Multicultural Education

A Literature-based Approaches on Multicultural EducationHasan Aydin

Curriculum and Instruction Department, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

KEYWORDS Multicultural Education.Curriculum. Practice. Review of Literature

ABSTRACT Multicultural education has developed over the last several decades and it is becoming increasinglyrecognized as a significant educational issue and it is an approach to teaching and learning that is based ondemocratic values and beliefs and affirms cultural pluralism within culturally diversesocieties. The purpose of thispiece to bring conceptual clarity to the field by examining what multicultural education means. With regard tothose issues, this study could help educators clarify and reflect upon current understandings of mul ticulturaleducation and ideas of appropriate practices. This paper presents a comprehensive research on multiculturaleducation which has been written and it also evaluates the literature for its contributions to both the theory and thepractice of multicultural education.

INTRODUCTION

Multicultural education is a phenomenonwhich certainly has come into prominence in theworld of education for years. In providing “mul-ticultural education” for today’s society, multi-cultural teaching in the class environment in-creased by developing new structural strategiesand techniques (Banks 2008). Educators are inneed of easily understandable and illuminativematerials prepared in accordance with the di-mensions of cultural diversity which help themprovide their students with a more active andeffective learning process. Moreover, Gorski(1999) argued multicultural education is a typeof education which helps all students to devel-op knowledge, abilities and behaviors neces-sary for them to effectively participate in a dem-ocratic society. In addition to this, Banks andBanks (2004) emphasized that multicultural edu-cation is an area of study which aims at helpingstudents from different races, ethnicities, socialclasses, and cultural groups to have equal op-portunities in education.

The fundamental objective of multiculturaleducation is to help students consider their di-versity of ethnicity and race as an educationalalternative and develop their knowledge, skillsand behaviors necessary for them to performvarious educational activities, and to restruc-ture schools in this direction (Au 2009). Multi-cultural education supports students to showtolerance towards those with backgrounds dif-ferent from theirs on the one hand, and focusingon the protection of each student’s cultural her-itage on the other (Bennett 1999). To achievethis, courses relating to democratic citizenship

and human rights need to be compulsory in theTurkish Education System. Gay (1995) address-es the fundamental aims of multicultural educa-tion under the titles of (1) equality and excel-lence in education, (2) the clarification of atti-tudes and values, (3) multicultural social com-petence, (4) proficiency in basic skills, (5) devel-oping ethnic and cultural literacy, and (6) per-sonal development. According to Gay (1994),equality and excellence in education can onlybe achievable when all groups in society haveequal opportunities to access the highest qual-ity of education possible. Gay (1994) defendscomparability instead of sameness in provid-ing equal educational opportunities for differ-ent students. In determining what the compara-bility in educational opportunities encapsulates,she argues that educators should precisely un-derstand how culture shapes learning styles,teaching behaviors and educational decisionsand develop a variety of means to accomplishthe common learning outcomes that reflect thepreferences and styles of a wide variety ofgroups and individuals.

The guidance of multicultural education onthe organization of learning environments isconsidered to be possible by accurately reflect-ing its principles upon learning environments.Banks (1999) outlined basic principles of learn-ing and teaching in multicultural education asfollows: (1) ending of racism, prejudices, sexismand other types of discrimination, (2) includingdifferent cultures in the learning environment,(3) combining the legacy, experiences and view-points of different cultures; establishing linksbetween what is learnt at the school and real lifeexperiences for culturally different students, (4)

© Kamla-Raj 2013 Anthropologist, 16(1-2): 31-44 (2013)

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ensuring equal opportunities in education forall individuals, (5) conducting scientific researchfor the combination of different cultures, (6) un-dertaking humanistic attempts to understand andvalue different cultures, (7) considering contentwith process, structure and essence, action andprojection, knowledge and values, philosophyand methodology, educational meanings andresults together, (8) accepting systematic changeas a developmental process, (9) being aware ofthe fact that differences enrich the content ofeducation, (10) developing programs helpful forteachers to understand how characteristics ofethnic groups influence students’ behavior, (11)supporting students to participate in latent pro-grams that contribute to their academic successand their development of knowledge, abilitiesand attitudes which affect their relationship witheach other, (12) enabling students to learn theprejudices against races and ethnic relations,(13) enabling students to learn common values,and (14) ensuring that the directors of educa-tion provide equal financial support for schools.

Emergence of some requirements by multi-cultural education practices provided a groundfor the application of multicultural educationprograms, starting from pre-school classes inmulticultural countries. Upon these develop-ments, teaching multicultural education as acourse at universities and colleges came to theagenda in some countries. In the USA, and Eu-ropean Countries (EU) where different culturaland ethnic groups live together, for instance,students are required to get at least one courseon multicultural education in some universities.All these developments show that there is anincrease in the multicultural education practicesin the world, especially for the last several de-cades. However, there’s not adequate researchon multicultural education in Turkey and no onehas synthesized and analyzed this body of liter-ature. Thus, the purpose of this piece is to bringconceptual clarity to the field by examining whatmulticultural education means. In addition, thispapers evaluates the literature for its contribu-tions to both the theory and the practice of mul-ticultural education, including a critical exami-nation of its limitations.

