Muindi Fanuel Muindi - Notes on Sociological History

7/25/2019 Muindi Fanuel Muindi - Notes on Sociological History

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otes on Sociology by Muindi F Muindi

1.

We enter into asocial relationship

when a means of socialization facilitates, frustrates, stipulates, or regulates the development

and deployment of our intuition andor our reason.

!. Means of socialization are devices assembled by the contrivances of intuition and reason which aim to govern the development

and the deployment of intuition and reason.

". Means of socialization establishgenerative social relationships

when they facilitate the development and deployment of our

intuition and our reason along certain paths, encouraging us to ma#e certain $udgements.

%. Means of socialization establishrepressive social relationships

when they frustrate the development and deployment of our

intuition and our reason along certain paths, discouraging us from ma#ing certain $udgments.

&.

Means of socialization establishdisciplinary social relationships

when they homogenize the development and deployment of

our intuition and our reason, compelling us to ma#e $udgments that conform to a set norm

'.

Means of socialization establish regulatory social relationshipswhen they limit the development and deployment of ourintuition and our reason, steering us to ma#e $udgements that fall within a range defined as acceptable and that do not upset a

distribution considered to be optimal.

(. )society

is an ensemble of interconnected and interacting social relationships.

*.

+hases of social organization

- are different systems for arranging and prioritizing a societys means of socialization. )s

societies e/pand, encompassing more persons, more means of socialization, and more social relationships, if they are to solve

the inevitable conflicts inherent in such e/pansion, societies must develop new and increasingly more comple/ systems for

arranging and prioritizing their means of socialization. More comple/ phases of social organization emerge from simpler

phases of social organization, and simpler phases of social organization endure within and alongside more comple/ phases of

social organization. ) more comple/ phase of social organization may undermine and suppress a simpler phase that persists

within or alongside it, andor it may develop upon a simpler phase that persists within or alongside it. ) simpler phase of social

organization may see# to liberate itself from the yo#e of a more comple/ phase, or it may utilize aspects of a more comple/

phase to shore up its own foundations. Whats more, a particular phase of social organization can emerge in distinctly different

varieties in different environments.

0. hase 1 ands 2 omadic Foragers34

5he band is the simplest phase of social organization, the simplest system for arranging

and prioritizing a societys means of socialization. ands are commonly found amongst foragers, especially self6sufficient

pedestrian foragers. 5he total number of people within such societies rarely e/ceeds a few dozen. 5he members of bands are

loosely allied by marriage, descent, friendship, and common interest. ands are e/tremely egalitarian7all members are more

or less e8ual in formal social status and there is no mar#ed economic differentiation within a band. 9owever, there are

informal status differences based on gender, age, and talent. Some individuals in a band stand out for their s#ills and

#nowledge. 5hese often are the people with the best memories, who are the best hunters, who are the most successful healers,

who are the most gifted spea#ers, or who have some other special ability. Such people often become informal leaders. 5hese

informal leaders are given authority by community consensus arrived at through casual, rather than formal, social

interactions. 5his is possible because in such small societies everyone #nows everyone else intimately as a result of living and

wor#ing together in close pro/imity. and leaders generally have temporary political power at best: they do not have

significant authority relative to other adult members of a band. 5hey can give advice and propose action, but they do not have

any formal authority to force others to accept their decisions.



1;. hase ! 5ribal )ssociations 2Semi6Seden tary Foragers, 9orticulturalists, astoralists34

5he tribe is a more comple/ phase of

social organization than the band. With a shift in subsistence patterns, from foraging to horticulture or pastoralism, societies

grow to the point where #inship ties and bonds of friendship are no longer sufficient to hold them together. 5his is especially

the case when hundreds of people live in more than one village. <ndeed, tribes are also characteristic of some large e8uestrian

and rich a8uatic foraging societies which sustain large populations. =egardless of the subsistence base, these larger societies

must arrange and prioritize their means of socialization in more formal ways in order to settle disputes and prevent socialdisintegration. 5he new system for arranging and prioritizing their means of socialization is the pan6tribal association.

an6tribal associations are groups that cross6cut a society by bringing together a limited number of people, normally one from

each family group or village. 5hese pan6tribal associations can come in the form of tribal councils, warrior societies, religious

cults, secret societies, groups of elder men or women who are members of the same age set, etc. While these groups often have

specific purposes, they also serve to create order and a sense of unity within a tribe. <ndividuals are initiated into pan6tribal

associations by formal, rather than casual social interactions, creating formal differences in political status within the tribe. <n

very large tribes7that is, tribes with populations in the thousands7a more or less permanent full time leader may be selected

by some formal mechanism from the members of a pan6tribal association, and this leader is given some formal authority to

ma#e decisions for the tribe as a whole. >espite these formal status differences, li#e bands, tribes are economically egalitarian,

no one family or group is economically superior to another. 9owever, chiefs and their families generally have a higher

standard of living than ordinary tribe members. What ma#es this possible is that chiefs usually perform a society wide

redistribution functions. ?nce, functioning, the position of the chief usually becomes essential to the tribe, and all tribe

members are ran#ed relative to the chief.

