Multiculturalism and Religio-ethnic Plurality

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Multiculturalism And Religio-ethnic PluralityZaid AhmadPublished online: 19 Jul 2007.

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MULTICULTURALISM ANDRELIGIO-ETHNIC PLURALITY

The Malaysian experience

Zaid Ahmad

Malaysia is regarded one of the most plural countries in Southeast Asia. The plurality and the diversied nature of the society and the ability to live in relative peace and harmony make it possible to speak about Malaysia’s experience of multiculturalism and co-existence. Upon independence in 1957 and the formation of Malaysia in 1963, thevarious religious and ethnic groups have practically demonstrated a remarkable sense of tolerance and reciprocity when they agreed to uphold the proposed Federal Constitution, which among other things granted citizenship to the immigrants (by the principle of jus soli ), the recognition of Islam and the special Malay and Bumiputrarights. This paper seeks to depict the experience and the state of multiculturalism and the pattern of reciprocity and tolerance rooted and accustomed in the Malaysian society.It also traces some of the possible factors that are helping to shape the present generation’s outlook towards multiculturalism.

KEYWORDS Malaysia; multicultural; plurality; ethnic relations

Introduction

Malaysia, as commonly perceived, is a multi-ethic and multicultural country.Being a plural society, Malaysians have experienced an intricate and multifacetedpath in their historical trajectory. The formation of plural and multiculturalMalaysia can be traced back as early as the era of Malacca Malay Sultanate in theearly fteenth century, when Malacca stood as one of the most important tradecentres of the region. The experience of being a colony to the Western powers oneafter another; the Portuguese in 1511, the Dutch in 1641 and later by the Britishfollowing the historic Pangkor Treaty in 1874, and of course the short stay of theJapanese (1941–45), has paved the way for contemporary post-colonialmulticultural and plural Malaysia.

It was during the British era when a huge number of workers andimmigrants, mostly from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent, were

Culture and Religion, Vol. 8, No. 2, July 2007 ISSN 1475-5610 print/1475-5629 online/07/020139-153q 2007 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/14755610701424008


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brought into the country and located in various commercial areas and plantationestates respectively. At the same time the Malays, who were the natives, remainedin the rural areas and villages. Of course this type of social set-up would encouragesegregation. As a result, polarisation and segregation took place between theseethnic groups.

The 1957 independence is indeed an important landmark for Malaysiansociety in dealing with pluralism and multiculturalism. In a not-so-long experienceof being together in thepost independent political set-up, i.e. theadopted politicalsystem of parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, the Malays, the

Chinese, the Indians, the Bumiputras (son of the soil), the Indigenous and otherraces and ethnic groups have shown their ability and willingness to tolerate eachother on matters of difference and at the same time instill a sense of commonness,reciprocity and mutual respect within the pluralistic nature of the society.

Of course this does not mean that Malaysian society is free from any racial orethnic problems and religious tensions. We know that they inherited these oldproblems of polarisation and segregation. However, as far as racial and religioustensions are concerned, there were no major ones and the problems were so farsuccessfully dealt with by the authorities and the people. Throughout the vedecades of the post-colonial era, Malay Muslims as the majority have lived withplurality, shared powers, wealth and resources with other communities of variousreligious and ethnic backgrounds in relative peace and harmony (see Jayum and

Zaid 2006).This paper intends to explore the experiences that Malaysia as a nation state

and the Malaysian society have undergone in regard to diversity, multiculturalismand pluralism. It is basically a descriptive overview of what and howmulticulturalism is perceived, based on observations and analyses of certainsignicant historical events. Despite dozens of studies and analyses done in thisarea by various scholars in different modes; positive, negative, optimistic,pessimistic, alarming, scary, frustrating and so on and so forth, there are certainlymany other aspects of its socio-cultural and historical faces that need to be seenpossibly from other angles. Here I offer my version of the Malaysian state and thepattern of multiculturalism as I see it. I must say that this paper is descriptive innature and would neither carry a complex theoretical framework nor would it be

hooked into a general comparative sociological theory. Instead this paperhighlights and analyses the historical passage that the Malaysian society hasundergone, and the state of multiculturalism, tolerance and the sense of solidarity,togetherness and sharing rooted within its diverse social fabrics.

Malaysia: A Prole Note

This prole note is important on two grounds. First, it serves the purpose of giving some general understandings to those who are not familiar with Malaysiaand its society’s backgrounds, and, second, it is important as a basic framework

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that theoretically draws the point of departure for our further outlook and analysisof multiculturalism and pluralism within the context of Malaysian society.

