MuseumStudiesasCriticalPraxisDevelopinganActiveApproachtoResearch,TeachingandPractice

DrOonaghMurphyStandfirst:Thisarticleproposesanewmodelofmuseumstudiesascriticalpraxis.Iarguethatratherthancritiquingestablishedpractice,museumstudiesandassociatedacademicfieldsneedtotakeamoreactiveapproachand‘do’something.Anargumentthatisevidencedthroughtwocasestudieswhichtestadesignthinkingbasedmodelofcriticalpraxispedagogy.Keywords:Museumstudies,criticalpraxis,designthinking,practicebasedresearch,pedagogy,actionresearch

Thisarticlepresentsaresearchjourneycentredonaddressingthequestion:shouldmuseumstudiesasadisciplinebeconcernedwithrecordingandcritiquingestablishedpractice,orshoulditsfocusbeoninfluencingpositiveandprogressivechangewithinthesector?Whatfollowsisacriticalexaminationofhowmuseumsanduniversitiesasbothinstitutionsandindividualprofessionalsengage,workandcollaboratewitheachother.Consideringestablishedthinkingonpracticebasedresearchandresearchdissemination,thispaperadvocatestheuseofdesignthinkingasamethodologyformuseumsstudiesascriticalpraxis.ThroughtwocasestudiessituatedattheUlsterMuseumandWellcomeCollection,thispaperconcludesbydemonstratingthataclearmethodologicalframeworkforcriticalpraxiscanfosteramovetowardspracticeasresearch,andresearchaspractice,whichismutuallybeneficialtobothacademicsandmuseumpractitioners.ContextAsbothanacademicandpractitionerthechallengesofdifferingpressuresandworkplaceexpectationsinbothmuseumsandacademiahavebeenevidenttomeforanumberofyears.Indeed,fromconversationswithpeersinbothsectorsitisapparentthatthereisoftenabaselinemisunderstandingofeachother’sperspectivesandmotivations.WhenIfirstbeganmyownPhDresearchIfoundmanyformercolleaguesintheculturalsectoropeningupaboutwhytheyfounditdifficulttoworkwithuniversitiesandacademics.Relevancewasareoccurringtheme;therewasaviewthatacademicsuse‘fancylanguage’butdon’tactuallyknowwhatit’sliketoworkonthe‘frontline’.Anobviouscounterargumenttothisviewpointisofcoursethatmuseumandartsprofessionalsareoftennotawareofthepressuresofworkinginmodernacademia,andperhapsitiscontradictorypressuresandworkcyclesthatcreatethistensionbetweenacademiaandindustry(inthisinstancethemuseumsector).AssuchthispaperlooksatmodelsofcriticalpraxiswithinaUKcontext.Thisgeographicscopehasbeendefinedbecausethehighereducation,andmuseumsectoroperatingenvironmentswithintheUKplayamajorroleinshapingmuseumstudiesandmuseumpracticewithinthiscontext.LehmannandWerner

arguetheneedforasharedpractice-basedmethodologytoovercome‘abiasedgapbetweentheoryandpractice,whereknowledgeproductionandtheoreticalreflectionsbyacademiatendtobedividedfrompracticaltasksofthemuseum’soperationalspheresofdisplayandexhibition.’iIndeeditisthetransitionfromthinkingaboutpracticetobecomingpractitionersthatmanymuseumsstudiesgraduatesfinddifficult,particularlywithinthecompetitivejobmarketthatexistsinthemuseumsectortoday.Criticalpraxisbringsthespheresofboththeoryandpracticetogether,andassuchpresentsatheoreticalframeworkfromwhichtochallengesuchtensions. Languageandpublicationplatformsareanotherrecurringthemethatemergedinanumberofsuchconversations,andwhenwetakeastepbackandlookattheresearchoutputsofmanyacademics,whichexistonlyinpaywalledjournals(althoughadmittedlythisissomethingthatisbeginningtochange),thenitisnotsurprisingthatsomemuseumprofessionalsareunfamiliarwiththeworkof‘important’museumstudiesacademics.Theseinformalconversationsledtoanongoinginvestigationintotherelationshipbetweenmuseumsstudiesasanacademicdisciplineandmuseumpracticeitself.Thefoundationofthispaperisaliteraturereviewofexistingworkthatexaminestheinterplaybetweenmuseumsanduniversitiesindevelopingpracticebasedresearchandteaching.Thisliteratureandanalysisofexistingpractice,formsacriticalfoundationfromwhichtwoactionresearchprojectsaredeveloped.Thefirstproject,tooktheformofa12hourhackathonattheUlsterMuseum;andtheseconda3hourdigitalskillsworkshopatWellcomeCollection.Eachoftheseprojectstakesaniterativemethodologytodevelopingandtestingscalableapproachestocriticalpraxispedagogy,whichcouldbeusedbyacademicsinarangeofteachingenvironments.Theaimofsuchanapproachistosupportstudentsinthetransitionfromthinkingaboutpractice,tobecomingpractitionersthemselves,practitionerswhoareactive,engagedandinnovativechangemakersandleaderswithinthemuseumcontext.Theoryvs.practiceWhilsttherearemanyrecognisedandwidelyaccepteddefinitionsofamuseumthedefinitionofmuseumstudiesasanacademicdisciplineisperhapsmorenuanced.Atraditionalunderstandingofmuseumstudiesasanacademicdisciplineisthatofabroadacademicareaofinquiry,whichseekstoidentify,recordandcritiquethecultureofmuseumsandtheirworkingpractices.Theprimaryaimofsuchanapproach(whichcouldbedefinedascriticalmuseologyii)isnottocatalysetimelychange,butisinsteaddesignedtobroadenthewiderbodyofknowledgeonthecomplex,politicalandbiasednatureofthesocialconstructthatwetodayknowasthemuseum.Sheltonprovidesahelpfuldefinitionwhenheintroduces‘criticalmuseology’tothewiderconversationontheroleandpurposeofmuseology.Inhisworkhemakesadistinctionbetweenintellectualcuriosity‘criticalmuseology’andoperationalpracticewithinmuseumstudies,anobservationthatisbuiltonover25yearsworkingasanacademicwithinthisarea.iii

