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Music Appreciation (Georgia Gwinnett College)Todd MuellerGeorgia Gwinnett College, tmueller@ggc.edu

Elizabeth Whittenburg OzmentGeorgia Gwinnett College, eozment@ggc.edu

Irina Escalante-ChernovaGeorgia Gwinnett College, iescalan@ggc.edu

Marc GilleyGeorgia Gwinnett College, mgilley@ggc.edu

Catherine Kilroe-SmithGeorgia Gwinnett College, ckilroes@ggc.edu

See next page for additional authors

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Recommended CitationMueller, Todd; Ozment, Elizabeth Whittenburg; Escalante-Chernova, Irina; Gilley, Marc; Kilroe-Smith, Catherine; and Fischer,Rachael, "Music Appreciation (Georgia Gwinnett College)" (2017). Fine Arts Open Textbooks. 4.https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/arts-textbooks/4

AuthorsTodd Mueller, Elizabeth Whittenburg Ozment, Irina Escalante-Chernova, Marc Gilley, Catherine Kilroe-Smith, and Rachael Fischer

This open textbook is available at GALILEO Open Learning Materials: https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/arts-textbooks/4

Music Appreciation

Open Textbook Georgia Gwinnett College

Elizabeth Whittenberg Ozment, Todd Mueller, Irina Escalante-Chernova, Marc Gilley, Catherine Kilroe-Smith, Rachael Fischer

UNIVERSITY SYSTEMOF GEORGIA

Module1=UniversalsWhatisMusic?

Inordertogainanappreciationformusicwemustfirstdefinewhat“music”is.Pictureaconcerthallwithagrandpianosittinginthecenterofthestage.ThepianistentersthestagedressedinformalclothestypicalofaWesternArtmusicalperformance.Theaudienceacknowledgestheperformerwhositsatthepiano,opensasheetofmusicandthenwaitsfortheaudiencetosettle.Tobeginthepiecethepianiststartsasilenttimerthatonlyhe/shecansee.Thepianistthensitswhilelistening,notplayinganoteonthepiano.Thistakesplacefor4minutesand33secondsuntilthetimerindicatestheendofthepiece.Thepianistthentakesabow(hopefullytoapplause)andleavesthestage.JohnCagewrotehisseminalwork4’33”tohighlightthatallnoisecouldbemusic.HisphilosophiesweregroundedintheconceptsandteachingsofZenBuddhism.Isitinappropriatetocalltheambientsoundsofthespacethatoneisinmusic?Ifitismusictosomeone,thenitismusic. Nowimaginesomeoneyouknowwhoissosurethatthemusicthattheylistentois“realmusic”thattheydiscountallunfamiliarmusicalstyles,genres,andartists.GrowingupintheAmericanSouthIknewmanypeoplewholistenedtoCountrymusic.Inthelate1980’sand1990’srapmusicandhip-hopculturehadescapedfromtheboroughsofNewYorkandwasappreciatedbyaudiencesinamajorityofcommunitiesacrosstheUSA.OnmorethanoneoccasionIheardayoungcountrymusicenthusiastrailagainstrapmusic.Thesituationwasalsoreversible.Justasmanyrapfanswouldrailagainstcountrymusic.Thecriticismthattheyhadincommonwasthat,“Itallsoundsthesame.”Theymightfollowthatwith,“Ilikemusicthatmeanssomething.”Musicdoesmeansomethingtothosewholikeit.Justlike4’33”meantsomethingtoJohnCageandtomillionswhohaveenjoyeditbothaurallyandphilosophically. Therearemanywaysthathumansexpressthemselvesthroughsound.Theexamplesabovedemonstratethebreadthofmusicalpossibilitieswithinoneculture.Nowmultiplythisbythevarietiesofmusicalexpressionfoundthroughouttheworld’sculturesandthroughouthistory.Itishardtothinkofallofthepossibilitiesandtobelievethatonecould“appreciate”themall.Doyouknowwhy

Gamelanisimportanttothosewhomakeit?Doyouknowwhatitfeelsliketo“beinthemoment”ataHindustanimusicalconcert?DoyouknowthefeelingofturningoffyourconsciousthoughtduringanupliftingpraiseandworshipsongoratanElectronicDanceMusic(EDM)festival?Itisimportanttotrytofindoutwhyothersappreciatemusicbeforepassinganaestheticjudgment. Thefirstkeyistobroadenyourconceptofwhatmusicis.Inthiscoursewedefinemusicassoundorganizedbyhumans(Blacking1973,4).Becauseneuroscienceisinatimeofgreatdiscoverieswearelearningmoreandmoreaboutmusicanditsbiologicalbenefits(reasons).Musicisimportanttohumansandhasbeenforatleastthelast40,000years.Weknowthisbecausetheoldestinstrument(thathasbeenfound)isaboneflutefoundinHohleFelsCaveinsouthwestGermany.Thelevelofsophisticationthatittooktomaketheinstrumentindicatesthatittookmucheffort.Thisisnotaprimitiveinstrument. Thewaystolistentomusicareasvariedasthegenres.Agenreisagroupofmusicalpiecesthatarecharacterizedbysimilarities.Atthebeginningofthe21stcenturyhumansaresurroundedbymusicandnoise.Muchofthisnoiseisambientmusic.Wehearmoremusicthananyoneatanyothertimeinhistory.Itisnothingspecialformanyofus.Itaccompaniesourdriving,walking,studying,shopping,ridinganelevator,etc.…Wedonothavetopayattentiontomostofthemusicthatwehear.Infact,muchofitisnotcreatedforpeoplewhoarepayingattention.Insteaditiscreatedforpassivelistening.Passivelisteningsimplymeanshearingwithoutanintentiontoexperiencewhatoneishearing.Examplesofmusicforpassivelisteningwouldincludeambientmusicheardinadepartmentstore,themepark,oryogastudio.Musicplayedinacommercialandoftentimesinavideogame,televisionshow,internetpostormoviemayalsobeambient.Activelisteningisrequiredtodevelopanappreciationforamajorityofthegenresofmusic.Activelisteningislisteningwithapurpose.Thatpurposemaysimplybetoenjoythesounds,oritmaybetoanalyzethemusictofindoutwhatmakesitunique. Thereareasmanywaystoanalyzemusicastherearevarietiesofwaystomakemusic.Inthisclasswewillutilizefiveelementsofmusictogainagreaterunderstandingofthecomposition(workofart).Thefiveelementsofmusicare:rhythm,melody,harmony,texture,andform.Modulethreewillrequireactivelisteningandanalysisof

rhythm.Modulefourwillincludemelody,harmony,andtexture.Modulefivewillcoverform.Inaddition,thiscoursewillanalyzedifferencesinhumanmusicalexpressionbysurveyinginstrumentsfromaroundtheworld(Module2).Thiswillincludeadiscussionoftimbre.TimbreisaFrenchwordthatweusetodescribetheuniquequalityofthesoundofaninstrument. Theword“music”Forthepurposeofthiscoursewearedefiningmusicassoundorganizedbyhumans.WhilethisworkswellinappreciationcoursesintheWesternworlditdoesnotalwaysworkwhentalkingaboutthe“humanlyorganizedsound”ofothercultures.Theword“music”isaconstructofWesterncultureanddoesnottranslatetoallcultures.IntheArabicIslamicworldthetranslationformusicismusiqaa.WhilethiswordreferstomuchofwhatwesternerswouldcallmusicitdoesnotrefertomelodicrecitationoftheQur’an.RecitationoftheholiestbookinIslamisartfulmelodicandrhythmicpresentationthatisdonewithmuchpassion(soul).Eventhoughthisrecitationis“soundorganizedbyhumans”itisnotappropriatetorefertoitusingthewordmusic.ThisisbecauseitisaspiritualpresentationthatMuslimsconsidertobedifferent(above)secular“music”.Thisisnottosaythatallreligiousrecitationisdifferentthanmusic.InEuropetheoldestnotatedmusicisreligiouschantcalledplainchant(6ththrough9thcenturies).ThisisoftenreferredtoasGregorianchantbecauseofalegendthatclaimsthatPope(Saint)GregoryIwasresponsibleforgatheringthemusicalpracticeofalloftheRomanCatholiclandsintoanotatedset.SaintGregorycertainlydidmuchtocanonizetheCatholicworshipdocumentsbuttheplainchantthathashisnamemostlikelyevolvedinthethreehundredyearsafterhisdeath.Plainchant,orGregorianChant,ismelodicrecitationthatiscalledmusic.Manyculturesdonotlimitmusictoorganizedsound.InIndia,sangitareferstobothmusicanddance.Forpeoplewhotiemusicintotheirwayoflifethereissometimesnowordformusicbecauseitisnotseparatedfrom“life”.ThisistrueformanyindigenousNorthAmericansandAfricans.

Whomakesmusic?Theconceptofwho,orwhat,amusicianisalsovariesbetweencultures.InthesameindigenousNorthAmericanandAfricanculturesthereisnotadesignationforsomeonewhospecializesinmusic.Thisisbecauseallmembersofthecommunitymakemusic.Theconceptiscomparabletotheactofspeakinginourcommunities.Everyonetakespartinspeaking.Werecognizethatsome“speakers”or“preachers”havedevelopedtheskillbutthatdoesnotmeanthatothersdonotspeak.Inourownculturethedefinitionof“musician”isamovingtarget.Whatlevelofproficiencyorprofessionalismdoesonehavetoachievebeforebeingconsideredamusician?Isitnottruethatonewhosingsinchurchoratabirthdaypartyismakingmusicandthereforeamusician?Forthepurposesofaworldsurveyofmusicitisimportanttobroadenthedefinitionofamusiciantobeanyonewhoistakingpartinmusic.Thiscanbeavirtuosoviolinist,adancerinIndia,aproducerofHip-Hoporashowersinger.Whydopeoplemakemusic?

Humansusemusicforavarietyofreasonsthatvaryfromculturetoculture.Musicsignifiesdifferentthingsfordifferentpeople.Somemainlyuseitforentertainmentandmarketingwhileforothersitisapartofeverydaylifeakintospeakingorwalking.AsCathyKilroe-SmithwritesinMusicalJourneys:

OnthecontinentofAfrica,musicisusedinanumberofpracticalways.Inmanycases,itisusedwhiledoingeverydaytaskssothatthemindcanrestwhiletherhythmtakesover.FishermenalongthecoastofMauritaniausesongtohelpthemcommunallypullintheirheavyfishingnets.Thesongshelpthemtosynchronizetheirmovementssothatastherhythmincreasessodoestheeffortputintohaulingintheircatch.Knownfortheircraftsmanship,theSenofupeopleoftheIvoryCoastusecombinationsofrhythmstocreatecommunalrhythmicpatterns.Eachactionortaskhasarhythm,andwhencombinedtheeffectisofonecomplexmusicaltapestry.Thisensuresthateveryonekeepsworkingatagoodpaceandhelpsthetimepassquicker.Oncetheworkdayisover,themusicandrhythmschangeand

eveningsarespentdancingandsinging.MusicisverymuchpartofthefabricofdailylifeinAfrica.Singingandmovementaccompanymanyaspectsofdailylife;evenwhilewaitinginlinepeoplesing.(Kilroe-Smith2013,14)

Thispassagealsoillustratestheuseofmusictoincreaseproductivityoflabor.Worksongscomefromallwaysoflife.Someexamplesareseashanties,fieldhollers,streetcries,lumberjacktunes,prisonsongs,railroadsongs,miningsongs,andcowboytunes.Anotherkindofworkmusicistraditionalmilitarymusicfromtimeswhenmusicwasusedtoorganizeandmotivatetroopsonamarchoronabattlefield.Militarymusicstillaccompaniesimportantceremoniesandevents.

Whenpeoplegathertogetherthereisoftenmusic.Thiscanbesimplytoenjoythecompanyofotherslikeatapicnicoraparty.Itcanalsobeagatheringthatfocusesonthemusiclikeaconcertoradance.Musicisusedforcelebrationsrangingfromlife’smostimportantevents(weddings,graduations,funerals,birthdays)tothemostinane(competitivevictories,arrivaloftheweekend).Lullabiesareusedtoputchildrentosleepandsongshelpwakepeopleupwithtenderness.

TheexpressionofideasandemotionsisareasonformuchoftheWesternWorld’spopularmusic.Listenersrelatetothemessagesinpoptunes.Songsandworksaboutemotionsthataregeneratedbyloveareacommonexampleofemotionalexpressioninmusic.Inthisway,musicisoftenusedtoidentifyandexpresswhoweareasmusiciansandlisteners.Thisexpressioncanbepersonaloritcanbeusedforgroupidentity.NationalAnthemsareusedtounifymembersofasocietyunderacommonmusicaltheme.IninternationalgatheringsliketheOlympicsmusicprovidesnationalunityandpride.Protestsongscanunifymanypeoplebehindacommongoal.Thesesongsoftengivepeoplestrengthandcouragetocarryon.

Musicisaprofessionformany.Thereismuchmoneytobemadebyperformingandcomposingmusic.Thinkofallofthecommercialusesofmusic.Musicisheardinstores,inparks,ontelevision,inthemovies,inairports,andinrestaurants.Oftentimespeoplecompose,perform,andrecordthismusicprimarilyformoney.ProfessionalWesternclassicalmusiciansplayconcertsyearround.Manyoftheseconcertsdonotcontainmusicthateverymemberispassionateabout.

Oneofthemoststrikingandprofoundusesofmusicisinworship.Amajorityofhumansusemusicinreligiouspractices.ThisisevidentinhymnsandchoralsingingofChristianity.ItcanbefoundintheSufiWhirlingDervishesandinthedevotionalaspectofHindustaniandCarnaticmusicfromIndia.Intheshamanisticculturesoftheworldcommunicationwiththespiritworldisfacilitatedthroughmusicalpracticewithshamanoftensinginganddrumming.Religioustranceaccompaniedbymusiccanbefoundacrosstheglobe,fromTibetanBuddhismtoAlabamanPentecostalChristianity.

Thespiritualorreligiousaspectofmusicisareasonthatmanymusiciansgiveforwantingtodevotetheirlifetotheart.Becausesciencecannotyetexplainthetranscendentpowerofmusicwesaythatmusichasmetaphysicalpower.Metaphysicsisatermthatisusedtoexplainconceptsorideasthatcannotbescientificallyproven(yet).Thiscanbefeltinthesolitudeofaprayerfulchantorinthecommon“vibe”ofthousandsdancingatanelectronicdancemusicfestivalorclub.

Danceisaformofhumanexpressionthatisalmostinseparablefrommusic.Becauseofthismuchmusiciscreatedtoaccompany,orfacilitatedance.Thisdancecanbeformal,likeinaEuropeanballetorEgyptianzaar.Dancemusiccanalsobeinformal,likeataconcertorclub.

Whatisaestheticpreference?

Inalimitedsenseaestheticsarethejudgmentsandpreferencesthathumansplaceonartandculturalworks.Aestheticjudgmentsarenotmadefromonlyoneareaofourunderstanding.Theyarephilosophical,scientific,andtheoretical.Insimplertermsaestheticjudgmentsareemotional,intellectualandsensoryallatonce.Itisimportanttorecognizedifferingaestheticsastheresultoftheculturefromwhichtheyarise.ManyAmericanstudentshaveanaestheticpreferenceformusicthathasextra-musicalmeaningheardinwordsthataresung.Inthiscaseextra-musicalreferstoaspectsofthemusicthatareinadditiontoarrangedsounds.InWesternmusichistorymusicologists(peoplewhostudymusicasanacademicsubject,mostlyusedfordescribingscholarsofEuropeanArtmusic)divideworksintotwocategoriesthatindicatethemeaningofapiece.Thecategoryinwhichtheworkscontainsextra-musicalmeaningiscalledprogrammaticmusic.Programmaticmusiccantellastoryorsimply

relateanideawithorwithoutwords.Asasidenote:Musicwithwordscangenerallybecalledsongswhilemusicwithoutwordsisusuallyreferredtoasapieceorwork.Theothercategoryisabsolutemusic.Absolutemusicreferstomusicthatcontainsnoextra-musicalstoryoridea.Thereisnotcurrentlyastrongaestheticforabsolutemusic.TheClassicalStylePeriod(1750-1820)isatimeinEuropeanArtMusicwhentherewasemphasisonabsolutemusic.Thisiswhenthesonata,stringquartet,concerto,andsymphonybecameimportantgenres.