Geographically, Malaysia sits in the heart of Southeastern Asia, sometimescalled the Malay Archipelago. It consists of two distinct lands: the peninsularMalaysia bordering Thailand, Singapore and Indonesia, while the Eastern states of Sabah and Sarawak are in the northern part of the island of Borneo. Malaysia isproud of its multi-racial composition, made up of the Malays, Chinese, Indians,the Orang Asli (the aborigines of Peninsular Malaysia) and the native or indigenous

ethnic groups of Iban, Kadazan, Dusun, Bidayuh, Murut, Melanau, etc. forming thepopulation of Sabah and Sarawak. The Malays are the largest community and byand large dominant in the country’s politics. They are almost one hundred percentMuslims, speak Malay language and practice Malay culture. The Chinese compriseslightly less than one third of the population, largely adherents of Buddhism andTaoism, speak Hokkein, Hakka and Cantonese, and are dominant in trades andbusinesses. The Indians account for less than eight percent of the population. Theyare mainly Hindu Tamils originally from Southern India who speak Tamil,Malayalam and some Hindi, and live mainly in plantation estates on the west coastof the Peninsular. There is also a sizeable Sikh minority community, Eurasians andother races who made up the remaining population.

Being one of Asia’s most plural societies, Malaysia has experienced a quitemulti-coloured historical journey, which certainly has had its own particular impact,manifested in various social and cultural forms. With regard to cultural aspect, wecan possibly see at least two major dominant inuences, (1) the Islamic religion andculture and (2) the Western life styles, culture, ideology and civilisation.

Today Malaysia is inhabited by over 25 million people, and is made up of ethnic groups of Malays, Chinese, Indians, indigenous and other minority raceswho live together in relative peace and harmony. Whilst Islam is the ofcialreligion, freedom of worship is guaranteed by the constitution. 1 As a resultreligions other than Islam are widely and visibly practised, particularly in urbanareas where the society is more plural as compared to the rural ones.

Urbanisation is presently around 51 percent, and the capital of Kuala Lumpur,the largest city, has about 2 million people living within its vicinity. The Chinese arelargelyconcentratedintowns andurbanareas. Howeverthe currentrapidly changingtrends with the move by Malays and Bumiputras into cities have resulted in theincreasing number of Bumiputra city dwellers. The national and ofcial language isBahasa Melayu (Malay language), but English is commonly used—another empiricalmark of British colonial rule and themore recent impact of globalisation. Othermainlanguages can also be found in Malaysia, including various dialects of Chineselanguage (Cantonese, Hokkien or Hakka), and Tamil, Hindi and Punjabi amongst theIndian population (Hassan and Basri 2005) (Table 1).

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Religion and Cultural Divisions

Malaysia’s cultural mosaic is marked by many different cultures and there areseveral that have had a lasting inuence on the society. Chief among these is theancient Malay traditional culture. Besides Malay are the cultures of Malaysia’s otherprominent ethnic groups—the Chinese and the Indian. They are together joinedby the indigenous Bumiputras and other minorities such as Sikhs or Punjabis,Eurasians, etc. Although these people still maintained certain aspects of theirrespective traditions and community structures, they have also been assimilatedand effected by modernisation and have undergone socialisation processes tocreate the hybrid of contemporary Malaysia’s diverse cultural heritage.

It is quite a notable characteristic of Malaysian society that each ethnicgroup is more or less identied with the faith they adhere to. The variety of religions found in Malaysia is in fact no other than the direct reection of diversityof races and ethnic groups living here.

The Malays for example cannot be separated from Islam. This Islam–Malayidentication is the direct consequence of Islamisation that took place over vecenturies and the result, as we can see today, is a complete ethnic identication of ‘being Malay’ as ‘being Muslim’ (Zainal 1997, 52). Among the Malays, a newlyconverted Muslim, regardless of his ethnic group, is considered as ‘becoming aMalay’ as opposed to ‘becoming a Muslim’. Another clear effect of the Islamisationprocess was Islam being constituted as the religion of the Federation while, at thesame time, Malaysia has remained a ‘secular’ country (as opposed to a theocraticone).

The identication of Malay and Islam is also transpired in the FederalConstitution which reads:

‘Malay’ means a person who professes the religion of Islam, habitually speaks theMalay language, conforms to Malay custom. (Article 160[2]). 2

Certainly some aspects of Malay culture and practices had undergone a‘metamorphosis’ process in a way that to some extent it is difcult to distinguishbetween Malay and Muslim. So many cultural practices inherited within Malayculture have been ‘Islamised’ or at least harmonised with the Islamic beliefs and

TABLE 1Total Malaysia population in 2000 ¼ 24.92 million

Ethnic group composition Percentage (%)

Malay Pribumi/Bumiputra 65.1Chinese 26.0Indians 7.7Others 1.2Total 94.5

Non-Malaysian citizens 5.5

Source: Population and Housing Census 2000, Department of Statistics Malaysia.

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teachings. Perhaps it was this process that resulted in the very form and distinctivefashion of Islam practised by the Malay Muslims today.