Theaimofmuseumstudies(andtheassociatedprogrammesthatemergedfromit)asanacademicdisciplinewastoprovidestudentswithawell-roundededucation,withstudentsusingthistrainingasameanstogainanentry-levelpositioninamuseumfromwheretheywouldbegintodeveloptechnicalskills.ivPeterH.Welsh,DirectorofMuseumStudiesattheUniversityofKansasarguesthatasingularapproachtotheorisingmuseumsisproblematic,becausemuseumsareoperationalandactiveinstitutions.Welshobservesthatitwouldbe‘farlessmessyifmuseums…existedinaworldofideasandconcepts’howevertherealityofmuseumworkismuchmorepracticalfrommanagingloanstovisitors.vConversationsaroundtheacademicvs.technicalpracticesundertakenwithinmuseumsstudiesresearchandteachingarenotnew.InTheDevelopmentofMuseumStudiesinUniversities:FromTechnicalTrainingtoCriticalMuseology,Jesus-PedroLorente,ProfessorofArtHistoryattheUniversityofZaragoza,notesthatRaymondSingleton,thefounderoftheSchoolofMuseumStudiesattheUniversityofLeicester,preferred‘museumstudies’ratherthan‘museology’becausehe‘detestedtheendlessdebatesonthetheoryofmuseology’.viSingletonadvocatedatechnicaltraining,andLorentenotestheironyinthisposition,astheSchoolofMuseumStudiesisnowrecognisedasaworldleaderinacademicresearchonthemuseum,itscollectionandaudience,ratherthanasacentrefortechnicaltrainingforthesector.viiWhiletheSchoolofMuseumStudiesatLeicesterwasestablishedin1966,museumstudiesprogrammesdidnotdevelopinAmericauntilthe1970sand1980s. Inaddressingthis‘theoryvs.practicedichotomy’SuzanneMacLeod,ProfessorofMuseumStudiesattheUniversityofLeicester,takesabroaderviewofmuseumstudiesandincorporatesthe‘complexwebofrelationshipsandworkingpracticeswhichcurrentlycharacterisemuseumstudies’viiiintoanewconceptualmodel.ThemodeldevelopedbyMacLeodpresentstheideaofmuseumsstudiesasaforum,ratherthanapurelyacademicpursuit.Hermodelincorporatesabroadrangeofactivitiesfromeducationtomuseumpracticeandseeseachasintegraltothecontinueddevelopmentofthemuseumstudiesdiscipline(figure1).ix

Figure1:ConceptualModelforThinkingaboutMuseumStudies.From:SuzanneMacLeod,‘MakingMuseumStudies:Training,Education,ResearchandPractice’MuseumManagementandCuratorshipVol19:1(2001)p.51

LikeMacLeod,LynneTeatheralsoplacesanemphasisontherelationshipbetweenresearch,educationandpractice,andsuggeststhatmuseumstudiesshouldmoveawayfromglobalstudiesofmuseums(museology)towardsmorespecificresearchon‘internalandexternaloperationsandmanagement’(museumstudies).xWhilstrecognisingthevalueofmuseologicalcritique,Teatheradvocatestheneedformuseumstudiesasadisciplinetovalue‘theeveryday’skillsandexpertiserequiredtorunamuseum:‘Itisthecombinationofthemuseumprocessandmuseumskillsthatframesthefieldofmuseumstudies’.xiMacLeoddevelopedthisconceptualmodeltoprovideamorevalidunderstandingoftheroleofmuseumstudies,whichsheseesashaving‘anactiveroleintheredefinitionofthemuseumoverthelastthreedecades’.xiiMacLeod’sConceptualModelforThinkingaboutMuseumStudiesmoveslongstandingargumentsabouttheoryandpracticeforwardstowardsamoreiterativemodel,whichportraysmuseumstudiesasanevolvingdisciplineshapedinequalpartsbytrainingandeducation,research,andmuseumpractice.TheworkofEtienneWengeron‘CommunitiesofPractice’ishighlightedwithinMacLeod’spaperasameanstosupportthearguementthatratherthancompeting,thoseinvolvedinmuseumstudies:teaching,practiceandresearchcanbenefitfromworkingtogether.xiiiWengerdefinesCommunitiesofPractice,asmutuallybeneficiallearningcommunities,groupsofpeoplewhoshareasimilardrive,ormotivationtodevelopthemselvesandortheorganisationinwhichtheywork.MacLeodusesthislearningtheoryasthebasisofherconclusion,inadvocating:

Arecognitionofmuseumstudiesastrainingandeducation,researchandpractice,andasanareaofenquirymademeaningfulthroughparticipationandcollaborationenablesustorecognisemuseumstudiesasanintegralaspectofthecurrentmuseumsceneonewhichcanmakeavaluablecontributiontotheshapingandplacingofmuseumsincontemporarysociety.xiv

Itisprobablyfairtosaythatmuseumstudiesprogrammes,likemuseumsthemselves,havechangedradicallyinthelast10years,withagreaterfocusonemployabilityandskills-basedtraining.However,likemuseums,museumstudiesprogramsmustcontinuetoadaptiftheyaretoprepareyoungprofessionalsfortheeverchanging,evermorecomplexpolicycontextinwhichmuseumsoperate.MuseumstudiesandmethodologicalinventivenessTakingthestancethatmuseumstudiesshouldbeapeople-orientateddisciplinemadeupinequalpartsbymuseumpractice,trainingandeducation,andresearchthispaperseekstoadoptandadaptactionresearchmethodstocreateamodelofmuseumstudiesascriticalpraxis.Methodologicalinventiveness,thecreationofnewresearchmethodsoralteringofexistingmethods,isanestablishedpracticewithineducationandhealthcare,particularlywithinactionresearchprojectswheresuchmethodssupportthedevelopmentofsolution-basedresearchoutcomes.Thisapproachempowersbothpractitionersandserviceuserstodesignsolutionstoproblemsandsupportthe‘subsequentdevelopmentorimplementationactivities’.xv

DaddsandHartareinterestedinresearchfromapractitionerorserviceuserperspective,ratherthanthatofanacademicoracademicinstitution.Theyoutlinethevalueinthefollowingapproach:

Practitionerresearchmethodologiesarewithustoserveprofessionalpractices.Sowhatgenuinelymattersarethepurposesofpracticethattheresearchseekstoserve,andtheintegritywithwhichthepractitionerresearchermakesmethodologicalchoicesaboutwaysofachievingthosepurposes.Nomethodologyis,orshouldbe,castinstone,ifweacceptthatprofessionalintentionshouldbeinformingresearchprocesses,notpre-setideasaboutmethodsoftechniques.xvi

