Multi Source of Water in Citarum

Environmental Sciences, 12, 3 (2005) 121–131 Parikesit et al. 121

121

MYU Tokyo

ES587

Multi-Source Water Pollution in the Upper CitarumWatershed, Indonesia, with Special Reference

to Its Spatiotemporal Variation

Parikesit*, H. Salim, E. Triharyanto, B. Gunawan1,Sunardi, O.S. Abdoellah1 and R. Ohtsuka2

The Institute of Ecology and Department of Biology, Padjadjaran University,Jl. Sekeloa No. 1, Bandung 40132, Indonesia

1The Institute of Ecology and Department of Anthropology, Padjadjaran University,Jl. Sekeloa No. 1, Bandung 40132, Indonesia

2National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-0053, Japan

(Received February 7, 2005; accepted March 2, 2005)

Key words: landscape, land use, mitigation, pesticide, industrial waste

The Citarum River in West Java is the largest water supplier to the Saguling Dam, whichplays a major role in electric power generation for the entire Java Island and is used for theaquaculture of marketed fish. To elucidate the extent of degradation in water quality and itscauses in the Upper Citarum watershed, physical, chemical and biological parameters forwater samples collected from various sites were analyzed. The results demonstrate largesite-to-site variations in water qualities and pollutant loads derived from various humanactivities such as agriculture, cattle raising and the textile industry. To halt worseningconditions of the Citarum watershed, integrated mitigation efforts should be made, takingbiophysical pollution mechanisms and local socioeconomic conditions into account.

1. Introduction

In densely populated Java Island in Indonesia, more than half of the electric power isgenerated at power plants, using water reserved in three large dams located in West Java (Fig.1). Of these dams, the uppermost one, called Saguling, has been seriously damaged due tosedimentation and water pollution. The amount of sedimentation was estimated at about 4million m3 over a period of one year in 2000, or about 55 million m3 over a 15-year periodsince its construction. Regarding the water pollution, there are two major problems. First,the inhabitants in relatively flat terrain around the Saguling Lake (dam) are unable to laywater pipes from the surrounding hills and thus they have used the lake water for drinking*E-mail: [email protected]

122 Environmental Sciences, 12, 3 (2005) 121–131 Parikesit et al.

and cooking. Second, the lake aquaculture relied upon by many fishermen has beendamaged due to the death of fish, common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in particular. Alsoproblematic are health effects on the people around the lake and in a wider area of West Javawho consume the cultured fish. The polluted situation was evident in the recent reports; forinstance, Salim and Pandi(1) revealed that concentrations of heavy metals such as cadmium(Cd), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb) were high in two indigenous fish species,Oreochromis nilotica and Hampala macrolepidota.

The segmentation and water pollution of the Saguling Dam have been primarily causedby human activities in the watershed area. Water flowing into this dam is supplied primarilyfrom four rivers running from the south. Of them, the Citarum River, which is about 350 kmin length from its source, is the largest supplier. To assess water quality in this watershedand the sources of pollution, the authors have examined physical, chemical and biologicalwater quality and the pollutant loads at various sites along the Citarum and other rivers aswell as the Saguling Dam in the wet and dry seasons. Using the data for samples collectedat 11 sites in the Upper Citarum watershed, this paper aims to clarify the situation in relationto occupational activities, such as agriculture, cattle raising and textile industry, as well asto domestic wastes.

Fig. 1. Map of the study area, showing the location of 11 sites for water sampling.


2. Materials and Methods

2.1 The study areaThe Upper Citarum watershed denotes the area from the source of the river around Mt.

Wayang to the town Majalaya located about 25 km away from the Saguling Dam (Fig. 1).Topographically, steep slopes dominate the uppermost area, below which undulating slopesextend downward, and then flat terrain predominates. The annual rainfall reaches 1,500–2,500 mm with seasonal differences; monthly amounts are from 183 mm (April) to 564 mm(February) in the wet season and from 10 mm (September) to 55 mm (May) in the dry season.The mean daily minimum and maximum temperatures are about 25°C and 30°C throughoutthe year.

