in jazz or rock, a group of three musicians which includes a Hammond organ player and two other

instruments, often an electric guitar player and a drummer. ossia or oppure: or instead; i.e., according to some specified alternative way of performing a passage, which is

marked with a footnote, additional small notes, or an additional staff ostinato: obstinate, persistent; i.e., a short musical pattern that is repeated throughout an entire composition or

portion of a composition ottava: octave; e.g. ottava bassa: an octave lower

P parlando or parlante: like speech, enunciated Partitur (Ger): full orchestral score passionato: passionately pastorale: in a pastoral style, peaceful and simple pausa: rest pedale or ped: In piano scores, this instructs the player to press the damper pedal to sustain the note or chord

being played. The player may be instructed to release the pedal with an asterisk marking (*). In organ scores, ittells the organist that a section is to be performed on the bass pedalboard with the feet.

penseroso: thoughtfully, meditatively perdendosi: dying away; decrease in dynamics, perhaps also in tempo


pesante: heavy, ponderous peu peu (Fr): little by little pezzo: a composition pianissimo or pp : very gently; i.e., perform very softly, even softer than piano. This convention can be

extended; the more ps that are written, the softer the composer wants the musician to play or sing, thus ppp(pianississimo) would be softer than pp. Dynamics in a piece should be interpreted relative to the other dynamicsin the same piece. For example, pp should be executed as softly as possible, but if ppp is found later in the piece,pp should be markedly louder than ppp. More than three ps (ppp) or three fs (fff) are uncommon.

piano or p (usually): gently; i.e., played or sung softly (see dynamics) piano-vocal score: the same as a vocal score, a piano arrangement along with the vocal parts of an opera, cantata,

or similar piangendo: literally 'crying' (used in Liszt's La Lugubre Gondola no. 2). piacevole: pleasant, agreeable piangevole: plaintive pietoso: pitiful, piteous pi: more; see mosso for an example piuttosto: rather, somewhat; e.g. allegro piuttosto presto pizzicato: pinched, plucked; i.e., in music for bowed strings, plucked with the fingers as opposed to played with

the bow; compare arco (in this list), which is inserted to cancel a pizzicato instruction plop: jazz term referring to a note that slides to an indefinite pitch chromatically downwards. pochettino or poch.: very little poco: a little, as in poco pi allegro (a little faster) poco a poco: little by little poetico: poetic discourse poi: then, indicating a subsequent instruction in a sequence; diminuendo poi subito fortissimo, for example:

getting softer then suddenly very loud pomposo: pompous, ceremonious portamento: carrying; i.e., 1. generally, sliding in pitch from one note to another, usually pausing just above or

below the final pitch, then sliding quickly to that pitch. If no pause is executed, then it is a basic glissando; or 2. inpiano music, an articulation between legato and staccato, like portato, in this list

portato or loure: carried; i.e., non-legato, but not as detached as staccato (same as portamento [2], in this list) posato: settled potpourri or pot-pourri (Fr): potpourri (as used in other senses in English); i.e., a kind of musical form

structured as ABCDEF... etc.; the same as medley or, sometimes, fantasia precipitato: precipitately prelude or prlude (Fr): a musical introduction to subsequent movements during the Baroque era (1600's/17th

century). It can also be a movement in its own right, which was more common in the Romantic era (mid1700s/18th century)

prestissimo: extremely quickly, as fast as possible presto: very quickly prima volta: the first time; for example prima volta senza accompagnamento (the first time without

accompaniment) primo or prima (the feminine form): first


Q quarter tone: Half of a semitone; a pitch division not used in most Western music notation, except in some

contemporary art music or experimental music. Quarter tones are used in Western popular music forms such asjazz and blues and in a variety of non-Western musical cultures.

quasi (Latin and Italian): as if, almost, e.g. quasi recitativo like a recitative in an opera, or quasi una fantasialike a fantasia