11. hase " )gricultural @ivilizations4

@ivilization 2i.e., the phase of social organization defined by cities, states, writing3 emerges

when societies adopt subsistence patterns based upon intensive agriculture. <ntensive agriculture can generate large surpluses

that may be harvested, stored, and redistributed in ways that allow populations to grow much larger. With sufficient surpluses

an economic division of labor between consumers and producers of food becomes possible. 5he conflicts inherent in surplus

production, population growth, and the new economic division of labor wor# in tandem to produce the state 2a permanent,

centralized organization given formal authority to govern society as a whole3, the city 2a centralized location for the

administration of government and the circulation of common wealth3, and writing 2an indispensable tool for administering

government3.

a. hase ") rototypical )grarian @ivilizations 2)ristocracies34

<n prototypical agrarian civilizations, the sovereignty

of the state is the privileged possession of aristocracies. )ristocracies, small hereditary elite classes often headed by a

#ing and royal family, evolved out of tribal chiefs and pan6tribal associations. @hiefs and the members of pan6tribal

associations were differentiated from the common members of their societies by their political status, but not by their

economic status7indeed, chiefs and the members of pan6tribal associations still engaged in the same horticultural,

pastoral, and foraging activities as other members of their societies. )ristocrats, on the other hand, are differentiated

by both social status and economic status. )ristocracies emerge when chiefs use their society wide redistribution

functions to formalize economic divisions between producers and consumers, establishing themselves as the ape/

consumer class. )ristocrats promote further economic distinctions by 2i3 employing a class of bureaucrats to

administer the state on their behalf, 2ii3 employing a class of warriors to fight on their behalf, 2iii3 employing a class

of ideologues to influence and indoctrinate the common people with the ideals, principles, doctrines, myths, and

symbols, and 2iv3 employing a class of craftsmen and merchants to produce and procure necessities and lu/uries for

bureaucrats, soldiers, ideologues, and, most importantly, for the aristocrats themselves. ut the consumer classes of

agrarian civilizations 2aristocrats, bureaucrats, ideologues, and soldiers3 only form a tiny portion of society: the bul#

of society are the food producing pastoralists and farmers upon which the survival of agrarian civilizations

ultimately depend.



b. hase " @lassical )grarian @ ivilizations 2ureaucratic States34

)s civilizations encompass larger populations and

territories, aristocracy is no longer a sound basis for the sovereignty of the state. <ndeed, at a certain point the

vagaries and vicissitudes of aristocracy become a serious liability. <t is by grounding sovereignty in bureaucracy that

civilization achieves relative autonomy from aristocracy and its failings. 5he offices of the bureaucratic state are

separate and distinct from the holders of its offices. Which means that different aristocratic clans may rise and fall, a

$unta emerging from the soldiery may use force to claim dominion over the state, oligarchs emerging from themerchant classes may use their wealth to claim dominion over the state, popular demagogues from the ideological

classes may use the will of the masses to claim dominion over the state7but no matter who claims dominion over the

state, through it all, the states bureaucracy persists in 2re63arranging and 2re63prioritizing the means of socialization.

c. hase "@ ost6@lassical )grarian @ivilizations 2<deological ?rganizations34 ut bureaucracy has its limits7there are

civilizations with populations so large and with territories so vast that no single bureaucratic state can govern them

effectively. )t this point, some other means of arranging and prioritizing the means of socialization must be

established. <deological organizations 2non6state organizations with e/tralocal, translocal, andor nonlocalizable

agendas3 do $ust that. ost6classical agrarian civilizations consist of multiple, separate and distinct states 2both

aristocratic and bureaucratic3 as well as tribal associations that are all bound to one another by a shared allegiance to

one or more ideological organizations. 5hese ideological organizations have relative autonomy from states and persist

in arranging and prioritizing the means of socialization while different states rise and fall.