Formuseumstudiestotrulybecomeadisciplinegroundedincriticalpraxisthepedagogythatsupportsthismodelneedstoberealistic,scalableanddeliverable.Asameanstoexplorehowthisapproachcouldtangiblyberealised,twoactionresearchprojectswerecarriedoutbetween2012and2016withstudentsattheUniversityofUlsterandRichmondtheAmericanInternationalUniversityinLondon.Thefirstproject,tooktheformofa12hourhackathonattheUlsterMuseum;andtheseconda3hourdigitalskillsworkshopatWellcomeCollection.Thispaperwillnowexploreeachofthesecasestudiesinturnasameanstosharenewmodelsforcriticalpraxispedagogy,whichcouldbeadoptedandadaptedbythoseworkingattheintersectionofacademiaandmuseumpractice.1:PrototypingMuseumStudiesasCriticalPraxisattheUlsterMuseumEliseDubucexaminesthepurposeofmuseumstudiesinMuseumandUniversityMutations:TheRelationshipBetweenMuseumPracticesandMuseumStudiesintheEraofInterdisciplinarity,Professionalisation,GlobalisationandNewTechnologies.Inthisarticlesheposesthequestion:areweteachinginordertoreproducethestatusquo,orinordertoeffectchange?xviiAprovocationthathelpedprovideatheoreticalframeworkfordesigninganactionresearchprojectthatcouldexplorethepossibilityofmuseumstudiesstudentseffectingchangewithinthemuseumsector. TheNorthernIrelandMuseumsectorwasslowtorespondtodigitaltechnologies.In2012theonlydedicated‘digital’postinanymuseuminNorthernwasthatofthewebmarketingmanageratNationalMuseumsNorthernIreland.Throughinformalconversations,museumstaff,andstrategicpartnersrepeatedlycitedthreekeyreasonsastowhymuseumsinNorthernIrelandhadatthatpointshownlittleinterestindevelopingamoreholisticapproachtodigitalengagementwithvisitors.Thereasonscitedbymuseumsprofessionalswere:alackofmoney,staff,andskills.Havingspenttwoyearsresearchingdigitalpracticeinmuseumsinternationally,we(myselfandAlanHook,LecturerinInteractiveMediaArts,UniversityofUlster)recognisedthatalackofanalreadyexistinginfrastructurecouldpossiblybeapositivethingasitwouldnotrestrictproductionmethodsandwouldmeanthattheMuseumshavenofixedagenda,policydocumentsortimescalethatprojectsneededtospeakto.Furthermoreandkeytotheproposedmodelofcriticalpraxis,

thisplatformprovideduswiththeopportunitytousecriticalpraxisasameanstodeliverresearch,teachingandpractice.Thiscontextbecamethefoundationforouractionresearchprojectthatsoughttodevelopapedagogicalapproachthatwouldfacilitatecriticalpraxis,influencechangewithinthesectorandhelpustodevelopmoreconfident,andcriticalengagedstudents.DevelopinganactiveresearchmethodologyRatherthanbeingdrivenbyacademicexpectations(whichcouldbecalledcriticalmuseology),andestablishedmethodologies,thecriticalpraxispedagogyproposedinthispapertakesamore‘inventive’approachtodevelopingresearchmethods.Ratherthanrelyingonresearchorteachingmethodsthatcarrythemostacademicweightingorprecedence,methodologicalinventiveness,riskandinnovativeapproachesdesignedtorespondtothechallengesthatexistwithinthemuseumsectorareutilised.DaddsandHartspeakoftheneedtocreateconditions,whichfacilitateandencourage‘methodologicalinventiveness’:

Ifouraimistocreateconditionsthatfacilitatemethodologicalinventiveness,weneedtoensureasfaraspossiblethatourpedagogicalapproachesmatchthemessagethatweseektocommunicate.Moreimportantthanadheringtoanyspecificmethodologicalapproach,beitthatoftraditionalsocialscienceortraditionalactionresearch,maybethewillingnessandcourageofpractitioners‘andthosewhosupportthem’tocreateenquiryapproachesthatenablenew,validunderstandingstodevelop;understandingsthatempowerpractitionerstoimprovetheirwork.xviii

CentraltoDaddsandHartsargumentistheneedtodeveloppedagogicpracticesthatsupportrisk,asriskisanessentialcomponentforthedevelopmentofmethodologicallyinventiveresearchmethods.Fitzpatrickalsowritesabouttheneedto‘makesuresomeone’sgotyourback’.xixInDo‘theRisky’Thingshetalksaboutthechallengesfacingearlycareeracademicsthatseektousenewtechnologiesandnovelmethodsofresearch.Inthisarticleshetalksabouthow‘digitalscholarsruntheriskofburnoutfromhavingtoproducetwiceasmuchtraditionalscholarshipanddigitalprojectsastheircounterpartsdo’.xxHeradviceisthatsuchmethodscanonlyreallybedevelopedorimplementedifresearchersknow‘thattheirseniorcolleagueswilllearntoevaluatenewkindsofworkonitsownmeritsandwillinsistuponthevalueofsuchinnovationforthefieldandfortheinstitution’.xxiThechallengeforthosenotinanenvironmentthatencouragesorsupportsriskistoinnovateinordertoachievesocialchangewithinacceptedparameters.Workingwithinthisinstitutionalacademiccontextwedevelopedanactionresearchprojectwhichwasdeliveredthroughtwoeventformats,thefirsta3-hourdigitalcrashcourseandtheseconda12-hourhackday.Theformatwasdesignedtobedeliveredwithinasemistructuredenvironment,andwassituatedwithinexitingtaughtmodules.Whatfollowsisanaccountofthatworkshop,whichisdeliberatelydetailedtoallowforreplicationandusebyotheracademicsbutalsolinkstothewiderargumentaboutwhatcriticalpraxiscouldlikewithinthemuseumstudiesdisciplines.