Other than Islam, the Western inuences are also visible. From the people’sappearance to the way of thinking and outlook, we can still strongly sense some of the footprints of the Western traditions quite strongly. As indicated earlier, theMalays have been in contact with the Western nations, particularly the Europeans,since the coming of the Portuguese in the early fteenth century. The series of occupations by the Western powers had empirically made their marks onMalaysian culture and society. As a result, we can still see the façade of Western

effects in the everyday lives of the Malays.The Chinese mostly embrace a quite diverse mixture of Taoism, Buddhism

and ancestor worship, and also include a small number of Christians. Most Chinesein Malaysia practise a form of Mahayana Buddhism that is deeply infused withTaoism, Confucianism and animistic beliefs. However, the nature of the faith thathas evolved from this collection of inuences in Malaysia is more complex.

The Hindu inuence in Malay lands/archipelago can be traced since theancient times, but the Hinduism of that period in Malay history has in fact very littleconnection with the Hinduism practised by the Malaysian Indians today. Forexample the Brahmanic Hinduism, which ourished at the courts of petty Malaystates before the coming of Islam in the fteenth century, was an aristocratic one.Relics and remains from this period have also been found, mostly scattered in thenorthern state of Kedah. The present Hindu inuences only made inroads into theMalayArchipelago with thearrivalof Indianimmigrants;rstly astradersandlaterasestate workers during the British rule. The Hindu community in Malaysia aremainlythe descendents of the Tamils of Southern India.However, the caste system, whichis so signicant in the Indian societies, is not widely practised in Malaysia.

The Sikh community in Malaysia owes its beginnings in the country to theBritish connection and in particular to the recruitment of Sikhs for the paramilitaryand police units. The rst of these units was the Perak Sikhs. The Sikhs believe andworship theone andonly Godwho is formless.Hence, theSikh scriptures denounceidol worship. The Sikhs’ place of worship is known as a Gurdwara, and isopen to allirrespective of race, religion, colouror sex. TheSikhs celebrate the principal festival,the Sikh New Year called Vasakhi, each April and the birthdays and martyrdom of Sikh Gurus and the installation of the Holy Guru Granth Sahib as the living Guru of the Sikhs for all times (Gill 1999, 183–192; Saran Singh 2005, 117).

Christianity in Malay lands can be traced to the time when the Westerntraders rst established their partners in the region. International traders in theearly times certainly played a key role in bringing Christianity to this part of theworld. On the whole, Christianity never really became established in any strengthin the Peninsular. However, it had certain impacts in the Eastern states of Sabahand Sarawak, particularly among indigenous tribes. Christian missionaries hadbeen instrumental in establishing schools and hospitals across the country andplayed quite a signicant role in charity, education and some medical services.They established schools and hospitals in various parts, particularly East Malaysia.



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In short, it could be presumed that most of the world’s major religions arerepresented in Malaysia—Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, Sikhism,animistic tribal religions, etc. Again, despite Islam’s position as state religion,freedom of religion is well preserved and all religions and ethnic groups co-exist inrelative peace.

Socio-Economic and Political Set-ups

From a socio-economic point of view, it is commonly described that Malays

are by tradition largely involved in agriculture and primary production sectors, theChinese in commerce and trade, while Indians are mostly labourers and estateworkers. This traditional socio-economic breakdown has led to a somewhatpalpable social divide, at least in the rst half of the post-colonial era.

It is quite true that in post-colonial Malaysia, ethnic Chinese have been thechief contributor to the country’s economic development. This is partly because of the entrepreneurial character of the Chinese migrants and of course opportunitiesthey had by being urban dwellers. They actively participate in nancial andbusiness circles. The Malays were still in the rural areas and traditional villageswhile the Indians were working as labourers in the estates and plantation areas. Infact, whether one likes it or not, this is the reality of ethnic relations in Malaysia. It iscommonly perceived among scholars that this ethnic divide is no other than theoutcome of the British colonial policy of ‘divide and rule’ (cf, Milner 2003, 1–24and see also, Hefner 2001; Shamsul 1997, 67–83).

This is also oneof themajor challenges after independence. Thegovernmentneeds to ensure economic equality and a fair distribution of wealth. And now,after nearly 50 years of independence, though the situation is relatively better,there is still a lot that needs to be done. Distribution of wealth is still unequal, theChinese still dominate the business and private sectors, the Malays in the politicaland public sectors, and so the possession of economic equities is still very much inquestion (cf. Fenton 2003, 138). However, with the increasing opportunities givento the Malays and other natives under the various government policies, and as aresult of rapid urbanisation, education opportunities and the fast growing middle-classes, the Malays and the Bumiputras are starting to move from villages to urbanareas to take up leading roles in public services as well as in businesses, industrialand corporate sectors (cf. Guan 2000, 15–25).