Musicthathaswordscanrelateanyidea,story,oremotionthatthesongwriterand/ormusicianswanttoconvey.Somesongsarenarrative.Thismeansthattheytellastory.Somesimplyrelateanemotionoridea.Sometimesthewordsthataresungdonothaveliteralmeaningtothelisteners/performers.Instead,performanceofthepieceholdstheactualmeaning.Thisisthecasewithmanypatrioticsongsorprotestsongs.Insomemusic,thesyllablesbeingsungaremeaningless.Meaninglesssungsyllablesarecalledvocables.ManyindigenousAmericansongsutilizevocables.TheyarealsoapartofEngland’srichmadrigalandcaroltradition(“Fa-la-la-la-la”)andAmericanDoWopmusicfromthelate1950’s.

Somelistenersprefermusicwithoutdirectmeaning.AprimeaestheticoftheabsolutemusicoftheClassicalstyleperiodwasemphasisonformandproportioninmusic.TheworksofWolfgangAmadeusMozartepitomizethisaestheticgoal.UnderstandingmuchofMozart’smusicnecessitatesunderstandingtheformsandmelodiesofthelate18thcenturyinAustria.Morerecentlyambientmusichasfoundanaudience.Puredancemusic(withoutlyrics)mightalsobeabsolute.Absolutemusicisonly“about’’thearrangementofsounds.

Aestheticpreferencecanalsomanifestinthewaythataperformerinterpretsapieceofmusic.Inmuchoftheworld’sculturesthereisastrongaestheticforhearingtraditional,recognizablepieces.Eachnewperformerofthesetraditionalpiecesisexpectedtoaddtheirownmusicalidentitytothepiece.Thisisanopposingaesthetictoculturesinwhicheachsubsequentperformanceofthepiecetriestoapproximatetheoriginalsound,aesthetic,andintentofthepiece.StudentsinAmericaoftenrevealaestheticpreferencebyconsideringhowtheywouldliketohearanartistplayasongthattheylike.Wouldtheyrathertheartistinterpretinanewwayordotheywanttohearit“likeitwasonthealbum”?

TransmissionofMusicandKnowledge Theprocessbywhichmusicmovesfrombetweenonepersontoanother,betweengenerations,andbetweencommunitiesiscalledmusicaltransmission.SinceEdison’sfirstrecordingin1877,recordingtechnologyhastransformedmusicperformanceandtransmission.Theprocessofchangefromrecordingsoundontinfoil,waxcylinders,vinyl,magnetictape,tothedigitalrevolutionthatbroughtaboutcompactdiscsandnowstreaminghasdrasticallychangedhowmusicistransmitted.Inthecurrentworld(2016)itispossibletoholdmoremusiconadevicesmallenoughtokeepinone’spocketthanamajorlibrarycouldphysicallycontainin1976.Thishaschangedhowmuchhumansconsumeandvaluemusic.WhencombinedwithvideorecordingandtheInternet,recordinghasbecometheprimarywaytotransmitmusicbetweenpeople,cultures,andgenerations.Thetechnicalrevolutionhasfacilitatedcrossculturalexposureandexplorationthatisunparalleledinhumanhistory.Thishasramificationsthatareyettobediscoveredand/orunderstood. Beforemodernrecordingtechnologytheonlywaystopassdownaworkinanoriginalstateweretonotateitonpaperortopassitdownorally.Manyculturescontinuetraditionsthathavebeenongoingforcenturiesofpassingdownmusicorally/aurally.Whilenewperformersarepartofacontinuinglineageandtraditionitislikelythatthemusicthattheyinheritcontinuallyevolves.TheoldestextantwrittennotationthatgivescompleteinstructionsonhowthemusicistosoundoriginatedwithMedievalEuropeanmonks.Thisisnowthestaffnotationthatisfastbecomingaglobalstandardformusicnotation.

ReferenceList:Bakan,MichaelB.2012.WorldMusic:TraditionsandTransformations.2nded. NewYork:McGraw-Hill.Blacking,John.1973.HowMusicalisMan?Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress.Cage,John.1973.Silence:LecturesandWritingsbyJohnCage.Middletown,

Connecticut:WesleyanUniversityPress.Kilroe-Smith,Catherine.2013.MusicalJourneys.Dubuque,IA:KendallHunt.Paredes,Américo.1958.WithHisPistolinHisHand:ABorderBalladandIt’sHero.

Austin,TX:UniversityofTexasPress.TheMusicInstinct:ScienceandSong.WrittenanddirectedbyElenaMannes.

Premiered[2009].Co-productionofTHIRTEENforWNET.ORGandMannesProductionsInc.,inassociationwithARTE/France,NDR,AustralianBroadcastingCorporationwiththeparticipationofYLE.YouTubevideo,1:53:34.PostedbyCoffeeScience&Discoveries[Oct2014].https://youtu.be/m5pwSMDTD4M?t=26m13s.AccessedOct.2016.

Wade,BonnieC.2013.ThinkingMusically:ExperiencingMusic,ExpressingCulture.

3rded.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Module2-MusicalInstrumentsWhatareinstruments?

Musicalinstrumentsareanysoundproducingmediumusedinthecreationofmusic.Thisincludesthehumanbody(voice)andallelectronicandchanceproductionofmusicalsounds.

Musicalinstrumentsareamongsttheearliestevidenceofhumanscreatingart.TheoldestextantinstrumentsareflutesfoundinHohleFelscaveinSouthwestGermany.Theseflutesaremadeoutofthelegboneofaswanandwoolymammothivory.Theseflutesrevealmusicalactivityattheendofthe“stone”age.VisualrepresentationsofmusicalinstrumentscanbefoundinmostoftheWorld’sancientcultures(Egyptiansistrum,Persianney,Chinesexun,Greek“Pan”flutes,aboriginalAustralianbullroarer,logdrumsoftheAztecs,andsoon).Wealsolearnaboutinstrumentsfrommyths,legends,andinart.Althoughthereismuchevidenceleftofmusicalinstrumentsthereislittleinformationleftonhowtheywereplayed.Becauseofthisethnomusicologistsmustmakemanydeductionsandassumptionsabouthowmusicsounded.

Perhapsthefirstmusicalinstrumentswereusedforcommunication.Signalinginstrumentsarecommoneventoday.Trumpetsanddrumshavealongtraditionofsignalinginmilitaryunitsbothonandoffofthebattlefield.ShofarsandKuduhornsupholdthissametraditioninvariousoldercultures.Gongsandchurchbellshavelongsignaledmanyevents.InTibetanBuddhismmonksblowintoconchshellstosignaltimesandcallpeopletoprayer.ThedrumbeatofaTurkishJanissarybandwasusedtostrikefearintoChristiancrusaders.Electronicmusicaltonesnowsignalthearrivaloftextmessages,phonecalls,thecompletionofadownload,andanynumberofachievementsonvideogames.Determiningtheuseofaninstrumenthelpstogiveinsightintothemeaningofittothepeoplewhouseit.

Whenlookingintotheinstrumentsofanycultureitishelpfultouseaclassificationsystem.Themostcommonusedclassificationsystemformusicalinstruments(usedinWesternacademia)iscalledtheHornbostel-Sachsinstrumentclassificationsystem(publishedin1914).ThissystemisbasedoffofaHindusystemusedbyBelgiancuratorVictorMahillioninthelate1800s.TherearefivecategoriesofinstrumentsintheHornbostel-Sachsclassification:

• Idiophones-instrumentinwhichprimarysoundproducingmediumisthevibratingbodyoftheinstrumentitself.

• Membranophones-instrumentinwhichtheprimarysoundproducingmediumisavibratingstretchedmembrane(skin)

• Chordophones-instrumentinwhichtheprimarysoundproducingmediumisavibratingchord(string)

• Aerophones-instrumentinwhichtheprimarysoundproducingmediumisavibratingcolumnofair

• Electrophones-instrumentwherethesoundisdifferentiatedelectronicallySomenotableexamplesfromeachcategorythatcanbeusedforyourproject:

Idiophones:cymbal,triangle,zils,slitdrums,woodblocks,chimes,bells,glockenspiel,marimba,balaphone,xylophone,mbira,gongs,(Gamelanhas:kenong,ageng,kempul,kempli,gansa,ugal,jublag,panyacah,jegogan),steeldrums,jawharp,shakers,rattles,guiro,bones,castanets,udu,HangdrumMembranophones:drumsofallkinds=djembe,ashiko,talking-drums,tar,tabla,mrdangam,taiko,powwowdrum,bassdrum,snaredrum,timpani,surdo,repinique,cuica,conga,bongo,framedrums,tambourine,rik,kanjir,bodranAerophones:flutes(dizi,western,piccolo,shakuhachi,NativeAmerican,ocarina,recorder),trumpetsandhorns(Frenchhorn,bugle,shofar,kudu,trombone,trumpet,baritone,bugle,conch),panpipes,didgeridoo,reedinstruments(oboe,bassoon,clarinet,saxophone,harmonica,bagpipes,accordion,concertina),bullroarer,sirens,organChordophones:zithers(autoharp,qanun,uhadi,berimbau,dulcimer),harps,kora,lutes(guitar,banjo,mandolin,ukulele,violin,viola,‘cello,doublebass,bouzouki,sitar,oud,charango,guqin,koto,balalaika,ngoni,molo),piano,harpsichordElectrophones:telharmonium,theremin,ondesMartenot,synthesizer,computer,midi-instruments,electricaerophones/chordophones/membranophones/idiophones,turntables,magnetictape,sequencers,samplersExtra-MusicalAssociations:

Manyinstrumentshaveextra-musicalassociations.Theseareideasthatpeoplehaveabouttheinstrumentsthataresupplementaltomusicalnotesproducedbytheinstrument.Manyoftheseassociationshighlightwhattheseinstrumentsmeantothepeoplewholistentothem.

Associationsoflocationandculturearefoundwithinstruments.ThedidgeridooistypicallyassociatedwithAustralia.MoreparticularknowledgeoftheinstrumentevokesthoughtsoftheaboriginalAustralianswhocreatedandperformonit.TheBrazilianberimbauisachordophoneassociatedwithslaveswhousedtheinstrumenttoaccompanycapoeira.Capoeiraisamartialartthatisdisguisedasdance.Becauseofthistheberimbauisassociatedwithrebellionandresistance.Steelpans/drumsarethenationalsymbolofTrinidadandTobago.Theyare55-gallonoil“drums”thathavemusicalnoteshammeredintooneend.Theyareidiophones.Acrosstheglobemanypeopleassociatethesoundsofthesteelpanwithidyllicislandsettings.

GenderAssociationscanbemadeaboutinstrumentswhentheinstrumentsaredesignatedtobeplayedbyeithermalesorfemales.InmanytraditionalAfricanculturesmanyinstrumentsaretobeplayedonlybymales.ThembiraisapluckedidiophonefromtheShonapeopleoftheZambezivalleyinsouthernAfrica.ItiscommonlyassociatedwiththecountryofZimbabwebuthasbecomeapopularinstrumentacrossthecontinentandintothediaspora.Inmanyculturaltraditionsthisinstrumentisonlytobeperformedbymales.InancientEgyptiansocietythis

genderbiaswasnotgenerallythecase.Thesistrumwasaninstrumentonlytobeplayedbyfemales.InAmericansocietytraditionalassociationswithregardstogenderpreferenceforinstrumentalperformanceexist,butarefading.Thetraditionusedtohavesmallerinstrumentslikethefluteandclarinetbeingassignedtogirlswhilelargerinstrumentslikethetubaanddoublebasswereplayedbyboys.Thesecondwaythatinstrumentscantakeongenderassociationsisiftheinstrumentitselfisconsideredtobemaleorfemale.TheAfro-Cubanbongosareasetoftwodrumswherethelargerdrumisfemale(hembra)andthesmallerdrumismale(macho).ThiscanbeseeninAmericansocietywithharpsthatareconsideredtobefemale.

Manyinstrumentsevokespiritualassociations.Thiscanmeanthattheinstrumentisassociatedwithprayerandworship.Examplesofthisincludetheorgan(associatedwithtraditionalChristianworship),theShakuhachiflute(associatedwithZenBuddhistmeditation),kanglingandconchshell(TibetanBuddhism=voiceofBuddha),andthemrdangamdrum(SouthIndian/Carnatic=associationwithHindudeityGanesh).Sometimesinstrumentshelpcommunicationbetweenthespiritworldandthephysicalworld.TheAustraliandidgeridoofacilitatespassageto“DreamTime”inAboriginalpractice.TheBatadrumshelptocalldownOrishasinCubanSanteria.ThisisareligiouspracticeofAfro-CubansthatcombinesAfricanandEuropeanreligioustraditions.Thepowwowdrumhelpstocleanse/refreshthespiritofNativeAmericanmaleswhoplayitwhilesinging.Spiritualassociationscanalsobegenericassociationsofinstrumentswithgoodorevil.ThiscanbeseeninAmericanculturewiththeHarpassociationwithAngelsandtheviolinandguitarassociationwiththedevil.

Whenmusicalinstrumentshaveaestheticassociationstheyareoftenusedasvisualworksofart.Wheninstrumentscarrystrongvisualaestheticvaluepeopleoftenobtainthemnottoplaymusicbutinsteadtoenjoytheirlook.Manyinstrumentsarecarvedordecoratedinwaysthatmakethemvaluable.TheTibetanconchshellistraditionallycarvedandencrustedwithjewels.Gamelaninstrumentsareornatelycarvedandbecomevisualshowpiecesintempleswheretheyareperformed.Instrumentscanoftenbefoundondisplayinmuseums.InstrumentsvaluedfordifferingaestheticscanbefoundmountedonthewallsofrestaurantsintheUSA.Aestheticvaluedoesnotalwaysmean“fine-art”.

Culturalstatuscansometimesbeindicatedbythemusicthatonelistenstoortheinstrumentthatonechoosestoplay.Inpre-televisionAmericaafavoritepastimewasmusicmaking.Inhollersandfarmhousesoflessaffluentpeopleinstrumentsliketheguitar,banjo,andharmonicawerecommonbecauseoftheircostandavailability.Peoplewhoownedmorecomplexandexpensiveinstrumentscouldshowtheirculturalstatusbyplayingthegenresassociatedwiththeseinstruments.TothisdaymanyAmericanshavepianosinhomeswherenooneperformsonthem.TheKoreankomungoisapluckedzitherthathasfrettedandnon-frettedsilkstrings.Itistraditionallyassociatedwitharistocraticcourtsandhigh-classstatus.

Ofteninstrumentsarethoughtofprimarilyasproductstosellforprofit.Iftheinstrumentsaremanufacturedpoorlyornotuptothestandardsneededtomakemusicthentheyhaveanextra-musicalassociationofbeingsubstandardorcheap.

Whenlargedepartmentretailerssellmusicalinstrumentslikeguitars,drums,andkeyboardstheytendtohavethisassociation.InAmericainadequateversionsofWest-Africandjembedrumsarecommonlysoldinimportstoresas“African”themeddecorations.Tothesellertheseareamarketableproduct.Tothebuyerthesearegenerallyanaestheticvisualaccent.