R rallentando or rall.: Broadening of the tempo (often not discernible from ritardando); progressively slower rapido: fast rapide (Fr): fast rasch (Ger): fast ravvivando: quicken pace recitativo: recitatively; one voice without accompaniment religioso: religiously repente: suddenly restez (Fr): stay; i.e., remain on a note or string retenu (Fr): hold back; same as the Italian ritenuto (see below) ridicolosamente: humorously, inaccurate, and loosely rinforzando (rf, or rinf.): reinforced; i.e., emphasized; sometimes like a sudden crescendo, but often applied to a

single note risoluto: resolutely rit.: an abbreviation for ritardando;[3] also an abbreviation for ritenuto[4]

ritardando, ritard., rit.: slowing down; decelerating; opposite of accelerando ritenuto, riten., rit.: suddenly slower, held back (usually more so but more temporarily than a ritardando, and it

may, unlike ritardando, apply to a single note) ritmico: rhythmical ritmo: rhythm, e.g. ritmo di # battute meaning a rhythm of # measures ritornello : a recurring passage for orchestra in the first or final movement of a solo concerto or aria (also in

works for chorus). rolled chord: see arpeggiato in this list roulade (Fr): a rolling; i.e., a florid vocal phrase rondo: a musical form in which a certain section returns repeatedly, interspersed with other sections: ABACA is a

typical structure or ABACABA rubato: robbed; i.e., flexible in tempo, applied to notes within a musical phrase for expressive effect ruhig (Ger): peaceful run: a rapid series of ascending or descending musical notes which are closely spaced in pitch forming a scale ruvido: roughly


S saltando: bouncing the bow as in a staccato arpeggio, literally means "jumping" sanft (Ger): gently scatenato: unchained, wildly[5]

scherzando, scherzoso: playfully scherzo: a light, "joking" or playful musical form, originally and usually in fast triple metre, often replacing the

minuet in the later Classical period and the Romantic period, in symphonies, sonatas, string quartets and the like;in the 19th century some scherzi were independent movements for piano, etc.

schleppen (Ger): to drag; usually nicht schleppen ("don't drag"), paired with nicht eilen ("don't hurry") in GustavMahler's scores

schnell (Ger): fast schneller (Ger): faster schwungvoll (Ger): lively, swinging, bold, spirited schwer (Ger): heavy scordatura: out of tune; i.e., an alternative tuning used for the strings of a string instrument scorrendo, scorrevole: gliding from note to note secco, or sec (Fr): dry segno: sign, usually Dal Segno (see above) "from the sign", indicating a return to the point marked by segue: carry on to the next section without a pause sehr (Ger): very semitone: the smallest pitch difference between notes (in most Western music) (e.g., FF#) semplice: simply sempre: always senza: without senza misura: without measure senza sordina, or senza sordine (plural): without the mute; compare con sordina in this list; see also Sordino.

Note: sordina, with plural sordine, is strictly correct Italian, but the forms con sordino and con sordini aremuch more commonly used as terms in music. In piano music (notably in Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata), senzasordini or senza sordina (or some variant) is sometimes used to mean keep the sustain pedal depressed, since thesustain pedal lifts the dampers off the strings, with the effect that all notes are sustained indefinitely.

serioso: seriously sforzando or sfz: made loud; i.e., a sudden strong accent shake: a jazz term describing a trill between one note and its minor third; or, with brass instruments, between a

note and its next overblown harmonic. sharp: a symbol () that raises the pitch of the note by a semitone. The term may also be used as an adjective to

describe a situation where a singer or musician is performing a note in which the intonation is an eighth or aquarter of a semitone too high in pitch.

short accent: Hit the note hard and short . (^) si (Fr): seventh note of the series ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, in fixed-doh solmization. siciliana: a Sicilian dance in 12/8 or 6/8 meter[6]

sign: see segno silenzio: silence; i.e., without reverberations simile: similarly; i.e., continue applying the preceding directive, whatever it was, to the following passage sipario: curtain (stage) slargando or slentando: becoming broader or slower (that is, becoming more largo or more lento) smorzando or smorz.: extinguishing or dampening; usually interpreted as a drop in dynamics, and very often in

tempo as well


soave: smoothly, gently sopra: above sognando: dreamily solo break: a jazz term that instructs a lead player or rhythm section member to play an improvised solo cadenza

for one or two measures (sometimes abbreviated as "break"), without any accompaniment. The solo part is oftenplayed in a rhythmically free manner, until the player performs a pickup or lead-in line, at which time the bandrecommences playing in the original tempo.

solenne: solemn solo, plural soli: alone; i.e., executed by a single instrument or voice. The instruction soli requires more than one

player or singer; in a jazz big band this refers to an entire section playing in harmony. sonata: a piece played as opposed to sung. sonatina: a little sonata sonatine: a little sonata, used in some countries instead of sonatina sonore: sonorous sonoro: ringing soprano: the highest of the standard four voice ranges (bass, tenor, alto, soprano) sordina, sordine (plural): a mute, or a damper in the case of the piano. Note: sordina, with plural sordine, is

strictly correct Italian, but the forms sordino and sordini are much more commonly used as terms in music. Seealso con sordina, senza sordina, in this list.