This is also another challenge, i.e. to ensure all (no matter from which ethnicgroup they were) can enjoy the economic growth that is also one of the corefactors leading to multi-cultural harmony in Malaysia. The new economic policy(NEP) or in Malay Dasar Ekonomi Baru was formulated after the 13 May 1969 racialriots and was announced in June 1971. The NEP, which formed the basis of theSecond Malaysia Plan 1971–1990, was a set of policies designed to address whatwas perceived to be the racial economic imbalance in the country. It had a two-pronged strategy, i.e. to reduce and eventually eradicate poverty by raisingincome levels and increasing employment opportunities for all Malaysians,

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irrespective of race, and ‘to accelerate the process of restructuring Malaysiansociety to correct economic imbalance, so as to reduce and eventually eliminatethe identication of race with economic functions’. The NEP set a target wherebythe Malays and the Bumiputras would hold at least 30 per cent of the nation’swealth in terms of economic equity by the year 1990. 3 The NEP guaranteed that allethnic groups could be given the chance to run businesses and be involved inother strategic sectors. In corporate sectors for example, the policy requires thatthe public listed companies should be governed by different ethnic groups in thecomposition of their board of directors.

There are also other policies involving small and medium industries (SMI) toprotect the interests of the Malaysians, particularly the marginal and the lowerincome ones to improve their living standards. All these policies are introduced tonarrow down the gaps between social classes and to achieve equal opportunityand fair distribution of wealth.

Needless to say that politics also plays an important role in fostering ethnicand cultural relations. It is commonly known that in Malaysia, political parties aremainly ethnic-based. There are Malay, Chinese and Indian based parties. All areactively involved in the political process and competing in the elections. Thesepolitical parties represent and always bring up matters that are pertinent to theinterest of the ethnic group they belong to. Although there are certain politicalparties that claim to be multi-racial, the fact remains that they are ethnic-based.Since democracy does not prevent ethnic-based parties, it would be expected thatthe people are keen to establish parties that are ethnic-based in nature.

Since the rst election in 1955, the coalition party led by the United MalayNational Organisation (UMNO) has been in control of the country. Today Malaysianpolitics is a contest between a strong National Front coalition (the BarisanNasional ) and other also ethnic-based parties such as the Pan Malaysian IslamicParty (PMIP or PAS), the Democratic Actions Party (DAP), the People Justice Party(Keadilan or PKR) and other smaller parties.

In a multi-party system, power sharing is essential. To maintain peace andharmony, continuous negotiation must always be given a top priority. As Shamsul(2005, 7) describes, ‘the breakdown of the negotiations could rupture socialinteraction causing open ethnic groups conicts . . .’. Since the independence, aspartly described above, Malaysian politics has practically witnessed the fruits of the said continuous negotiation, power sharing, tolerance, and of course theability to tolerate differences of opinions and approaches on certain matters thatare important in the context of the various ethnic and religious adherents inMalaysia.

Islam in the Malay Lands

Shamsul also rightly argues that ‘pluralism’, be it in a region, country,province, an urban area or a rural area, is the product of its history (Shamsul 2005,2). Therefore, in understanding the nature and pattern of plurality in Malaysia,



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one needs to put Islam in the right perspective. This is because the coming of Islam into the Malay lands and the process of Islamisation should be seen as theone that holds a bigger share in shaping the current pattern of Malaysian plurality.

Several theories suggest the beginning and growth of Islam in the Malaylands. Historians are split in dating and placing the rst Muslim foothold inthe lands. In any case, based on the most popular version, we could safely saythat the spread of Islam in the Malay lands coincided with the emergence of Malacca as a trading centre in the fourteenth and fteenth centuries. Contactswith Muslim merchants and traders soon turned Malacca into a centre of Islamin this region.

More importantly, however, is the Islamisation process that took placeamong the Malay society at large. It should be noted that the very process of Islamisation in the Malay society is quite a distinctive one. Islam made its inroadinto the Malay society through acceptance and internalisation without anyelement of force. Indeed Islam is a missionary religion and the process of embracing has to be in the form of conversion. For a society that had long beenaccustomed to Hindu– Buddhist traditions, conversion to Islam was indeedsomething that demanded a fundamental change. The Islamic doctrine of tawhid (unity or oneness) requires a Muslim to worship one God and to renounce otherforms of deities. This means one has to liberate oneself from all kinds of magical,

mythological and animistic tradition; the traditions that had been deeply rootedwithin the Malay society at that time.

Apart from that, Malays are essentially an aristocratic-based society; againthe inherited Hindu–Buddhist character was deeply rooted in their social system.This distinct characteristics of the society have resulted in a unique social stratum,in which members of the society are placed, honoured and respected according totheir social status, title and moreover ancestral background and hierarchical order.This system continued even after the coming of Islam where honour is alsobestowed on those who possess good knowledge in religion ( alim pl. ulama ). Of course the Malays embraced Islam and accepted its very doctrines, butIslamisation in a wider sense is more about adaptation than conversion. Theygradually but willingly absorbed the Islamic elements into their cultural life.Another point worth noting is that the acceptance of Islam by the Malays wasvoluntary in nature. There was neither compulsion nor pressure in any form. Thepeople of Malacca began to embrace Islam of their own accord, following theconversion of the ruler.