In the Upper Citarum watershed, natural vegetation has almost disappeared because ofvarious human activities long ago and with an accelerated pace in the recent decades. Thepresent landscape consists of several components, most of which are man-made. Secondaryforest reserves, less than 500 ha, in the high-altitude area around Mt. Wayang are managedby the state’s forestry company, called Perhutani. In the same zone, logging forest, in whichpine trees (Pinus merkusii) are mainly planted, covers approximately 1,100 ha. Other typesof land use in the uppermost part are tea plantations and dryland fields for vegetables as wellas village settlements. As the elevation decreases, the number of irrigated paddy fieldsincreases. In the flat zone in the lower part, textile industries have been developed; in 1998,there were 845 factories. This watershed is characterized by high population density,particularly in the lower area.

2.2 Water sampling and analysisWater sampling was carried out at 11 sites within the Upper Citarum watershed, 4 from

the main stream, 6 from the mouths of its tributaries and 1 from a creek, both in the wet anddry seasons (Fig. 1, Table 1); at site 8, the sampling was not done in the rainy season due toextremely rapid flow. Before sampling, the amount of water discharge (flow) was measuredto calculate the amount of pollutant load per day, taking the width and the depth of river/creekinto account: pollutant load (kg/day) = discharge (L/sec) • concentration (mg/L or μg/L) •86400/106 (or 109). The pollutant loads are largely affected by the size of river/creek; onlycomparisons of those at sites 5, 8 and 11, located in the main stream, are worthy ofconsideration.

Five-liter water samples were collected, using a Kemmerer water sampler. At thesampling, water temperature, turbidity (total suspended solid, TSS, and total dissolved solid,TDS), conductivity and acidity (pH) were measured. Then, the sample was mixed withhighly concentrated NO3 and HCl and kept until analysis: chemical and physical analysesfor pesticides and metals with the methods proposed by the American Public HealthAssociation,(2) and biological analyses for bacteria and planktons with microscopic methods.The main human activities causing pollution were categorized into agriculture (pesticidesand fertilizers), cattle raising (mostly dung), textile industry (chemicals) and domestic life(mostly feces). The parameters examined totaled 23, 17 of which are treated in this paper:nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, parathion, lindane, DDT, methoxychlor (organochlorine group ofpesticides), TSS and TDS by agriculture; dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand


(COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Cu, zinc (Zn) and surfactants from industry;and COD, BOD, Escherichia coli and coliform from cattle raising and domestic wastes.

2.3 Interview surveyA survey by interview, in association with direct observation, was conducted with the

local farmers and tea plantation laborers to clarify the agricultural activities in the dry andwet seasons, focusing on the input and output of pollutants in each season.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Human activities and pollutantsHuman activities vary in association with the heterogeneous landscape in the Upper

Citarum watershed. In the uppermost part over 1,000 m above sea level, there is a large teaplantation (slightly above site 1) owned by a foreign company. As reported by Gunawan etal.,3) however, the vast remaining land has been used as forest reserves, logging forests,agroforestry lands (called tumpang sari system) and dryland fields. Cash cropping ofvegetables such as carrot, cabbage, spring onion, red pepper and Irish potato has beenthriving for three decades. According to the survey, approximately 2,980 ha of previousforestland, which corresponds to 15.8% of the total area of the uppermost part, has been usedfor this purpose; nowadays, illegal use of forestland for cash cropping is quite common.Along with intensification of agricultural practices, the amounts of chemical fertilizers andpesticides used have markedly increased. This study recorded 42 pesticide brands classifiedinto three groups, i.e. carbamates, organophosphates and organochlorines. Fungicides arealso used commonly to prevent plant diseases, particularly in the wet season when vegetablegrowing is intense. Surprisingly, DDT, which has been banned by the law, is still used.Raising dairy cattle in a shed near a dwelling has become another main income generatingactivity in this area with support of the government to cope with the land shortage. Thus,a large number of cows are kept in a narrow space. In contrast to the uppermost area,

