Slide 2 Music and the Mind Cognitive Elements of Music Listening
Kevin D. Donohue Databeam Associate Professor Electrical and
Computer Engineering University of Kentucky Slide 3 Is it Music?
Identify which sounds are Music: A B C D E F G Slide 4 What is
Music? 1 a : the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in
succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to
produce a composition having unity and continuity b : vocal,
instrumental, or mechanical sounds having rhythm, melody, or
harmony Merrian-Webster Online Dictionary:
http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/music Slide 5 Auditory Scene: Input
Sensory organs (ears) separate acoustic energy into frequency bands
and convert band energy into neural firings The auditory cortex
receives the neural responses and abstracts an auditory scene.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/hearcon.html Time
Frequency Slide 6 Auditory Scene: Perception Perception derives a
useful representation of reality from sensory input. Auditory
Stream refers to a perceptual unit associated with a single
happening (A.S. Bregman, 1990). Acoustic to Neural Conversion
Organize into Auditory Streams Representation of Reality Slide 7
Auditory Stream Experiment Bergman & Campbell (1971) Streams
tend to form by grouping notes close in time and frequency
(similarity and proximity).
http://www.psych.mcgill.ca/labs/auditory/demo2.htmlhttp://www.psych.mcgill.ca/labs/auditory/demo3.html
Slide 8 Circularity in Pitch Judgement Shepards Scale (1964)
(Auditory Demonstrations CD, from the Acoustical Society of
America) Slide 9 Perceptual Organization Organization properties:
Belongingness a sensory element belongs to an organization (or
stream) of which is a part. Exclusive allocation a sensory element
cannot belong to more than one organization at a time. Bregman
& Rudnicky (1975) Slide 10 Perceptual Organization Organization
properties: Closure perceived continuity, a tendency to close
strong perceptual forms, response to missing evidence. Slide 11
Sequential and Spectral Integration Sequential Integration Grouping
sensory elements over time or events at different times considered
to be from the same source. Melody, rhythm Spectral Integration
Fusing simultaneous sensory elements over frequency into one
Timbre, harmony Slide 12 Timbre and Spectral Integration The time
envelope and harmonic structure give rise the timbre of the sound.
Slide 13 Timbre and Spectral Integration Simultaneous tones grouped
by timbre Same Note (A)2 Notes (F and A) Slide 14 Auditory Scene
Organization Primitive Stream Segregation Inherent constraints in
auditory scene analysis (perceptual organization demonstrated by
infants/children) Music: Organization of musical sensory units
Schema-based segregation Learned constraints in auditory scene
analysis (differences in perceptual organization resulting from
training and culture) Music: Differences between musicians and
non-musicians Music: Differences resulting from acculturation (A.S.
Bregman, Auditory Scene Analysis, MIT Press 1990, pp. 1-45) Slide
15 Music Related Terms Pitch Perceived frequency/fundamental tone
(20Hz- 20kHz Range) Melody Pattern of tones identified by the
intervals between consecutive pitches Contour Shape of the melody
without regard to intervals Loudness Perceived intensity of sound
(0dB to 120dB) Timbre Nature of a sound defined mostly by its
harmonic structure and time envelope Rhythm Repeated pattern of
strong and weak sounds Tempo Rate of the rhythm Slide 16 Melody
Invariance A melody can typically be recognized over changes in
pitch, loudness, timbre, tempo, spatial location, and
reverberations. Contours are typically recalled better than actual
melodies (intervals) for unfamiliar tunes. (Massaro, Kallman, and
Kelly 1980). (Daniel J. Levitin, Memory for Musical Attributes, in
Music Cognition and Computerized Sound, ed. P.R. Cook, MIT Press,
1999, pp. 209-227) Slide 17 Primitive Musical Perception
Distinguish between cognitive components present at an early age
and those resulting from acculturation. Infant: Grasp of musical
structures Adult: Develop cognitive strategies for applying musical