1!. hase % <ndustrial @ivilizations4

Further intensification of agriculture allows for greater and greater food surpluses to be

produced with fewer and fewer farm hands which enables a new #ind of population growth4 population growth that outstrips

the need for farm hands and which cannot be absorbed into the e/isting consumer classes 2the aristocratic, bureaucratic,

commercial, ideological, and military classes3. <ndustry emerges to cope with this new #ind of superfluous population growth,

as a new means of arranging and prioritizing the means of socialization. <ndustry transforms the proletariat, that ever6growing

non6class of superfluous consumers, into the wor#ing classes4 routine production wor#ers, in6person service wor#ers, and

symbolic analytic wor#ers.

a. hase %) roto6<ndustrial @ivilizations 2Mercantile usinesses34

<ndustry first emerges as an accessory to the

commerce. States with powerful commercial classes or states see#ing to empower their commercial classes vis6A6vis

the proletariat enable their merchants to organize manufacturing so that it is no longer restricted to a particular city:

these states establish the conditions for the emergence of industrial manufacturing dispersed widely throughout their

territories that is provided with raw materials by the merchant, who controls the process of production as a purely

commercial enterprise. 5he merchant #nows the mar#et, the volume as well as the 8uality of demand: and he can

also vouch for the supplies. )t first no e/pensive production infrastructure and machinery is involved and the

merchant incurs no serious ris# in shouldering the responsibility for production. 9e who buys and sells incidentally

provides for production7no separate motive is re8uired. )s long as production infrastructure and machinery was

ine/pensive and unspecific there was no change in this position. 5he mere fact that the wor#er could produce larger

amounts than before within the same time might induce him to use machines to increase earnings, but this fact in

itself did not necessarily affect the organization of the production of goods or services. Whether the cheap machinery

was owned by the wor#er or by the merchant made some difference in the social position of the parties and almost

certainly made a difference in the earnings of the wor#er: but it did not force the merchant to become an

industrialist, or to restrict himself to lending his money to such persons as were. 5he vent of goods rarely gave out:

the greater difficulty continued to be on the side of supply of raw materials, which was sometimes unavoidably

interrupted. ut, even in such cases, the loss to the merchant who owned the machines was not substantial.



b. hase % <ndustrial @ivilizations 2Free Mar#et usinesses34

<t was not the coming of the machine as such but the

invention of elaborate and therefore specific machinery and infrastructure which completely changed the

relationship of the merchant to industrial production. <ndustrial production could remain a mere accessory to

commerce as long as production infrastructure and machinery was ine/pensive and unspecific. 5he use of elaborate

machinery and plants lead to the development of the factory system and therewith a decisive shift in the relative

importance of commerce and industry in favor of the latter. <ndustrial production ceases to be an accessory ofcommerce organized by the merchant as a buying and selling proposition: it now involves long6term investment in

the means of production with corresponding ris#s. Whats more, the more technically complicated industrial

machinery and industrial production becomes, the more, the more numerous are the elements of industry, the supply

of which has to be assured. 5hree of these, of course, are of outstanding importance4 labor, natural resources, and

money. For the merchant6turned6industrialist , their supply can be organized in one way only4 by being made freely

available for purchase on the mar#et. 5he e/tension of the mar#et mechanism to the elements of industry7labor,

natural resources, and money7is the inevitable conse8uence of the introduction of the factory system in a

commercial society.

c. hase %@ 9 yper6<ndustrial @ivilizations 25echnocratic usinesses34

Mechanized production is superseded and

subsumed by mass production, and mass production is superseded and subsumed by cybernetic production. 5hese

increasingly technical and comple/ industrial paradigms demand that business enterprises divide production tas#s,

bring #nowledge to bear on these tas#s, and combine this #nowledge to create finished products. Bight conse8uences

of real importance follow4 2i3 it ta#es far longer to complete any tas#: 2ii3 there is a large increase in the amount of

investment re8uired, beyond that needed for increased production7increased inventory, increased #nowledge is

re8uired, more specialized e8uipment is utilized in each stage of manufacture: 2iii3 production processes become ever

more infle/ible, designs must be #nown in advance and not changed: 2iv3 specialized manpower is re8uired, with

deep #nowledge of a tightly limited area 2not necessarily manpower with more aptitude or s#ill3: 2v3 the need for

organization increases as a function of specialization, and organization becomes a specialized role in itself, 2vi3

planning becomes much more important as a conse8uence of increased investment of time and money, the

infle/ibility of the commitment, the need for comple/ organization, and the need for 8uality control: 2vii3 when

supplying a product which is so technologically advanced as to ma#e organization and planning inevitable, an

industrial enterprise must see# to stabilize the 8uantity which will be bought and the products price in order to

reduce their own ris#s7it must create and distort mar#et preferences, as well as mar#et prices, in order to manage

mar#et demands: 2viii3 once such a level of technological sophistication has been reached, the individual industrial

entrepreneur can no longer effectively manage an industrial enterprise. ?n the one hand, we see the rise of