Over a period of approximately 600 years of adaptation, Islam is now deeplyrooted and is the major source of identity for the Malays. Notwithstanding certainelements of mythological and animistic beliefs that are still practised in Malaysociety, Islam has practically formed the very foundation and spirit of the cultureand world view of the Malays.

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Islam, Religious Factors and the Pattern of Multiculturalism inMalaysia

By multiculturalism we mean the diversity of cultural practices by people of different ethnicities and heritage. By pluralism we mean the existence andtoleration of variety of belief and ideological persuasions. In the same vein,religious plurality means the ability of various religions to co-exist in harmony,tolerance, mutual understanding and continuous negotiation. In such a pluralsociety as Malaysia, where Islam is dominant, the nature of religious plurality iscertainly distinctive in many respects. It is distinctive because of the nature andposition of Islam itself in Malaysia’s political set-up and the very nature of itsadherents, i.e. the ethnic Malays. Therefore, when we speak of multiculturalism inMalaysia, Islam is one factor that must be put in the right perspective in order tounderstand the pattern and nature of plurality in Malaysia.

Being the dominant religious group, Muslims not only have to co-exist withother religious groups, but also have to play a very challenging and important roleas protector as well as guardian in order to ensure freedom for other religions.Throughout history, Malaysia has experienced a long series of religio-culturalencounters within its society. Indeed, as shown above, the position of Islam isclearly dened in the Federal constitution as the religion of the federation; butother religions are also guaranteed the right to practice. This is to uphold thefundamental principle of liberty, freedom of religion and non-discrimination onthe grounds of religion.

It is interesting to track the experience of ups and downs of inter-religiousrelations, particularly in the post-independence Malaysia. There must be reasonswhy Islam, Buddhist, Hindus, Christians and other religions are capable of livingtogether and co-existing in a relatively peaceful manner without many problems.Of course the answer is not straightforward. There are many variables and factorsthat could be presumed and suggested, but one answer for certain is that this isthe fruit and manifestation of tolerance and reciprocity that have been rooted inMalaysian society.

In Malaysia religious tolerance can be seen at two levels, i.e. (1) at thepolitical or administrative or bureaucratic level and (2) at the grassroots level. Atthe political level, of course, the state and other relevant institutions and/orauthorities would play their roles in fostering a sense of reciprocity andcommonness. The government-introduced policies in all sectors that cut acrossand transcend cultural boundaries and differences are for people to uphold andpractise in their everyday lives. These policies normally focus on the interests of allcitizens, and emphasise the commonness and collective life.

The real danger in a multicultural society is certainly the negative dispositiondeveloped within the people from different ethnicities and ancestries. Thesedifferences would be manifested in the forms of bias, partisanship, stereotype,discrimination and so on that haunt every area of life, be it religious, cultural orethnic. Therefore, in order to maintain stability, it is of greater importance that the



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state or authority should all the time uphold the principles of impartiality and justice. Failing to do so will leave the community in a state of helplessness and thiswill result in chaos when people are no longer convinced that they are safe andprotected by the authority and the law. The worst part is when they take law intotheir own hands and inter-cultural/inter-ethnic violence occurs on a signicantlevel.

Indeed authority comes with legitimacy. Whilst authority inherits in theofce and is ultimately derived from the state’s constitution, legitimacy is drawnfrom people’s condence and willingness to support. Unlike authority, legitimacy

therefore has to be won by ensuring that those in authority and holders of publicofce exercise their authority and power impartially and fairly. It is thereforeessential that these ofces or institutions are held by individuals of merit andintegrity. They should be possessing appropriate professional ethos and be rmlyinsulated against all forms of partisanship. And above all the state must beaccountable and must uphold and be seen to uphold justice and consistency.

In order to achieve this goal, the Malaysian government had introducedvarious strategies; among them was inculcation of Islamic values in public and civilservices, which was introduced in the early 1980s. It was believed that theuniversal nature of Islamic values such as honesty, justice, trustworthy, etc. couldhelp infuse professional ethos into civil servants.

At the grass roots level, pluralism has to be practically perceived and felt byall members of different religions in their daily life. Undoubtedly differences are adaily experience and deeply inscribed in every formal and informal encounter in amulti-religious and multicultural society. Its perpetuation certainly demands thatits members should acquire the necessary psychological and moral wherewithal toenable them to live with plurality. The most important is that they should not feelthreatened by differences, whether they are religious or ethnic.