structures (W. Jay Dowling, The Development of Music Perception and
Cognition, The Psychology of Music Academic Press, 1999, pp
603-625) Slide 18 Infant Perception Group rules for tones similar
to that of adults (Bregman and Campbell 1971, and Demany 1982)
Pitch octave equivalence and pitch constancy similar to that of
adults (Kessen, Levine, and Wendrich 1979, Demany and Armand 1984)
Contour changes mostly noticed. Adults are more perceptive to
changes in melodies based on the tonal scale of the culture. Key
constraints over different cultures: Octave equivalence 2:1 (Burns
and Ward 1978) Perfect 5 th 3:2 (most consonant interval,
fundamental building block of multi-cultural scales) A limit of
pitch classes within the octave (Miller 1956, argues 7 is the
limit) Acculturation can be observed by 6 months and by 1 year
different responses to non-diatonic and diatonic scales can be
observed. Slide 19 Infant Perception Infants discriminate between
different rhythmic patterns (Chang and Trehub 1977, Demany,
McKenzie, and Vurpillot 1977) Melodies retain identity over
transposition, likewise rhythm retains identity over changes in
tempo (Monahan and Carterette 1985) and can notice changes in
rhythm (Trehub and Thorpe 1989). Infants are sensitive to similar
cues (pitch contour and note duration) as adults when identifying
musical phrases (Jusczyk and Krumhansl 1993). Slide 20 Childhood
Perception 9 to 18 months singing recognizable and repeatable
songs. Within phrase accents and timing of phrases follow a regular
beat (Dowling and Harwood 1986). Songs lack tonal stability with
repeatable contours (Ostwald 1973). By 5 years holding a stable
tonality over duration of song. Absolute pitch is rare in the
general population of adults or children. Early learning hypothesis
(Takeuchi and Hulse 1993). Slide 21 Childhood Perception Contour
remains an important basis for melodic organization (Andrews and
Dowling, 1991). 5-6 years recognize familiar version of tonal and
atonal imitations. 9-10 distinguish familiar versions and same
contour imitations. 5 years can distinguish near and far keys but
not tonal imitations. 7 years can detect out-of-key and
out-of-harmony changes like adults. 5 years can detect out-of-key
changes (Trainor and Trehub, 1994). Slide 22 Childhood Perception
Aspects of Musical Rhythm: Control attention in temporal sequence
of events Remember and reproduce rhythm Hidden melodies in same
pitch range can be identified by adults though following rhythms.
9-10 years regularly detect hidden melodies if distracter notes in
different pitch range. 5-6 year olds can reproduce rhythms at 2
levels- o f-organization (Drake 1993) Slide 23 Childhood Perception
Rhythm Hierarchies: Beat or Meter are accents at regular time
intervals Rhythmic accents can subdivide or extend over several
beats Melodic changes can also create another level of rhythm 5
years can respond to more than one level of rhythmic hierarchy and
integrate it with melody (Drake, Dowling, and Palmer, 1991) Little
difference between 7 years and adult non- musicians in rhythmic
organization (Drake 1993) Slide 24 Childhood Perception Emotional
states of music 4 years perform well in assigning affective labels
to music: happy, sad, angry, afraid (Cunningham and Stearling,
1988, Dolgin and Adelson 1990) Slide 25 Summary Innate organization
for separating sounds from different sources. Grouping by pitch,
contour, rhythm (phrasing), and timbre are exhibited by infants.
Acculturation refines melody distinctions and its relationship to
harmonies and rhythms based on cultural scales and patterns.
Melodic memory is enhanced for melodies following note of a known
scale. Auditory scene analysis operations apply broadly to all
sounds (speech, noise, music). Why some auditory streams become
pleasurable/stimulating/interesting (music), and others are simply
used to form a perception of reality is still not clear. Slide 26
How many streams are there? Slide 27 Interesting Websites Mind,
Music, and Machine http://www.nici.kun.nl/mmm/ Auditory Scene
Analysis http://www.psych.mcgill.ca/labs/auditory/introASA.html Joe
Wolfes Web Page http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/Joe.html