Site Location Major pollutant sources* Remarks

1 Main stream D-R agriculture, Tea plantation, Domestic2 Tributary D-R agriculture, Cattle raising, Domestic3 Tributary D-R agriculture, Cattle raising, Domestic4 Tributary D-R agriculture, Domestic5 Main stream Combined6 Tributary W-R agriculture, D-R agriculture#, Domestic #Only in the dry season7 Tributary W-R agriculture, Domestic8 Main stream Combined, Sand mining Samples in dry season only9 Tributary W-R agriculture, Domestic High population density10 Creek Textile industry High population density11 Main stream Combined

Table 1Basic characteristics of the 11 water sampling sites.

*D-R agriculture: dryland agriculture of vegetables, W-R agriculture: wetland agriculture of paddy.


agricultural activities in the lower part are dominated by monoculture of paddies in irrigatedfields, although dryland agriculture has recently been conducted to some extent.

In the lowest part of the Upper Citarum watershed in and around Majalaya, the textileindustry has long history; in this study period, more than 800 textile factories were underoperation. When a relatively small number of workers in sand milling and brick-making,using sand and soil from the water bed, are added, about 222,200 persons are engaged in non-agricultural activities. Regarding water pollution, various kinds of chemicals thrown awayfrom the textile factories cause serious pollution, although their amounts were not capturedin this study.

3.2 Spatiotemporal variation in water quality and pollutant loadsThe spatial differences in water quality and pollutant loads were basically attributable to

occupational activities conducted around each site; in addition, population density wasrelated to the amount of domestic waste, particularly because human excreta entered thewater due to the lack of a sewage system. The temporal differences were basically causedby agricultural cycles, including intense vegetable growing in the wet season, for concen-trations of agriculture-derived pollutants and by seasonal changes in rainfall for pollutantloads.

Since there were large site-to-site variations in human activities, water quality andpollutant loads are delineated here for each site or two to three adjacent sites with a similarpollution pattern: concentrations of the parameters in Table 2, their differences from thoseat the lowest site 11 in Fig. 2, and their pollutant loads in Table 3.

Site 1 At this site, very close to the spring as the headwater of Citarum, manyparameters showed high levels. Particularly high were nitrate, nitrite and methoxychlor inthe wet season and E. coli, coliform, COD and BOD in the dry season. The former pollutantswere due to agricultural chemicals used in not only dryland fields but also tea plantations.According to the authors’ survey, the average amounts of pesticides (consisting of urea,triple superphosphate, and muriate of potash) and fertilizers sprayed per 0.1 ha were,respectively, 83 and 0.8 kg in cabbage gardens and 32 and 1.2 kg in carrot gardens; forcultivation of potato, larger amounts of chemicals may have been used, though this crop wasnot grown during the investigation period. The latter pollutants, i.e. E. coli, coliform, CODand BOD, were judged to come from cattle raising and domestic waste because there wasno industrial factory, as ascertained by low levels of typical industrially produced pollutantssuch as DO and surfactants. The field observation revealed that waste, especially cattle dungfrom dairy farms, was dumped into nearby water and that the latrines of more than half ofthe households were built along the riverbank. However, it has been questioned why the twokinds of bacterial concentrations were high in the dry season only.

Sites 2–4 Despite their short distance from site 1, these sites showed markedly differentpollution patterns. All parameters with high concentrations at site 1, except methoxychlor,had lower values. Parathion, phosphate and lindane levels were high in the wet season, withconsiderable site-to-site variations due to different agricultural patterns. Also noted washigh concentration of DDT, which has long been banned in Indonesia; further systematicinvestigation is needed for this pesticide. These sites were also characterized by low levelsof any parameters affected by animal and human waste simply because cattle raising was lesspopular and village settlements were located below the water sampling sites.


