Mathematical Reasoning is Enhanced by Musical Training As reported previously, keyboard training in pre-schoolers facilitates the ability to reason in spatio-temporal terms compared to a computer-activity control group (Rauscher et al, Neurol. Research, 1997, 19, 2-8). This line of research has now been expanded to investigate the effects of keyboard training on mathematical concepts and problems that are often difficult to learn. Graziano, Peterson and Shaw (Neurol. Research, 1999, 21, 139-152) studied second graders who played a specially-developed Spatial-Temporal Math video game; it included problems such as "mentally unfolding" a shape ("piece of paper") along a given axis to correctly match the "unfolded" shape to one of several forms. In addition, some students also received four months of keyboard lessons while controls received English language training for the same length of time. Students were later tested on their ability to solve problems involving fractions or deal with proportional problems such as ratios. Both of the Math game groups scored higher on these math tests than those who received no special instruction. However, the students who had keyboard lessons did the best of all. These findings extend previous results and support the conclusion that musical keyboard training produces transfer effects that support specific types of mathematical reasoning.Mozart and Spatial Reasoning Recently, the first report of a causal relationship between music and abstract reasoning was published. It supports the view that listening to music can improve the ability to perform complex tasks of spatial reasoning. Frances Rauscher, Gordon Shaw and Katherine Ky (Nature, 1993, 365, p. 611) gave college students standard tests of spatial reasoning after they had experienced each of three conditions for 10 minutes: listening to Mozart (sonata for two pianos in D major, K488), listening to a relaxation tape or silence. Performance was significantly better after listening to Mozart than for the other two conditions. The authors selected Mozart because they believe that its musical structure facilitates cognitive processing in the brain and predict that music which lacks sufficient complexity or is too repetitive would interfer with abstract reasoning. It will be interesting to see the results of further studies that determine which aspects of the enhancing treatment are critical and also if non-musical stimulation can be effective.

Radical Rap: A "Surprising" Finding Personally, I don't like radical rap music and so I don't expect it to have any good effects. This is not only illogical but fortunately totally irrelevant to the scientific process, which works only because it transcends the personal likes and dislikes of its practitioners. Recently, Dolf Zillman and several colleagues at the University of Alabama examined some effects of rap music in a controlled experiment. Reporting in the journal Basic and Applied Social Psychology (1995, 16, 1-15), they studied the effects of radical rap and other types of music on political attitudes in high-school students. Specifically, various matched groups of students were shown different types of rock videos. Next, students participated in mock elections that featured candidates who differed in beliefs and political agendas. Although Caucasian students enjoyed rock more than rap videos, they showed a significantly greater amount of support for an African-American ethnically liberal candidate and less support for a white supremacist candidate, than control groups that viewed other types of videos. The authors conclude that exposure to radical rap can support efforts toward racial harmony in Caucasian high school students. Understanding the effects of music on personal and social attitudes, beliefs and behavior is of critical importance but there is insufficient research. More is needed, now.

Thinking About Music and Brain Size

Do the findings support the assumption that listening to music increases brain development in infants and young children? The brain anatomy studies to date have studied adults who are musicians and those who are not. So, clearly, there are no direct findings on children. One would have to expose some infants to music in a controlled way and then compare their brain development with that of an appropriate comparison group. This experiment has not yet been done.

Second, the brain anatomy studies with adults concern musicians who are really defined by their ability to perform music, not merely listen to music. Indeed some of the positive findings concern finger use and hand coordination, that is skills involved in performing music, not limited to listening to music. Therefore, when we think about music, we need to distinguish between listening and playing an instrument. At this time, there is not yet evidence that listening to music in infancy increases brain size in adults. It might do so, but until the appropriate studies are conducted, we simply do not know.

Let us now move away from the issue of listening to the issue of performing music. The argument for a musically-induced increase in relative brain size of children rests on the reports that the effects seen in adults are largest when music lessons were started at an early age, in the range of five to seven years old. This is an important finding but we have to realize that it is not conclusive, for several reasons. First, we do not know the age at which brain increases occur; they might appear later in life rather than during childhood. Second, the findings show a correlation, i.e., a relationship, but correlation does not prove causation. Other factors might produce this relationship. For example, the ability to learn to play an instrument at an early age might occur only in children whose brains previously were over-developed in certain areas.6

Another assumption needs to be considered, the implicit belief that behavioral abilities and accomplishments are caused by over-development of certain brain structures. Thus, if one wants to promote an ability, brain hyper-development would be the way to accomplish this goal. This might be true, but it might not be. While the degree of behavioral skill might be related to the larger size of the cerebral cortex in certain regions, we should keep in mind the differences between brain structure and brain function and also the difference between necessity and sufficiency. Even if it turns out that increased size is sufficient to yield increased accomplishment, the reverse is not necessarily true; increased accomplishment need not require increased size. If this were true, and if only early musical experience produced increased relative brain size, then teen-agers and adults could not learn music and achieve high levels of enjoyment and accomplishment. But they do (See "Music, Development, Aging and the Brain: Its Never Too Late for Music", MRN, Spring 1996, III (1)).

So we need to keep an open mind on the subject of brain anatomy and music. We have to realize that research in this field is still at a relatively early stage. While it is understandable that any findings increase media attention, as consumers of information we need to resist the temptation to jump to conclusions and assume that there are simple answers to complex questions. We also need to be patient good science takes time. As for what to do about children and music now, expose them to music and the arts and promote their involvement in a supportive but not overbearing manner. Whether or not gross anatomical changes in the brain will result, they will benefit and so will you.