CulturalHeritageandMuseumStudies‘DigitalCrashCourse’StudentsontheMAinCulturalHeritageandMuseumStudiesattendeda3hour‘DigitalCrashCourse’workshopaspartoftheirCulturesofCuratorshipmodule.Thiscrashcoursestartedwitha1hourlectureondigitalpracticeinmuseums,andbrieflyintroducedbestpracticeexamplesofsocialmedia,digitalengagement,andlinkeddata.Afteralecturethatprovidedstudentswithacontextualbenchmark,studentsbrokeintosmallgroupsandweretaskedwithdevelopingcreativeandalternativesolutionstoanumber‘designchallenges’.Studentswereprovidedwithchallengessuchas:TheUlsterMuseumwouldlikevisitorstoengageonsocialmediaplatforms,andtovisittheirwebsiteasafollowuptotheirtangiblemuseumvisit.Themuseumwouldliketodevelopaninterventionintheirentrancetoencouragepeopletoengagewiththemonline.Theywantvisitorstobeexcitedbywhattheyhavetoofferonline.Whatcouldthemuseumdotoencouragevisitorstoengagewiththemonline?Atthestartoftheactivitystudentswereintimidatedbythelargesheetsofblankpaper,andhesitanttonotedownideas,‘incasetheyweren’tright’.Museumpeoplelovefactsandcertainty,soto,domuseumstudiesstudentsitseems,writingdownnewideas,andchallengingestablishedpracticeswassomethingmanyinthegrouphadneverdonebefore.Itwasinterestingthatstudentsgotreallyinvolvedinheateddebateaboutnewideasandapproachestorespondingtothedesignchallenges–butfounditdifficulttotranslateconversationstopaper.Iftheyputtheirideasonpapertheybecame‘official’andthiswasmoredifficultthansimplypitchingideasinconversation.Tostartgroupsoffanumberofideaswereaddedtotheirsheetsofpaperandthisencouragedeachgrouptoaddtowhathadbeenstarted,whichseemedmoreattainablethanstartingonablankpage.BytheendofthisDigitalCrashcoursetherewasrealenergyandstudentsbegantoseethattheyalreadyhadarangeofdigitalliteracyskillsfromtheirpersonallivesthatcouldtransferinto‘professional’digitalliteracyinamuseumcontext.DevelopingahackdayformatInasimilarveintoDubac,HandelKashopeWrightadvocateschangingthequestionalltogether;ratherthanask,‘whatisculturalstudies?’,weneedtoaskthemoreactive,evenpotentiallyactivistquestion,‘whatdoesculturalstudiesdo?’xxiiLikemuseumstudies,culturalstudiesisabroad,interdisciplinaryfieldofresearchandassuchitisdifficulttodefinebeyondaninterestinexplicatingsystemsofculturalvalue.Insteadoffocusingonadefinition,Wrightplacestheemphasisontheimpactthatculturalstudiescanhaveonsocietyfrominfluencingpolicytovocationalpractice.MacLeod’sworkisausefulframeworkforunderstandingtheprocessesinvolvedindrivingmuseumstudiesasadiscipline.Ifwewanttofacilitatethecreationofabroadermuseumstudiesdiscipline,onethatextendsbeyondouruniversities,thenperhaps,asWrightadvocatesinculturalstudies,museumstudiestoo,musttakeamoreactiveapproach.Ratherthansimplycritiquingestablishedpractice,museumstudiesneedsto‘do’something.Theideaof‘doing’somethinghelpedtobringouractionresearchoutsidethewallsoftheuniversityintoamuseumtoformthesecondpartofthisactionresearchproject,ahackdayatthe

UlsterMuseum.WithparticipantsforthiseventdrawnfromtheMAinCulturalHeritageandMuseumStudies,andBA(hons)inInteractiveMediaArt.Throughthehackathonwesoughttotestthishypothesisthatmuseumstudiesasadisciplineshouldbeinapositiontoinfluencechangeand‘do’something.Howeverintermsofwhatdoingsomethinglookedlike,wedecidedagainstaskingstudentstopitchtheirhackstomuseumstaff.Wefeltthataconcludingpitchwouldputrestrictivepressureonstudents,whowereseekingopportunitiestoimpressandstandoutwithinthesmallandtightknitmuseumsector.Insteadwesoughttocreateanenvironmentthatsupportedrisk,andchallengedexistingpracticesandpolicies.Assuchwhilstthiseventtookplaceinthemuseumitwasdonesoasaprivateeventnotaformalpartnership.Wrightexploresthedifficultiesfacingacademicswhooperatewithinaninterdisciplinarycontextandexpressesaninterestin‘thesplitbetweentheuniversityandacademicworkontheonehandandpolitical,activistandperformativeworkinthecommunityandsocietyontheother’.xxiiiForWright,experienceandidentityarecentraltohisworkasanacademic:theyinfluencetheresearchthatheundertakes,anddeterminesthechoicesmadewithinthatresearch.Ratherthanbeinganobjectiveobserverofculturalpractice,Wrightarguesthevalidityinacknowledgingthenuancesoftheindividualwithinhisresearch.xxivWorkingoutsidetheinstitutionprovidedopportunitiesforstudentstothinkasindividuals,ratherthanfromaninstitutionalperspective.Wrightarguesthatitisimportantforacademicsthatseektoinfluencechangetodisseminatetheirresearchinameansthatisaccessibletothosethattheyareresearching.xxvThispresentedachallengebecausebynotworkingwiththemuseumourabilitytoinfluencedirectchangewaslimited,howevertheapproachthatwetookcreatedtheopportunityforustoinspirestudentstobecomewhatBolterreferstoasahybrid,anewmediacriticthat‘wantstomakesomething,butwhatshewantstomakewillleadherviewersorreaderstoreevaluatetheirformalandculturalassumptions’.xxviTheHackDaybeganwithashorticebreakersession,afterwhichparticipantsweresplitintointerdisciplinaryteamsoffour(withparticipantsdrawnfromboththeUndergraduateInteractiveMediaArtsandPostgraduateCulturalHeritageandMuseumStudies).Duringthemorningweheldtwoshortsessions,thefirstledbyAlanHooklookedattheconceptofplayandgamemechanics;thesecondsessionledbymyselfexploredparticipatorydesigninmuseums.Eachgroupwastaskedwithcreatinginteractiveexperiencesthatquestionthenotionofplayinthemuseum.Thetaskwasdeliberatelyloose,ratherthantellstudentswhatwewantedthemtocreate,wewantedthemtoshowuswhatwaspossible.Theonlyrequiredoutcomewasaprojectblog(onTumblr),whichhadtooutlinetheirteam’shack,andanyprototypemediatheyhadproducedduringtheevent.Withthisapproachwesoughttoempowerstudentstothinklikepractitioners,andseektoimproveratherthanreplicateexistingprofessionalpracticesthatexistinmuseums.

