MENC: The National Association for Music Education

Predicting Music Appreciation with past Emotional Responses to MusicAuthor(s): Robert H. Woody and Kimberly J. BurnsSource: Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 49, No. 1 (Spring, 2001), pp. 57-70Published by: MENC: The National Association for Music EducationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3345810 .Accessed: 26/08/2011 19:46

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JRME 2001, VOLUME 49, NUMBER 1, PAGES 57-70 57

This study is an exploration of the musical backgrounds and beliefs of nonmusicians and the relationship of these variables to music appreciation factors. Subjects were 533 college students enrolled in 17 sections of courses in Music Appreciation and Music for Classroom Teachers. Subjects completed a questionnaire regarding their musical backgrounds, preferences, and beliefs and then heard and responded to four highly expressive classical music excerpts. Data analyses indicated significant rela- tionships between certain musical background factors and responsiveness to classical music. More specifically, past emotional experience with classical music was a reli- able predictor of music appreciation, as measured by appropriate recognition of expression and willingness to listen to classical music on one's own time. Implica- tions are drawn regarding approaches for teaching classical music to nonmusicians, including increased focus on expressive qualities in music listening experiences.

Robert H. Woody and KimberlyJ. Burns Ball State University

Predicting Music

Appreciation with

Past Emotional

Responses to Music

One of the recognized goals of music education is to expose stu- dents to styles of music that they might not hear through their involvement in popular culture. Accordingly, music educators often introduce students to "classical" music with the hope that students will ultimately acquire an appreciation for this style that manifests itself as attending concerts and listening to this music on their own time. Past research, however, suggests that music education is not often successful in influencing the preferences of students toward classical music (Finn-is, 1989).

The basic belief underlying the objectives of music appreciation is that increased exposure to classical music will ultimately result in increased appreciation of or preference for this musical style.

Robert H. Woody is an assistant professor of music education in the School of Music, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306; e-mail rwoody@gw.bsu.edu. Kimberly J. Burns is an assistant professor of music education at the same institution. Copyright @ 2001 by MENC--The National Association for Music Education.

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Research generally affirms that exposure and formal training con- tribute to preference for certain styles of music (Cutietta, 1992). Few would argue that long-term exposure to classical music throughout one's childhood often produces appreciation for this musical genre. What remains uncertain, however, is whether a semester's worth of exposure to classical music can influence nonmusicians' apprecia- tion. Research studies looking at this type of short-term exposure have yielded largely inconclusive results with students of all ages (Hargreaves, 1984; Peery & Peery, 1986; Price & Swanson, 1990). In fact, certain types of music exposure in formal educational settings may foster negative attitudes about music (Sloboda, 1990).

A common approach to teaching music appreciation involves instruction about basic elements of music and historical review of Western music. In this approach, students are introduced to termi- nology for basic musical elements (e.g., rhythm, pitch, timbre) and then learn to identify the different uses of these elements while lis- tening to classical music. Especially with regard to the college level, this approach has been the center of considerable debate (Mann, 1999), in part because little research attests to its value. On the con-

trary, Zalanowski (1986) found that "concrete analytical" instruction did not improve classical music appreciation among nonmusic majors. Similarly, the instruction carried out by Price and Swanson (1990) resulted in increased knowledge of classical music pieces, but not in more positive opinions of the works. Critics of this traditional

approach contend that it fails to offer a holistic music experience to listeners. As the result of their research, Lewis and Schmidt (1991) suggested that "overemphasis on such intellectualization may make music listening a clinical rather than an aesthetic experience" and that students instead could be encouraged to respond to the music's emotional content (pp. 318-319). This implies an alternative approach that focuses on the expressive qualities of classical music and allows students to draw upon their existing ability to respond subjectively to music (Hargreaves & Colman, 1991). Similarly, Mann (1999) recommended that teachers of music appreciation start with students' immediate affective responses, "to begin with what our stu- dents bring us!" (p. 104).