+management-4 a collective and imperfectly defined organization which embraces the president, chairmen, and vice

presidents, occupants of other ma$or staff positions, and, perhaps, division or department heads. ut management

includes only a small portion of those who, as participate, contribute information to group decisions. 5his latter

group is very large: it e/tends from the most senior symbolic6analytic wor#ers to where it meets, at the outer

perimeter, routine production wor#ers and in6person service wor#ers. <t embraces all those symbolic6analytic

wor#ers who bring specialized #nowledge, talent, or e/perience to group decision ma#ing 5his, not the narrow

management group, is the guiding intelligence7the brain7of the industrial enterprise. Following C.D. Ealbraith, we

call the +brain- of such an industrial enterprise its +technostructure-. Free mar#ets7especially the mar#ets for labor,

natural resources, and money7are now circumscribed, managed, manipulated by technostructures.



eriodizations

5he following historical periodizations identify liminal periods, threshold periods in which a new phase of social organization begins to

emerge from pre6e/isting phases of social organization. @ertain societies may leapfrog certain thresholds than#s to their encounters with

and their assimilation into societies that have gone through a threshold can be imparted to them.

5hreshold 1 etween hase 1 and ! 59B )EB ?F F?D?=B ) > F?DW) GS

5he period in which it becomes possible for a tribe to emerge from the growth of one band or from the fusion two or more bands7i.e.,

the period in which commonality may succeed intimacy as a principle of social organization,

5hreshold ! etween hase !) and ! 59B )EB ?F +<E MB -

5he period in which it becomes possible for the position of chief to emerge within a tribe7i.e., the period in which commonality gives

rise to greater and greater lu/ury, but lu/ury may not yet succeed commonality as a principle of social organization,

5hreshold " etween hase ! and " 59B )=<S5?@ =)5<@ )EB

5he period in which it becomes possible for an emergent aristocracy to transform a tribal chiefdom into a civilization7i.e., the period

in which lu/ury may succeed commonality as a principle of social organization,

5hreshold % etween hase ") and " 59B <MB=<) )EB

5he period in which it becomes possible for a states bureaucracy to gain autonomy from its ruling aristocracy7i.e., the period in

which authority may succeed lu/ury as a principle of social organization,

5hreshold & etween hase " and "@ 59B >?@5=< ) )EB

5he period in which it becomes possible for a state to gain legitimacy by declaring and demonstrating its allegiance to ideologies and

ideological organizations that are not localized and that cannot be made subservient to or subordinate to the state 7i.e., the period in

which doctrine may succeed authority as a principle of social organization,

5hreshold ' etween hase " and % 59B )EB ? F @?MM B=@B

5he period in which it becomes possible for wor#ing classes to emerge from the proletariat and, as a conse8uence, it also becomes

possible for commercial classes to see# empowerment vis6A6vis the proletariat7i.e. the period in which commerce 2e/change3 may

succeed doctrine as a principle of social organization,

5hreshold ( etween hase %) and % 59B )EB ?F < >HS5=G

5he period in which possibilities emerge for merchants to become industrialists, for commerce to become subordinated to industry,

and for impersonal mar#et relationships to become preferable to personal mar#et relationships7i.e., the period in which production

2industry3 may succeed e/change as a principle of social organization,

5hreshold * etween hase % and %@ 59B )EB ?F B5W?=DS

5he period in which the conditions for the emergence of technostructures are made possible by increasing industrial sophistication, as

the need arises for impersonal mar#ets to be integrated, coordinated, managed, and manipulated7i.e., the period in which distribution

2communicationtransport3 may succeed production as a principle of social organization,



5he resent Moment4

First, let us recapitulate the nine phases of social organization that co6e/ist and interact with each other in the present

moment, at times antagonistically, at times cooperatively.

hase 1 ands4

Families and groups of friends more or less intimately involved in each others lives.

hase ! 5ribal )ssociations4

)ssociations forged on the basis of a shared identity and a shared geographic or social locality4

community development groups, neighborhood gangs and mafias, local gatherings of enthusiasts of all #inds 2local gatherings

of arts enthusiasts, local gatherings of sport enthusiasts, local gatherings of learning enthusiasts, local gatherings political

enthusiasts, local gatherings of religious enthusiasts, etc.3.