THE HISTORY OF MULTICULTURALEDUCATION

Multicultural education was first introducedin adult education literature by Horace Kallen in1915 and was expanded to champion the multi-

cultural argument by making known the causesand worth of certain groups. Kallen expressed abelief in the redemptive powers of multicultural-ism (as cited in Bailey and Clark 2010). The his-torical roots of multicultural education lies inthe civil rights movements of various historical-ly oppressed groups. Many trace the history ofmulticultural education back to the Civil Rightsmovement of African Americans and other peo-ple of color, who challenged the discriminatorypractices in public institutions during the 1960s(Aydin 2012a; Banks 2010; Davidman and David-man 1997; Ladson-Billings 1995). Among thoseinstitutions specifically targeted were education-al organizations, which were among the mostoppressive and hostile to the ideals of racialequality. Activists, community leaders, and par-ents called for curricular reform and insisted ona reexamination of hiring practices and he de-fined that they demanded, should be more con-sistent with the racial diversity in the country(Gorski 1999).

The 1980’s saw the emergence of progres-sive education activists and researchers whorefused to allow schools to address their con-cerns by simply adding token programs and spe-cial units on famous women or famous people ofcolor. As Gorski said James Banks, one of thepioneers of multicultural education, was amongthe first multicultural education scholars to ex-amine schools as social systems from a multi-cultural context (1981). He grounded his con-ceptualization of multicultural education in theidea of “educational equality.” According toBanks, in order to maintain a “multiculturalschool environment,” all aspects of the schoolhad to be examined and transformed, includingpolicies, teachers’ attitudes, instructional mate-rials, assessment methods, counseling, andteaching styles (1981, 1989).

According to Gorski (1999), as the 1980’sflowed into the final decade of the twentieth cen-tury, multicultural education scholars refocused‘on developing new approaches and models ofeducation and learning built on a foundation ofsocial justice, critical thinking, and equal oppor-tunity. Educators, researchers, and cultural the-orists began to further deconstruct traditionalmodels in both the K-12 and higher educationarenas from a multicultural framework. Gorskiunderlined that scholars, such as Joel Spring,Peter McLaren, Henry Giroux, and others con-tributed to a new body of critical socioculturalcriticism of educational institutions within the

A LITERATURE-BASED APPROACHES ON MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 33

context of larger societal and global dimensionsof power, privilege, and economics, and the in-tersections of these. What started as small cur-ricular shifts and additions has become a frame-work for reexamining both schools and societyfrom a progressive and transformative frame-work. For example, Ovando and McLaren (2000)point out that; “as long as we continue to oper-ate within the existing capitalist social relationsof the larger society, there is good reason tobelieve that racism and social injustice will con-tinue to pose a serious threat to democracy andthat the dream of social equality will remain largelyunrealized” (p. xix). Moreover, Gorski (1999) un-derlines that while work continues toward schooltransformation, the emerging conceptualizationsof multicultural education stress that this workmust be understood relative to the social andpolitical structures that currently control educa-tion in the United States.

DEFINITIONS AND SCOPES OF MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION

In several decades, many scholars and re-searchers put emphasis on definition of multi-cultural education with different aspects. Ac-cording to Halvorsen and Wilson (2010) andSchugurensky (2010), multicultural education isan area of study with the goals of helping allstudents develop knowledge and skills, and par-ticipate effectively in democratic society. By cre-ating equal education opportunities for studentsfrom diverse racial, ethnic, class, and culturalgroups, ethnocentric attitudes and stereotypesare reduced. In the most general sense, multicul-tural education is an approach to teaching thatvalues diversity in the classroom—diversity incontent, methods, perspectives, educators, stu-dents, and cultures (Gay 2004). Of course, with-in this broad framework, there are numerous dif-ferent definitions and perspectives of multicul-tural education to reflect standpoints of specificdisciplines or outlooks of different professionalorganizations. Based on a review of literature onmulticultural education, many scholars havedescribed multicultural education quite differ-ently. For example, according to Banks andBanks, (1997, 2001), multicultural education is atransformative movement that produces criticalthinking and socially active members of society.It is not simply a change of curriculum or theaddition of an activity. It is a movement that

calls for new attitudes, new approaches, and anew dedication to laying the foundation for thetransformation of society. In addition, Gorski(2010a) argues that multicultural education isdesigned to develop citizens in democratic soci-ety by considering the needs of all students. Itmakes explicit how issues of race, ethnicity, cul-ture and language, among others, are intertwinedwith the educational process and content. More-over, Bennett (1999) defines that “multiculturaleducation is an approach to teaching and learn-ing that …is based on the assumption that theprimary goal of public education is to foster theintellectual, social, and personal developmentof virtually all students to their highest poten-tial” (p. 11). From these several different per-spectives and definitions, Tiedt and Tiedt (1999)also state that multicultural education is an in-clusive teaching/learning process that involvesall students in emerging with a strong sense ofself-esteem. By discovering empathy and toler-ance for people of diverse cultural and ethnicbackgrounds, and students can experience eq-uitable opportunities to achieve their fullest po-tential.