In fact, there is considerable research on the musical tastes and beliefs that adolescents and young adults may bring with them to a formal music instructional setting (see Zillmann & Gan, 1997, for overview). In a study of junior and senior high school students, Schwartz and Fouts (1999) reported that, among adolescents, the most common motives for listening to music were to relieve boredom and to entertain themselves. Also frequently mentioned, however, were motives that the researchers categorized as emotional attune- ment, such as "to feel better," "to keep me in the mood I am in," and "to help me get into a particular mood" (Schwartz and Fouts, 1999, p. 6). These results corroborate the theory of mood management, which maintains that people choose sensory materials in order to regulate their affective experiences and mood states in desirable ways

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(Zillmann, 1988). Along these lines, Sloboda (1992a) argued that "music does not create or change emotion; rather it allows a person access to the experience of emotions that are somehow already 'on the agenda' for that person, but not fully apprehended or dealt with" (p. 35).

Musical mood management can be seen when some young people choose popular music styles for the expression of emotion-related ideas, such as romance or defiance (Zillman & Gan, 1997). If mood or emotional expression of music is consequential in all of their music choices, it is possible that many young people do not appreci- ate classical music because they believe it is incapable of expressing the emotions or moods that they experience in life. One factor may be that lyrics, absent in much classical music, can be more powerful in affecting the moods of young adult listeners than other purely musical elements (Stratton & Zalanowski, 1994). Of course, formally trained musicians would attest to classical music's capacity for expres- sive communication. Research has documented that performing musicians intend to convey moods and emotions in their music and that listeners tend to perceive them, often with considerable agree- ment (Gabrielsson & Juslin, 1996; Shaffer, 1992). Madsen (1997b) found that this kind of emotional response to classical music is large- ly accomplished through attention to melodic and dynamic ele- ments.

Research has suggested that adolescents and young adults are of an optimal age for expansion of their musical preferences (LeBlanc, Sims, Malin, & Sherrill, 1992; LeBlanc, Sims, Siivola, & Obert, 1996). "Open-earedness," or the tolerance of a variety of musical styles, tends to decline as children enter adolescence but then rebounds as they mature to young adulthood (LeBlanc et al., 1996). The present study explored the musical backgrounds and beliefs of nonmusician young adults (college students), with the primary focus being on emotion-related factors. Subjects' preferences for various musical styles were examined, but special attention was paid to their attitudes and reported behaviors related to classical music in particular. This study addressed the following general research questions:

1. What are the characteristics of nonmusicians (e.g., musical pref- erences and beliefs about emotion and music) that may influ- ence their appreciation of music styles?

2. How do nonmusicians respond to pieces of classical music that are considered highly expressive among musically sophistica- ted listeners?

3. Can music appreciation among nonmusicians be predicted by past emotional responses to music?

METHOD

The subjects in the study were 533 undergraduate nonmusic majors enrolled in 17 sections of courses in Music Appreciation and

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Music for Classroom Teachers offered at the researchers' university. The project was carried out during class time in the first week of the semester (i.e., before students received instruction related to musical expression or other topics relevant to the study). The number of stu- dents in individual classes ranged from 22 to 40. Of the total sample, 56% were women and 44% were men.

Subjects first completed a two-page survey questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of multiple choice and Likert-scale rating items that asked subjects about their personal music preferences and listening habits, their history of emotional responses to various styles of music, and their beliefs about the emotionality of various styles of music. Additionally, subjects' past exposure to classical music was measured through responses to seven yes/no questions: (a) "Did you grow up with classical music sometimes playing in your home?" (b) "Have you played or sung classical music in a school music group?" (c) "Did you grow up hearing classical music in church sometimes?" (d) "Have you played or sung classical music in a church music group?" (e) "Have you ever purchased a recording of classical music?" (f) "Were you ever in a class that included listening to classi- cal music?" and (g) "Have you ever been to a live performance of classical music, such as a concert by an orchestra, symphonic band, or choir?" On questionnaire items involving various styles of music, six broad categories were used: Classical, Country, Gospel/ Contemporary Christian, Jazz/Blues, Pop/Rock, and Rap/R&B. Selection of musical style categories, a well-established challenge of this type of research, was accomplished by referring to the work of Zillmann and Gan (1997, pp. 164-165).