They cannot do so unless they appreciate those differences are notpathological deviations from unchallengeable norms but perfectly normal andlegitimate, and that, for the reasons mentioned earlier, they contribute to humanfreedom, rationality and well-being and constitute a collective understanding.At the same time members of the society cannot take such a view of differencewithout taking an open and critical attitude to their own outlook. This is importantin order to be able to acknowledge that their views and thought do not representthe nal word in human wisdom. Only then can they see the need to respect otherviews and differences.

As mentioned earlier, the nature of religious and ethnic relations in Malaysiais unique in many respects. Islam is the religion of the Federation, Malays arepolitically dominant, the Chinese Buddhists largely control economic resources,the Indian Hindus form a signicant minority, and the Bumiputras in East Malaysiaare majority Christians. It is a fact that Malay Muslims’ relation with adherents of other faiths is not on an equal footing. Being a majority and strongly holding thepolitical devices, Malay Muslims can easily slip into a dominating or discriminatingposition or at least a tendency towards domination over other groups. This is in fact

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one of the greatest challenges facing Muslims in Malaysia. However, throughoutthe history of post-independence Malaysia, Chinese, Indians and other religiousadherents have never perceived Islam as a threat to their religious beliefs and well-being, although any development in Islam has certainly invited sensitivity andconcerns. In the past two decades the Malaysian government has introduced aseries of Islamisation projects and policies. These included the inculcating of Islamic values in government civil services, reforming Malaysia’s economic toIslamic based systems including the establishment of the Islamic Bank and theIslamic Economic Foundation, Islamic insurance, etc. as well as other policy shifts

in matters pertaining to education and legal systems. The government furtherdeclared in 1987 that under the ‘National Culture Policy’ other non-Malay cultureswere accepted but such cultures could not be against the basic teachings of Islam.In 1992, the Malaysian government set up an institute known as the Institute forIslamic Understanding with objectives, among others, to nurture a harmonioussociety whereby Muslims and non-Muslims can live and prosper side by side.

In response to the greater concern of ‘developments’ within Islam andperhaps its political manifestation, leaders of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduismand Sikhism agreed to come together to form the Malaysian Consultative Councilfor Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism and Sikhism (MCCBCHS) in 1983. The MCC-BCHS is a representative body of the four major non-Muslim religions of Malaysia.In the Council, the Buddhists are represented by the Malaysian BuddhistAssociation, the Buddhist Missionary Society and the Sasana Abhiwurdi WardhanaSociety; the Christians by the Christian Federation of Malaysia; the Hindus by theMalaysian Hindu Sangam; and the Sikhs by the Gurdawara Council of Malaysia andKhla Diwan Malaysia (Chew 2000, 23).

In 1988, the MCCBCHS issued a Declaration on Freedom of Religion or Belief and on the Elimination of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion orBelief in an attempt to halt the growing tendency to enact state laws which weredeemed to be in contravention of the freedom of religion clause in the FederationConstitution. In January 2002 the same Declaration was re-launched to urge theFederal and all State Governments to respect the rights of every person tofreedom of religion and recognise that Malaysia is constitutionally a secular state(Press Release, MCCBCHS, 31 January 2002).

These are some of the examples of how other religious groups respondedwhenever they felt affected by certain developments particularly those initiated bythe Muslim majority. Normally the Malaysian leaders would subtly address thesekinds of responsesand reassure thegovernment’s commitmentto protectthe well-beingof thepeople and theirreligions. Of late, several NGOs aswell asacademicandresearch institutes have also been actively engaged in promoting religiousdialogues. A Conference on Religious Pluralism in Democratic Society was held on20 August 2005 in Kuala Lumpur organised by the Malaysian Association forAmerican Studies (MAAS) in cooperation with the Public Affairs Ofce, the USEmbassy in Malaysia. In December 2002, the 1st Taiping Inter-Faith DialogueRoundtable on Common Values and Common Actions was held in Taiping Perak,



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the Northern state of Malaysia, initiated by Konrad–Adenauer–Stiftung (KAF) andthe Taiping Peace Initiative followed by the launching of the Malaysian InterfaithNetwork.

The involvement of Malaysian academics is also notable. The University of Malaya established the Centre for Civilisational Dialogue in 1996; this activelyengaged in research, publications and academic discourses and it has organisedseries of conferences, seminars and dialogues. Several dozens of books andarticles were published by Malaysian scholars, addressing various issues within thecommunity. This undoubtedly shows the commitment of Malaysian citizens at

large towards a greater understanding of pluralism.

Historical Experience: In Search of a Shared Ground

Now the question is, can there be a common ground on which all cultures,Malaysandother ethnic groupscan live together in harmony in a democratic pluralsociety of Malaysia? My answer is yes. The reason is that there are so many commongrounds in terms of cultural practicesandvalues that canbe capitalised to promotereciprocity and understanding. Racial distrusts that might still persist amongvarious ethnic groups in Malaysia cannot be used as excuses or hindrances thatprevent people of different ethnic groups from living in peace and harmony. Thereare so many aspects of culture, life and values that can be shared in common.