The National Association for MulticulturalEducation (NAME 2010) defines multiculturaleducation is a philosophical concept. It is builton the ideals of freedom, justice, equality, equi-ty, and human dignity acknowledged in variousdocuments, such as the U.S. Declaration of In-dependence, constitutions of South Africa andthe United States, and the Universal Declara-tion of Human Rights adopted by the UnitedNations. Multiculturalism affirms our need toprepare students for their responsibilities in aninterdependent world (Banks 1999). Gay (2004)argues that it recognizes the role schools canplay in developing the attitudes and values nec-essary for a democratic society. It values cul-tural differences and affirms the pluralism thatstudents, their communities, and teachers re-flect. It challenges all forms of discrimination inschools and society through the promotion ofdemocratic principles of social justice. In addi-tion, Wilson (2012) defines multicultural educa-tion as it relates to schooling and instructiondesigned for the cultures of several different rac-es in an educational system. This approach toteaching and learning is based upon consensusbuilding, respect, and fostering cultural plural-ism within racial societies. Multicultural educa-tion acknowledges and incorporates positive

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racial idiosyncrasies into classroom atmo-spheres. Moreover, many multicultural educa-tion researchers, including Banks (2004), definesmulticulturalism as a philosophy that appreci-ates ethnic diversity, within a society and en-courages people to learn from the contributionsof those of diverse ethnic backgrounds.

Furthermore, Nieto (1996) argues multicul-tural education is a process of comprehensiveschool reform and basic education for all stu-dents. It challenges and rejects racism and otherforms of discrimination in schools and societyand accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic,racial, linguistic, religious, economic, and gen-der, among others) that students, their commu-nities, and teachers represent. Also, she statesthat multicultural education permeates the cur-riculum and instructional strategies used inschools, as well as the interactions among teach-ers, students, and parents, and the very waythat schools conceptualize the nature of teach-ing and learning. Because ‘’it uses critical peda-gogy as its underlying philosophy and focuseson knowledge, reflection, and action (praxis) asthe basis for social change, multicultural educa-tion promotes the democratic principles of so-cial justice” (p.83). Nieto (1996) also argues theseven basic characteristics of multicultural edu-cation in this definition are:

Multicultural education is antiracist educa-tion.

Multicultural education is basic education.Multicultural education is important for all

students.Multicultural education is pervasive.Multicultural education is education for so-

cial justice.Multicultural education is a process.Multicultural education is critical pedago-

gy (pp. 307-308).Through different perspectives and defini-

tions from well-known scholars in the multicul-tural education field, researchers including Gay(2000), Nieto (1996), Salili and Hoosain (2001),Sleeter (2005) agree that multicultural educationaims at teaching students to accept, understandand appreciate different cultures, races, socialclasses, religions, genders, and geographical linedifferences, and instill in them during their for-mative years a “sense of responsibility and com-mitment to work toward the democratic ideals ofjustice, equality and democracy” (Manning and

Baruth 1996: 3). Furthermore, these multicultur-alists believe that multicultural education helpsstudents understand and affirm their communi-ty cultures and helps free them from culturalboundaries, allowing them to create and main-tain a civic community that works for the com-mon good (Banks 1988; Sleeter 1991). They ar-gue that a unified and cohesive democratic so-ciety should be created only when the rights ofits diverse people are reflected in its institutions,within its national culture, and within its schools,colleges, and universities (as cited in Aydin2012b). However, he states that a national cul-ture or school curriculum that does not reflectthe voices, struggles, hopes, and dreams of itsmany peoples is neither democratic nor cohe-sive. Therefore, the aim of multicultural educa-tion, according to Sleeter and Grant (1994), ispromoting cultural diversity, promoting humanrights, promoting alternative life choices, pro-moting social justice and equal opportunity, andpromoting equity in the distribution of power.

Besides, Garcia (2009) argues the goals ofmulticultural education as follows;

creating a safe and accepting and success-ful learning environment for all increasingawareness of global issues strengthening cul-tural consciousness strengthening intercultur-al awareness teaching students that there aremultiple historical perspectives, encouragingcritical thinking preventing prejudice and dis-crimination between all students.