Sometimesinstrumentsretain(orincrease)invalueastimepasses.Ifthisisthecasethantheinstrumentscanbethoughtofasinvestments.TheEuropeanviolinfamilyofinstrumentsbecamestandardizedindesignandconstructionduringtheBaroquestyleperiod(1600-1750).Theluthiers(violinbuilders)ofthattime(Amati,Guarneri,Stradivari)builtinstrumentsthatremainrenownedandsoughtafter.Theseinstrumentshavebeenvaluedforsolongthatoftenthehistoricalassociationsaddmuchtothevalue.Theseinstrumentsnowsellformillionsofdollarsatauction.Ensemblebasics/ranges:

Whentwoinstrumentsperformtogetheritisgenerallyreferredtoasaduetorsolo(instrument)withaccompaniment.Itisacommonpracticetoaccompanyamelodyonanotherinstrument.InAmericanPopmusictherearemanyexamplesofartistsaccompanyingtheirownsingingbyplayingharmonyandrhythmonguitarorpiano.Forthistobeaduettherehavetobetwomusicians.

Whenmorethantwoinstrumentsperformtogetherthegroupiscalledanensemble.Twomusiciansmakeaduet,threemakeatrio,fourmakeaquartet,andsoon.Instrumentsinanensemblegenerallydifferinregisterorintimbre.

Registerandrangerefertothe“height”ofanoteortheheightofaninstrument’srangeofnotes.Rangeisthedistancefromthelowesttothehighestnotesthataninstrumentcanplay.InWesternmusicalpracticeensemblesgenerallycontaininstrumentsthatcancoverthenotesinfourstandardranges:soprano,alto,tenor,andbass.Theseregistersareassociatedwithbasicregistersofthehumanvoice.Thebasicvocalregistersare:

Soprano:thehigh-femalevocalrangeAlto:thelow-femalevocalrangeTenor:thehigh-malevocalrangeBass:thelow-malevocalrange

Westernvocalmusicistraditionallycomposedinawaythatlimitssingerstotheirnaturalrange.Forwesternaestheticseachrangeisroughlytwooctaves.Choralmusiciscommonlycomposedwithfourmusicallines:sopranos,altos,tenors,andbasses.Singerssingthelinethatfitstheirvocalrange. Instrumentsarealsogiventhesedesignationsbasedontherangesthattheyplay.Someusetheactualterminologyofthevocalrangestoshowthedifferingregisters.Anexampleofthisisthesaxophone(sax)familyofinstruments.Saxophonesaresinglereedinstrumentsofthewoodwindfamilythatareusuallymadeofbrass.Thecommonhigh-pitchedsaxophoneiscalledasoprano.Thealtosaxophonehasthesametimbreasasopranosaxbutitplaysalowerpitchrange.

Thetenorsaxophoneplayslowernotesthanthealtosaxwiththebaritoneplayingevenlower.Baritoneindicatesapitchrangein-betweentenorandbass.Thereareseveralin-betweenandextendedranges.Acommonsaxophonequartetincludesasopranosax,altosax,tenorsaxandbaritonesax.Theseinstrumentsallhavesimilartimbrebuttheydifferinrange.Westernbowed-lutesarealsodifferentiatedbytheregisterofeachinstrument.Thehigh-pitchinstrumentiscalledaviolin.Aviolaisslightlylargerandhasalowerrange.Thevioloncello(‘cello)islowerstillwiththedouble-bassesplayingthelowestrangeofnotes.Acommonstringquartetconsistsoftwoviolins,aviola,andavioloncello.

Becausetheaforementionedensembleswereallmadeofthesameinstrumentstheyallhadsimilartimbres.Ensemblesinwhichalloftheinstrumentshavesimilartimbersarereferredtoashomogeneousensembles.Whilethisiscertainlyanaptdescriptionforensemblesofinstrumentsthatdifferonlyinregister(likechoirs,saxophonequartets,andstringquartets)itcanalsobetrueofensemblesthatcontaindifferentinstruments.Usuallythesedifferentinstrumentsarefromthesamefamily(butnotalways).Examplesofthisincludewoodwindensembles(oboe,flute,Frenchhorn,bassoon,clarinet)andbrassensembles(trumpet,trombone,baritone,Frenchhorn,tuba).

Ensemblesinwhichinstrumentaltimbresvaryarecalledheterogeneous.Therearemanygenresofcontemporarypopularmusicthatexemplifythisconcept.Thebasicbandusedinmuchinstrumentalpopcontainsarhythmsection(drum-set/kit,bassguitar,guitar,keyboard.Initselfarhythmsectionisaheterogeneousensemble.Thetimbreofthedrumsisnotmeanttoblendwiththetimbreoftheguitarorpiano.Thedrumkititselfisaheterogeneousinstrument.Thestandardcomponentsofadrumsetare:

• High-hat=twocymbalsplayedtogetherwithfootpedalorastick• Ridecymbal=largecymbalthatismeantforconsistentpatternsinsteadof

accentingimportantmoments• Crashcymbal=smallercymbalthatisusedtoaccentimportantmoments• SnareDrum=drumthathaswires(snares)stretchedacrossthebottomhead• TomToms-drumsofvarioussizes• BassDrum-Lowestpitcheddrum

Thecymbalshaveadifferenttimbrethanthedrums.Thehigh-hathasadifferenttimbrethanthecymbals.Asnaredrumhasadifferenttimbrethantheotherdrums.Addtotherhythmsectionaleadinstrumentplayingamelodyandthetimbresvaryevenmore.Thisinstrumentisoftenthehumanvoicebutitcanbeamelodicinstrumentliketrumpet,saxophone,orfluteaswell. Oftenanensemblehasaspectsthatarebothheterogeneousandhomogeneous.SymphonyorchestrasarethelargeensemblesthatplaymanypopulargenresofWesternArtMusic(symphony,concerto,opera,soundtracksforfilms/games,ballet).Orchestrasaremadeupoffoursectionsofinstrumentsgroupedbytimbre(strings,woodwinds,brass,percussion).Theartoforchestrationreferstohowacomposer(ororchestrator)creativelyusesthe

varyingtimbres.Sometimesthecomposerwillwriteforonlyonesection,creatingahomogeneousideal.Thiscanbecontrastedwithsectionswheretheentireorchestraisplaying,creatingaheterogeneousideal.Orchestrationcanalsobeheardinmarchingbands,windensembles,Chineseorchestras,Braziliansambagroups,Japanesegagaku,andinIndonesiangamelanorchestras. Musiciansinensemblespracticeindividuallyandthencometogethertorehearse.Theserehearsalsrequirecoordinatedeffortsbythemusicianstoachieveacommongoal.Oftenthisnecessitatesaleader.Inmanylargeensemblegenrestheleaderissomeonewhoorganizesactivities,conceptualizesmusicalgoals,rehearsesthegroup,andperformswiththeensemble.Manydrumminggroupsfromaroundtheglobeareledbyamasterdrummerwhopreformscuesandsignalsthatguidetheensembleanddancersthroughthemusic.Jazzbandsareusuallyledbyaprominentbandmemberwhorehearsesthegroup,andcountsoff(starts)tunes.Themusicalleadershiproleofsymphonyorchestrashasevolvedfromaviolinistwholedthegroupwhileplaying(muchlikeajazzbanddirector).Asthemusicbecamemoredemandingtherewasagreaterneedfortheleadertoleadwithoutperformingonaninstrument.Theresultisaconductorwhorehearsesthegroup,startsandstopstheensemble,guidesthemthroughtempochanges,andinspiresthebesteffortsofthemusicians(andtheaudience). Digitalmusic: Perhapsthemostimportantdevelopmentinthehistoryofmusicalinstrumentswastheinventionofdigitalaudioproduction(computers).Thecomputerhasputthesoundsofallacousticinstrumentsinthehandsofthemusicproducer.Thecomputerallowsproducerstheabilitytocreatenewtimbresandinstrumentsthatarenotlimitedbyphysicalabilitytoperform.Aswithmostmusicalinnovationsofthepastwecurrentlyheartheseinnovationsindancemusicandinexperimentalgenres.Thereisnoendtothesonicpossibilitiesofthisrelativelynewinstrument. ReferenceList:Bakan,MichaelB.2012.WorldMusic:TraditionsandTransformations.2nded. NewYork:McGraw-Hill.Kilroe-Smith,Catherine.2013.MusicalJourneys.Dubuque,IA:KendallHunt.Wade,BonnieC.2013.ThinkingMusically:ExperiencingMusic,ExpressingCulture.

3rded.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Module3=Rhythm

Inordertogainabetterunderstandingofmusicitisimportanttoknowthetechnicaldifferencesbetweenworks.Thestudyoftheuniquetreatmentofsoundstocreateapiecenecessitatesbreakingthemusicdowninto“elements”.Therearemanydifferentopinionsastowhatanexhaustivelistofelementsshouldinclude.InthistextwewilluseTheFiveElementsofMusic.Thesearerhythm,melody,harmony,textureandform.Module3willcoverrhythm;Module4willcovermelody,harmonyandtexturewhileModule5willcoverform.Asyoulearntoanalyzemusicutilizingthefiveelementsitisalsoimportanttorecognizethefourpropertiesofatone:duration,frequency,amplitudeandtimbre(Bakan2012,34).Durationreferstothelengthofthesound.Frequencyreferstothephysicalwavelengthofthetone,whichmanifestsastheheightofthetone(pitch).Amplitudeisthevolumeofamusicaltone.Timbreistheparticularqualityofsoundthatatonehas.Thismodulewilldealmainlyindiscussionsaboutthedurationofthetone.

Rhythmistheelementofmusicthatdealswiththearrangementofsoundsandsilencesinrelationtotime.IntheWesternmusictraditionthesoundsarecallednotesandthesilencesarecalledrests.Rhythmisalsoanounthatreferstospecificarrangements/sequencesofnotesandrestswithintime.Thisuseisevidentwhendiscussingaspecificrhythmthatisheardinapieceofmusic(liketheclaverhythmfoundinWest-Africanmusicandmusicofthediaspora).Adiasporaisthereestablishmentofcultureoutsideofthehomelandofthepeoplewithinthatculture.InthiscaseitreferstothereestablishmentandevolutionofAfricanmusicaltraditionsintheAmericas.

Itisusefultoanalyzerhythmbylisteningforthethreelevelsofmusicaltime:background,middleground,andforeground(Valdez2006,10).BackgroundTime Tofindthebackgroundtimeinanypieceofmusictapyourhandornodyourheadormoveinwhateverwayallowsyoutomatchthemusic.Ifthisisaconsistentpulsethenitismostlikelythebackgroundtime.Thebackgroundtimeisapulseorbeataroundwhichotherrhythmsareorganized.Apulseor“beat”happenswhenthereareregularequal-lengthdurations.Ametronomeisatoolthatprovidesapulseatspecificbeatsperminute(BPM).Insomegenres/culturesthereisanaestheticforstrictadherencetometronomicpulse.Insomemusicthepreferenceistoletthepulsepushorpull.Modernpopularmusicthatutilizescomputersforperformanceor“tracking”wouldmostoftenbemetronomic.“Tracking”referstoperformingonaliveinstrumentwhilestayingwithadigitaltrackthatkeepsbothaudioandvisualaspectsofthesongsteady,choreographedandsynchronized.ThiscouldrangefromthemusicofBollywood,hip-hop,electronicdancemusic(EDM)andAmericancountry.Somepeoplepreferforthebeatto“pushandpull”(slightlyspeeduporslowdown)astheartistisfeelingthemusic.ThiscanbeheardinHindustanimusic,Westernartmusic,andclassicrock.Oftentheshiftinspeed/tempoissosubtlethatitisnotnoticeabletotheuntrainedear.

Thebackgroundpulsesetsthetempoofthemusic.Temporeferstothespeedofthebackgroundpulseinmusic.IntheWesternmusicalworldItaliantermsareutilizedtodescribemusicbecausecomposerstraveledtoItalytostudyOperacompositionfortwocenturies(1600s-1700s).OtherItaliantermsusedwhenconsideringabackgroundpulseare: Accelerando graduallyspeedingup Ritardando graduallyslowingdown Ritard slowdown Presto veryfast Allegro fastandlively Andante atawalkingpace Adagio slowandstately Grave veryslow In“classical”musicthatisabsolute(seeModule1fordefinitionofabsolute)thetempoindicationsareoftengiveninlieuoftitlesforthemovementsofamulti-movementgenre(symphony,stringquartet,concerto,sonata).Forexample,Beethoven’sPianoSonataNo.14,Opus27No.2(MoonlightSonata)hasthreemovements.Inaprogramthepiecewouldbelistedwiththemovementtitlesastempoindications. PianoSonataNo.14,Op.27No.2 Beethoven,Ludwigvan

I. Adagiosostenuto(slowandsustained)II. Allegretto(moderatelyfast)III. Prestoagitato(veryfastandagitated)

AnotherexampleofthiswouldbetheStringQuartet,Opus11writtenby

AmericancomposerSamuelBarberin1936-43.Thisworkhasfourmovementslisted: StringQuartet,Op.11 Barber,Samuel

I. Moltoallegroeappassionato(veryfastandpassionate)II. Moltoadagio(veryslow)III. Moltoallegro(veryfast)

Thesuccessofthisworkiswidelyattributedtothesecondmovement.Barberarrangedthismovementasastandaloneworkforalargerstringorchestra.ItisentitledAdagioforStrings.Inaworldofdescriptivetitlesthistitlemightseemtoominimalbutiteffectivelyallowsthelistenertobringtheirownmeaningtothisslowpieceforstrings. Whenthebackgroundpulseofaworkspeedsupandslowsdowninanefforttoexpressemotionthisisreferredtoasrubato.RubatoisdramaticandintentionalandisgenerallyassociatedwithdramaticemotionalexpressionthatbecameanimportantaestheticforRomanticeraperformanceofWesternArtMusic.ThepianomusicofFrédérickChopinisoftenassociatedwiththisrhythmicpractice.

AnotherWesternArttechniquethatfreestheperformerstointerprettempoinaloosewayisassociatedwithOpera.Inoperawhencomposersmustadvancetheplotthroughthepresentationofdialoguebutdonotwishtocompose“songs”theyuserecitative.Recitativeissingingthatfollowsthenaturalflowofspeech.Inarecitativesectionofanoperaoracantatathereisoftenmuchrhythmicfreedomgiventotheperformers. Whenapiecehasnoconsistentbackgroundpulseitisnon-metric.MusicwithoutadiscernablepulsecanalsobereferredtoasFreeRhythmic.FromtheperspectiveofthosewholistenprimarilytoAmericanPopgenresthisisnotacommonrhythmicapproach.Itis;however,evidentinmuchmusicspanningmanygenres.Non-metricmusiccanrangefromworksperformedonshakuhachiflute,Japanesegagaku,ambientmusic,aleatoric/chancemusic,sectionsofBalineseGamelan,plainchant,recitativeinOpera,sectionsofIndianclassicalmusic,andsignalingmusic.Whileitisimportanttonotethatnotallmusichasasteadypulse,allmusichasrhythm. Anotherimportantaspectofthebackgroundpulseisthesubdivision.Thetwomostcommonsubdivisionsofthebackgroundpulsearedupleandtriple(seeFigure1).Aduplesubdivisionofthebackgroundpulsedividesthespacebetweeneachbeatevenlyintwo.InAmericathecolloquialismtoindicateaduplesubdivisionistosaythatthemusicis“straight”.Atriplesubdivisionofthebackgroundpulsedivideseachbeatbythree.Thecolloquialismforthisapproachistosaythatthemusic“swings”.MostAmericanpopmusiccanbeclassifiedas“straight”or“swinging”.Thissimplyreferstoadupleortriplesubdivisionofthebackgroundpulse.Eachapproachhasa“feeling”.MostAmericanpopmusicpriortothe1950’s“swung”orhadatriplesubdivision.Fromthe1960’stopresenttheaestheticpreferencehasbeenformusicthatis“straight”.Theaestheticpendulumwill,nodoubt,swingbackto“swing”someday.Figure1:Subdivisionofthebackgroundpulse

MiddlegroundTime Middlegroundtimeisanoft-analyzedaspectofrhythm.Thisisthelevelatwhichthebackgroundpulseisorganizedintopatternsofaccented(emphasizedthroughloudervolume)andunaccentednotes.InWesternmusicthemiddleground

timeiscalledmeter.Meterisaregulargroupingofthebackgroundpulse.MostWesternpopularandartmusiciscomposedutilizingasimplemeter.Thethreemainsimplemetersareduple,triple,andquadruple.