It is always delightful to speak about the beautiful faces of Malaysianmulticulturalism. Throughout the year people of Malaysia share so many ethnicand religious festivals and celebrations. Possibly no other place in the world has acalendar so lled with religious holidays, cultural festivals and celebrations asMalaysia. Here in Malaysia, open doors and receptions for the celebration of religious and cultural festivals are commonly practiced. Hari Raya for Muslims,Chinese New Year, Wesak Day, Thaipusam, Deepavali, Gawai Dayak, Keamatan,Mooncake Festival, Vasakhi, etc. have already become national celebrations.People all over the country share these festivals. They exchange visits and greeteach other while together enjoying the festivals. However, it should be noted thatthis sharing of celebration does not mean that people of different ethnicbackgrounds have to subtract their tradition and identity. In Malaysia all ethnicgroups are encouraged to maintain their traditions and to strengthen their senseof identity. We can always see traditional Malay dance performed together withthe lion dance, bhagra , ngajat , sumazau , etc. Certainly this represents the richnessand diversity of Malaysian culture.

In this tolerant multiracial, multicultural and multi-religious society, Muslims,Christians, Buddhists, Hindus, Sikhs and other races co-exist harmoniously andpeacefully. They are free to worship as they please in their respective faiths andthey share in each others’ festivals and celebrations. Mosques, temples andchurches sit comfortably side by side, particularly in urban areas. This certainlysymbolises the unique Malaysian multiculturalism and its religious tolerance.These are all no other than the fruits of understanding, tolerance and reciprocity.

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However it has to be noted here that Malaysians have also gone through abitter and remorseful experience in race and cultural relations. It was 13 May 1969when riots took place following the victory of certain ethnic groups in the generalelection in urban areas, particularly in the capital Kuala Lumpur. Although theincident was primarily racial and political, no one can deny the fact that there werealso religious and cultural elements involved. This is, as earlier noted, because of the very nature of the society as such. On occasion Islam was also used as a pretextto unite the Malays. This regretful incident, which claimed over two hundred lives,has in fact marked a new chapter in Malaysian history of ethnic relations and

multiculturalism. People have witnessed the devastating effects of this sadtragedy and certainly they have learnt many lessons. Now, three decades after thetragedy, the new generation of Malaysia has in their hearts and minds a deepersense of awareness of the importance of tolerance. Of course this is also partly theoutcome of various policies and strategies, particularly the NEP and the nationalcurriculum introduced in the wake of the 13 May 1969 incident.

My nal analysis of Malaysia’s multiculturalism is again related to Islam. Thisis about the role of Islam as the predominant religion of the Malays in maintainingreligious and cultural harmony in the plural Malaysia. This is another fact that isoften overlooked in many academic analyses of multiculturalism in Malaysia. Beingthe religion of the Malays, Islam has in fact played a vital role in promotingtolerance in Malaysia. The argument is simple, that is: without a strong sense of tolerance, there is no guarantee that the Malays will not abuse their politicalpowers against other races. There is no guarantee that they will not discriminateagainst others. This is about an imbalanced relationship, of majority–minorityrelations. Of course in the Malaysian context, the Malays are in need of othergroups as much as they are in need of the Malays, but the nature of therelationship, as mentioned above, is anked by major–minor relations. In the caseof the Malays, I would certainly say that there is no other than Islam that isinstrumental in providing or internalising a strong sense of tolerance in the psycheof the Malays. It is part of the basic tenets of Islam to encourage people to live intolerance and harmony. In supporting this argument I would like to cite ProfessorHAR Gibb, the famous English critic of Islam when he says, ‘Islam possesses amagnicent tradition of inter-racial understanding and cooperation. No othersociety has such a record of success in uniting, in an equality of status, of opportunity and of endeavour so many and so various races of [hu]mankind’(Gibb 1932, 379; cf Abdulaziz 2001).

Concluding Remarks

Multiculturalism, pluralism and religious harmony in Malaysia are still in themaking. It still has a long way to go. The process takes time. Five decades is tooshort a period to evaluate the real achievement of Malaysian multiculturalismprogrammes. A lot more needs to be done to construct or perhaps reengineer ageneration that can truly appreciate and possess a stronger and deeper sense



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of reciprocity and tolerance, and to be able to appreciate and celebrate unity indiversity of the Malaysian folks. Efforts to promote understanding betweendifferent ethnic groups and cultures must continue and must be encouraged in allsectors of the society. The authority, the NGOs and people at large must be madeaware of the importance of solidarity and cohesion. Finally, with all the successstories, the hindrances and obstacles that have been passed over, and thewillingness of the new generations to learn from history, we should have everyreason to be optimistic that Malaysia hasa bright, promising future and would oneday become a truly living example of multiculturalism and pluralism at work.