Table 2Concentrations of 17 selected parameters at sites 1 to 11 in the wet and dry seasons.

A. Wet season

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

TDS (mg/L) 126 92 78 52 78 56 71 84 422 40TSS (mg/L) 10 9 12 18 19 30 22 40 40 120Nitrate (mg/L) 3.41 3.00 1.14 1.48 1.01 1.21 1.55 1.48 3.34 9.42Nitrite (mg/L) 0.40 0.01 0.15 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.24 0.06 0.17Phosphate (mg/L) 0.08 0.43 0.37 0.42 0.40 0.42 0.43 0.27 1.02 0.95Lindane (μg/L) 0.47 0.91 0.74 0.62 0.54 0.65 0.54 0.52 0.46 0.59Parathion (μg/L) 0.23 1.68 1.65 1.45 1.59 1.97 1.24 0.93 0.64 0.98Methoxychlor (μg/L) 4.12 4.75 0.28 3.26 0.96 1.02 0.92 0.59 2.66 2.52DDT (μg/L) nd 0.65 0.36 0.35 0.08 0.32 0.26 0.27 0.75 0.18DO (mg/L) 3.46 8.19 7.56 7.87 7.71 7.95 8.03 6.85 12.89 6.93COD (mg/L) 45.7 1.9 17.1 7.6 15.3 7.6 17.1 35.2 162.9 149.9BOD (mg/L) 22.2 1.2 8.2 4.6 6.8 4.2 8.6 18.2 40.6 38.2Surfactant (mg/L) 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.07 0.08 0.03 0.13 0.06Zinc (mg/L) 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.07Copper (mg/L) 0.0l 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.04E. coli (JPT/mL)* 3 0 230 240 460 32 43 460 460 240Coliform (JPT/mL)* 3 0 430 2400 1100 93 240 2400 2400 1100

Note: No data at site 8.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

TDS (mg/L) 162 96 98 104 96 96 260 88 106 610 138TSS (mg/L) 12 18 40 47 80 31 60 110 91 42 61Nitrate (mg/L) 1.34 0.56 1.01 0.77 0.89 0.68 1.63 0.85 1.96 4.34 1.42Nitrite (mg/L) 0.31 0.01 0.34 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.07 0.30Phosphate (mg/L) 0.13 0.20 0.02 0.20 0.16 0.17 0.19 0.20 0.38 0.03 0.26Lindane (μg/L) 0.05 0.50 0.93 0.09 nd 0.24 0.09 nd 0.38 0.05 0.32Parathion (μg/L) nd nd nd 2.90 4.64 4.67 4.60 0.01 7.40 5.68 8.56Methoxychlor (μg/L) nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd ndDDT (μg/L) 0.04 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.04 nd nd 0.11 nd ndDO (mg/L) 5.67 7.29 7.29 8.91 7.61 8.07 8.04 8.23 7.93 8.10 5.82COD (mg/L) 70.8 12.3 38.0 8.2 45.1 6.2 19.5 23.6 36.9 137.4 18.5BOD (mg/L) 28.2 8.4 18.2 4.6 21.2 3.6 10.2 11.2 18.2 60.2 8.2Surfactant (mg/L) 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.12 0.08Zinc (mg/L) 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.07Copper (mg/L) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.04E. coli (JPT/mL)* 24000 240 230 230 400 90 11000 230 930 21000 24000Coliform (JPT/mL)* 46000 240 230 460 460 110 11000 460 930 46000 46000

B. Dry season

* The most probable number (MPN).


Site 5 This site is located in the main Citarum River, at the lowest part of theuppermost area. Thus, the pollutants at this site reflected the combined pollutions in theupper watershed, including those at the four sites mentioned above. Because of naturalpurification mechanisms, the concentrations of most parameters were lower than those atsites 1–4; the pollutant loads at this site are discussed later in relation to those at site 8.