After completing the questionnaire, subjects then participated in the study's music listening task. Subjects heard four brief excerpts of classical music and after each responded to four questions. Table 1 lists the four excerpts used in the study. Selection of the Beethoven, Mozart, and Tchaikovsky excerpts was based on the research of Sloboda (1992b), who specified classical music compositions to which musicians reported having strong emotional responses in past listening experiences. Sloboda also linked particular compositional devices within the pieces of music (e.g., melodic appogiaturas, sud- den dynamic changes, repeated syncopation) with physical effects of intense emotional response, such as tears and shivers. The excerpts of the three pieces used in the present study included as many of Sloboda's identified devices as possible within approximately 2 min- utes of music. Inclusion of the Vivaldi piece was based on the work of Waterman (1996), who similarly documented specific locations in the music that frequently elicited emotional responses in listeners.

The musical excerpts were played from compact discs through wall-mounted speakers in music appreciation or music education classrooms. The presentation order of the four excerpts was varied among the groups of subjects, as drawn randomly from all possible orders. After hearing each excerpt, subjects were asked to respond to four written questions (included at the end of the questionnaire).

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Table 1 Musical Excerpts Used in the Study

Excerpt Recording Composer Work Excerpt Duration Information

Beethoven Concerto for Piano Rondo 2.25 Cleveland Orches- and Orchestra (3rd mvmt.), tra, Leon Fleisher, no. 4 in G Major, mm. 329-499 pianist, George op. 58 Szell, conductor.

Sony Classical, 1992.

Mozart Requiem, K 626 "Dies Irae" 1:45 Bavarian Radio Symphony Orches- tra and Chorus, Sir Colin Davis, conductor. RCA Victor, 1991.

Tchaikovsky Romeo and Juliet Love theme, 2.17 Philharmonia (Fantasy Overture) mm. 200-266 Orchestra, Carlo

Maria Giulini, con- ductor. EMI, 1987.

Vivaldi "Winter" Allegro non 2:16 Saint Paul [L'inverno], molto Chamber Orches- Concerto in (1st mvmt.), tra, Pinchas F Minor, op. 8, mm. 1-38 Zukerman, no. 4 violinist and con-

ductor. CBS Masterworks, 1981.

Note. The specific recordings used in the study were those found in the library at Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana.

The first question asked subjects whether they knew the piece of music. The second question requested that they select from the fol- lowing list the word that best described the expression in the excerpt: anger, joy, neutral, peacefulness, or sadness. The four emotions were based on established two-dimensional models of emotion that com- bine a positive-negative dimension and arousal (or active-passive) dimension (Baumgartner, 1992; North & Hargreaves, 1997). The third question directed subjects to rate the intensity of their response to the excerpt's expression using a 5-point Likert scale (i.e., 1 = very weak, 5 = very strong). The final question asked, "If you were given a

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copy of this piece of music, would you listen to it at home?" Subjects' responses to the questions for the four listening exam-

ples served as indicators of their appreciation for classical music. Inasmuch as appreciation of something is defined by accurate aware- ness and favorable regard for it, this study considered music appreci- ation through the component variables of subjects' chosen emotion words, intensity of emotional response ratings, and whether they would listen to the pieces of music at home. Accurate awareness of the pieces of music was reflected in the appropriateness of chosen emotion words and the intensity of emotional response to these excerpts (noted for their strong emotional content). Favorable regard for the classical music excerpts was reflected in the subjects' willingness to listen to the pieces of music on their own time.

RESULTS

Emotion-Related Musical Beliefs and Other Musical Background Factors

On the questionnaire's first item, subjects selected a statement to describe their general feelings about music. Not a single subject reported dislike for music, and less than 1% of the sample indicated neutral feelings about music. Virtually the entire sample indicated that they either liked music (35%) or loved music (64%). The results for favorite style of music were (from most popular to least): Pop/Rock-60%, Rap/R&B-20%, Country-10%, Jazz/Blues- 5%, Gospel/Contemporary Christian-4%, and Classical-1%.