NOTES

1. Article 3(1) of the federal constitution reads:Islam is the religion of the Federation; but other religions may be practised in peaceand harmony in any part of the Federation. (http://www.helplinelaw.com/law/constitution/malaysia/malaysia01.php).Article 12(2) readsEvery religious group has the right to establish and maintain institutions for theeducation of children in its own religion, and there shall be no discrimination onthe ground only of religion in any law relating to such institutions or in theadministration of any such law; but it shall be lawful for the Federation or a State to

establish or maintain or assist in establishing or maintaining Islamic institutions orprovide or assist in providing instruction in the religion of Islam and incur suchexpenditure as may be necessary for the purpose.(http://www.helplinelaw.com/law/constitution/malaysia/malaysia02.php).Article 11(3) readsEvery religious group has the right -(a) to manage its own religious affairs,(b) to establish and maintain institutions for religious or charitable purposes; and(c) to acquire and own property and hold and administer it in accordance with law.

(http://www.helplinelaw.com/law/constitution/malaysia/malaysia02.php).2. http://www.helplinelaw.com/law/constitution/malaysia/malaysia12.php3. See Second Malaysia Plan 1971–1990. For further discussion on NEP, see also,

Leong (1992, 204–227), Firdaus (1997, 189–221) and Faaland, Parkinson, andSaniman (1990).

REFERENCES

ABDULAZIZ, S. 2001. The Islamic roots of democratic pluralism . New York: OxfordUniversity Press.

CHEW, M. 2000. The journey of the catholic church in Malaysia, 1511–1996 . Kuala Lumpur:Catholic Research Centre.

FAALAND, J., J. R. PARKINSON, and R. SANIMAN. 1990. Growth and ethnic inequality: Malaysia’snew economic policy . Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

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FENTON, S. 2003. Malaysia and capitalist modernisation: plural and multicultural models.International Journal on Multicural Societies (IJMS) 5 (2).

FIRDAUS, H. A. 1997. Afrmative action policy in Malaysia: to restructure society, toeradicate poverty. Ethnic Studies Reports XV (2): 189–221.

GIBB, H. A. R. 1932. Whither Islam . London: NP.GILL, S. S. 1999. Diaspora dan Masalah Identiti Sikh di Malaysia (Diaspora and the

questions of Sikh identity in Malaysia). Jurnal Akademika (55): 183–192.GOVERNMENT OF MALAYSIA. Second Malaysia Plan , 1971–1990.GUAN, L. H. 2000. Ethnic relations in peninsular Malaysia: the cultural and economic

dimensions. Social and Cultural Issues (1).HASSAN, M. K., and G. BASRI, eds. 2005. The encyclopaedia of Malaysia: religions and beliefs .

Kuala Lumpur: Archipelago Press.HEFNER, R. W. 2001. The politics of multiculturalism: pluralism and citizenship in Malaysia,

Singapore and Indonesia . Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.JAWAN, J. A., and Z. AHMAD, eds. 2006. Inter-ethnic relations in Malaysia: selected readings .

Serdang: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia.LEONG, H. K. 1992. Dynamics of policy-making in Malaysia: the formulation of new

economic policy and the national development policy. Asian Journal of Public Administration 14 (2): 204–227.

MILNER, A. 2003. Who created Malaysias plural society? Journal of the Malaysian Branchof Royal Asiatic Society (JMBRAS) LXXVI, Part 2.

SALLEH, H., ed. 2006. The encyclopaedia of Malaysia: people and traditions . Kuala Lumpur:Archipelago Press.

SHAMSUL, A. B. 1997. The making of a ‘Plural’ Malaysia: a brief survey. In Emerging pluralism in Asia and Pacic , edited by D. Y. H. Wu, H. McQueen, and Y. Yasushi.Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacic Studies.

———. 2005. Islam embedded: religion and plurality in Southeast Asia as a mirror forEurope. Asia Europe Journal (3): 159–177.

———. 2005. The construction and management of pluralism: sharing the Malaysianexperience’. ICIP Journal 2 (1): 1–14.

SINGH, S. 2005. Sikhism. In The encyclopaedia of Malaysia: religions and beliefs , edited byM. K. Hassan and G. Basri. Kuala Lumpur: Archipelago Press.

ZAINAL, K.1997. Social structure: the practices of Malay religiosity. In Islamic civilisation inthe Malay world , edited by M. T. Osman. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Pustaka.

Professor Zaid Ahmad (author to whom correspondence should be addressed),Department of Government and Civilisational Studies, Faculty of HumanEcology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM SERDANG, Selangor,Malaysia. E-mail: [email protected]


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Multiculturalism and Religio-ethnic Plurality