Musicthatisinduplemetergroupsthebackgroundpulseintoapatternofalternatingstrongandweakbeats.The2/4inFigure2isatimesignaturethatindicatesaduplemeter.Thetopnumberofatimesignaturetellshowmanybeatsareinameasure(2=duple).Thebottomnumberindicateswhatkindofnotegetsthebeat(4=quarternote).Itisstandardcontemporarypracticetoassignthebackgroundpulsetothequarternote.Figure3showstherelationshipsbetweenseveralcommonlyusednotes.Itstartswiththewholenoteandsubdividesitwithallnotesuptothesixteenthnotes.AllofthenotesinFigure2arequarternotes.Ifthesequarternotesareorganizedintomeasuresofthreethenthemusicisintriplemeter.Likewise,groupingsoffourareinquadruplemeter.Quadruplemeteristhemostcommonmiddlegroundgroupingofthebeat.

Figure2:SimpleMeters

InWesternArtmusicsimpleduple,triple,orquadruplemetershaveaduplesubdivisionofthebackgroundpulse.(Thisisnotthecaseinpopularandworldmusicgenres).CompoundmeteristheWesternterminologyformeterswhenthesubdivisionofthepulseisthreeinsteadoftwo.Aswithsimplemeters,compoundmetersappearinduple,triple,andquadruplegroupings.Incompoundtimesignaturesthetopnumberdoesnotindicatethebackgroundpulse.Aduple

Figure3:Basicnotesandsubdivisions

compoundtimewillalwayshaveasixasthetopnumberofthetimesignature.The“compound”aspectisthatthe6notescanbegivenabackgroundpulseofthreeortwo(SeeFigure4).Incompoundtimetheeighthnotemostoftengetsthebeatdesignationsothesignature’slowernumberisusually8.6/8isaduplecompoundmeter,9/8isatriplecompoundmeter,and12/8isthesignatureforaquadruplecompoundmeter.Compoundmetersarealsoutilizedtocreatepoly-metricmusic.Figure4:CompoundMeters

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Simple Triple Meter

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Compound Triple Meter

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Polymetricmusiccanbeheardinmorethanmeteratthesametime.ThisisacomplexconceptthatisheardindrummingfromAfricaandthediaspora.Theeffectofpolymetricmusicisashiftinginthelistenersunderstandingofwheretheemphasizedbeatsoccur.

AlthoughWesternArtmusicismainlycomposedusingthesimpleandcompoundmeterslistedabovetherearemanyotherpossibilitiesformeterinmusic.Whendupleandtriplemetersarecombineditisknownasadditivemeter.Themostcommonadditivemetersarecombinationsof2and3thataddupto5(2+3or3+2)and7(2+2+3,3+2+2or2+3+2).MeterslikethesearenotascommoninWesternArtandPopularmusicthoughtheyareoftenusedinrhythmicallyadventurousgenreslikeprogressiverockand20thcenturyballet.TheyaremorecommonintraditionalmusicofplacesliketheBalkans(EasternEurope)andIndia.

Whenmusicstaysinthesamemeterthroughoutasongitisconsideredregular.Whenmusicshiftsbetweenmetersitiscalledirregular.Thiscanhappenwhenaworkisinquadruplemeterforafewmeasuresandthenshiftsintotripleorquintuplemeters.Inlengthyworksthisisacommonoccurrence.ForegroundTime Foregroundtimeencompassesallofthecomplexrhythmsthathappenontopofthemeterandpulseofthemusic.Thisisallofthesurfacerhythmsofthemusic.Thisiswheremostsyncopationsoccur.Syncopationisarhythmicemphasiswhereitisnotexpected.Syncopationsarecommoninmostgenresofmusic.Acommonsyncopationistoaccentoffbeats.Offbeatsarethespacesbetweenthebackgroundpulses.Reggaeanditsparentgenresofrocksteadyandskaallcontainheavysyncopationbyemphasizingtheoffbeats.CulturalApproachestoRhythm:WesternArtMusic-downbeatemphasis InWesternArtmusictheaestheticsforpreferredrhythmicemphasishaveevolvedanddevolvedforoveramillennium.Itisimportanttonotethattheaestheticsformusicofthe20thcenturywereoftenexperimental.ComposerslikeKarlheinzStockhausenorIgorStravinskystretchedtherhythmicnormsbycreatingmusicthatwasextremeinrhythmiccomplexity.Thisistosaythat,atthebeginningofthe21stcenturyitishardtoimaginemusicbecomingmorerhythmicallycomplex.ThisrepresentsapolaroppositerealityfromthelackofrhythmicemphasisinWesternArtmusicthatisevidentinthefirst1000yearsofChristianpractice.Perhapsitwasanattempttokeepoutpaganpracticeoritwasbecausethevenuesforperformancewereextremelyresonant;eitherwayrhythmwasnotemphasizedasmuchastheotherelementsinMedievalandRenaissancemusic. IntheBaroquestyleperiodrhythmbecamemoreofanemphasiswithsteadybackgroundpulsebeingfeltinamajorityoftheworks.FromtheBaroquethroughtheRomanticeraemphasiswasgenerallyplacedonthestrongbeats/downbeatsofmeasures.ThedownbeatemphasisinWesternArtmusiccanbefeltonbeatoneoftriplemetersandonbeatsoneandthreeofquadruplemeters.Insomeorchestralgenreslikewaltzesormarchesdownbeatemphasisisheardplayedon

drums.Inothergenres,andincontrasttopopularmusic,thereisoftennoinstrumentdedicatedtostrictlyemphasizingtherhythmofWesternArtmusic.American/WorldPopMusic-backbeatemphasis Sincetheearly20thcenturyAmericanPopularMusichavebeeninfluencingworldpopularmusicstyles.ElementsofAmericanpopcannowbeheardinthepopmusicofmanyothercultures.ExamplesofthisarefoundinBollywoodmusic,K-pop,J-pop,RussianrockandvariousAfricanpopstyles(amongstothers).Oneofthemainelementsthatcanbeheardinallofthesestylesisabackbeatemphasis.Thebackbeatisbeats2and4ofa4/4measure.Inmanycontemporarypopulargenresbeats2and4areactuallyarticulatedbythesnaredrum(oranelectronicversionofthisinstrument).Thebackbeatisalsoarhythmicemphasisinolderpopgenresincludingthebluesandjazz.SoutheastAsianColotomicMeter InThaipiphat,Japanesegagaku,andIndonesiangamelanensemblestheconceptofcolotomicmeterisusedtoindicatethemetricfoundationofthemusic.Acolotomicmeterisacyclicalpatternplayedbyvariousinstrumentsthatrevealstherhythmicstructureofthework.Incolotomicmetersspecificinstrumentsplayonspecificbeatstoformarhythmiccycleorthewesternequivalentofameter.Theseinstrumentsareoftengongs.Ingamelanthehigher-pitchedgenerallyplayatafasterratethanthelower-pitchedinstruments.Thismeansthatthelowestpitchedgongswilloftenmarkimportantbeatsinacycle.Forinstanceinthecolotomiccyclecalledketawangthelargestgongonlyplaysononebeat.Whenthisgongisplayeditindicatesthebeginningofthepieceandeachsubsequentcycle.InFigure5weseethatthisgong(gongageng)playsonthe16thbeatofthecycle.Itisinterestingtonotethatthemostimportantbeatisthelastbeatofthecycle.Thisisadifferingaesthetictodownbeatemphasis.Theinstrumentthatsplitsthe16beatcyclebyplayingonbeat8(andsometimes16)iscalledthekenong.Thisisagongthatisplayedonitsside(nothanging).Beat12isperformedonahanginggongcalledkempul.Thisgongisnotasbigasthegongagengandthereforeishigherinpitch.Fillingintherestofthespacesarethekempyangandketuk.Theonlybeatwithasilenceisbeatfour.Theothermelodicandrhythmicpartshappenontopofthisfoundationalpattern.Figure5:KetawangColotomicMeter

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16p t p p t p N p t p Pul p t p N

GGongageng=G Kenong=N Kempul=Pul Kempyang=p ketuk=t

AccordingtoMichaelBakan,anethnomusicologistatFloridaStateUniversitywhospecializesinGamelanmusicofIndonesia,Kilitanteluisaninterlockingrhythmicpatternthatformsthebasisofmanymelodiesandrhythmsingamelan

genres(Bakan,2012).Themainrhythminkilitanteluisplayedbythreeinstruments/voicegroupsthateachstartonadifferentbeat.ThiskindofpatternisoftenheardinavocalbasedgamelanstylecalledKetak.TheinterlockingofthekitilantelupatternreflectstheinterdependenceinIndonesiansociety.AtypicalKecak-styleexerciseusingtheinterlockingkilitantelurhythmislistedinFigure6.Figure6:Kecakstylerhythm

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8“chak”1 C C C C C “chak”2 C C C C C“chak”3 C C C C C“pung”1 P P SouthwestAsia/NorthAfricanRhythmicModes/Iqa' IntheregionoftheworldthatWesternershavetraditionallycalledthe“MiddleEast”secularmusicpracticesarerhythmicallyanchoredbyrhythmicmodesknownasiqa'.Therearehundredsofvariationsofiqa'.Eachonehassubtledifferencesthatgiveitparticularexpressivemeaning.Theiqa'arereferredtoasrhythmicmodesinsteadof“meters”becauseoftheexpressivecapacityofeachmode(rootwordmood).Eachiqa'isaparticulararrangementofaccentedandunaccentedrhythms.Severaliqa'arecommonlyheard.Themostcommonpercussioninstrumentsthatplaytheqi’arethedumbek(alsoknownasthedarabukkahordarbuka),tarandrik.MuchlikeadrumsetinWesternpopplaysinbeats,iqa’consistsoflowpitchandhighpitchsoundsplayedonthedumbekorotherinstruments.Thelowsoundiscalleddummwhilethehigh-pitchedsoundiscalledtakk.Somecommoniqa’arediagramedinFigure7.Figure7:Rhythmicmodes/iqa'

Masmoudirhythmicmode/iqa’dumm dumm takk dumm takk

Maqsumrhythmicmode/iqa’dumm takk takk dumm takk IndianTala

IntraditionalIndianmusictherhythmicfoundationsarecalledtalas.TalaistheIndianequivalentofWesternmeters.Talasaremadeupofcombinationsofsmallergroupings.Sometimestheendresultsareverycomplextalas.Becausetherearemanywaystogroupbeatstogetherthereareliterallyover100differenttalas.ThisisnotablewhencomparedtotheprimaryuseoflessthantenmetersinmostWesternmusic.Whenlisteningtothetalaknowledgeablelistenersoftenmark

thepartsofthetalabyusingaseriesofclapsandwavesofthehandsknownaskriyas.Thekaisavocalpatternthatindicatesthepatternsofatala.Vocalizingthethekaisacommonwaytolearntalas.SeeFigure8foraguidetotintal(acommontaal).Figure8:Tintal

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16Dha Dhin Dhin Dha Dha Dhin Dhin Dha Na Tin Tin Ta Ta Dhin Dhin DhaClap Clap Wave ClapInmanyHindustaniperformancesthereisaformthatgrowsfromacalmintroductionandslowlybuildsuntilitreachesarapid,andintense,conclusion.Thesepiecesinvolvemuchvirtuosicperformance.Oftentherewillbenotalaorpulseinthebeginning.Atthepointthatthetable(drums)entertherewillbeanewfocusonrhythmicdevelopment.AfricanPolyrhythm RhythmistheelementofmusicmostcommonlyassociatedwithAfrican(particularlySub-Saharan)music.TherhythmsofAfricanmusicaccompanyactivitiesrangingfromday-to-daychorestocomplexceremonies.DrumminganddancingaretwocommonformsofAfricanmusic.Asisthecasewithmusicthataccompaniesdancethereareoftenostinatodrummingparts.Anostinatoisarepeatingpatternormotive.Whendifferingrhythmicostinatoscombinetheybecomeapolyrhythm.Simplyputapolyrhythmismultiplerhythmsperformedsimultaneously.Polyrhythmicdrummingisthemusicalmanifestationofanaestheticthatvaluesseparate“small”partscombiningtoformagreaterwhole.Thiscanbeseenasamusicalreflectionofcooperationforthebetterofall(Stone,?). Atypicaldance-drumpieceofmusicfromWestAfricacontainsmanypolyrhythms.Theyarenotconceptualizedwithinameterbutinsteadarethoughtofascomplementaryrhythmiccomponentsofoneflow.Therhythmicpatternthatholdsallofthedifferingostinatostogethercanbecalledatimelinepattern.Thispatternistypicallyplayedonametalidiophone(gonkogui=bell).Thephraseplayedonthebelliscycled/repeatedandisusedtoplacealloftheotherdrumparts.Theotherpartsaregenerallyfixedwiththeexceptionofamasterdrum.Thisdrumgenerallyleadstheensemble(includingdancers)byplayingdifferingpatternsthatsignalthetimingofchanges.Themasterdrumisgenerallytheonlypartfreetoimproviseatwill.ForanexampleofapolyrhythmicpieceseeFigure9.Theeffectoflisteningtopolyrhytmicmusicisthattempoandphraseperceptioncanshiftbetweenpartsdependentuponthevantagepointofthelistener(Locke,2010).

Figure9:Atsiagbekor(generic)

count 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Bell/gonkogui • • • • • • •Shaker/axatse d u d u u d u d u d uHighdrum/kagan • • • • • • • •Middrum/kidi • • • • Lowdrum/sogo • • • • • • Clap1 • • • • Clap2 • • • • • • Latin(American)Clave AfricanpolyrhythmicdrummingmadeitswaytothediasporaintheCaribbean,South,andNorthAmerica.TotheuntrainedearthedifferencesinAfro-CaribbeandrummingandAfricandrummingaresometimeshardtoperceive.ThemosthelpfulsignifierofLatinAmericandrummingisitsrelianceonclave.ClaveisthetimelinepatternthatworkswithinametertoholdAfro-Caribbeanmusictogether.ClavehasadirectlinktoWest-African(YorubaofmodernNigeria)timelinepatterns.ClavecanbeheardinmuchLatinomusicasafoundationalpattern.TheinfluenceofAfro-Cubanstylesofthemid20thcenturyhasmuchtodowiththeappearanceofClaveinstylesofmusiclikerumba,conga,cha-cha,son,mambo,samba,salsa,songo,timba,bossa-nova,bolero,bachata,candombe,bomba,plena,andreggaeton.WhilenotalwayspresentinsoundthefeelingofclaveisanecessaryaspectofmostLatinmusic.Clavepatternshaveathreesideandatwoside.Thismeansthatineverytwomeasurepatternonemeasurecontainsthreenotesoftheclaveandonemeasurecontainstwo(SeeFigure10).

Figure10:ClavePatterns

Meter/Count 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &2/3sonclave • • • • • 2/3rumbaclave • • • • •3/2sonclave • • • • • 3/2rumbaclave • • • • • Brazil2/3clave • • • • • Brazil3/2clave • • • • •

SalsaisanAfro-Cubangenrethatoriginatedinthe20thcenturyinNewYorkcombiningCuban,PuertoRican,Domenican,andAmericansensibilitiesandstyles.Thepolyrhythmsinsalsaareheardintherhythmsofalloftheinstruments,notjustthedrums(SeeFigure11).