Researchers began this piece with the obvi-ous point that “multicultural education” has dif-ferent definitions to different people. Scholarshave explored those different meanings, how-ever, researcher believe that the readers havecome to recognize some common themes in mul-ticultural education that educators can use intheir classroom. Through these definitions andarguments, educators will be able to developethnic, language, and cultural literacy in theirstudents, nurture the personal esteem and de-velopment of their students (who may not oftensee themselves in the materials they are study-ing), teach important values of inclusiveness andtolerance, and prepare students for interactingand working with people who are different thanthemselves (Aydin 2012b). Above all, taking amulticultural education approach to your class-room means more effectively teaching your stu-dents.


CHARACTERISTIC AND ISSUES OFMULTICULTURAL EDUCATION

Martin Luther King Jr. once explained that:We are all caught in an inescapable network,mutually tied into a single garment of destiny.Whatever affects one directly, affects all indi-rectly. We are made to like together because ofthe interrelated structure of reality (Marshall2002). As the world seems to be getting smallerand smaller with the widespread use of technol-ogy, the importance of multicultural educationin all classrooms grows exponentially (Gay 1994).Students who have access via the internet tointernational gaming, shopping and social me-dia sites need an even better understanding ofthe similarities and differences between theirown cultures and those of the world aroundthem (Hossain and Aydin 2011). Similarly, theever-present reality of conflicts between nationsreinforces the importance of multicultural edu-cation. People of varying backgrounds need tohave a better understanding of one another hasinternational implications for future generations.The characteristics of multicultural educationGorski (2010a) identify seven issues for educa-tors. First and foremost, he emphasizes class-room delivery that should address a diversityof learning styles while challenging dynamicsof power and privilege in the classroom. Specif-ically, working with students’ collaborative learn-ing, mutual understating, and dialogue with allstudents equally, to give a chance students toteach classroom about the same topic. Banks(1999) recommends that teachers and schooladministrators should have “high expecta-tions for all students… and respond to them inpositive and caring ways” (p. 17).

The second characteristic is content of top-ic. Gorski underlines that content must be com-plete and accurate, acknowledging the contri-butions and perspectives of all groups who arecoming from different perspectives. He recom-mends that educators should avoid tokenism.Through content, multicultural educators shouldaddress some special units and lesson plans intheir curriculum. In addition, Aydin (2012b) em-phasizes that multicultural education curriculumshould include special days and holidays fromall different cultural groups, such as Ramadan inthe holy month Aid Al Fitr for the Muslim pop-ulation, Thanksgiving for Christians, and so on.Teachers should also diversify images and con-

tent in bulletin boards, posters, and other visi-ble materials, specifically during special monthsor celebrations. As well as, teaching and learn-ing materials needs to diverse and critically ex-amined for bias. The instructional materials thatuses in the school should show events, situa-tions, and concepts from the perspectives of arange of cultural, ethnic, linguistic, and racialgroups (Banks 1999). Educators also need toexamine all materials, such as texts, newspapers,movies, games, and workbooks for biases andoppressive content. In addition, educators mustavoid materials that show stereotypes or inac-curate images of people from certain groups oreras. They also should be careful regarding ma-terials that talk from a male-centric, Christian-centric, and any centric view. Moreover, Bank(1999) highlights that the teaching styles usedby teachers should match the learning, cultural,and motivational styles of the students andteachers, administrators, and staff membersshould respect for the students’ first languagesand dialects.

A third characteristic is a critical inclusivi-ty. Gorski (2010a) argues that students must beengaged in the teaching and learning process,transcend the banking method and facilitate ex-periences in which students learn from each oth-er’s experiences and perspectives. He gave anexample, that to bring the perspectives and ex-periences of the students themselves to the forein the learning experience, encourage studentsto ask critical questions about all informationthey receive from you and curricular materials,and model this type of critical thinking for them,such as who drew this great picture?, who creat-ed this web site?, and who wrote this wonderfulessay? And educator should make a content anddelivery relevant for the students—facilitate ex-periences in which they connect it with theireveryday lives. As educators, we should recog-nize our students as ours most important multi-cultural resources because we have high expec-tations for students from different racial, ethnic,and language groups and help these studentsto set and realize positive career goals (Banks1999).