sordino: see sordina, above sortita: a principal singer's first entrance in an opera sospirando: sighing sostenuto: sustained, lengthened sotto voce: in an undertone i.e. quietly spianato: smooth, even spiccato: distinct, separated; i.e., a way of playing the violin and other bowed instruments by bouncing the bow

on the string, giving a characteristic staccato effect spinto: literally "pushed" spiritoso: spiritedly staccato: making each note brief and detached; the opposite of legato. In musical notation, a small dot under or

over the head of the note indicates that it is to be articulated as staccato. stanza: a verse of a song stornello originally truly 'improvised' now taken as 'appearing to be improvised,' an Italian 'folk' song, the style of

which used for example by Puccini in certain of his operas. strascinando or strascicante: indicating a passage should be played in a heavily slurred manner strepitoso: noisy, forceful stretto: tight, narrow; i.e., faster or hastening ahead; also, a passage in a fugue in which the contrapuntal texture is

denser, with close overlapping entries of the subject in different voices; by extension, similar closely imitativepassages in other compositions

stringendo: gradually getting faster (literally, tightening, narrowing); i.e., with a pressing forward or accelerationof the tempo (that is, becoming stretto, see preceding entry)

subito: suddenly (e.g., subito pp, which instructs the player to suddenly drop to pianissimo as an effect) sul E: "on E", indicating a passage is to be played on the E string of a violin. Also seen: sul A, sul D, sul G, sul

C, indicating a passage to be played on one of the other strings of a string instrument. sul ponticello: on the bridge; i.e., in string playing, an indication to bow (or sometimes to pluck) very near to the

bridge, producing a characteristic glassy sound, which emphasizes the higher harmonics at the expense of thefundamental; the opposite of sul tasto


sul tasto: on the fingerboard; i.e., in string playing, an indication to bow (or sometimes to pluck) over thefingerboard; the opposite of sul ponticello. Playing over the fingerboard produces a warmer, gentler tone.

sur la touche (Fr): sul tasto syncopation: a disturbance or interruption of the regular flow of downbeat rhythm with emphasis on the

sub-division or up-beat, e.g. in Ragtime music.

T tacet: silent; do not play tasto solo: 'single key'; used on a continuo part to indicate that the notes should be played without harmony tempo: time; i.e., the overall speed of a piece of music tempo di marcia: march tempo tempo di sturb de neighbors[7] seen in Fats Waller's arrangement of Stardust tempo di valse: waltz tempo tempo giusto: in strict time tempo primo, tempo uno, or tempo I (sometimes also written as tempo I or tempo 1ero): resume the original

speed tempo rubato, means "robbed time"; an expressive way of performing a rhythm; see rubato teneramente: tenderly tenerezza: tenderness tenor: the second lowest of the standard four voice ranges (bass, tenor, alto, soprano) tenuto: held; i.e., touch on a note slightly longer than usual, but without generally altering the note's value ternary: having three parts. In particular, referring to a three-part musical form with the parts represented by

letters: ABA tessitura: the 'best' or most comfortable pitch range, generally used to identify the most prominent / common

vocal range within a piece of music Tierce de Picardie: see Picardy third timbre: the quality of a musical tone that distinguishes voices and instruments time: in a jazz or rock score, after a rubato or rallentendo section, the term "time" indicates that performers should

return to tempo (this is equivalent to the term "a tempo") tosto: rapidly tranquillo: calmly, peacefully tremolo: shaking; i.e., a rapid repetition of the same note, or an alternation between two or more notes (often an

octave on the piano). String players perform tremolo with the bow by rapidly moving the bow while the arm istense. It can also be intended (inaccurately) to refer to vibrato, which is a slight undulation in pitch. It is notatedby a strong diagonal bar across the note stem, or a detached bar for a set of notes (or stemless notes).

tre corde or tc (or sometimes inaccurately tre corda): three strings; i.e., release the soft pedal of the piano (seeuna corda)

triplet (shown with a horizontal bracket and a '3'): Three notes in the place of two, used to subdivide a beat. tronco, tronca: broken off, truncated troppo: too much; usually seen as non troppo, meaning moderately or, when combined with other terms, not too

much, such as allegro [ma] non troppo (fast but not too fast) tutti: all; all together, usually used in an orchestral or choral score when the orchestra or all of the voices come in

at the same time, also seen in Baroque-era music where two instruments share the same copy of music, after oneinstrument has broken off to play a more advanced form: they both play together again at the point marked tutti.See also: ripieno.