Figure11:SalsaPatterns

Meter/Count 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &2/3sonclave • • • • • Cascara/timbale,piano • • • • • • • • • •Tumbao/Bass,conga • • • • Martillo/bongo,bell • • • •

Modernmusicingenressuchasplena,soca,bomba,merengue,cumbia,

timba,tango,andreggaetonoftenhaveaheavyemphasisonrepeatedthreesideoftheclaveorthetumbaopattern.Sometimesthetwosideisnotheard(butitisoftenfeltbyplayersanddancers).Thisisoftenheardinstylesthatusebassdrumemphasisonbeatsoneandthreeofaquadruplemeasure(“fouronthefloor”acrosstwobars)(SeeFigure12).Figure12:Three-SideEmphasisonDrumset

Meter/Count 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &Threesiderepeated • • • • • • Hihat • • • • • • • • SnareDrum • • • • BassDrum(4onfloor) • • • •

ReferenceList:Bakan,MichaelB.2012.WorldMusic:TraditionsandTransformations.2nded. NewYork:McGraw-Hill.Locke,David.2010.YemevuintheMetricMatrix.MusicTheoryOnline.Vol.16,No.4 (Dec.),accessedOct.102016, http://www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.10.16.4/mto.10.16.4.locke.html.Stone,RuthM.2005.MusicinWestAfrica:ExperiencingMusic,ExpressingCulture. NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Valdez,Stephen.2006.AHistoryofRockMusic.4thed.Dubuque,Iowa:Kendall/Hunt.Wade,BonnieC.2013.ThinkingMusically:ExperiencingMusic,ExpressingCulture.

3rded.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Module4-Melody,HarmonyandTexture

Pitchinmusicreferstovibrationsofsoundwaves.Thesevibrationsaremeasuredinhertz(cyclespersecond).Thereforeamusicalpitchisasoundproducedatacertainnumberofcyclespersecond(Wade,2013).Thefasterthevibration,thehighertheresultingpitch.Likewise,theslowertherateofvibration,thelowerthepitch.Musicaltonescanbedividedintotwocategories:determinateandindeterminatepitch.

Musicalpitchescontainamixtureofsoundwaves.Theonethatdominatesthesoundisreferredtoasthe“fundamental”pitch.Alloftheotherwavesthatareproducedbyapitcharereferredto(inthemusicworld)asovertones.Whenapitchhasasetofovertonesthatallowafundamentalnotetodominatethesounditisadeterminatepitch.Indeterminatepitchhappenswhentheovertonesofanotearenotinalignmentorthereareconflictingfundamentalsandthereforeno“one”vibrationdominatesthesound.Anotherwaytothinkaboutthisconceptistoknowthatinstrumentsthathavedeterminatepitchplaynotesthataretypicallygivennames(letter,numberorsolfege).Determinatepitchinstrumentsinclude(butarenotlimitedto):voice,piano,guitar,marimba,woodwinds,brass,chordophones,etc.…Indeterminatepitchinstrumentsareinstrumentslikegamelangongs,snaredrums,cymbals,triangle,etc…Theseinstrumentsaregenerallyusedtokeeparhythm,toaccent,ortoaddcolor.

Whenapitchhasasetofovertonesthatvibratealongwiththefundamentalinsimpleratios(seeFigure2)thenitmakesaharmonicpitch.Mostmusicalinstrumentsthathavedeterminatepitchareharmonic(chordophones,aerophones,mostelectrophones).Whentheovertonesofthepitcharemostlyinharmonic(notinsimpleratios)thenthepitchisdiscernablebutthetimbreisunique(timpani,malletpercussion,singingbowls,tunedgongs).Figure2illustratestheharmonicovertones.Thewavelengthspicturedalsoillustratethepossiblenotesthatcanbeplayedonfixedlengthaerophones(bugle,bottle,conchshell,etc).Tuning

PythagorasofSamos(ofthePythagoreantheorem)describedwhysomemusicalnotesvibratewelltogether(harmonize)andothersdonot.Weuselengthsofstringtoillustratehisfindings.Iftwostringswerephysicallyproportionedina2to1ratio(onestringisexactlytwotimesthelengthofthefirst)andallotherfactorsareequalthenthevibrationsofmusicalnotesproducedbythesestringswillalsoexistina2to1ratio.Forinstance:ifthelongstringproducedapitchat110hertzthentheshorteronewouldproduceapitchat220hertz.This2to1ratioissoharmoniousthatwecallthesetwoseparatenotesthesamepitchname.Thedifferencebetweentwopitchesofthesamenotename(or2to1ratio)iscalledanoctave.Simplyputandoctaveistheintervalbetweentwopitcheshavingthesamenotename.Amusicalintervalisthedistancebetweentwonotes/pitches.InFigure1thedistancebetweenanytwonotesofthesameletternameiscalledanoctave.

Figure1:Pianokeyboardwithletternotenames

This2/1octaveratioisalsoillustratedinFigure2inbottomtwowavelengths. Figure2:HarmonicPartials/OvertoneSeries

Allinstrumentsarenottunedthesameoreventothesamepitchsets.Wheninstrumentsaretunedtomaketheratiosscientificallypure(inthemannerofFigure2)thisiscalledjustintonation.WhiletheearpreferspureintervalstheyarenotpracticalformuchWesternmusic.IntheWesternworldmostinstrumentsarenottunedtojustintonation.Instead,Westerninstrumentsaretypicallytunedtoequaltemperament.Inequaltemperamenttheoctaveisdividedintotwelveequidistantpitches.Whenthisisdonethepurityofthescientificratiosislost.Thismeansthatfixedpitchinstrumentslikekeyboardsandguitarsarenotcompletely“intune”accordingtojustintonation.This“impure”tuningisnecessarytoplaymusicthatmovesbetweendifferingscales/keyareas.InWesternmusicsomegenresofmusicutilizejustintonation.Thisisprimarilythecasewheninstrumentsdonothavefixedpitch(fretlesschordophonesfromtheviolinfamily,humanvoice).Somegenresthatutilizescientifictuning/justintonationarebarbershopharmony,choirmusic,andstringquartets.Somehighlyproducedmodernpopandelectronicdancemusicutilizejustintonation.Thecomputerisnowusedtoproducemuchmusicthathas“pure”intervals.Indianmusicalsoutilizesjustintonation.Eventhoughthereareseveralfixedpitchandfrettedinstruments(likethesitar)usedinIndianmusicintonationisnotaproblembecausethereisnotmovementbetweendifferingkeyareas. IntheWesternworldemphasisisplacedontuningtoastandardpitchset.Thisallowsmusicianstoplaytheirinstrumentsindifferinggenresandensembles.Theuseofthepianoinvariousgenresillustratesthis.MostAmericaninstrumentsarenowadaystunedtoA440standard(A442inEuropeandAsia).Thisisoftenreferredtoas“concertpitch”.Inrecordingstudiosandmusicclubsdigitaltunersareusedtohelpkeepinstrumentsintune.Thesetunerscanbeclippedontoinstrument,pluggedintoelectrophonesordownloadedtosmartphones.Priortotheuseofelectronictunerstuningforksandpitchpipeswerecommon.Largeacousticensemblestypicallytunetogetherbeforeplayingmusic.Inorchestrasanoboeplayerplays“concertpitch”(A440)foreachsectionofinstrumentstomatchpriortotheconductor“takingthepodium.”Mostinstrumentscanmakeslightadjustmenttoeitherraisethepitchifitistoolow(flat)orlowerthepitchifitistoohigh(sharp).Whenalloftheinstrumentshavematchedpitch(areintune)thentheconcertbegins.Theactofplayingmanyinstrumentscausesthemtogooutoftune.Continualpluckingorbowingofstringsloosensthetensiononthem,makingthemgoflat.Temperatureandhumidityalsoaffectthepitchofmanyinstruments.Brassandwoodwindinstrumentstendtoplaysharpinhotweatherandflatincolderconditions.Thisaffectsmarchingbands,whichoftenperforminextremeweatherconditionsrangingfromthehotsunshineofalatesummerfootballhalftimeshowtothecoldairinaholidayparade. Inothercultureshavingastandardpitchisnotprioritized.Wherethepitchliescandependonculturalnorms.AsCathyKiroe-SmithstatesinMusicalJourneys,2013,“InmanyAfricancountries,forexample,pitchismoreofanapproximationthanascienceandperformerswillplayoninstrumentsregardlessofwhethertheyareperfectlyintunewiththeinstrumentsplayedbyfellowperformersornot.”InIndonesiaeachgamelanensembleistunedonlyinrelationtotheinstrumentswithin.Thismeansthatnotwogamelanensembleshavethesametuning.Because

ofthisindividualinstrumentsfromonegamelancannotbeperformedwithanothergamelan.Thiswasalsothecasewithtraditionalsikuripan-pipeswherecommunitieswoulddeveloptheirowntuning.ContemporarysikupipesareoftentunedtoWesternpitches.Othertraditionalinstrumentsthatareplayedaloneareoftennotsubjectedtostandardizedtuning.Thisistrueofsoloflutesfoundaroundtheglobe.ChurchorgansinEuropearetunedtoavarietyofconcertpitchesrangingfromA425throughA456.Singerscanmaketheadjustmentstothesepitcheswitheasewhilefixedpitchinstrumentslikepianos,keyboardpercussion,andfrettedchordophonesarelimitedinorganswithwhichtheycouldperform.Intonation

Havingagoodsenseofintonationmeansthatonecanrecognizeifapitchisproducedattheproperfrequency.Thisisaskillthatalmostallcandevelopgiventimeandpractice.InAmericanculturetheterm“tonedeaf”isoftenappliedincorrectlytoonewhohasyettodevelopagoodsenseofintonation.Tonedeafnessisamusicaldisordercalledamusia.Theoppositeoftonedeafnessisperfectpitch.Perfectpitchisarareconditionthroughwhichsomeonehavingitcanrecognizeexactvibrationswithoutareference.Researchersestimatethatperfectpitchoccursinroughly1in10,000people(Sachsetal.1995,621).Instrumentswithindeterminate(drums)and/orfixedpitch(piano,guitar,computer)donotrequiredevelopmentofintonationtothelevelofotherinstruments.Developmentofintonationtakesmuchtimeandispartofthereasonfortheseparationofstringprogramsfromwind,percussion,andchoirprogramsinAmericanschools.

Melody Melodyisacollectionofpitchesthatareplayedinsuccession.Melodyisoftenthefocalpointofthelistenerwhenexperiencingmusic.Althoughtherecanbeabstractmelodies,inmostgenresmelodiesarea“tune”thatisusedtoidentifythepieceofmusic.Ifyouaregoingtotellsomeoneaboutasongorpiecethatyouheardyouwouldprobablystartbysingingthemelodyforthem.

Whenlisteningtomusicwithanearforanalysisofthemelodythefirststepistoidentifytheinstrument(s)thatareperformingit.Inpopulargenresthemelodyisoftenthesetofnotesthatareperformedwithlyricsbythehumanvoice.Inlargeensemblesthemelodyoftenshiftstodifferinginstrumentsandtimbregroupings.Insomecasesthemelodyissunginharmony(orharmonized).Thismeansthatinstrumentsplaythemelodyatdifferingpitchesbutsimilarintervalsandrhythms.Theresultisoftenchords/harmony.

Thesecondconsiderationwhenlisteningformelodyiswhetherornotthemelodyispre-composedorimprovised.Improvisationistheprocessofcomposingandperformingmusicatthesametime.Whilesomemusicisspontaneousinvention(freejazz)mostimprovisationistheproductofmuchdisciplinedtrainingandpractice(Bakan2012,29).Somegenres(Jazz,Blues)havesectionsofmelodythatareimprovisedandothersthatarepre-composed.Anotherpracticethatoftenisimprovisedontopre-composedmelodiesisornamentationofthemelody.Ornamentsarecultural“decorations”ofthemelodyinstylizedwaysbyaddingsmall

twists,turnsandextranotestothemelody.ThisisacommonpracticeinArab,Indian,EastAsian,Celtic,andWestAfricantraditions.

ScalesandMelodicModes

Thethirdconsiderationwhenanalyzingmelodyistoconsiderwhatcollectionofpitchesisinthemelody.Mostoftenmelodiesarebuiltuponscales.Ascaleormelodicmodeisaseriesofpitchesthatarepresentedinascendinganddescendingorder.Scalesareusedtobuildmusicalpieces.Whenthesescalesholdmorerulesforperformanceandextra-musicalassociationstheyarecalledmodes. Asmentionedaboveintervalsarethedistancebetweentwomusicalnotes.Someintervalsaremoreimportantthanothers.Thisisbecausesomeintervalsaremoreconsonant/pleasingtotheearthanothers.ThewavelengthsinFigure2showarelationshipmovingupwardawayfromconsonanceonthebottom.Theoctaveisthemostimportantinterval.Nextinimportancearethe“perfect”intervalsofafourthandafifth.TheMajorthird,theminorthirdandthenMajorsecondfollowtheperfectintervals.Themostdissonant/leastimportantintervalsaretheminorsecondandthetritone.InWesternpracticetheoctaveisdividedbytwelveequalhalf-stepsorminorseconds(alsocalledsemitones).OnFigure1therearetwelvenotesbetweeneachpitchofthesamelettername.Whenalltwelvepitchesareplayedinascendinganddescendingorderitiscalledthechromaticscale.Becausethechromaticscalecontainsonlyoneinterval(½step)thereisnotsenseofonenotebeingmoreimportantthantheothers.Thismeansthatthechromaticscaleisoftenusedtoexpressanun-settledorshiftingquality.DiatonicMajorandMinorscales ThescalesthatareusedforamajorityofWesternmusicarethetwoformsofthediatonicscale.Diatonicscalesaresevennotescalesthatcontainaseriesofwholeandhalfsteps.Becausetheyhavedifferingintervalsthereisahomepitchthatistherestingpitchor“home”pitchwithinthescale.Thisnoteiscalledthetonic.IntheCdiatonicscalethenoteCisthetonicpitch.Diatonicscalescanbebuiltonalltwelvenotesasthetonic.Therearetwoformsofthediatonicscalecalleddiatonicmajoranddiatonicminor.TheyeachconsistofaseriesofwholeandhalfstepsasillustratedinFigure3.Onewholestepequalstwohalfsteps.Figure3:3DiatonicMajorScales,3DiatonicMinorScales

Major Whole Whole Half Whole Whole Whole Half Cmajor C D E F G A B CGmajor G A B C D E F# GFmajor F G A Bb C D E FMinor Whole Half Whole Whole Half Whole WholeCminor C D Eb F G Ab Bb CGminor G A Bb C D Eb F GFminor F G Ab Bb C Db Eb F

ThemelodiesofmostsongsintheWesterntraditionarebuiltusingthenotesofthemajororminorscales.Generallythenotesofthemajorscaleareculturallyunderstoodtosound“happy”or“light”whilethenotesoftheminorscalesound“sad”or“down”.Ifoneplaysallofthewhitekeys(naturals)ofapianofromCtoCthenitwillbeaCmajorscale.CMajoristheonlymajorscalethatcanbeplayedwithoutplayingtheaccidentals(blackkeys).LikewisetheAminorscaleisplayedonallofthenaturalsfromAtoA.Figure4givesallofthemajorandminorkeyswithcorrespondingkeysignatures(numberofsharpsorflats).Figure4:TheCircleofFifths

ByJustplainBill(Ownwork)[GFDL(http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)viaWikimediaCommons

Thereisahierarchyofpitchesineachscale.Themostimportantpitchisthe

firstscaledegreeandiscalledtonic.Thedominantpitchisthesecondmostimportantpitch.Itisthefifthdiatonicscaledegree.Sub-dominantisbuiltonthefourthscaledegreeandisalsoconsideredimportant.

Whenreferringtopitchesitisstandardnowinthewesttouseletternames.Traditionallymostculturesusesomesystemofsolfege.Solfegeusessyllablestonamepitchesinrelationtoscales.Inthewesterndiatonicmajorscalethesolfegesyllablesaredo,re,mi,fa,sol,la,ti,dowiththetonicnotebeingdo.Theadvantageoflearningsolfegeisthatsingerscansingthesamemelodyinallkeyswithoutadjustingthenotenames.