The fourth characteristic is a social and civ-ic responsibility. For this characteristic, Gorski(2010b) discusses that educators ought to pre-pare students to be active participants in an eq-uitable democracy, teachers must educate stu-dents about social justice issues and model a

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sense of civic responsibility within the curricu-lum. Gay (2000) stresses that multicultural edu-cation program must promote a learning com-munity with democratic values and beliefs thatcreate an environment of mutual respect in anintercultural society. The teachers should bestarting with the youngest students, incorpo-rate discussions about difference and inequali-ty into their lessons—this can be done acrossall subject areas. As educators we should en-courage students think critically world’s prob-lems, such as dictatorship in the Middle Eastcounties, communism in China, capitalism in theUnited State, corruptions in African countries,and other traditionally untouchable subjects ofcritique so on. We should be honest with ourstudents when discussing about the history ofprivilege and oppression in any subjects’ areas,schools, education, society at large with con-necting teaching and learning to local communi-ties and larger global issues. As many multicul-tural educators, including Nieto and Bode (2011)emphasize that multicultural education promotesa comprehensive approach for presenting a glo-bal understanding of the world. The entire edu-cational community should stimulate democrat-ic values and beliefs that affirm the experiencesand histories of diverse groups and exemplifysocial justice, equality and the human dignity ofeach student. In addition, Rey (1991) argues thatteaching with a multicultural perspective encour-ages appreciation and understanding of othercultures as well as one’s own. Teaching withthis perspective promotes the child’s sense ofthe uniqueness of his own culture as a positivecharacteristic and enables the child to acceptthe uniqueness of the cultures of others.

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATIONCURRICULUM

According to Gay (2004), there are few dis-tinctions between multicultural curriculum andgeneral curriculum regarding “conceptual para-digms, methodologies, and variables of analy-sis in development” (p.30). In addition, she ar-gued that multicultural education policies, pro-grams and practices are comparatively implicitlyconnected. In the recent years, educational ideas,issues, and movements are responsively con-sidered by general curriculum theorists by so-ciocultural realities in local, regional, national,and global schools and societies. Kridel (2010)

described that multicultural curriculum involvesissues to those of concern in any curriculumdevelopment. Also he stated that what knowl-edge issues is greatest worth, to whom and why,and how can it be organized to be delivered.And how can it be best organized to be deliv-ered most effectively to student because thatmulticultural curriculum consider the dimensionsof the diversity and how the studies are to beconducted. Multicultural Education places cul-tural diversity at the center of teaching. It realiz-es the importance of teaching students aboutthemselves and the diversity that exists aroundthem. In most of countries, specifically, in theUnited States and European countries, the eth-nic make-up of the student population is be-coming more diverse. In two decades from now,students of color are projected to make up near-ly 50% of the nation’s, such as US, Canada, andmost of European countries student body (Banks1999).

Therefore, academic institutions cannot af-ford to ignore the need for multicultural educa-tion. However, the reality is that schools do notor, if at all, superficially teach the lessons ofmulticulturalism and diversity. According toBanks (2008), there are four stages to multicul-tural curriculum reform: the contributions, eth-nic additive, transformative, and social actionsapproach. First and foremost, the contributionsapproach which reflects the least amount of in-volvement in multicultural education approach-es. Banks argues that this is incorporated byselecting books and activities that celebrateholidays, heroes, and special events from vari-ous cultures. The second approach is the addi-tive approach. In this approach, Banks (1999)emphasizes content, concepts, themes, and per-spectives are added to the curriculum withoutchanging its basic structure and this involvesincorporating literature by and about people fromdiverse cultures into the mainstream curriculumwithout changing the curriculum. The third ap-proach is the transformation approach thatchanges the structure of the curriculum and en-courages students to view concepts, issues,themes, and problems from several ethnic per-spectives and points of view. The fourth andlast one is the social action approach that com-bines the transformation approach with activi-ties to strive for social change. Students are notonly instructed to understand and question so-cial issues, but to also do something importantabout it (Banks 1999).


On the other hand, Kridel (2010) argues thatfundamental substantive components of multi-cultural education and implementation methodsand strategies are the foundations for the multi-cultural curriculum. He implies that the concep-tual and ideological parameters of multicultur-al education provide baselines for creating cur-riculum rationales, goals, and objectives, con-tent, learning experiences, and assessment pro-cedures for students and teachers In the UnitedStates Kridel highlights on ethnic, racial, andcultural diversity within the country but oppos-es globally or international settings. However,some proponents of multicultural education sug-gest that diversity dimension (gender, socialclass, and sexual orientation) is more a functionof educational programs, policies, and practicesthat ignore or demand the cultures, heritages,experience, and perspectives of ethnically andracially diverse groups than individual abilities,interest, and aspirations of individual students.Another major ideological principle of multicul-tural education is that it is more than a cognitiveendeavor. Kridel mentions that although all stu-dents of United States in all educational set-tings and levels of learning need to acquire agreater depth and accuracy of knowledge abouta wide variety of ethnic and cultural groups thatcomprise the United States, this is not enough.The goal of multicultural education includes bothwhat to teach about ethnic, racial, and culturaldiversity and how to teach ethnically diversestudents more effectively through cultural re-sponsiveness. He implies that in creating multi-cultural curriculum, these interrelationshipsshould be kept in mind, along with the need toprovide multilayered and culturally appropriatelearning experience for ethnically and raciallydiverse students across cultures. It might be in-cluded that, implementing this multicultural cur-riculum will improve the performance of under-achieving students of color on multiple levels-social, personal, cultural, psychological, emo-tional, political, and academic levels.