U un, uno, or una: one, as for example in the following entries una corda: one string; i.e., in piano music, depress the soft pedal, altering, and reducing the volume of, the sound.

In some pianos, this literally results in the hammer striking one string rather than two or three. (For most notes onmodern instruments, in fact it results in striking two rather than three strings.) Its counterpart, tre corde (threestrings; see in this list), is the opposite: the soft pedal is to be released.

un poco: a little unisono or unis (Fr): in unison; i.e., several players in a group are to play exactly the same notes within their

written part, as opposed to splitting simultaneous notes among themselves. Often used to mark the return fromdivisi (see in this list).

uptempo: a fast, lively, or increased tempo or played or done in such a tempo.[8] It is also used as an umbrellaterm for a quick-paced electronic music style.

ut (Fr): first note of the series ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, in fixed-doh solmization.

V vagans: the fifth part in a motet, named so most probably because it had no specific range vamp till cue: a jazz, fusion, and musical theatre term which instructs rhythm section members to repeat and vary

a short ostinato passage, riff, or "groove" until the band leader or conductor instructs them to move onto the nextsection

veloce: with velocity velocissimo: as quickly as possible; usually applied to a cadenza-like passage or run vibrato: vibrating; i.e., a more or less rapidly repeated slight alteration in the pitch of a note, used to give a richer

sound and as a means of expression. Often confused with tremolo, which refers either to a similar variation in thevolume of a note, or to rapid repetition of a single note.

via: away, out, off; as in via sordina or sordina via: 'mute off' vif (Fr): quickly, lively vite (Fr): fast vittorioso: victoriously virtuoso: (noun or adjective) performing with exceptional ability, technique, or artistry vivo: lively vivace: very lively, up-tempo vivacissimo: very lively vocal score or piano-vocal score: a music score of an opera, or a vocal or choral composition with orchestra (like

oratorio or cantata) where the vocal parts are written out in full but the accompaniment is reduced to two stavesand adapted for playing on piano

vivamente: quickly and lively voce: voice volante: flying V.S. (volti subito): turn suddenly; i.e., turn the page quickly. While this indication is sometimes added by

printers, it is more commonly indicated by orchestral members in pencil as a reminder to quickly turn to the nextpage.


W wenig (Ger): a little, not much wolno (Polish): loose, slowly; found as a directive in The Elephant from The Carnival of the Animals by

Saint-Sans

Z Zhlzeit (Ger): beat zart (Ger): tender Zartheit (Ger): tenderness zrtlich (Ger): tenderly Zeichen (Ger): sign Zeitma, also spelled Zeitmass (Ger): time-measure, i.e., tempo zelo, zeloso, zelosamente: zeal, zealous, zealously ziehen (Ger): to draw out ziemlich (Ger): fairly, quite, pretty, or rather zitternd (Ger): trembling; i.e., tremolando zgernd (Ger): doubtful, delaying; i.e., rallentando zurckhalten (Ger): hold back

References[1] Collins Music Encyclopedia, 1959.[2] About the word deest (http:/ / electricka. com/ etaf/ muses/ music/ classical_music/ composer_catalog_systems/

composer_catalog_systems_popups/ about_these_catalog_systems. htm)[3] musicdictionary (http:/ / www. music. vt. edu/ / textr/ Rit. html); Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (http:/ / www. m-w. com/ dictionary/

rit. ); American Heritage Dictionary, 4th edition; Gardner Read, Music Notation, 2nd edition, p.282.[4] Dolmetsch Online, "Tempo" (http:/ / www. dolmetsch. com/ musictheory5. htm); Oxford American Dictionary; Collins English Dictionary.[5] Carl Orff, Carmina Burana[6] Definition of Siciliano at Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ siciliano)[7] Scivales, Riccardo (2005). Jazz Piano: The Left Hand (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9NwZ6wi5Oj0C& pg=PT86& lpg=PT86&

dq="tempo+ di+ sturb"#v=onepage& q="tempo di sturb"& f=false). Ekay Music, Inc.. ISBN1-929009-54-2. . Retrieved 2011 April 16.[8] "uptempo" (http:/ / www. askoxford. com/ concise_oed/ uptempo) at Oxford Dictionaries Online