Subjects also selected a statement related to mood to explain how they choose the music they listen to. Approximately 10% of the sam- ple indicated that they choose their music for reasons other than mood. Of the remaining subjects, nearly two-thirds (63%) respond- ed that they choose music to match their mood; 37% of subjects indi- cated that they choose music to change their mood (e.g., happy music to cheer up, relaxing music to relieve stress). Subjects also indicated with which styles of music they had experienced emotion- al responses in the past: Pop/Rock-87%, Country-68%, Rap/R&B-63%, Classical-63%, Gospel/Contemporary Chris- tian-57%, and Jazz/Blues-52%. Although classical music was the favorite style of only 1% of the sample, a more substantial 63% reported having an emotional response to it in the past.

Data analysis revealed a relationship between exposure to classical music and emotion-related musical beliefs and experiences. Results of a Pearson correlation indicated that subjects with more exposure to classical music tended to rate the general emotionality of classical music higher, r = .356, p < .001. Also, they were more likely to report having past emotional responses to classical music, as determined by a lambda statistic (1 = .852, p < .001). The group means for classical music exposure, based on the 0 to 7 scale, were M = 3.96 for those reporting a past emotional response and M = 2.47 for those not.

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Table 2 Summary Data for Subjects' Responses to the Excerpts

Excerpt

Beethoven Mozart Tchaikovsky Vivaldi

Recognized the piece 8% 12% 74% 23%

Word choice for expression:

Anger 4% 54% 1% 27%

Joy 55% 16% 11% 19%

Neutral 22% 23% 7% 29%

Peacefulness 16% 1% 69% 5%

Sadness 3% 6% 12% 20%

Mean response to excerpt's expressiona 2.77 2.69 2.88 3.05

Would listen to the

piece at homeb 44% 25% 51% 51%

a Used 5-point Likert scale, 1 = very weak to 5 = very strong; significant differences (p < .01) between means for all excerpts, except as indicated by the underline, in paired samples t-tests.

b Significant differences (p < .01) between responses for all excerpts, except as indicated by the underline, in McNemar tests.

Finally, supporting the general thrust of Sloboda (1992b), subjects with greater exposure to classical music tended to be more respon- sive to the expression of the study's listening examples: Beethoven, r = .261, p < .01; Mozart, r= .247, p < .01; Tchaikovsky, r= .303, p < .01; and Vivaldi, r = .325, p < .01.

Emotional Response to Classical Music Excerpts

Table 2 is a summary of subjects' responses to the listening exam- ples used in the study. Several features of these data should be noted. First, many subjects (74%) seemed to recognize the excerpt from Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet (perhaps through its use in television

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commercials and movies). Also, there was general agreement on the expression of three of the four excerpts: joy in the Beethoven, anger in the Mozart, and peacefulness in the Tchaikovsky. Interestingly, the Vivaldi elicited the strongest emotional response from subjects (M = 3.05), but with little agreement about the word that best described its expression. In fact, neutral was the most frequent word choice. Finally, Mozart's "Dies Irae" was not well received by the sample. Its expression yielded the weakest response from listeners (M = 2.69); subjects also were least willing to listening to the Mozart excerpt at home.

Predicting Music Appreciation with Past Emotional Experience with Music

As previously mentioned, music appreciation was analyzed through the component variables of subject's chosen emotion words, intensity of emotional response ratings, and reported willingness to listen to the pieces of music at home. The final series of analyses examined responses to the listening examples by dividing the sample into two groups: subjects who reported experiencing past emotional responses to classical music (n = 333) and those who did not (n = 200). Table 3 shows percentages of subjects' choices of words that best described the expression of the four musical excerpts. With all excerpts, the neutral label was more frequently chosen by subjects with no past emotional experience with classical music. These sub- jects also less frequently chose expression words that match the com- poser's likely intent, such as anger for the Mozart ("Dies Irae" trans- lates "Day of Wrath," describing the Day ofJudgment) andjoy for the Beethoven (Kolodin, 1975, p. 13). Chi-square tests of the response patterns across the five expression word choices yielded a significant difference between the two groups of subjects for all excerpts: Beethoven, X2(1, N= 529) = 18.00, p < .01; Mozart, X2(1, N= 532) = 12.27, p < .05; Tchaikovsky, X2(1, N= 531) = 14.57, p < .01; and Vivaldi, X2(1, N= 527) = 14.03, p < .01.