CreatingadialoguebetweenestablishedandemergingresearchmethodsRommesuggeststhat‘scholarsadoptingthehumanitiesmodeintendtoportray,understandandcriticallyreflectonthehumanexperienceofactorsinsidesocialpractices…allknowledgearisesaboutfromwhatactorsthinkandsayabouttheworld’.xxviiInessence,thisacademicapproach,whichwecoulddescribeas‘museumstudiesresearch’withinMacLeod’smodel,wouldfocussolelyonempathisinganddefiningasituation,butwouldstopshortoftakingaction. Rommeproposesthree‘archetypalmodes’ofresearch:science,humanities,anddesign.Scienceisconcernedwithfindingandexplainingtrends.Humanitiesisinterestedinunderstandingandreflectinguponthehumancondition.While,‘thedesignmode…focusesonproducingsystemsthatdonotexist–eitherbychangingexistingsocialpracticesandsituationsintodesiredonesorbycreatingnewpracticesfromscratch’.xxviiiWesawthearchetypalmodesofresearchasdefinedbyRommeemergewithinintheteamsontheday,andthechallengesofinterdisciplinaryresearchandpracticebecameevidentveryquickly.Eachteamrespondedtotheirbriefinadifferentway,butacrosseachwenoticedadisciplinarydistinction.Thosefromamuseumsbackgroundwereconcernedwithfacts,andaccuracy,whilstthosewithadvanceddigitalskillswantedtoideate,themoreideas,andthecraziertheywerethebetter.Someteamsrevelledinthechallengetofindacommonground,whileothersfoundthismoredifficult.Akeychallengeduringtheeventwasfosteringpositiveteamdynamics,andnegotiatingcompromises.Onegrouparguedforanhouraboutfactualaccuracyandwhichoneoftheirinitialideaswouldbebesttoprototype;weintervenedandexplainedthatasemergingmuseumprofessionalstheywillhavetoworkwithdesigners,andasdesignerstheywillhavetoworkwithclients.Thisexampledemonstratedtheneedforemergingmuseumprofessionalstoworkoutsidetheirowndiscipline,asthisprovidesopportunitiestodevelopprofessionalskills.Italsoprovidedstudentswiththeopportunitytodiscussdigitalculture,changingmediaproductiontrends,andhowthiswascreatinganewoperatingenvironmentformuseums.Thisconversationcentredoncriticalpraxis,andempoweredstudentstodevelopnewmodesofpractice.Indeed,thisclashingofperspectivesdemonstratesthedifferingtheoreticalperspectiveswhichstudentsonarangeofcoursescomefrombeforetheyevenbegintoexplorehowtheorymeetspracticeinaprofessionalcontext.Assuchweneedtoconsiderhowcriticalpraxiscanhelpstudentstonavigatetheoreticalanddisciplinespecificlanguage,theoryandpractice. Oneteamcreatedaparticularlystrong,andfunctioningprototype:aQRCodevideoghosttourofthemuseum.ThevideoprototypefeaturedTakabuti,afemaleEgyptianmummy,playedbyamaleparticipantwhodressedhimselfupinfabricrags.Someparticipantstookissuewiththefactualinaccuracieswhileothersintheirgroupwereabletoconfidentlyexplaintheterm‘proofofconcept’and‘rapidprototype’totheirteammates.Anothergroupdefinedthe‘nophotographypolicy’asachallengefor

themasyoungcreatives.Thisteamchoosetoworkaroundthenophotographyruleandcreateanalternativeaudiotourofthemuseum,asameansofdemonstratinghowmuseumscanworkwith,ratherthanprohibitcreatives.Thegroupnegotiatedthisrulebytakingwide-anglegalleryimagesfortheirblog,withtheirrationalebeingthatcopyrightwouldn’tbeinfringedasthepaintingswouldnotbethemainfeatureintheirphotographs.Thisgroupalsoproducedaviableprototype–a1960seraradioshow–whichfeaturedmusicandnewsfromthedecade,andalsomadereferencetoobjectsthatfeaturedinpaintingsondisplayintheexhibition.Thegroupexplained:

Theprojectstartedofffromthegenericideathatartcanbeintimidatingforsomevisitorsandthatice-breakingactivitiescouldencourageamorerelaxedengagementwithart.Italsodevelopedasanalternativetothetraditionaldescriptiveandselfcontainedaudiotourformat.Thethemeoftheexhibition,stressingthesixtiesasadecadeofrevoltandinnovation,spurredustochallengetheconventionsofvisitingmuseumsandengagingwithart…Theperiodiscertainlybestrememberedforitsmusic.Weuseditasanentrypointintothegalleryasvisitorsarelikelytorelatetoitinsomewayorother.Theuseofmusicisrelevantfromalearningpointofviewasithelpsrecreatetheatmosphereofthetimeandofthecreativeprocess.Itisalsolikelytotriggermemoriesoremotionswithvisitors,hopefullyencouragingdeeperinteractionandafewboogiesteps.xxix

Thesimplicityofconcept,andmaterialsforthisprojectwasstriking.Itisthetypeofplayfulinteractionthatcouldbethoughtup,prototypedandimplementedinoneafternoon.ItisimportanttonoteatthisjuncturethatparticipantsinthisHackDaywantedtouseplatformstheywerefamiliarwith–forexample,noonesuggestedcreatingalternativeinterpretationpanels.InsteadparticipantsusedplatformssuchasYouTube,Tumblr,Vimeo,FacebookandSoundcloud.Thisdemonstratesthatleadingwithachallenge,ratherthanabriefwithapredefinedoutcomeencouragesstudentstothinkbeyondexistingpractice,andallowsthemtobringnewplatforms,languagesandwaysofworkingtothetable. Participantswantedtousecontemporarycultureasanunderlyingnarrativetothedigitallymediatedresponsestheycreated.Theywantedtorelatethemuseumtothemselves,andtheworldaroundthem;theydidn’tcareaboutpolicy,insteadtheywantedtomakepeoplelaugh,stop,stareandquestion.Whilstitisrightformuseumstoupholdaccuracyasthecornerstoneofmuseumpractice,theemergenceofvisitorappropriationofcollectionsisbecomingendemic.xxxWorkingwithemergingmuseumprofessionalsanddigitallyengagedvisitorsprovidesmuseumswithavaluableopportunitytorespondtothisemergingtrend.xxxiTherelationshipbetweenhacksandestablishedmuseumpracticesissomethingthatteamsreflectedonwhenpresentingtheirhackstoeachother.AswithallHackDays,thedialogueanddebatethattookplaceonthedaywasmorevaluablethantheprojectoutcomesthemselves.Participantsgainedvaluableprofessionalskills,andtheinterdisciplinarynatureofthisprojectreplicatesmore