PentatonicScaleThepentatonicscaleisascalethathasbeenusedbymanycultures.Thepentatonicscalehasfivenotes.Theminorformofthisscalehasaminor3rd,wholestep,wholestep,minor3rd,wholestep.ThisscalecanbeplayedonalloftheblackkeysofapianostartingandendingonE-flat.Themajorformofthisscalecontainsthenotesofamajordiatonicscalewithoutthefourthandtheseventhscaledegrees.Indifferingformsthepentatonicscaleisutilizedasaprimaryscaleinmuchsub-SaharanAfricanmusic,far-EastAsianmusic,andGamelanmusicfromIndonesia.ThegamelansystemsoftuningpelogandslendroutilizepentatonicscalesthathavenothingtodowiththeWesterndivisionoftheoctave.BluesScaleThemostcommonbluesscaleisaminorpentatonicscalewithanaddednote.Thisscalecanbeplayedoveranychordina“blueschordprogression”.Thismakesitessentialtoboththebluesandjazzgenres.Seefigure5.Figure5:CMinorPentatonicandCBluesScales

MinorPentatonic MinorBluesMelodicModesofSouthwestAsia,SouthCentralAsia,NorthAfrica

InmanyMiddleEasternculturesthereisanaestheticemphasisplacedonthepresentationofwords.Thisisevidencedbythepoeticlegacytheregion.Thiscanalsobeheardinthemelodicpresentationofpoetry.Singersuseornamentationandembellishmenttoaddtotheemotionalcontentandmeaninginperformance.Melodyisaprimaryelementinmusicfromthispartoftheworld.Traditionalmusichasnoharmonyandsometimes,asisthecasewithrecitationoftheQur’an,hasnosteadybackgroundpulse.Theexpressionoftheemotionsinamelodyisahighlydevelopedskill.

Insteadofdividingtheoctaveinto12semitones,MiddleEasternmusichas24microtonestochoosefrom.ThisallowsformorenuancedmelodicvariationthanintheWesternmusicalworld.Italsocausesmuchmusicfromthistraditiontosound“outoftune”fromaWesternperspective.Thesemicrotones(orquartertones)existbetweenthenotesofapianoandotherWesterninstruments.ThereforemuchMiddleEasternmusiccannotberepresentedorrecreatedusingWesterninstrumentsandnotation.Forinstance:ThenotesofMaqamRastmelodic

C F G C

Eb Bb

C F G C

Eb F# Bb

modeandtheCmajorscalecanbeseeninFigure6.NotethatapianocannotproducethequarterflatEandB.

ThetermforthescalesoftheArabic,Persian,Jewish,andTurkishmusicalworldismaqam.Maqamarenotsimplyscaleslikeinthewest.Insteadtheyaremelodicmodesthathaveextramusical/emotionalassociations.LikeWesternscalesmaqamusuallydividetheoctaveintosevennotes(heptonic).UnlikeintheWesternmusicalworld,maqamarenotthoughtofasonegroupingofsevenbutinsteadtheyaremostoftentwofour-notetetrachordsthatarestackedontopofeachother.Thelowestnoteinthelowertetrachordisanoctavebelowthehighestnoteintheuppertetrachord.Themostimportantnote(tonic)isthefirstnoteofthelowertetrachordandthesecondmostimportantnote(dominant)isthefirstnoteoftheuppertetrachord.Inanyonepiecetheremaybeavarietyoftetrachordsusedfordifferingsections.Eachtetrachordhasitsownexpressivequalitiesandextra-musicalassociations.Categoriesofmaqamarebasedupontheirlowertetrachords(regardlessofthevarietyofuppertetrachords).TheFigure6showstwoofthemorecommonmaqamusingwesternletternameswiththetetrachords.Figure6:MaqamrastandMaqamhijaz

MaqamrastinCC D E(microtone

flat)F G A B(microtone

flat)C

Lowertetrachord Uppertetrachord MaqamhijazinD D E-flat F-sharp G A B-flat C D

Lowertetrachord UppertetrachordIndianRaga

InIndiathesetofpitchesfromwhichapieceisconceivedisknownasaraga.TherearemanyHindustani(northIndian)andCarnatic(SouthIndian)ragas.Eachofthemdictatesboththenotesthatperformerswillchooseforthemelodyandalsorulesforhowtheperformerwillperformthesenotes.Mostragascontainsevenascendingpitcheswithadifferingsevendescendingpitcheswithinanoctave.LikemusicfromtheArabicworldextra-musicalassociations,microtonesandornamentationsareimportantcomponentsoftheperformanceofragas.Specificragasareassociatedwithtimesofthedayandseasonsoftheyear.Inadditiontohavinga“roadmap”forimprovisationeachragaalsohasarepertoireofpre-composedmelodiesthatarepasseddownorallythroughthetradition.Asidefromthesesmall“compositions”notwoperformancesofaragawillbeexactlyalike.

MuchIndian“classical”musicisbasedonalongimprovisationofmelodyonthegivenragaandrhythmictalabeingperformed.InHindustanicultureacommonensembleperformingaragawouldconsistofasitar,atambura,andtabla.InCarnatictraditionstheensemblewouldalsobeatriobutthecommoninstrumentationwouldincludeavina,tambura,andmrdangam.Ineachoftheseensemblesthemainchordophoneinstrumentperformstheraga(sitar,vina)while

thedrumsanddronesaccompany.IntheCarnatictraditionthehumanvoiceplaysamoreprominentroleinthemusic.Whenthevoicesingsaragaitusuallyusesasolfegesystemcalledsargaminwhichthesingerusesthefollowingsyllables:sa,ra/ri,ga,ma,pa,dha,da/ni,sa.LikeinotherexamplesofscalesthereisahierarchyofnoteswithsaactingastheequivalentoftheWesterntonic.Tosomeonenotfamiliarwiththepracticeorthelanguageitmightappearthatthesingerisspeakingwordswithmeaning.Thatisnotthecase,thesyllablessimplyindicatepitchheight. Analyzingmelody:

1. Whatinstrumentisperformingthemelody?2. Isthemelodypre-composedorisitimprovised?Isitornamented?3. Whatscaleormelodicmodeservesasthefoundationforthe

melody?4. Describetherange,direction,andmotionofthemelody.

Harmony

Melodyisacollectionofpitchesplayedinsuccession.Harmonyisacollectionofpitchesplayedatthesametime.Therulesandaestheticsthatdeterminetheproperuseofharmonydifferbetweencultures.Forexample,thewaysthatharmonyisusedwithinJapaneseGagakudiffersfromthewaysthatitisutilizedinWesternmusic.Someculturesdonotutilizeharmonyasanelementofmusic.SomeexamplesofmusicthatdoesnottraditionallyutilizeharmonyincludeIndonesianGamelan,IndianClassical,ArabicandPersian,NativeAmerican,andAboriginalAustraliangenres.HarmonyhasbeenutilizedanddevelopedasanelementinJapaneseGagaku,Sub-SaharanAfrican,andWesternstylesincludingEuropeanartmusic,andWesternpopulargenres.

Westernharmonylargelyfunctionsonabasisknownastonality.Tonalityisaconceptthatrecognizesthetonicnoteofadiatonicscaleasthemostimportant“home”or“central”pitchfromwhichthemusicbeginsandends.Whenconsideringharmony,thetonalcenter(tonic)isachordbuiltonthefirstscaledegree.Somemusicshiftstonalcenterswithinthepiece.Whenthemusicshiftsfromonediatonickeyareatoanotheritiscalledamodulation.Mostmodulationsareimperceptibletotheuntrainedlistener.Modulationsbetweenmajorandminorkeyscansometimesbediscernabletotheuntrainedear.IntherecitativeQuandjevousaimerai?fromtheoperaCarmenthereisamodulationfromfminortoFMajorjustbeforetheend.ThissetsupamodulationfromFMajortodminorforthestartofthearia:L'amourestunoiseaurebelle(Habanera).TheHabaneraalsomodulatesfromdminortoDMajor.Thesekeyareasdictatethenoteschosenforboththemelodyandtheharmony.

Achordisgenerallydefinedasthreeormorepitchessoundingsimultaneously.Thetonicchordisbuiltbyplayingthefirst,third,andfifthnoteofthescalesimultaneously.IfthetonalityofapieceisCmajorthenthetonicchordcontainsthenotesC,E,andG(SeeFigure7).

Figure7:Tonic,Sub-dominant,andDominantsinCdiatonic-major

Scaledegree 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th OctaveCmajorscale C D E F G A B CTonicchord“Cmaj” C E G Sub-dominantchord“Fmaj” F A CDominantchord“Gmaj” D G B Becausethetonicchordisthe“homechord”,intonalmusicitisthecentralharmony.Thedominantandsub-dominantchordsarealsoveryimportantandarebuiltonthefifthandfourthnotesofadiatonicscale.

Majorandminordiatonicchordsareconsideredtobeconsonantchords.Consonanceisrepresentedbyintervalsorchordsthatsoundrelativelystableandfreeoftension.Theoppositeofconsonanceisdissonance.Dissonanceisrepresentedbyintervalsorchordsthatsoundtenseandunstable.Westernfunctionalharmonyutilizestheprincipalthatthemusicwillstartwithconsonantharmonies,movetomoredissonantharmoniesandintheendofferrelaxation/reliefbyreturningtoconsonance.Themovementbetweenconsonanceanddissonanceprovidesmotiontodepthtothemusic.Intonalmusic(musicwithfunctionalharmony)thismovementhappensbetweenchords.Aestheticsthatdeterminewhatisconsonantandwhatisdissonantdifferfromculturetocultureandfromgenerationtogeneration.AninterestingexampleofthisisintraditionalchoralsingingfromBulgaria.Inthisculturesecondsareconsideredtobeconsonant.IncontemporaryAmericanpoptheseintervals(andchordsbuiltusingthem)areconsideredtobedissonant.

AdefiningfeatureofWesternArtmusicisthedevelopmentofharmonystartingintheMedievalstyleperiod.Inabroadsensetonalmusichasapeakinpurelydiatonicmusic(usingnotesofmajorandminordiatonicscales)intheClassicalstyleperiod.IntheRomanticperiodcomposersstretchedthepossibilitiesoftonalmusicbyaddingdramaticdissonancesandfarreachingharmoniestothetraditionaltonalfoundationsthatwereestablishedduringthepreviousperiods.BytheTwentiethcenturymanycomposersbelievedthattraditionaltonalitywasexhaustedandold-fashioned.TheresultofthiswasthattheTwentiethcenturystyleperiodinWesternArtmusicsawanormalizationofdissonance.Muchmusicfromtheperiodexploredthepossibilitiesofsonoritiesthatexistedoutsidetherulesoffunctionalharmony/tonality.Thisisadefiningfeatureofthisperiodofmusic.Whenlisteningtoitonemaybesurprisedbythelackofcomfort(ortheoddness)feltwithinmanyworks.Thisisoftenadirectresultofthenormalizationoftraditionaldissonances.Whenmusicdeniestherulesoftonalitybynothavingacentraltonalityitisreferredtoasatonalmusic.Learningthemusicaltheorybehindfunctionalharmonyandatonalpracticetakesmany“classically”trainedWesternmusiciansyearsofclasses,lessons,practiceandstudytomaster.

Westernpopularandfolkgenresgenerallyutilizesimpleharmoniesthatarediatonicandfunctionallytonal.Mostmusicwithinthesegenrescontainsarepetitivesequenceofmovementbetweenseveraldiatonicchords.Thisiscommonlyknownasachordprogression.Thesechordprogressionsoftencontain

onlythreeorfourchords.InmajordiatonickeysthechordsofTonic(builtonscaledegree1),Sub-dominant(scaledegree4)andDominant(scaledegree5)areoftenusedtobuildsongs.Invocalgroupsthereisoftenonesingerwholeadsbysingingthemelodywhiletheothersharmonizethatmelodybycombiningvoicestosingchords.Inpopularbandsinstrumentsthatcanplaychords(guitar,piano)oftenplaythechords/harmonywhilesingersprovidethemelody.

TraditionalMexicancorridosareoftensungoveratwo-chordprogressionthatalternatesbetweenonlythetonicanddominantchords.Figure8showsthechordsalongwiththelyricsofthefirstverseofElCorridodeGregorioCortezasperformedbyRamónAyala.Atwo-chordprogressionbetweentonicanddominantallowsthemusiciantostartandfinishwithconsonancerepresentedbythetonicchordandmovetoamore“dissonant”arearepresentedbythedominantchord.Inthispiecetheharmonyisthechordsplayedontheguitarwhilethevoicesarethemelody.Anotherinterestingaspectofthemelodyisthatitissunginharmonybytwosingerswhosingathirdapart.

Figure8:ElCorridodeGregorioCortezmelodywithchords

Theadditionofthesub-dominantchord(IV)tothetonicanddominant

expandstheharmonicpossibilitiesofachordprogression.Thesethreechordsaretheharmonicfoundationofmanypopsongs.Itisinterestingtonotethateachofthesechordsliesnexttoeachotheronthecircleof5ths(Seefigure4).Whenaskingguitaristswhatthefirstchordsarethattheylearnedtheyoftenreplywiththreeadjacentchordsonthecircleof5ths:(F,C,G)or(G,D,A).Thetonic,dominant,andsub-dominantchordsareusedtobuild“threechord”songs.Examplesofthreechordsongsusingtonicdominantandsub-dominantcanbeseenbyfollowingthislink:

Theblueschordprogressionisaspecificsequenceofthetonic,dominant,andsub-dominantchordsthatservesastheharmonyforthebluesgenre.AccordingtoSteveValdezinhisbookAHistoryofRockMusic,4theditionthebasicbluesstructurewasinspiredbychordsusedinbasicchurchhymnsfromGreatBritain,ScotlandandIreland.African(American)slavesassimilatedthemintotheirownmusicandcreated“theblues”.Inthe1910sand1920stheblueschordprogressionbegantocodifyintothetwelve-barbluesprogression.Inthisprogressionthetonic

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chord(I)istheharmonicfoundationofthefirstfourbars.Itisfollowedbyatwobarharmonyofthesub-dominant(IV)chord.Afterreturningtotonic(I)fortwobarsitthenmovestodominant(V)fortwobarsandendswithtwomorebarsoftonic(I).Each“bar”ormeasurehasfourbeatswithabackbeatemphasison2and4.ThefullprogressionisillustratedinFigure9.Tomodernmusicians“playingtheblues”oftenmeansplayingapiecethatutilizedthe12bar-bluesprogression.Thebluesandpentatonicscalescanbeusedtoimprovisemelodiesovertheharmonyofthebluesprogression.

Figure9:12-BarBluesProgression

Bar1Tonic(chord)=I

Bar2Tonic=I

Bar3Tonic=I

Bar4Tonic=I

> > > > > > > >1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4Bar5Sub-Dominant=IV

Bar6Sub-Dominant=IV

Bar7Tonic=I

Bar8Tonic=I

> > > > > > > >1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4Bar9Dominant=V

Bar10Dominant=V

Bar11Tonic=I

Bar12Tonic=I

> > > > > > > >1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Byaddingmorechordstothetraditionalthreesongwritersbuildmorecomplexchordprogressions.Inmuchmusicthechordaddedisaminorchordbuiltonthesixthscaledegree(sub-mediant/vi).Manypophitsfromthe1950sand60susedthe“doowop”progressionoftonic,sub-mediant,sub-dominant,dominant(I-vi-IV-V)tocreatea“hit”sound.Morerecentlythetonic,dominant,sub-mediant,sub-dominant(I-V-vi-IV)progressionhasbeenusedtocreatemanyhits.Therearemanyonlinevideosinwhichmusiciansdemonstratethisconceptbyplayingthesamechordprogressionwhilemovingthroughmanypopularmelodies.

AstheageofEuropeancolonialismgiveswaytotheinternetrevolutionWesternmusicalinfluencescanbefoundinculturesacrosstheglobe.Thisoftenmanifeststhroughtheadditionofharmonyintopopularandtraditionalgenres.HarmonycannowbeheardwithinBollywood,K-pop,J-pop,andArabicpopularmusic.SometimesitisusedintraditionalWesternwayswhileoftenitissimplyusedasaneweraestheticpreferencethatisnotboundtoWesterntraditions.

Analyzingharmony:1. Isthereharmonywithinthemusic?2. Ifso,whatinstrument(s)areplayingtheharmonicpart?3. Whatscaleormelodicmodeservesasthefoundationforthe

harmony?