External links Interpretations of Jazz Band Literature (http:/ / bands. army. mil/ masterclass/ tusafb/ dec2000/ jazz. htm),

musical terms used in jazz Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary (http:/ / www. music. vt. edu/ musicdictionary/ ) (contains audio

samples) Choral Conducting Terms (http:/ / www. spu. edu/ depts/ fpa/ choral/ chorterms. html) Classical musical terms (http:/ / www. classical. dj/ musical_terms. html) Musical Terms Dictionary Definitions (http:/ / www. theenglishdictionary. org/ label/ music)

Accent (music) 29

Accent (music)In music, an accent is an emphasis placed on a particular note, either as a result of its context or specificallyindicated by an accent mark. Accents contribute to the articulation and prosody of a performance of a musicalphrase. Compared to surrounding notes: A dynamic accent or stress accent is an emphasis using louder sound, typically most pronounced on the attack of

the sound. A tonic accent is an emphasis on a note by virtue of being higher in pitch. An agogic accent is an emphasis by virtue of being longer in duration.Accents which do not correspond to the stressed beats of the prevailing meter are said to be syncopated (Seesyncopation).

Agogic accentsThere are four kinds of agogic accent: Longer notated duration of a note, for example, a half note among quarter notes. Extended duration of a note within its full time value (without altering the tempo). For example, players of organ

and harpsichord (which don't afford the use of dynamic accents) can emphasize one of a sequence of staccatoquarter notes by making it less staccato.

Extended duration of a note with the effect of temporarily slowing down the tempo. Delayed onset of a note.

Accent marks

In music notation, an accent mark indicates a louder dynamic to apply to a single note or an articulation mark. Themost common is the horizontal accent, the fourth symbol in the diagram above; this is the symbol that mostmusicians mean when they say accent mark. The vertical accent, third in the diagram, may be stronger or weakerthan the horizontal accent; composers have never been consistent in using these markings. In most musical worksthis type of accent is meant to be played more forcefully and usually shorter. The remaining marks typically shortena note.1. Staccato, the first symbol shown above, indicates that the last part of a note should be silenced to create

separation between it and the following note. The duration of a staccato note may be about half as long as the notevalue would indicate, although the tempo and performers' taste varies this quite a bit.

2. The staccatissimo, shown second, is usually interpreted as shorter than the staccato, but composers up to the timeof Mozart used these symbols interchangeably. A staccatissimo crotchet (quarter note) would be correctly playedin traditional art music as a lightly articulated semi-quaver (sixteenth note) followed by rests which fill theremainder of the beat.

3. The marcato, shown third, the vertical open wedge, is even louder or more marked than a regular accent mark.4. The fourth mark shown, the Accent mark, indicates that the marked note should have an emphasized beginning

and then taper off rather quickly. This mark is correctly known by classically trained musicians as marcato,

Accent (music) 30

though it is usually simply referred to as an accent.5. The tenuto mark, shown fifth above, has three meanings. It may indicate that a note or chord is to be played at

full length or longer; it may indicate that a note or chord is to be played a bit louder; or it may indicate that a noteis to be separated with a little space from surrounding notes. The last meaning is usually inferred when there areseveral notes with tenuto marks in a row, especially under a slur. Tenuto is Italian for "sustained".

Even when these symbols are absent, experienced musicians will introduce the appropriate gesture according to thestyle of the music.

Anti-accent marks

Percussion music in particular makes use as well of anti-accent marks, notated as follows:1.1. slightly softer than surrounding notes: u (breve)2.2. significantly softer than surrounding notes: ( ) (note head in parentheses)3.3. much softer than surrounding notes: [ ] (note head in brackets)

Dynamics (music)

'Sforzando' and 'piano' dynamic markings inBeethoven's String Quartet in A Major, Op. 18,

no. 5, III, variation I, m. 7-8.[1] Play

Teacher. "And what does ff mean?"Pupil (after mature deliberation).

"Fump-Fump."Cartoon from Punch magazineOctober 6, 1920

In music, dynamics normally refers to the volume of a sound or note,but can also refer to every aspect of the execution of a given piece,either stylistic (staccato, legato etc.) or functional (velocity). The termis also applied to the written or printed musical notation used toindicate dynamics. Dynamics are relative and do not indicate specificvolume levels.