accuratelythenatureofthemuseumworkplacethanaclassroomevercouldandisanexampleofthesharedpractice-basedmethodologyadvocatedbyLehmannandWerner.xxxiiEmergingmuseumprofessionalsareoftenburstingwithideasandenthusiasm.Theybringwiththemfresh,culturallyrelevantinsightthatcansidestepmuseumbureaucracy,dismantleaproblemandfindasolution.Inshort,theycanbalancetheoryandpractice,andnegotiateapathwaybetweenthetwo.2:RespondingtoDesignChallengesattheWellcomeCollectionInOctober2015studentsontheMAinVisualArtsManagementandCuratingatRichmondUniversityparticipatedinadigitalworkshopattheWellcomeCollection,aworkshopthatwasjointlyledbymyself,DannyBirchall,thenDigitalManagerandRussellDornan,thenWebEditor.This3hourworkshopsoughttointroducetheconceptofdigitalpracticeinmuseumstostudentsforthefirsttime,butalsotogetthemtothinkcriticallyandpracticallyabouttheroleofmanagingandcreatingdigitalproductsinamuseumenvironment.The3hourworkshopsoughttorefineandcombinethe15hoursofcontacttimedeliveredintheUlsterMuseumexampleintoasmallerscalemodelofcriticalpraxis.Theinitialcasestudyrepresentedasignificantbodyofwork,butforcriticalpraxistobecomeasuccessfulandinherentapproachtomuseumstudiesteaching,researchandpractice,thenamorestreamlined,lightertouchandlessresourceintensivemethodisrequired.Assuchthissecondactionresearchcasestudysoughttoexaminehowcriticalpraxiscouldbeenactedthroughasingletaughtsession.Akeydifferencewasthatthisworkshopwasdeliveredentirelyinamuseumenvironment(ratherthanaclassroomoruniversityenvironment),andwasdeliveredinpartnershipwithmuseumstaff.IntermsofrefiningtheUlsterMuseumprojectintoashorterbutequallyeffectivemethodofenactingcriticalpraxisIturnedtoexistingresearchondesignthinking.DesignthinkingaframeworkformuseumstudiesascriticalpraxisDesignthinkingdescribestheuseof‘design’principlestosolveproblems,anapproachthatislongestablishedwithindesigncircles.Ithasmorerecentlybeenbroughttowideruseasaframeworkforproblemsolvinginareassuchasbusiness,servicedesign,educationandhealthcare.Brown,aproponentofdesignthinkinganddirectorofIDEO,anawardwinningglobaldesignfirm,describesitas‘ahuman-centredapproachtoinnovationthatdrawsfromthedesignerstoolkittointegratetheneedsofpeople,thepossibilitiesoftechnology,andtherequirementsforbusinesssuccess’.xxxiiiThetermwaspopularisedbythe1991bookDesignThinkingbyPaulRowe,inwhichheexploredtheuseofdesignthinkingwithinarchitecture.xxxivSincethispublication,Lindbergarguesthatdesignthinking,hasemergedintoa‘meta-discipline’.Hecites,forexample,theemergenceofnewcoursesandschoolsdevotedtoteachingdesignthinkingtonon-designersinbothAmericaandEurope.xxxvDesignthinkingstartedoutas‘anopenconcepttodescribeadesigner’scognitivestrategiesofproblemsolving’andhasnowbecomemoreformalised.xxxvi

Lindbergoutlinesthreestepsthatarecommonacrossthenumerousapproachestodesignthinking,namely:

• Illuminationoftheproblemspace;• Illuminationofthesolutionspace;• Iterativealignmentofspaces.xxxvii

Thistriplematrixofproblem,solution,refinementtakesasitscentralpremise,thatnothingiseverfinished.Whenasolutiontotheinitialproblemhasbeenfound,thatsolutioncan,throughtestingalwaysberefined.Thispremiseofneverfinished,formsthethinkingbehindthehighlyshared,DoneManifesto.DevelopedbyBrePrettis(CEOofMakerBot,acompanytheproduces3Dprinters),TheDoneManifesto,challengesustomoveawayfromperfection,ormoreaccuratelyto‘Laughatperfection.It'sboringandkeepsyoufrombeingdone’.xxxviiiPerfection,andthedevelopmentoffinishedproducts(betheyacademicpapersorexhibitions)issomethingthatacademicsandmuseumprofessionalsarebothendlesslyinthepursuitof.HoweverdesignthinkingchallengesustoworkwithintheparametersofwhatSimoncalls‘perpetualbeta’.xxxixNothingiseverfinished,andeverythingcanalwaysberefined.Recognisingthatdesignthinkingcan‘beseenasagroundingframeworkformultidisciplinaryteamstocommunicateandtocoordinateactivity’,xlGestwickiandMcNelyexamineanumberofDesignThinkingFrameworks,inordertoarriveatonesuitableforusewithinmuseums.Specifically,theirresearchlooksathowdesignthinkingprinciplescanaidethedevelopmentofeducationalmuseumgames,andexplorehowthedesignthinkingprinciplescouldprovideaframeworkfromwhichmuseumprofessionalscandepartfromtheirpursuitofperfection.GestwickiandMcNelyacknowledgetheworkofAspelund,xliBrown,xliiandPoulsenandThorgersenxliiiindevelopingusefulmodelsofdesignthinking.Whilsteachofthesecitedauthorspresentmodelsofvaryingdegreesofcomplexity,theyalldisplaythethreecommonareasidentifiedbyLinderberg,namely:problem,solutionandprototype.HoweverGatswickiandMcNelysetaparttheworkofKembelasbeingparticularlyusefulwithinthecontextofmuseumsashismodelplacesastrongemphasisonempathy.xliv

Figure2:Stanfordd.schoolDesignThinkingProcess.From:Op.Cit.,MitroffSilversetal.,2013.Kembel,thedirectoroftheStanfordd.school,developedtheDesignThinkingProcesspresentedinfigure2.Theinclusionoftraditionalhumanitiesapproachessuchasempathyanddefinition,alongsidethemoreinnovativeandactiviststagesofideation,prototypingandtesting,makeitausefulmodelfor‘risky’researchwithinthetraditionalparametersofmuseumstudies.MitroffSilvers,RogersandWilsonusedwhatiscommonlyknownasStanfordd.schoolDesignThinkingProcesstodevelopvisitorengagementwithinmuseums.xlvWhilstKembeldevelopedthemodel,itismorewidelyattributedtoStanfordd.school(thanitsauthor).MitroffSilversetal.(ateamofresearchersatStanfordd.schoolandmembersofstaffatSanFranciscoMuseumofModernArt)developedacollaborativeprojecttoprovidegraduatestudentswithopportunitiestodevelophumancentreddesignskillsinarealworldcontext.Throughathreeweekintensiveformat,studentsfromacrossStanfordwereinvitedtakepartinaprogrammeofworkshopsthatconcludedwithstudentspresentingvisitorengagementsolutionstoSFMoMA.TheDesignThinkingProcessprovidestheintensivewithalooseandsupportiveformattofacilitateinterdisciplinarypractice,andassuchparticipantsrangedfromlawstudentstomedicalstudents.Theprocesssupportsrisk,through,forexample,theideationstage,whichinvitesparticipantstodevelopthebroadestrangeofideas,regardlessofhowviabletheymayseemonpaper.Thischallengesparticipantstothinkbeyondwhatisrightandwrong,andchallengeestablishedsocialpracticesthatexistineverydayspaces(inthisinstancemuseums).ForMitroffSilversetal.thestrengthinthisprocessisitsabilitytotackle‘messyreal-worldchallengesthatarehardtodefineandevenhardertosolve’xlviinbothaquickandlowbudgetfashion.Byembracingperpetualbeta,thisprocesspermitsparticipantstoprototype,testandrefine,ratherthanbeingparalysedthroughpursuitofperfection. Thehumancentredfocuswithinboththeseprojects(GetswickiandMcNely;andMitroffSilversetal.)isthatofthevisitor;howeverinmyresearchthehumancentredfocusisonmuseumprofessionals.‘Designthinkingisaphilosophy,amindset,andamethodology’xlviiandthustheflexibilityofthisprocessmeansthatitcanbeusedindifferentcontexts,sectors,andwithdifferentactorsandprotagonists.AdoptingandadaptingtheDesignThinkingprocesstosupportivecriticalpraxiswithinthemuseumstudiesdisciplineTheStanfordd.SchoolDesignThinkingProcessprovidesalinearnarrativefromwhichtostretchtheboundariesofestablishedmuseumstudiesresearchpractices.Usingthisframeworkthisresearchprojectstraddlestheboundariesofhumanitiesanddesignmodesofresearch(asdefinedbyRoome).xlviii Theworkshopbeganwithaseriesofpresentationsexploringdigitalpracticesinmuseums,andmorespecificallythedigitalstrategyofWellcomeCollection.DannyBirchallthenintroducedtheconceptofprojectconstraintsanddesignthinkingmethodologiesthroughapaperprototype.Thelinkingofproblemstoprototypeand