Sites 6 and 7 These two sites are located at the mouths of the tributaries, and mostinhabitants in this area are engaged in wetland paddy agriculture, though dryland agriculture

Fig. 2. Percent concentration of each parameter at the 10 sites relative to that at site 11. White bar:wet season, Black bar: dry season.


A. Wet season

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Discharge 300 110 446 336 2967 649 753 89 173 15870

TDS 3266 874 3021 1510 19995 3140 4619 646 6308 54843TSS 264 82 478 528 4768 1693 1457 311 604 164804Nitrate 88 28 44 43 258 68 101 11 50 12920Nitrite 10 0 6 2 7 1 1 2 1 236Phosphate 2 4 14 12 102 24 28 2 15 1305

Lindane 12 9 29 18 137 36 35 4 7 806Parathion 6 16 64 42 408 111 81 7 10 1344Methoxychlor 107 45 11 95 247 57 60 5 40 3456DDT nd 6 14 10 22 18 17 2 11 244DO 90 78 291 228 1977 446 522 53 193 9496COD 1185 18 661 221 3914 427 1115 271 2434 205553BOD 575 11 316 134 1743 236 560 140 607 52375Surfactant 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.8 2 4 5 0.2 2 82Zinc 0.8 0.2 0.9 1 4 1 2 0.2 0.6 97Copper 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 1.0 0.2 0.7 0.1 0.2 49

Table 3Discharge (L/sec) and pollutant loads (kg/day) of 15 selected parameters at sites 1 to 11 in the wet anddry seasons.

Note: No data at site 8.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Discharge 60 47 348 62 2480 330 228 270 30 52 935

TDS 840 390 2947 5571 20570 1597 5122 2953 275 2741 11148TSS 63 75 1215 2507 17185 861 1190 2571 235 190 4912Nitrate 7 2 30 41 190 35 32 20 5 20 115Nitrite 2 0.1 10 0.7 2 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.3 24Phosphate 0.7 0.8 0.5 11 35 12 4 5 1 0.1 21Lindane 0.3 2 28 5 nd 19 2 nd 1 0.2 24Parathion nd nd nd 155 994 56 91 0.2 19 26 692Methoxychlor nd nd nd nd nd 29 nd nd nd nd ndDDT 0.2 0.4 2 3 19 9 nd nd 0.3 nd ndDO 29 30 219 477 1631 227 158 192 21 36 470COD 367 50 1141 440 9670 217 384 550 96 618 1490BOD 146 34 547 246 4543 120 201 261 47 270 662Surfactant 0.2 0 1 3 14 2 1 0.9 0.1 0.5 6Zinc 0.2 0.1 1 3 5 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.1 0.1 6Copper 0 0 0.2 0.4 1 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.1 3

B. Dry season


has also been conducted in recent years. Concentrations of many parameters affected byagriculture, cattle raising, domestic life and industrial activities showed low levels in generalcompared to other sites. A major exception was the highest parathion level in the wet seasonat site 6, although it did not markedly differ from the levels at sites 2–4. The pollutant loadsof some agriculture-derived parameters were high, but, as mentioned previously, these loadswere affected by the size of water stream, and the amounts of discharge were relatively largerin these sites. In summary, low concentrations of many parameters at these sites indicate lessharmful effects of wetland agriculture than dryland agriculture.

Site 8 This site is located in the Citarum main river. The concentrations andpollutant loads can be compared to those at site 5, though the sampling was done only in thedry season. In general, all indicators showed similar levels between the two sites, suggestingthat the water quality does not markedly differ throughout the main stream up to site 8. Thehighest level of TSS in the dry season at this site is considered to have come from the sandmining activities conducted in this area.