Subjects' responsiveness to musical expression was examined by comparing the two groups' mean intensity of emotional response to each of the four listening examples (measured on a 5-point Likert scale). With all excerpts, means were higher for subjects reporting past emotional responses to classical music compared to subjects reporting no such experiences: 3.01 to 2.38 for the Beethoven, 2.96 to 2.24 for the Mozart, 3.11 to 2.49 for the Tchaikovsky, and 3.41 to 2.44 for the Vivaldi. Computation of t-tests verified these differences, suggesting that subjects with past emotional responses to classical music were significantly more responsive to the expression of the excerpts: Beethoven, t (531) = -7.41, p < .001; Mozart, t (531) = -7.23, p < .001; Tchaikovsky, t (531) = -7.52, p < .001; and Vivaldi, t (531) = -10.31, p < .001.

A final analysis considered subjects' responses to the question of whether they would listen to the piece at home if given a recording;

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Table 3

Percentages of Subjects' Choices of Words to Describe the Expression of the Excerpts and Their

Willingness to Listen to the Excerpts at Home

Word Chosen to Describe Expression of Excerpt Willing to listen

Excerpt Anger Joy Neutral Peacefulness Sadness at home

Beethoven No past responsea 3.5 45.0 29.5 18.0 4.0 20.0

Past responseb 4.0 62.3 17.6 14.3 1.8 58.7

Mozart No past response 46.0 16.5 29.5 2.0 6.0 8.5

Past response 59.3 15.1 18.4 0.9 6.3 35.4

Tchaikovsky No past response 1.0 11.5 11.5 62.5 13.5 29.0

Past response 0.3 10.0 3.9 74.0 11.8 64.0

Vivaldi No past response 21.4 18.9 37.2 5.6 16.8 27.0

Past response 31.1 19.0 23.6 4.5 21.8 64.6

a No past emotional response to classical music.

b Past emotional response to classical music.

Note. Patterns of responses were significantly different between groups for all excerpts in chi- square tests.

this was perhaps the single best indicator of subjects' music appreci- ation. Percentages of affirmative responses are shown in the right- hand column of Table 3. Results of chi-square tests showed that sub- jects with past emotional responses to classical music were signifi- cantly more willing to listen to the pieces at home: Beethoven, X2(1, N= 532) = 75.94, p < .001; Mozart, X2(1, N= 533) = 47.93, p < .001; Tchaikovsky, X2(1, N= 533) = 61.12, p < .001; and Vivaldi, X2(1, N= 533) = 70.54, p < .001.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study affirm several commonly held beliefs about music and young adults. First, virtually everybody likes music (keeping in mind that the subjects in this study chose to enroll in

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music appreciation courses). In the present study, only a tiny fraction of the sample did not express a fondness for music, with a majority of subjects saying they "love" music. Second, classical music is not a preferred style of music among this age-group. Very few subjects reported classical music as their favorite style. Although this finding may be disappointing to some musicians and music educators, it can hardly be considered surprising. Finally, and perhaps more encour- aging to the music profession, a majority of subjects reported having past emotional responses to all the musical styles presented in the study. This includes the classical style, to which emotional responses were reported by nearly two-thirds of the sample.

Although this study focused on the role of past emotional response in appreciation of classical music, it must be noted that mere exposure to classical music remains a potentially confounding variable. Because past exposure to classical music was correlated with other emotion-related factors (e.g., having a past emotional response), it alone could serve as a predictor of music appreciation. It is possible that extensive involvement with classical music as a young person may yield an appreciation for the style as an adult, even without any marked sensitivity to its expressive qualities. It is perhaps more likely that exposure to classical music contributes to the devel- opment of expectations (including expressive expectations) used in listening to this style (e.g., Repp, 1992). Such expectations may make listeners more perceptive of the expressive qualities of classical music, and ultimately result in greater appreciation for the style. It remains uncertain, however, whether formal music appreciation instruction can effectively build expressive expectations in students through attention to basic musical elements (e.g., how articulation and tempo are used to make music expressive) and aspects of music history (e.g., the use of terrace dynamics in music of the Baroque style period). It is, in fact, questionable whether even long-term for- mal music training necessarily produces appreciable differences in listeners' emotional responses to music (Madsen, 1997a).