proofofconceptsolutionsdemonstratedhowideascouldbetranslatedintoactionresearchinalowbudget,timeconstrainedmanneritalsodemonstratedthatcriticalpraxisisawayofworking,thatrequiresconfidencemorethanitdoesresources.Studentswherethenpresentedwithfourdesignchallenges–realproblemsthatthedigitalteamatWellcomewerecurrentlyworkingon–andtaskedwithprototypingsolutionstothoseproblems.Thechallengesfocusedon:deepeningrelationshipswithvisitors,collectingexperiences,makinggalleriesplayfulandreachinginternationalaudiences.Eachstatementprovidedanempathyorcontextualbackground,followedbyadefinedchallengestatementorquestion,forexample:

DeepeningourrelationshipWewouldlikevisitorstoseevisitingWellcomeCollectionasthestartofabiggeranddeeperexperience,involvingarelationshipbetweenusandthevisitor.Wedon’tjustwanttotellpeopletovisitawebsiteorfollowahashtag,wewanttooffersomethingmeaningfultothevisitor,basedonourdigitalcapabilities.

WhatcouldwedotomakeavisittoWellcomeCollectionthebeginningofarelationshipthatissupportedbydigitalmedia?

Studentsself-selected,whichchallengetheywanttorespondtoandformedgroupsbasedonthesechallenges.Eachgroupwasgiven30minutestodevelopasolutionsconcept,whichtheyreceivedfeedbackon,andwereprovidedwith15prototypedevelopmentprompts.Achecklistthatencouragedstudentstothinkaboutthepracticaldevelopmentandapplicationoftheirconceptpromptsincluded:

1. Wheredoestheexperiencebegin?(i.e.inaspecificgallery,thelift,thetoilets,attheticketdesk,onthemuseumswebsite,viatwitter,Facebook)

2. Howdoestheexperiencebegin?(youclimbthroughatunnel,youopenasecretdoor,youclickanonlinelink,youopenatextmessage)

3. Describetheexperienceindetail(thekeyinformationamuseumwouldneedtodeveloporimplementyourconcept.Considermusic,lighting,useoftechnology,costumes,numberofparticipants,howtheexperienceisfacilitatedi.e.isitself-directedorleadbyaguide,isastaticexperience,orisitmobile?)

4. Howdoestheexperienceend?(Arethereone,ormultiplepossibleconclusions?)

5. Howlongdoestheexperiencelast?(Aretheremultipleexperienceentryandexitpoints?Isthereanonline,ormobilefollowuptothein-galleryexperience?)

Thischeck-listencouragedstudentstoquestionexistingmuseumpractice,andbegintothinkaboutnewwaysformuseumstowork,produceandcurate.Studentsthenspent60minutesinthegalleryspacesofthemuseum,takingphotosandworkingonprototypes.Theoutputsfromthisworkshopweremuchmorepaperbasedthanthe12hourHackDay,howeverthisshorterformatprovidedstudentswiththe

opportunitytocriticallyreflectontheory,respondtochallenges,andprototypesolutions.ConclusionTheDesignThinkingProcess,developedbytheInstituteofDesignatStanford(UniversityofStanfordCalifornia,alsoreferredtoasd.School),providesausefulmodelforlinkingthetraditionalapproachtomuseumstudiesresearch,withthemoreactivistmodelproposedinthispaper.xlixTheprocesstakesasitsstartingpointtwomodesoftraditionalacademicenquiry:empathyanddefinition.TheDesignThinkingProcessneatlypatchesthehumanitiesanddesignmodesofresearchtogether;ontheonehanditisconcernedwithidentifyinganddefiningsocialpracticesthroughempathy,andontheotheritisinterestedindesigningnewsituationsandsocialpractices.Thepartneringofatraditionalhumanitiesapproachwithamoreinnovativedesignapproach,createsarigorousmodelofmuseumstudiesascriticalpraxiswithintheacceptedparametersofacademia.Suchanapproachusesestablishedpracticesasanestablishedandsolidfoundation,fromwhichamoreinnovativeandgroundbreakingdeparturecanbetaken.Centraltothecriticalpraxistheoreticalframeworkanddesignthinkingmethodologyproposedinthisarticleistheuseofchallengesratherthanasetbrief,aproblemstatementratherthanadefinedtask.Ifwewantmuseumstobeinnovative,responsiveandprogressiveinstitutionsthenweneedtodeveloppedagogicpracticesthatsupportrisk.Thispaperseekstopresentevidencetosupportonemodelforengenderingcriticalpraxiswithinexistingmuseumstudiescourses,howevermoreresearchisneededintohowmuseumsstudiesasadisciplinecanproduceemergingprofessionalswhoarerobust,agileandinnovativewhenitcomestotheirworkasamuseumprofessionaltoday,tomorrowandin50yearstime.Weneedtolooktowardsapedagogythatblendsoperationalandcriticalskills,andencouragesreflectivepractice.Ashifttowardscriticalpraxismaybethepractice-basedmethodologythatmuseumstudiesasadisciplineneedstostrengthenandsustainitselfinthe21stCentury.

iAnnetteJaelLehmannandAnna-LenaWerner,‘BlackMountainandBeyond:ResearchPracticesBetweenUniversitiesandMuseums’,StedelijkStudies,issue#4,2016.iiAnthonyShelton,‘CriticalMuseology:AManifesto’,MuseumWorlds,vol.5,no.1,2013.iiiAnthonyShelton,‘CriticalMuseology:AManifesto’,MuseumWorlds,vol.5,no.1,2013.ivVikkiMcCallandCliveGray,‘Museumsandthe“NewMuseology”:Theory,PracticeandOrganisationalChange’,MuseumManagementandCuratorship,vol.29,no.1,p.437.vIbid.,p.442.