Site 9 This site is located in a tributary but close to a densely populated village andrice fields. Comparison with other sites revealed that many agriculture-derived parameterswere higher at this site in the dry season, although their absolute levels were mostly higherin the wet season. It is therefore considered that high concentrations of these parameterswere not primarily caused by agricultural chemicals. Also characteristic of this site werehigher levels of E. coli and coliform, particularly in the wet season, reflecting highpopulation density.

Site 10 This site, located at a small creek near textile industries and along a denselypopulated settlement, showed a markedly different pattern of pollution. Except for lindane,almost all parameters had higher levels at this site than at sites 1–9. It is therefore clear thatthe chemicals thrown away from textile industries and domestic waste from the settlementsplayed major roles in pollution, even though this study failed to fully clarify the reasons whysome agriculture-derived parameters were so high at this site.

Site 11 This site, located at the main river just below Majalaya town, represents theentire pollution of the Upper Citarum watershed, and its water quality is basically identicalwith that in the Saguling Dam. Concentrations of many parameters were, in general, similarbetween this site and site 10, indicating that degradation of water quality in the UpperCitarum watershed is mostly caused by industrial and other human activities in Majalayatown. In this regard, it should be noted that water discharge was much smaller at site 10 thanthis site, but many small creeks and rivers flow into the main stream of the Citarum aroundMajalaya.

3.3 Impacts of worsening water qualityImpacts of the worsened water quality of the Citarum River are broadly classified into

health effects and environmental degradation. It is less likely to cause direct health damageto the local inhabitants simply because river water is not used for drinking and cooking. Aspointed out by Wilson and Tisdell,(4) however, there is a high probability that industrialpesticides damage human health through the atmosphere; in fact, concentrations of manypollutants in this area exceeded the threshold levels.

In contrast, environmental degradation is manifest. Algal bloom has been very common


in the reservoirs, rice fields and fishponds, where water is stagnant. In several parts, algaebelonging to such genera as Microcystis, Anabaena, Schenedesmus and Oscillatoria forman extensive mat on the water surface. Similar mats are also formed by some macrophytessuch as Eichornia crassipes, Salvinia spp. and Hydrilla spp. Water beneath the macrophytemats becomes anaerobic, enhancing ammonia formation, damaging the biotic communities,and perhaps increasing evapotranspiration from water.

This study suggests that organic matter degrades faster than inorganic matter due torelatively large amounts of oxygen dissolved in water. Morphology of the upper part of theriver basin causes high water turbulence, which, in turn, could increase oxygen concentra-tion. Nevertheless, a large amount of oxygen use for decomposing organic matter decreasesdissolved oxygen (DO). This condition is not favorable for fish communities. Salim et al.(5)

revealed that the diversity of fish species was strikingly reduced in low-DO water in thisriver, to allow survival of only a few species such as Liposarcus pardalis. Histologicaldamage by heavy metals such as Cd, Ni, Cu, Pb and chromium (Cr) on fish organs was alsorevealed for two species, Oreochromis nilotica and Hampala macrolepidota, commonlyfound in this watershed;(1) similar harmful effects of heavy metals on aquatic ecosystemshave been reported from other areas.(6,7) Furthermore, Salim and van der Putte(8) argued thatwater turbulence in the reservoirs in the Citarum area could dilute suspended heavy metalsand that they enter the food chain where biomagnification processes occur.

4. Conceptual Framework for Mitigation

This study has revealed that the water quality of the Citarum watershed has beendegraded by various human activities, with large spatial variations and seasonal differences.The overall pollution level was largely determined by industrial activities in the lower part,although the extent of pollution even in the upper part, where household-based agriculturaland cattle raising activities and tea plantations are predominant, exceeded the thresholdlevels within which natural purification mechanisms function.