4. Istheharmonyarepetitivechordprogression?Ifso,whatisthechordprogression?

MusicalTexture

MusictheoristsoftenutilizetextureasanelementofmusicthathelpsguideunderstandingofthecomplexdifferencesbetweenthemanygenresofWesternArtMusicthatwerecreatedoverthepastmillennium.Musicaltextureishowmelodyandharmonyarecombinedwithinapieceofmusic.Becausetextureisonlyconcernedwiththesetwoelementsitisnotoftenusedtoanalyzemusicfromculturesthatdonotutilizeharmony.Itisimportanttounderstandthatpurelyrhythmic(drumming)partsarenotconsideredwhenanalyzingthetextureofapieceofmusic.

Therearethreeprimarymusicaltextures:Monophony-Monophonicmusiccontainsonemelodywithnoharmonicaccompaniment.Musicalworksthathaveonlyonemelodicinstrumentperformingareoftenmonophonic.Monophonictexturecanalsooccurwhenmanyinstrumentsareplayingthesamemelodyatthesametime.Gregorianchantisanexampleofamonophonicgenre.MusicoftheshakuhachiandNativeAmericanflutesismostlymonophonic.WhenpeoplegathertosingHappyBirthdaytheystriveforamonophonictexture.Whenapieceofmusiccontainsonemelodywithanaccompanyingdrone(RagaJog)thedroneisoftennotconsideredandthereforethetexturemaybecalledmonophonic.Homophony-Homophonicmusiccontainsonemelodyandharmonicaccompaniment.ThisisthemostcommonlyheardtextureinWesternArtmusicandcontemporarypopularmusic.Theharmonyisoftenplayedonaninstrumentthatcanperformmorethanonenoteatthesametime.Instrumentslikethepianoandtheguitarareusedinmodernpopmusictoplaythechordswhilesingersoftenperformthemelody.Despitethecomplextimbres,melodies,andrhythmsofWesternArtmusicthemostcommontextureishomophony.Whenchoirsandvocalgroupssingfour-partharmony(chords)inwhichallofthevoicesmoveinunisonrhythmtheresultingtextureishomophony.Theuppervoiceinthesecasesisthemelodywhiletheothervoicesaretheharmonicaccompaniment.Thismusicissometimesreferredtoasbeinghomorhythmic.Polyphony-Polyphonicmusiccontainstwoormoredifferingmelodieshappeningsimultaneously.ThereismuchpolyphonicmusicfromboththeRenaissanceandBaroquestyleperiodsinWesternArtmusic.InClassical,Romantic,andTwentiethCenturystylessmallerpolyphonicsectionsoflargeworksoffercontrasttothelargelyhomophonictextures.Polyphonyiscomplexor“thick”sounding.Itisnotoftenheardinpopularmusic.Polyphonicmusicmayormaynothaveharmonicaccompaniment.

Thefourthtextureisonethatalsocontainsonemelodybuthasvariationsonthemelody.Heterophony-Heterophonicmusiccontainstwoormorevoicesplayingvariationsofonemelodyatthesametime.Thisisacommontextureofsomefolktraditionsinwhichmelodiesarepreviouslyknowntothelisteners(AmazingGrace)andeachperformerwantstoaddtheirownstyletotheperformance.

Analyzingtexture:1. Doesthemusichaveoneormoremelodies?2. Doesthemusichaveharmony?3. Didyoudisregarddronesanddrums?4. Whatisthetexture?Doesitchangewithinthepiece?

ReferenceList:Bakan,MichaelB.2012.WorldMusic:TraditionsandTransformations.2nded. NewYork:McGraw-Hill.Kilroe-Smith,Catherine.2013.MusicalJourneys.Dubuque,IA:KendallHunt.Kubic,Gehard.1994.TheoryofAfricanMusic,VolumeI.London:Universityof

ChicagoPress.Paredes,Américo.1958.WithHisPistolinHisHand:ABorderBalladandIt’sHero.

Austin,TX:UniversityofTexasPress.Sacks,Oliver,G.Schlaug,L.Jancke,Y.HuangandH.Steinmetz.1995.MusicalAbility.

Science268,(5211May):621-22.Wade,BonnieC.2013.ThinkingMusically:ExperiencingMusic,ExpressingCulture.

3rded.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.WikimediaCommons.“HarmonicPartialsonStrings.svg.”LastmodifiedJuly8,2008. AccessedOct.31,2016.https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Harmonic_partials_on_strings.svg.Worland,Randy.“DemonstratingtheEffectofAirTemperatureonWindInstrument

Tuning.”Presentedatthe161stAcousticalSocietyofAmericaMeeting,May26,2011.AccessedNov.5,2016.http://acoustics.org/pressroom/httpdocs/161st/Worland.html

Valdez,Stephen.2006.AHistoryofRockMusic.4thed.Dubuque,Iowa:Kendall/Hunt.

Module5-ForminMusic

Formreferstothelayoutofapieceofmusicfrombeginningtoend.Itisthestructureofthemes,rhythms,patternsandothermusicalconceptsthatformthedesignofamusicalselection.Formcanbeeasytohearinshortand/orrepetitivepiecescommontoone’sownculture.Inlongerandculturallyforeignworkstheformcanbedifficulttorecognizewithoutpriorunderstandingandanalysis.Thisisbecausemusicalformsarevariedintheirconstructionandnotlimitedtoanyoneelementofmusicasapointofemphasis.Thebuildingblocksofformcanbemelodies,rhythms,chordprogressions,instrumentation,timbres,dynamics,andlyrics.Composersuserepetition,contrast,variation,growth,anddeclinetocreateexpectationandtodevelopthesebuildingblocks.

Formsaretiedtotheaestheticsoftheculturesthatcreatethem.TheformofthemusiccanfollowstrictlylaidoutceremonylikeintheRomanCatholicMassoritcanbesymbolicoflargerculturalandsocialformationslikethepolyphonic,cyclicalformsfoundinIndonesiangamelan.Formscanbetheproductsofevolutiontoagenreovertime.Thisisevidentinmodernpopularaestheticsthatvaluetheshortlengthofapiece.Themodernlengthofapopsongisadirectresultofthelimitationsplacedonlongerjazz,blues,andragtimeworksintheearlytwentiethcenturybyearlyrecordingequipment.Ten-inchrecordscouldonlyholdbetweenthreetofiveminutesofmusiconaside(withouthavingtocompressthegrooves,thusdiminishingquality).ThechangetoaformovertimeisalsoevidentintheevolutionofMedievalandRenaissancedancesuitesintomulti-movementformsthateventuallybecamethesonatacycleformusedtostructuresymphonies,stringquartets,sonatas,andconcertosintheeighteenthcentury.Enjoymentofthesegenresistiedtodevelopinganaestheticforappreciationofhowacomposerutilizesformtocreateawork.

Perhapstheoppositeofthe“Classical”decorumthatmanifestsintheformalemphasisisthe“FreeJazz”movementthatbeganinthelate1950’s.ThisgenreofmusicwasspearheadedbyblackAmericansatatimewhensegregationandracialinequalityinpartsofAmericawerethenorm.Thecivil-rightsmovementchallengedtheestablishednorms.Free-jazzmusicianschallengedthemelodic,rhythmic,formal,andharmonicnormsofestablishedpracticeinjazz.Inpure“freejazz”itispossiblethatthemusiciansarenotfamiliarwitheachother,thattheensembleisaunconventionalmixofinstruments,andthatthemusicianscompletelyimproviseallaspectsofthemusic.Thisisoneofthefewgenresofmusicinwhichmusicianshavelibertytocompletely“makeituponthespot”.

Improvisationisanimportantaspectofmanymusicalgenres.Becausetheimprovisationisgenerallyaspontaneouscompositionofmaterialthatisappropriatewithinthecontextscholarsareshyingawayfromcallingimprovisation“makingituponthespot”.Itisappropriatetocallitcomposinginthemoment.

Inmostgenresofjazz(andothermusic),musiciansusefreedomtospontaneouslyputtogetherpre-conceived/practicedmusicalideas(improvise).Theseideasarearrangedoverpre-conceivedformsutilizingspecificscales.Theharmoniesandrhythmsarealsostandardized.Instandardjazzgenreslikebigbandswingtheimprovisedaspectoftheperformanceislimitedtoshortermelodic

solos“overtheform”.Thesesolosaresmallfeatureswithinacomplexarrangementofsoundsthatrequiresmostmusicianstoreadthemusicwhileperforming.Inbe-bopandmorecontemporaryjazz“combo”settingsmusiciansgenerallyhavemorefreedomtoimproviselongersolosanddevelopideas.

Thereismuchdebateoverthedefinitionofjazz.Historicallyitisastyleofmusicthatoriginatedatthebeginningofthe20thcenturyinAfricanAmericancommunitiesintheUnitedStatesfromaconfluenceofAfricanandEuropeanmusictraditions.Somesaythatitisahistoricalgenrethatreliesheavilyonimprovisationoverswingingrhythmsandbluesprogressions.OtherssaythatjazzisaliveandwellinanymusicianwhowantstoexpressthemselvesthroughmelodicimprovisationoverAmericanstylerhythmsandchordprogressions.Whicheverthecase;thekeyaestheticvalueforjazzisexpressionthroughimprovisationofmelody.ToalesserextentthisisalsothecasewithotherAmericangenresofmusic.Improvisedsolosareexpectedintraditionalblues,gospel,psychedelicrock,jam-band,salsa,andcountrybasedgenreslikeoldtimeandbluegrass.Inhip-hopfreestylingtherapperimprovisespoetryrhythmicallyoverrhythmicostinatoscalled“instrumentals”.

Therearemanyculturesaroundtheglobethatshareanaestheticpreferenceformusicinwhichsomeaspectofthepieceisimprovised.InEwedrummingofWestAfricamasterdrummersimprovisepatternsinresponsetotheformandtothedancers.InIndianandMiddleEasternmusicthesubtledevelopmentofthescale(raga/maqam)throughimprovisationisafeatureofmuchmusic.Todothiswithpassionandartistry(soul)isthegoalofmanymusicians.Compositionscanlastoveranhourwhentheperformancesareinspired.

IntheEuropean“classical”traditionmodernaudiencesassociatethe

legendarycomposers(Beethoven,Bach,Mozart,etc…)withcompositionsthattheywroteonpaper.Thesecompositionshappenedprevioustoperformance.ModernaudiencesofWesternArtmusicknowthateachtimetheyhearthesecompositions(masterworks)theywillnotincludeimprovisation.What“classical”musicfansvaluearedifferencesininterpretation.Thiscouldbedifferenttempos,dynamics,timbres,orsubtlevariationsinexpressionbroughtoutbyconductorsormusicians.Tothosewitha“taste”forthismusicthesevariationsarewhatgiveitlife.Aesthetesformpreferencesbasedupontheirexperiencewithdifferinginterpretationsoftheart.Theuntrainedeartendstoclaim,“itallsoundsthesame”.ThissamenessmightalsobeareflectionofthelackofimprovisationinWesternArtmusicatthebeginningofthe21stcentury.FormuchofthehistoryofWesternArtmusiccomposerswerealsoperformers.Manywrotepiecestofeaturethemselvesonaninstrument.ItisdocumentedthatBach,Handel,Mozart,Beethoven,Chopin,andothersweremasterimprovisers.Somewouldevenduelontheirinstrument(muchlikebattlinginhip-hopmusicanddanceorcuttingheadsinjazz).Imagineattendingasymphonyconcertthatincludedamusicalduel.

Repetition,variation,andcontrastAslistenerswerecognizetherepetitionmusicalideas.Whenmusicians

structureaformtheyutilizerepetitionofmelodies,rhythms,chordprogressions,

andmetriccyclestocreateorganizationunits.Smallmusicalideasthataredevelopedandrepeatedthroughoutapiecearecalledmotives.AhighlyrecognizableexampleofamotiveusedinWesternArtMusicisthe“three-shortsandalong”motivethatisheardatthebeginningofBeethoven’sSymphonyNo.5.Ifamotiveisrepeatedcontinuouslyitisreferredtoasanostinato.Themesaregenerallylonger(ormoresubstantial)thanmotives.Themesaremelodiesorrhythmsthatarerepeatedorvariedthroughoutamusicalwork.

OstinatobasedformSometimesentirepiecesofmusicarebasedupontherepetitionofone

ostinato.ThisisthecaseinseveraltraditionalAfricangenressuchasGnawamusicofNorthAfrica.Gnawamusiccontainsrepetitivechantingthataccompaniesreligioustranceandcanbeperformedforhours.Thissamerepetitiveostinatoisheardinreligiouschantingofmantrasinmanyreligioustraditions.InIndia,KirtanisaformofchantandprayerutilizedbyHindis,Sikhs,andsomeBuddhists.InaKirtanperformancecallandresponseformisusedoverostinatostocreatetheform.InCallandResponseamusicalleadersingsorplaysalineofmusicandthechorus(ensemble)ofmusiciansrespondsinunison.InKirtanandinGriottraditionsofWestAfricatheleadertellshistoricalandreligiousstoriesinthecall.Thevariationofthestoriessatisfiestheneedforcontrastinthesetraditions.InEuropeantraditionsostinatoformswereoftenbasedonrepetitivebasslines(groundbass)andchordprogressions(chaconne).NotableamongtheseworksistheBaroqueCannoninDbyJohannPachelbel.Thispiececanoftenbeheardaprocessionalceremonieslikeweddings.MelodicvariationisoftenusedtocreatecontrastinEuropeanworks.

Moreoftenitisthecasethatsectionsofalargerworkutilizeostinatos.Inpopmusicarepeatedostinatoisoftenreferredtoasariff.InjazzandLatinmusicitmightbecalledavamp.InIndianmusicitiscalledalahara.InAfricandrummingitissimplyarhythmthatmusiciansperformuntilamasterdrummersignalstheswitchtoanewsection.MinimalismisaWesternArtmusicmovementofthelatetwentiethcenturyinwhichcomposersutilizedsimplerepeatedpatternstobuildlargerworks.SomeofthemostfamousminimalistcomposersaretheAmericansPhilipGlass,SteveReichandJohnAdams.GlassandReichbothacknowledgetheinfluenceofostinatobasedformsfoundinIndianandAfricanmusic.

CyclicformsWhenthesectionthatrepeatsislongerthananostinatothentheformis

consideredtobecyclic.Likeostinatosthecyclesthatarerepeatedcanbemelodic,harmonic,orrhythmic.RepeatedmelodiescreatethetraditionalliubanandbabanformsofthetraditionalChinesefolkmusiccalledJiangnanSizhu.Twoprimarycyclelengthsareusedformanyoftheworks.Thesecyclesaremelodiesof60or64beatsinlength(Thrasher,1989).Musiciansperformthemelodyoverandover.Eachtimemusiciansareexpectedtoembellishthemelodiesandaddtheirownpersonaltreatments.Thisisreferredtoas“addingflowers”.

ThiscyclicalmelodicformisakintothestrophicformsofWesternmusic.Strophicreferstoaforminwhichmusicalelementsremain(largely)thesamewitheachrepetitionofasectionwhilesomeelementorlyricschange.Itisoftenthecasethattheonlychangingaspectforeachstropheisthelyric.ThisisthecasemanytraditionalcorridosofMexicoandAmerica.Insuchworkseachsectionofmusicrepeatsthesamemelody,harmony,andrhythmunderthechanginglyrics.

Inmanyjazzpiecesarecurringchordprogressionservesasthefoundationofthepiece.Oneofthemostcommonchordprogressionsutilizedinjazzisthetwelve-barbluesprogression.Eachtimethroughthechordprogressionisreferredtoasachorus.Atypicaljazzarrangementwouldhaveawrittenmelodycalled“thehead”playedoverfirstchorus.Aftertheheadisperformedthemusicianswilldecideonanorderformelodicandrhythmicsolosinthefollowingchoruses.Whenperforminglive,thesoloistsarefreetokeepgoingaslongastheywant.Thepiecetypicallythenendswithanotherperformanceofthehead.Figure1illustratesthiscyclicalforminJoe“King”Oliver’spieceWestEndBluesasitappearsinthefamousrecordingmadebyLouisArmstrongandhisHotFiveonJune28,1928.IntroductionslikeArmstrong’sopeningtrumpetsolo,andcodas(outros),aresuperfluousadditionstotheform.