viJesus-PedroLorente,‘TheDevelopmentofMuseumStudiesinUniversities:FromTechnicalTrainingtoCriticalMuseology’,MuseumManagementandCuratorship,Vol.27,no.3,2012,p.240.viiTheUniversityofLeicesterisnotuniqueinitsapproach,withthemajorityofgraduatelevelmuseumstudiesandculturalheritageprogrammescurrentlyonofferintheUKfocusingprimarilyonacademicthinkingratherthantechnicaltraining.Aswillbediscussedlaterinthispaper,UniversitiesturntoMuseumsandGalleriesforsupportindevelopingtheprofessionalpracticeandtechnicalskillsoftheirstudentsthroughworkplacements.viiiSuzanneMacLeod,‘MakingMuseumStudies:Training,Education,ResearchandPractice’,MuseumManagementandCuratorshipVol19,no.1,2001,p.51.ixIbid.,p.53.xLynneTeather,‘MuseumStudies:ReflectingonReflectivePractice’,MuseumManagementandCuratorshipVol.10,no.4,1991,QuotedinMacLeod,‘MakingMuseumStudies:Training,Education,ResearchandPractice’,MuseumManagementandCuratorshipVol.19,no.1,2001,p.52xiIbid.,p.52.xiiSuzanneMacLeod,‘MakingMuseumStudies:Training,Education,ResearchandPractice’,MuseumManagementandCuratorshipVol.19,no.1,2001,p.53.xiiiEtienneWengerCommunitiesofPractice:Learning,Meaning,Identity.LondonCambridgeUniversityPress,1998.xivOp.cit.,SuzanneMacLeod,2001,p.59.xvElizabethKoshy,ValsaKoshyandHeatherWaterman,ActionResearchinHealthcareLondonSage2010,p.2.xviMarionDadds&SusanHart,DoingPractitionerResearchDifferentlyLondonRoutledgeFalmer2001,p.169.xviiEliseDubac,‘MuseumandUniversityMutations:TheRelationshipbetweenMuseumStudiesintheEraofInterdisciplinarity,Professionalisation,GlobalisationandNewTechnologies’MuseumManagementandCuratorship,Vol.26,no.5,2011,p.497.xviiiOp.cit.,Dadds,Hart,2001,p.169.xixKathleenFitzpatrick‘Do“theRiskyThing”inDigitalHumanities’TheChronicleofHigherEducation,25thSeptember2011,http://chronicle.com/article/Do-the-Risky-Thing-in/129132/accessed15thMarch2017.xxIbid.xxiIbid.xxiiHandelKashopeWright,‘CulturalStudiesasPraxis:(Making)AnAutobiographicalCase’,CulturalStudies,vol.17,no.6,2010,p.806.xxiiiIbid.,p.806.xxivIbid.,p.806xxvIbid.,p.806.xxviJayDavidBolter,‘Theoryandpracticeofnewmediastudies’,inGunnarLiestol,AndrewMorrisonandTerjeRasmussen(Eds.)DigitalMediaRevisited:TheoreticalandConceptualInnovationsinDigitalDomains.Cambrideg,MA:MITPress,pp.15-34.xxviiOp.Cit.,Romme,2004,p.496.xxviiiOp.Cit.,Romme,2004,p.496.xxixStudentreflectionontheirwork,notpublished.

xxxJillianSteinHauer,‘ToInstagram,orNottoInstagram’.Hyperallergic,11thDecember2013http://hyperallergic.com/97890/to-instagram-or-not-to-instagram/20thDecember2013.xxxiJayDavidBolter,‘Theoryandpracticeofnewmediastudies’,inGunnarLiestol,AndrewMorrisonandTerjeRasmussen(Eds.)DigitalMediaRevisited:TheoreticalandConceptualInnovationsinDigitalDomains.Cambrideg,MA:MITPress,pp.15-34.xxxiiAnnetteJaelLehmannandAnna-LenaWerner,‘BlackMountainandBeyond:ResearchPracticesBetweenUniversitiesandMuseums’,StedelijkStudies,issue#4,2016.xxxiii‘About’IDEO,DateUnknownhttp://www.ideo.com/about/,20thMarch2017).xxxivPaulRowe,DesignThinkingCambridge,MATheMITPress,1991.xxxvTilmannLindberg,ChristineNoweskiandChristophMeinel.‘EvolvingDiscoursesonDesignThinking:HowDesignCognitionInspiresMeta-DisciplinaryCreativeCollaboration’TechnoeticArts:AJournalofSpeculativeResearch,Vol.8no.1,2010,p.32.xxxviIbid.,p.31.xxxviiIbid.,p.33.xxxviiiBrePettis,‘TheCultofDone’,BrePettisBloghttp://www.brepettis.com/blog/2009/3/3/the-cult-of-done-manifesto.html,20thSeptember2016.xxxixNinaSimon,‘DreamingofPerpetualBeta’Museum2.0,17thOctober2012http://museumtwo.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/dreaming-of-perpetual-beta-making.html,(20thSeptember2016.xlPaulGestwickiandBrianMcNely‘Acasestudyofafive-stepDesignThinkingProcessineducationalmuseumgamedesign’,MeaningfulPlay,ConferenceProceedings,2012http://meaningfulplay.msu.edu/proceedings2012/mp2012_submission_37.pdf25thAugust2016.xliKarlAspelund,TheDesignProcessNewYork:FairchildPublications,2006.xliiTimBrown,‘DesignThinking’,HarvardBusinessReview,June2008.xliiiSorenBoulvigPoulsenandUllaThorgersen,‘EmbodiedDesignThinking:aPhenomenlogicalPerspective’.CoDesign,vol.7,no.1,2011,pp.29-44xlivOp.cit.,p.3.xlvDanaMitroffSilvers,MaryannaRogers,MollyWilson,‘DesignThinkingforVisitorEngagement:TacklingOneMuseum’sBigChallengethroughHuman-centeredDesign’MuseumsandTheWebConferenceProceedings2013http://mw2013.museumsandtheweb.com/paper/design-thinking/,24thAugust2016.xlviIbid.xlviiIbid.xlviiiOp.Cit.,Romme,2004,p.496.xlixStanfordD.School,‘BootlegBootcamp’DateUnknownhttp://dschool.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/METHODCARDS2010v6.pdf,1stNovember2016.

Acknowledgements:Thispaperisaneditedversionofachapterfromtheauthor’sPhDthesis,‘Increasingthedigitalliteracyofmuseumprofessionals:DigitalinnovationandthemuseumsectorinNorthernIreland’(UniversityofUlster,2014).IwouldliketothankAlanHook,UniversityofUlsterforhissupervisionandsupportduringmyPhD,andDannyBirchall,WellcomeCollectionandRussellDornan,V&ADundee(formerlyWellcomeCollection)fortheirenthusiasmandsupportindevelopingworkshopformatsandco-deliveringworkshopsforstudentsontheMAinVisualArtsManagementandCuratingatRichmondUniversity.DrOonaghMurphyLecturerinArtsManagementInstituteforCreativeandCulturalEntrepreneurshipGoldsmiths,UniversityofLondon