To consider mitigations in the upper parts, focus should be on the farmers’ activities. Itis clear that traditional wetland cultivation of paddy is based on a closed and circulatory flowsystem of materials much more than dryland cultivation of vegetables as cash crops. In thisregard, however, it is necessary to recognize that most farmers are small-holders andscarcely take into account the impact of their agricultural activities on the environment, ashas been emphasized by Swallow et al.(9) The present authors’ observations and interviewsdisclosed that the farmers have developed their agricultural strategies to cope with highpopulation density and poor economic situations. To reduce the amounts of harmfulpesticides in particular and to improve waste management, technological innovations in, forinstance, vegetable growing with small amounts of pesticides and financial support from theoutside, especially the government, for empowerment of the local people are needed.

In contrast, textile industries in the lower part have been performing on a much large scalewith large amounts of investment, mostly from overseas countries. However, the currentenvironmental regulation policy for the industrial sector has been less effective forenvironmental preservation. Although the manufacturing processes, including use anddischarge of chemicals, have not yet been grasped, the pollutant concentrations revealed in


this study suggest a high possibility that the regulation system is far behind the standardsapproved internationally or in most developed countries. Thus, the “polluter payment”principle and some other environmentally sound policies should be launched.

Apart from mitigation plans specific to each sector, an integrated approach should beconsidered, taking into account not only biophysical aspects but also social, economic andtechnological aspects of environment use. Particularly important is to avoid conflicts amongdifferent parties, each of which has responsibilities for degradation of water quality. Aneffective approach seems to inform all parties what kinds of environmental degradation havebeen taking place and what their major causes are. For this purpose, Gustafson et al.(10)

emphasized the roles of effective tools for water quality management, paying specialattention to the perspectives of watershed. For instance, creation of a comprehensivewatershed database, using the geographical information system (GIS), in tandem withdevelopment of environmental education, will contribute to understanding the situation andenhancing incentives to change behavioral and management patterns.

Acknowledgments

This study was financially supported by the Kurita Water and Environment Foundation.The authors thank Dendi, Mulyadi, Yayan, Irna and Abdul for assistance during the work.

References

1 Salim, H. and Pandi, A. (2001): The effects of water pollution in Saguling Dam on histologicalorgans of Oreochromis nilotica and Hampala macrolepidota. Ecology and Development 5: 65–72 (in Indonesian).

2 Anonymous (1996): Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (18thEdition). American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.

3 Gunawan, B., Takeuchi, K. and Abdoellah, O.S. (2004): Community dependency on forestresources in West Java, Indonesia: the need to involve local people in forest management. J.Sustain. Forest. 18: 29–46.

4 Wilson, C. and Tisdell, C. (2001): Why farmers continue to use pesticides despite environmental,health and sustainability costs. Ecol. Econ. 39: 449–462.

5 Salim, H., Parikesit and Dhahiyat, Y. (1997): Fish Diversity in the Citarum River: A PreliminaryStudy for Aquatic Community Rehabilitation. Research Report, Institute of Ecology, PadjadjaranUniversity (in Indonesian).

6 Klavins, M., Briede, A., Rodinov, V., Kokorite, I., Parele, E. and Klavina, I. (2000): Heavymetals in rivers of Latvia. Sci. Total Environ. 262: 175–183.

7 Mansour, S.A. and Sidky, M.M. (2002): Ecotoxicological studies (3) Heavy metals contaminatingwater and fish from Fayoum Governorate, Egypt. Food Chemist. 78: 15–22.

8 Salim, H. and van der Putte, I. (1979): Comparison between the Toxicity of Chromate andMolybdate to Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri) at Different pH Levels with Special Referenceto Histopathological Effects. Research Report, University of Wageningen, The Netherlands.

9 Swallow, B.M., Garrity, D.P. and van Noordwijk, M. (2001): The effects of scales, flows andfilters on property rights and collective action in watershed management. Water Policy 3: 457–474.

10 Gustafson, A., Fleischer, S. and Joelsson, A. (2000): A catchment-oriented and cost-effectivepolicy for water protection. Ecol. Engin. 14: 419–427.

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Multi Source of Water in Citarum