Relative loudness

The two basic dynamic indications in music are: p or piano, meaning "soft", and[2][3]

f or forte, meaning "loud."[2][4]

More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by: mp, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning "moderately soft", and mf, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning "moderately loud".[5]

Beyond f and p, there are also pp, standing for "pianissimo" and meaning "very soft", and ff, standing for "fortissimo" and meaning "very loud".[5]

To indicate an even softer dynamic than pianissimo, ppp is marked,with the reading pianissimo possibile ("softest possible"). The same is done on the loud side of the scale, with fffbeing fortissimo possibile ("loudest possible").[6][7]

Dynamics (music) 31

Note Velocity is a MIDI measurement of thespeed with which the key goes from its rest

position to completely depressed, with 127, thelargest value in a 7-bit number, being

instantaneous, and meaning as loud as possible.

Few pieces contain dynamic designations with more than three f's orp's. In Holst's The Planets, ffff occurs twice in Mars and once inUranus often punctuated by organ and fff occurs several timesthroughout the work. It also appears in Heitor Villa-Lobos' BachianasBrasileiras No. 4 (Prelude). The Norman Dello Joio Suite for Pianoends with a crescendo to a ffff, and Tchaikovsky indicated a bassoonsolo pppppp in his Pathtique Symphony and ffff in passages of his1812 Overture and the 2nd movement of his Fifth Symphony. IgorStravinsky used ffff at the end of the finale of the Firebird Suite. ffff isalso found in a prelude by Rachmaninoff, op.3-2. Shostakovich evenwent as loud as fffff in his fourth symphony. Gustav Mahler, in thethird movement of his Seventh Symphony, gives the celli and basses amarking of fffff, along with a footnote directing 'pluck so hard that thestrings hit the wood.' On another extreme, Carl Nielsen, in the second movement of his Symphony No. 5, marked apassage for woodwinds a diminuendo to ppppp. Another more extreme dynamic is in Gyrgy Ligeti's tudes No. 13(Devil's Staircase), which has at one point a ffffff and progresses to a ffffffff. In Ligeti's tudes No. 9, he usespppppppp. In the baritone passage Era la notte from his opera Otello, Verdi uses pppp. Steane (1971) and otherssuggest that such markings are in reality a strong reminder to less than subtle singers to at least sing softly rather thanan instruction to the singer actually to attempt a pppp. Usually, the extra f's or 'ps written reinforce either ff or pp,and are usually only for dramatic effect.

In music for marching band, passages louder than fff are sometimes colloquially referred to by descriptive termssuch as "blastissimo".Dynamic indications are relative, not absolute. mp does not indicate an exact level of volume, it merely indicates thatmusic in a passage so marked should be a little louder than p and a little quieter than mf. Interpretations of dynamiclevels are left mostly to the performer; in the Barber Piano Nocturne, a phrase beginning pp is followed by adiminuendo leading to a mp marking. Another instance of performer's discretion in this piece occurs when the lefthand is shown to crescendo to a f, and then immediately after marked p while the right hand plays the melody f. Ithas been speculated that this is used simply to remind the performer to keep the melody louder than the harmonicline in the left hand. In some music notation programs, there are default MIDI key velocity values associated withthese indications, but more sophisticated programs allow users to change these as needed.

Sudden changes and accented notesSudden changes in dynamics may be notated by adding the word subito (Italian for suddenly) as a prefix or suffix tothe new dynamic notation. Accented notes (notes that are to be emphasized and/or louder compared to thesurrounding notes) can be notated sforzando, sforzato, forzando or forzato (abbreviated sfz or fz) ("forcing"). Oneparticularly noteworthy use of forzando is in the second movement of Joseph Haydn's Surprise Symphony.Accents can also be notated using the sign > , placed above or below the head of the note. The > sign indicates anaccent only, and is neither related to nor derived from the sign for diminuendo, even though the signs are of aroughly similar shape.

Dynamics (music) 32

Sforzando (sfz) notation

Sforzando (or sforzato or forzando or forzato), indicates a forcefulaccent and is abbreviated as sf, sfz or fz.

The fortepiano notation fp indicates a forte followed immediately bypiano. Sforzando piano (sfzp or sfp) indicates a sforzando followedimmediately by piano; in general, any two dynamic markings may betreated similarly.

Rinforzando, rfz or rf (literally "reinforcing") indicates that severalnotes, or a short phrase, are to be emphasized.

Gradual changes

In addition, two Italian words are used to show gradual changes in volume. Crescendo, abbreviated cresc., translatesas "gradually becoming louder", and diminuendo, abbreviated dim., means "gradually becoming softer". Thealternate decrescendo, abbreviated to decresc., also means "gradually becoming softer". Signs sometimes referred toas "hairp

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