Banks (2004) asserts that multicultural cur-ricular concerns about ethnic, cultural and racialdiversity are more complex than the presenta-tion of factual information about minority andmarginalized groups. Kridel (2010) added thecauses as moral dilemmas, correcting negativeattitudes and beliefs, transformative insights andactions, and the redistribution of power and priv-ilege. Another core characteristic for multicul-

tural curriculum emphasized by Kridel is the in-terdisciplinary nature. In other words, every sin-gle component and concern might be analyzedand pondered sufficiently under different as-pects. In detail it might be said that to establisha viable foundation of understanding the per-formance pattern of the student it is importantto analyze the vantage of history, psychology,sociology, anthropology, economics, and peda-gogy, all within contexts of ethnicity, and cultur-al diversity. Furthermore, Bennett (1995) stress-es that multicultural education must have, as itscrux, the below defining characteristics toachieve its purposes for students, teachers, par-ents, and administrators of the school system:a) a learning environment that supports posi-tive interracial contact; b) a multicultural curric-ulum; c) positive teacher expectations; d) ad-ministrative support; and, e) teacher trainingworkshops If one of the features is absent, frus-tration and heightened resentment may occuras backlash behaviors multiply. According toGorski (2010b), the effects of a positive multicul-tural climate may manifest in a number of ways,such as: a) diminished pockets of segregationamong student body; b) less racial tension inthe schools; c) increased ethnic minority reten-tion and classroom performance; and, d) inclu-sion of a multicultural curriculum. In short, themulticultural educational environment should notbe a microcosm of our present American soci-ety, with regard to issues of diversity and toler-ance. He defines that many factors determine asuccessful multicultural atmosphere, but the fea-tures as outlined above may be important indi-cations of success.

Moreover, Gorski suggests administrativesupport for multicultural education is critical.How can a house stand if the foundation is frag-ile? Multicultural education will be as success-ful as commitment to it by school administra-tors. Regardless of the level of commitment (lo-cal, state, and/or national), programs initiatedunder the guise of multiculturalism must receivereinforcement from administrators who are ac-countable for the success of established multi-cultural initiatives. A key factor in any proposedmulticultural initiative is curriculum development.Curriculum Guidelines for Multicultural Educa-tion is also recommended for student learninghas been underlined by (Hyde 2006; NCSS 1991)as follows:

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Ethnic and cultural diversity should per-meate the total school environment.

School policies and procedures shouldfoster positive multicultural interactionsand understandings among students,teachers, and the support staff.

The curriculum should reflect the culturallearning styles and characteristics of thestudents within the school community.

The multicultural curriculum should pro-vide students with continuous opportuni-ties to develop a better sense of self.

The curriculum should help students un-derstand the totality of the experiences ofethnic and cultural groups in the Turkey

The multicultural curriculum should helpstudents understand that a conflict be-tween ideals and realities always exists inhuman societies.

The multicultural curriculum should exploreand clarify ethnic and cultural alternativesand options in the Turkey.

The multicultural curriculum should pro-mote values, attitudes, and behaviors thatsupport ethnic pluralism and cultural di-versity as well as build and support thenation-state and the nation’s shared na-tional culture.

The multicultural curriculum should helpstudents develop their decision-makingabilities, social participation skills, andsense of political efficacy as necessarybases for effective citizenship in a plural-istic democratic nation.

Curriculum should help students developthe skills necessary for effective interper-sonal, interethnic, and intercultural groupinteractions.

The multicultural curriculum should becomprehensive in scope and sequence,should present holistic views of ethnic andcultural groups, and should be an integralpart of the total school curriculum.

The multicultural curriculum should in-clude the continuous study of the cul-tures, historical experiences, social reali-ties, and existential conditions of ethnicand cultural groups, including a variety ofracial compositions.

The multicultural curriculum should helpstudents to view and interpret events, sit-uations, and conflict from diverse ethnicand cultural perspectives and points ofview.

The multicultural curriculum should con-ceptualize and describe the developmentof world as a multidirectional society.

Schools should provide opportunities forstudents to participate in the aesthetic ex-periences of various ethnic and culturalgroups.

The multicultural curriculum should pro-vide opportunities for students to studyethnic group languages as legitimate com-munication systems and help them devel-op full literacy in at least two languages.

· The multicultural curriculum should makemaximum use of experiential learning, es-pecially local community resources (pp. 4-9).