A primary purpose of this study was to test the viability of a theory that young adults do not appreciate classical music because they believe it does not address the emotions and moods that they expe- rience in life. The results of this study offer provisional support for this theory. The majority of the subjects indicated that in their own lives they choose music to match the mood they are in. Subjects reporting no past emotional experience with classical music general- ly showed less appreciation for the classical music listening examples, as measured by their choice of expression words, the intensity of their response to the excerpts, and their willingness to listen to the pieces of music at home. Considering that the excerpts in this study are documented for their emotional effects, it is important to note that subjects without past emotional responses to classical music more frequently selected the word "neutral" to describe the expres- sion of excerpts.

The excerpts used in this study were chosen for their strong

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expressive content. In choosing musical examples for music appreci- ation instruction, teachers may wish to similarly consider a work's potential for eliciting emotional responses in students, in addition to its historical and music-theory-related merits. The results of this study also suggest that familiarity may be an important consideration in selecting music that will be well-received by a music appreciation class; recall that the Tchaikovsky and Vivaldi excerpts were somewhat recognizable to subjects and also elicited favorable responses from an appreciation standpoint (Table 2). Finally, research by LeBlanc et al. (1992) suggests that humorous musical selections may foster recep- tiveness for unfamiliar styles of music.

With three of the excerpts in this study, there was general agree- ment as to the emotion word that best described the expression, sup- porting the findings of Gabrielsson and Juslin (1996). However, one of the more interesting findings of this study related to the Vivaldi excerpt. Although it elicited significantly more intense emotional responses than the other excerpts, it also was the only excerpt with little agreement among subjects on the expression word choice. In fact, "neutral" was the most chosen word. It is possible that subjects chose the word "neutral" not because they thought the Vivaldi was devoid of expression (the mean intensity of response indicates oth- erwise), but because none of the provided emotion words seemed to them to fit quite right. This result may point to the ineffability of music, an idea proposed by many music philosophers (e.g., Addis, 1999, Ch. 6; Reimer, 1989, Ch. 3). That is, the expressive qualities of music can represent emotions and moods that language can only imprecisely characterize.

The results of this study suggest that young adults who have had past emotional experience with classical music are more responsive to the expressive qualities of classical music and are more willing to listen to this style of music on their own time. In light of these find- ings, one might theorize that an integral part of music appreciation instruction is the opportunity for students to experience first-time emotional responses to classical music. Past research has offered some initial insights into how this might be accomplished. The find- ings of Sloboda (1990) indicate that students must perceive a non- threatening environment in order to be comfortable enough to respond emotionally to music. Fostering this would seemingly begin by considering students' cultural backgrounds, including musical preferences, which can influence emotional response to music (Gregory & Varney, 1996). Given adolescents' and young adults' fondness for popular music styles such as rock and rap, it would seem unwise for an instructor to disparage these styles of music to students. More generally, Price and Swanson (1990) concluded that instruc- tors aiming to encourage more enjoyable listening experiences "must consider an approach that is different than the typical lec- ture/demonstration model that predominates in the music educa- tion profession" (p. 45).

The present study has advanced the importance of emotion-relat-

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ed factors in the teaching of music appreciation. Its findings offer at least provisional support for the theory that young adults do not appreciate classical music because they have not experienced its emotional potential; thus, they believe it cannot express the emo- tions or moods that they seek in a music listening experience. Although there remains uncertainty regarding the most effective approach for delivering music appreciation instruction, the results of this study suggest that music educators should consider their stu- dents' emotion-related musical experiences and beliefs and plan instructional activities that facilitate students' emotional responses to

presented pieces of classical music.

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Submitted April 11, 2000; accepted October 5, 2000.