Figure1:WestEndBluescyclic12barbluesform

Intro- Bluesprogression:Chorus1

Bluesprogression:Chorus2

Bluesprogression:Chorus3

Bluesprogression:Chorus4

Bluesprogression:Chorus5

SoloTrumpet

HeadPolyphonicpresentationofthewrittenmelodyontrumpetwithcountermelodiesplayedonclarinetandtrombone

TromboneSolo:Improvisedmelodicsolo

VocalandClarinetsolo:CallandresponsestyleimprovisedsolobyArmstrongscatsingingwithclarinet

PianoSolo:Improvisedmelodicsoloinrighthandwithlefthandharmonicaccompaniment

HeadArmstrongdepartsfromreplayingthewrittenmelody,insteadimprovisingalongwithclarinetandtrombone

Sectionalforms

Sectionalformshappenwhenthemusicalpiececontainsmultiple,identifiablesections.Sometimesthesesectionsarecompletelydifferentanddonotrepeat.Itisoftenthatapieceofmusicwillreturntoonesection.Thiscreatesasenseofexpectationfulfilledwithinthemusic.

Sectionalformswithcycles

GamelanLayeredcyclesthatchangeindifferingsectionsofapieceareafeatureof

severalAsianmusicalgenres.Sometimesthepieceswillhaveanintroductionsectionbeforethecyclesbegin.InJavaneseGamelantherearebothrhythmicandmelodiccyclesatthecoreoftheform.Inketawang(16beatcycle)workseachgongcycleconstitutestherepeatingformofthepiece.Cyclicalmelodiesofvaryinglengthsandspeedsarelayeredontopofthegongcycle.Thekendhangdrumguidesplayersbysignalingchangesovertheconstantgongcycle.

ArabicMusicInmuchEgyptian(Arabic)musicsectionsofmusicareoftenrepeatedas

manytimesastheperformerchooses.Intraditionalperformancesthemelodies(maqam)arevariedandexpandedthroughimprovisationineachcycle.Theultimateaestheticgoalistobringaboutstateofemotionalexcitementorecstasy.Theefforttoexploreandheightenanemotionthroughmusicisnotable.Thispracticeresultsinperformanceswhereitiscommonforonepiecetolastoverandhour.OumKulthumisafamousEgyptiansingerthatisreveredforheremotiveimpact.Sheperformedwithanorchestra(takht)filledwithvirtuosomusicians.ShewasfavoredforhertraditionalArabicpresentationatatimewhenWesterninfluencesandaestheticswerechallengedinEgypt.MuchmusicthatsheperformedhasbecomepartofacannonofArabicmusic.OneofthesongsthatshepopularizedistitledAnaFiIntizarak.InthispiecethereareseveralsectionsthatbuildforoverthirtyminutesasKulthumincreasestheemotion.Theformalarrangementofthesesectionsiscomplexbecauseitisbaseduponthepoemthatisbeingsung.Occasionallythepiecereturnstoaninstrumentalchorusthatisheardattheintroduction.Themusicologist,composer,performer,andArabicscholarDavidMarcuswroteinanemailtotheauthor:

“Intermsoflyricsandemotion,AnaFiIntizarak'ssingerisgettingmoreand

moredistressedineachverse,asshewaitsandimagineseachfootsteptobethearrivalofherlover,whonevercomes.It'sasifsheisslowlygoingcrazy,andtheneachYaReytchorus("IwishIhadneverfalleninlove!")releasestheenergy.ThesongisinEgyptianColloquial(orSpoken)Arabic,asopposedtoFormal(orClassical)Arabic.”(Marcus,2017)ThecyclicformallowedKulthumtocustomizeeachperformanceextendingorcontractingthelengthofworksbasedupontheemotionalcontent,audienceresponseandcreativity. HindustaniMusic

InHindustanimusicaltraditionsimprovisatoryexplorationsofragasandtalastravelthroughformalsectionsthatcometogetherinthebadhatform.Theformcontainsaseriesofguidepoststhatfacilitatevirtuosicperformanceresulting

fromyearsofstudyandpractice.Theoverallbadhatformisagradualcrescendoofintensitythatpeaksattheendofthework.Musiciansgrowthe“raga”orscaleaccordingtotraditionscombinedwiththeirowncreativity.Theybuildtheintensityofthemusicoverthecyclicaltala.Inmusicwherethereisnomelody/onlytalathepercussionisaccompaniedbyamelodiccyclecalledalahara.

Thereareseveralsectionsthatofferguidepostswithinbadhatform.Thefirstisthealap.Thealapsectionservesasanintroductiontothenotesoftheragathatisbeingperformed.Thisofferstheaudiencetheopportunitytohearprincipalnotes,motives,andextra-musicalideas(suchasmood=rasa)thatwillbeusedthroughoutthepiece.Thealapsectionisidentifiablebecauseitisamelodicimprovisation(withdrone)thathasnosteadybackgroundpulse.

Jorisatransitionalsectionthatfacilitatesthemovefromthealaptothemainmelodysectionknownasgat.Inthejorthemelodicinstrumentbecomesmorerhythmicallyactivebyaddingapulse.Thisispartoftheoverallbuildupofintensitythathappensinbarhatform.

Thegatsectioncontainsthemainmelody(s)oftheperformance.Thismelodyservesasafoundationformelodicandrhythmicimprovisationthroughoutthegatsection.Thegatisperformedoveratala(rhythmicmode)andisaccompaniedbythepercussioninstrument(usuallytabla).

Jhalaisanintensesectionthatservesasamusicalclimaxandending.Inthejhalamusiciansoftenalternateplayingmelodic/frettedstringswiththefixedpitch/dronestringsontheinstrument.Thisservesbothtointensifyrhythmandtoreinforcetheprimarynoteoftheragcalledsa(towhichthedronestringsaretuned).Jhalashappenattheendoftheperformancebuttheycanalsoexistattheendingofthejorbeforethetalabegins.

Inatypicalperformancethegrowthoftheragathroughthebadhatformcanprogressforhalfanhour.Thebeginningiscalmandslowandtheendisafierydisplayofvirtuosicability.Thegrowththathappensfromtheslowbeginningtothevirtuosicandfastendingisoftencomparedtothegrowthofaplantfromseedtoflower.Theperformanceofaragaisdevotionalandisseennotonlyasmusicalbutalsospiritualpractice,withtheultimategoalbeingNadaBrahma(“thesoundofGod”).(Bakan2012,135)Sectionalformsinpopmusic

Whenanalyzingtheformofpopmusicthetermsverse,chorus,andbridgeareoftenutilized.Thesetermseachrepresentcontrastingsectionsofthemusic.Inmanypopandfolkgenresthemelodythatisheardinthechorusisconsideredtobethemainmelodyor“hook”ofthepiece.Oftentheverseshavelyricsthattellastoryandthechorusexpressestheemotion.Iftheverseandchorusrepeatwithonlylyricalterationthentheycanbeconsideredonesectionandtheformcanbecalledstrophic.Whenthebridgesectionsofferscontrasttotheverseandchorusitoftencreatesaformcalledstandardsongform.Figure2illustrateshowthisformisoftenutilizedinpopularmusic.

Figure2:SongForm

A A B AorA’ Intro Verse Chorus Verse Chorus Bridge Verse Chorus Codaoptional narrative “hook” narrative “hook” Contrasting

material-possiblemodulation

Sometimesverseisskippedforreturntothe“hook”

optional

Asimpleformthatisoftenusedtodescribethestructureofmelodiesis

calledbinaryform.Inbinaryformthetunehastwodistinctsections.ExamplesofbinarymelodiesarethepiecesTurkeyintheStraw,YankeeDoodleandGreensleeves.ThesepiecesshowthecontrastoftheAsectionandtheBsection.Thiscontrastoftenisbothmelodicandharmonic.

Figure3:SampleBinaryForm

ASection BSectiontonicchord dominantchord

Westernartmusicsectionalforms

InWesternmusicrealizationofformalmarkers(oftenidentifiablemelody)isahighlyvaluedaesthetic.Listenersareoftenawareofthedesignofcomplexformsandthuslistenforhowcomposers’usetheformtocreateaworkofart.Theylistenforthedevelopmentandvariationofmelodicthemesandmotives.Inmanygenresthelistenersevenlistenfortheexpectedtemposandharmonicprogressions.ThroughawarenessofformagreaterunderstandingofWesternartmusiccanberealized.

ArguablythemostimportantoftheWesternartformsisamulti-movementformcalledthesonatacycle.SonatacyclescameintovogueasaformintheClassicalstyleperiod(1750-1820).Itwasatthispointthatcomposersestablishedmanyofthegenresthatwehearinmodernconcerthalls.Thefourgenresthatutilizethesonatacyclearethesonata,theconcerto,thestringquartet,andthesymphony.Becausetheyallusethesonatacycletheytypicallyhaveafast(allegro)firstmovement,aslowsecondmovement,andafastclosingmovement.Thesonataandconcertoonlyhavethesethreemovementswhilestringquartetsandsymphoniesalsohaveafourthmovement,adance(minuetandtrio)insertedbetweentheslowmovementandtheclosingfastmovement.Pausesoftenhappenbetweenmovementsintheperformancethesegenres.Inthesepausesmusiciansandaudiencemembersadjustandprepareforthenextmovement.Inthe20thcenturyitbecamestandardnottoapplaudbetweenmovements,insteadsavingapplauseuntiltheendoftheentirework.

Symphoniesareworksfororchestras(alsoknowassymphonyorchestrasorphilharmonicorchestras)thatarecomposedusingthefour-movementsonatacycleform.Stringquartetsusethesameformasasymphonybutarewrittenforaninstrumentationoftwoviolins,aviola,anda‘cello(stringquartet).Concertosandsonatasarewrittenusingthethree-movementcycle.Aconcertoisaworkforsoloinstrumentaccompaniedbyanorchestra.Thetermsonatacanbeconfusingbecauseofitsmanyrelateduses.Thegenrecalledsonatahasmanyhistoricalvariationsbutitisgenerallyconsideredtobeaworkforasoloinstrument(orinstrumentwithpianoaccompaniment)thatiscomposedusingthesonatacyclethreemovementfast-slow-faststructure.Asmentionedabovetheseconduseofthetermsonataisintheformcalledsonatacycle.Thethirduseisinthetermsonata-allegroform.Thisreferstotheformofthefirstmovementofthesonatacycle.

Figure4:Sonatacycle=usedinsonatas,

Movement1:Allegro=fasttempoSonataform

Movement2:SlowtempoOftenthemeandvariations/rondoform

Movement3:MinuetandTrioDancein3Doesnotappearinsonataorconcerto

Movement4:FastSonataRondoorSonataForm

Inthesonata-allegro(firstmovement)formcomposersusethreemelodiesas

thesourcematerialforbuildingthepiece.Thesemelodiesarecalledthemes.Themeoneisthemostimportantthemeinthepiece.Thefirststepinlisteningtosonataformistorecognizethemeoneandtolistenforeachappearanceofit.TherearethreemainsectionsofSonata-allegroformcalledtheexposition,developmentandrecapitulation.Intheexpositionthethreethemesarepresented(exposed).Thefirstthemewillbeinthetonickeyarea.Forexample:InSymphonyNo.1inCmajorthefirstthemewillbewritteninCmajor.Atransitionsectionsfollowsinwhichthemusicmodulates(changeskeyarea)toarelativekey.Forexample:InSymphonyNo.1inCmajorthemetwomightbeinthedominantkeyareaofGmajor.Theclosingthemewillbeinthesamekeyastheme2.Expositionsarerepeated.

Thedevelopmentsectionofsonata-allegroformcontainstheleastamountofestablishedstructure.Inthissectionthecomposermaypresentthemesoutoforder,fragmentthemes,sequencethemes,ordeveloptheminotherways.Theultimategoalofthedevelopmentistosetupthecadencefrombacktotonicforthereturnoftheme1intherecapitulation.Therecapitulationisanotherpresentationofthethemesfromtheexpositioninthesameorder.Themaindifferenceisthatallthemeswillbepresentedinthetonickeyarea.

Figure5:Sonata-allegroform

Intro

ExpositionTheme1=tonictransition/modulationTheme2=contrastingkeyareaClosingtheme=contrastingkeyarea

DevelopmentDevelopsmotivesandthemespresentedintheexposition.EndswithcadencefromVtoIthatreestablishestonickeyforrecapitulation

RecapitulationTheme1=tonictransition/nomodulationTheme2=tonicClosingtheme=tonic

Coda

Likeallotherformsdiscussedtherecanalsobeanintroductionand/ora

coda.Incodas,composerswrapupthepiecebyemphasizingthetonicchord(homechord).Thisisdonebydrawingoutcadentialmaterial.Acadenceisarestingpointprovidedbytheharmonicprogression.ThestrongestcadencesintonalmusicareV-I(dominanttotonic).Tonalcentersorkeyareasareimportantpartsofthesonataforms.Allmovementsareexpectedtobeginandendinatonickey.Theharmonicpathawayfromthetonicisalsodeterminedbythesonataform.Seefigure4foramapofsonata-allegroform.Classicallytrainedmusiciansandenthusiastsspendmuchtimeanalyzingmusictoidentifyeachformalmarker.ProgrammaticForm

Inmovies,videogames,televisionshows,epicfolktalesandothergenresmusiciscomposedtosupportastory.Oftentheformsusedforthemusicwillbedirectlyrelatedtothestory.Composerswhoscorefilmsareoftenaskedtocreatecustomizedaccompanimentthatfollowstheactiononscreen.Ifthecomposerwantstocreatemusicthatidentifiesorsupportscharacters,themes,oractionsthentheymightcomposeamusicalthemethatisrepresentative.OneneedsonlytoheartheImperialMarchfromtheStarWarsmoviestogetavisualimageofDarthVader.ThisisbecausewhenJohnWilliamsscoredthesefilmsheutilizedtheconceptof“leitmotif”thathadbeenusedinoperaforacentury.“Leitmotif”isatermthatWagnerusedtodescribethemesthatrepresentcharacters,ideas,orotherobjectsinhismusicdramas(operas).

Withinanopera,cantata,oratorioorotherWesternArtgenresthathaveanarrativeandinvolvesingingitiscommontohavethreeactsthateachincludearias,recitative,andchoruspieces.Ariasarethe“hitsongs”oftheoperaandmaybecomposedforsolo,duos,orgroupsofsingers.Intheariatheemotionsofthecharacterareoftenrevealedandexpoundedupon.ImaginetheemotionalreleasesonginanyDisneymovie.Thisisakintooperaarias.Recitativeadvancestheplotbetweenthesearias.Usuallyariashavesomesortofrepetitivesectionalform.

Recitativesareoftennon-repetitivebecausetheyfollowthetext.Ifnoorganizationalunitsorrepetitivestructuresarepresentinthemusicthentheformiscalledthrough-composed.

Analyzingform:

1. Doesthemusichaveapreconceivedformorisitimprovised?2. Istheformofthemusicasectionthatrepeatsoverandover?3. Istheformestablishedforthegenre?4. Doyounoticeanyrepetitiveformalmarkers?

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Journal1,No.2.AccessedFeb.14,2017http://aawmjournal.com/articles/2011b/

Ross,Alex.2010.ListentoThis.NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux.Thrasher,AlanR.1989.”StructuralContinuityinChineseSizhu:The‘Baban’Model.”

AsianMusic20.2:67–106.Wade,BonnieC.2013.ThinkingMusically:ExperiencingMusic,ExpressingCulture.

3rded.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Valdez,Stephen.2006.AHistoryofRockMusic.4thed.Dubuque,Iowa:Kendall/Hunt.