Hilliard and Pine (1990) advocate a multicul-tural curriculum should be considered for sever-al reasons: a) provides alternative points of viewrelative to information already taught in mosteducational systems; b) provides ethnic minor-ities with a sense of being inclusive in history,science etc.; and, c) decreases stereotypes, prej-udice, bigotry, and racism in the world (as citedin Gorski 2010b). A significant demographictransformation is on the horizon for schools.Educational institutions should be dictated toolong by attitudes, values, beliefs, and value sys-tems of one race and class of people. The futureof our universe is demanding a positive changefor all.

Furthermore, many scholars, including Mitch-ell and Salsbury (1996) also suggested that mul-ticultural activities should be integrated in allcurriculum areas, including social studies, lan-guage arts, science, humanities, etc. Accordingto Ortiz and Travieso (1977), administrators,teachers, faculties, and staffs should create aneducational climate in which different cultural,ethnic, and linguistic patterns are accepted andnourished throughout the curriculum. Teachersneed to understand the importance of multicul-tural education and provide opportunities fortheir students to learn about the many culturesrepresented, specifically in the United States,and in the world around them (Chittom 2012). Inaddition, Campbell (1999) states that multicul-tural curriculum suggestions are included forstudents of all ages. As well, educators shouldcreative, flexible, sensitive, equitable, and sup-portive, as well as, should be utilize all availablevaluable resources for all their students. Throughthis integration, the classroom atmosphere will


be unsure of the uniqueness of each child toshare their unique experiences and stories basedon their culture, language, religion, geographi-cal, and ethnic background with their peers.Campbell (1999) advises that curricula used forthe educational programs must be concise, welldefined and engaging. Multicultural educationprograms should create a spirit of inclusion (par-ticularly in groups that have a history of beingdiscriminated against, and between groups thathave a history of antagonism), as well as ad-dress and diminish stereotypes, bigotry and rac-ism.

ADVANTAGES OF MULTICULTURALEDUCATION

Multicultural education is an approach toteaching and learning that is based on demo-cratic values that affirm cultural pluralism(Ameny-Dixon 2004). According to Yoon (2012),multicultural education can cultivate the demo-cratic values and attitudes of multicultural stu-dents; guaranteeing the human right of teach-ing and learning for them. Multicultural educa-tion contributes to the integration of a diversi-fied society and the relief of social conflicts.Many scholars (Banks 1987; Banks and McGee1993; Boise 1993; Clark and Gorski 2002; Cush-ner et al. 2000; Duhon et al. 2002; Duhon-Bou-dreaux 1998; Gollnick and Chinn 2002; Hirsh1987; Johnson and Johnson 2002; Larson andOvando 2001; Levy 1997; Quiseberry et al. 2002;Shulman and Mesa-Bains 1993; Silverman et al.1994; Yap 2010) have identified several long-termbenefits of the global perspective of multicul-tural education. Some of these long-term bene-fits are as follows: Multicultural education increases produc-

tivity because a variety of mental resourc-es are available for completing the sametasks. It promotes cognitive and moralgrowth among all people.

Multicultural education increases creativeproblem-solving skills through using dif-ferent perspectives applied to the sameproblems to reach solutions.

Multicultural education increases positiverelationships through achievement ofcommon goals, respect, appreciation, andcommitment to equality. This may be es-pecially the case among the intellectualsat institutions of higher education.

Multicultural education decreases stereo-typing and prejudice through direct con-tact and interactions among diverse indi-viduals.

Multicultural education renews vitality ofa society through the richness of the dif-ferent cultures of its members. It fostersdevelopment of a broader and more so-phisticated view of the world (Ameny-Dix-on 2004: 2).

In addition, multiculturalists, such as Daniel(2011) believes that multicultural education sim-ply relates instructions and education designedfor several different races, and is based uponconsensus building, and fostering cultural di-versity within racial societies. It incorporatespositive racial eccentricities into the classroomatmosphere. They highlight the benefits of mul-ticultural education as follows:

Help to Eradicate Prejudice and Racism:Many scholars underline that a negative atti-tude which not facilitate respect for people ofother cultures, fostering of cultural diversity inthe classroom, or consensus building. Nonethe-less, with integrated curriculum, administrativesupport, social activities, and staff training, ig-norance, personal detachment, and fear mightbe reduced on both the part of teachers andstudents (Au 2009).

Brings Different Races Together in Harmo-ny: If we learn to embrace diversity in our soci-ety, the unconscious and conscious expressionsof sexism, racism must be done away with com-pletely. Multicultural education can help bringall cultures together in harmony (Gorski 2004;Lee et al. 2002).

Builds Ýnteraction Between Diverse Cul-tures: Research indicates that ethnic studentsare unexplainable poor, being expelled or sus-pended, and fail to achieve their potential. Con-sequently, both teachers and students need toprepare themselves for the challenge of commu-nicating and interacting with diverse races. Re-duction of personal detachment and ignoranceare possible advantages to a multicultural sys-tem of education (Nieto 2009).

Creates Tolerance Between Two Groups:The greatest advantage of a multicultural curric-ulum is that it encourages understanding andtolerance between groups. Students can relateto one another in class, thereby creating harmo-ny and co-operation (Peters-Davis and Shultz2006; Sleeter 2002).

40 HASAN AYDIN

It Eradicates Cultural Barriers: Multiculturaleducation is an emerging discipline that aims toprovide educational opportunities to learnersfrom diverse ethnic, cultural and social groups.It seeks to help students acquire skills and pos-itive attitudes to negotiate, communicate andinteract with individuals from diverse cultures.This, in turn, can create a moral and civic com-munity (Alansari-Kreger 2013; Daniel 2011).

In addition, according to the National Asso-ciation of Multicultural Education (NAME), thereare several advantages of multicultural educa-tion. It helps students develop positive self-im-age, offers students an equitable educationalopportunity, allows multiple perspectives andways of thinking, combats stereotypes and prej-udicial behavior, and teaches students to cri-tique society in the interest of social justice.After all this discussion, it could be said thatthere are many advantages of multicultural edu-cation. Because it is having more cultural accep-tance when educators have students from dif-ferent backgrounds in one class, students learnabout different traditions, language, cultures, andbeliefs and gains acceptance towards otherswhose beliefs are different than theirs.

DISADVANTAGES OF MULTICULTURALEDUCATION

According to some scholars, if one wants toalienate and further fragment the communica-tion and rapport between ethnic groups, imple-ment multicultural education. As stated by Ben-nett (1995), “to dwell on cultural differences isto foster negative prejudices and stereotypes,and [it] is human nature to view those who aredifferent as inferior” (p. 29). Thus, multiculturaleducation may enhance feelings of being atypi-cal. For example, schools in America may seemulticultural education as a way to “color blind”their students to differences. Administrators mayview the “color blind” approach as a gate keep-er that assures equal treatment and justice for allstudents and as a way to facilitate compatibilityand sameness of all cultures. Common state-ments from this line of thinking are, ‘we are morealike than different.’ We should focus on simi-larities and not differences to achieve greaterequanimity among the races.

In addition, Gorski (1995) argued that eth-nicity is breaking up many nations. If one looks

at the former Soviet Union, India, Yugoslavia,and Ethiopia, all these countries are in some typeof crisis. Over time, multicultural education mayhave unplanned and undesired consequences(Damgaci and Aydin 2013). Multicultural educa-tion rejects the historic goals of countries toassimilate and integrate ethnic cultures into themajority culture (Schlesinger 1991). Another crit-icism from Kim (2003) had underlined that eventhough education may be used to change peo-ple’s feelings about different cultures, educa-tion might be used to spread lies about othercultures. Not many people were able to explainand comprehend African culture during coloni-zation of most African countries by Europeans.Many of the African cultures were perceived ascrude and uncivilized. Thus, instead of multicul-tural education promoting unity, it creates a riftin-between the majority and minority cultures.In this case, the dominant culture tries to over-shadow the other one and learners from the shad-owed culture feel demeaned (Gorski 1995).

Researchers have also noted including (Scott1998), that multicultural pedagogies can also cre-ate a “false” understanding of other cultures.According to him “critics of the teaching meth-ods associated with global education have sug-gested that what students are taught about dif-ferent cultures is often superficial, with the em-phasis on exotic differences and negative ste-reotypes” (p. 180). Multicultural education isaimed at increasing awareness of other culturesand also appreciating the diversity that existswithin this context. Hence, when multiculturaleducation programs only provide rudimentaryinformation that is based on stark differencesand stereotypes, students do not learn to ap-preciate the notable differences that exist amongdifferent cultures. Unfortunately, most schoolsattempting to successfully implement a multi-cultural education program have found that thecomplexities of achieving this goal often lead tothe development of a rudimentary substitute(Hilliard and Pine 1990). Thus, improving multi-cultural education is not just an issue of creat-ing diversity in school; rather, it is an issue ofimproving the multicultural programs that cur-rently exist. According to Campbell (1999), mul-ticultural education may increase the resentmentencountered by students who feel that changesin school traditions, curriculum, and academicstandards are not necessary to get along andrespect students from ethnic minorities. Since


many institutions resist change of any kind, pas-sive resistance on the part of the administrationmay simulate acceptance of the tenants of Mul-ticultural education.

CONCLUSION

Scholars discussed that the term multicul-tural education means different things to differ-ent people. As Sleeter and Grant (1987) arguesthat the only common meaning is that it refers tochanges in education that are supposed to ben-efit people of different ethnic identities (p.436).Thus, researchers suggest that future researchshould include more international studies thatdeal with global issues in multicultural educa-tion. As the world becomes more interconnect-ed, multicultural education is increasingly be-coming a significant educational issue in manycountries.

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