hase ") )ristocrac ies4

Dinship ties, friendship bonds, and tribal associations which create personal relationships between

important state officials, managers and owners of ma$or businesses, and leaders of influential ideological groups.

hase " ureaucratic States4

Eovernment organizations claiming and maintaining a monopoly over the legitimate levy of

armed forces and ta/es within a determined territory7in other words, sovereign states and the local and regional governments

subsumed by them.

hase "@ <deological ?rganizations4

Non6state actors with e/tralocal, translocal, andor nonlocalizable agendas4 religious

groups, political parties, economic interest groups, nationalist organizations, ethnic diaspora networ#s, charities, institutes of

higher learning and advanced research, thin# tan#s, media organizations, sports associations, organized crime societies,

terrorist umbrella organizations, etc.

hase %) M ercantile usinesses4

usinesses which profit from more or less personal relationships with their suppliers and

their clientele, businesses for which impersonal mar#ets are a secondary source of supplies and customers.

hase % Free Mar#et usinesses4 usinesses which purchase the elements of industry7labor, nature, and money7onimpersonal mar#ets and which profit by selling their goods and services on impersonal mar#ets.

hase %@ 5echnocratic usinesses4

usinesses which profit from coordinating, integrating, managing, and manipulating the

impersonal mar#ets that lin# initial suppliers to final consumers.



Second, let us describe the different types of political regimes which prevail over different territories and regions.

)uthoritarian =egimes4

When the offices and institutions of a bureaucratic state are subservient to a non6state actor. )uthoritarian

regimes come in four flavors4 aristocratic, ideological, oligarchical, militarist.

• )ristocratic when the offices and institutions of a bureaucratic state are subservient to an aristocracy.

•

<deological when the offices and institutions of a bureaucratic state are subservient to an ideological organization.• ?ligarchical

when the offices and institutions of a bureaucratic state are subservient to businesses 2be they mercantile, free

mar#et, or technocratic businesses3.

• Militarist when the offices and institutions of a bureaucratic state are subservient to the military.

5otalitarian =egimes4

When the offices and institutions of a bureaucratic state are subservient to an ideological organization, we have an

authoritarian regime but we do not yet have a totalitarian regime. ) totalitarian regime emerges when the offices and institutions of a

bureaucratic state are subservient to an ideological organization )N> this same ideological organization promotes its own shared

identity over and above all other shared identities. 5he ideological organization fosters tribal allegiances lin#ed to their ideology in every

locality under the states $urisdiction, and the ideological organization represses, undermines, and subordinates all e/isting tribal

allegiances that are not lin#ed to its ideology. For a regime to be considered totalitarian it is not enough for the ideological organization

to repress, undermine, and subordinate those tribal allegiances that are inimical to its own interests: the ideological organization mustclaim and maintain the total allegiance by repressing, undermining, subordinating all other e/isting identities and allegiances.

@onstitutional =egimes

4 <n a constitutional regime, the offices and institutions of a bureaucratic state are founded upon a set of principles

and established precedents which prevail over and against the behind6the6scenes machinations of aristocracies, ideological

organizations, business enterprises, and the military4 all of these actors are compelled to wield state power in accordance with the

regimes principles and established precedents. 5he principles and precedents which support constitutional regimes are often

self6limiting and self6refle/ive4 they set forth their own limits and set froth the proper procedures for their own reform and renewal. 5he

interests which shape the principles and precedents of a constitutional regime may be those of an aristocracy, or those of an ideological

organization, or those of an business group, or those of the military: whatever the case may be, in a constitutional regime, principles and

precedents prevail over the interests that shape them, not vice versa.

)narchic =egimes4

Bither a bureaucratic state has never prevailed over a territory under an anarchic regime, or a bureaucratic state has

bro#en down and disintegrated: in either the case, no one is able to claim and maintain a monopoly over the legitimate levy of armed

forces and ta/es within a territory that is under an anarchic regime.



5hird, we must ac#nowledge that all regimes can be located on a map, and an essential part of their character depends on

the constraints or advantages of their geographical situation. Bvery regime is based on an area with more or less fi/ed

limits. Bach has its own geography with its own opportunities and constrains, some virtually permanent and 8uite different

from one civilization to another. 5o discuss a regime is to discuss space, land and its contours, climate, vegetation, animal

species and natural or other advantages. <t is also to discuss what people have made of these basic conditions4 agriculture,

stoc#6breeding, food, shelter, clothing, communications, industry and so on. 5he natural and man6made environment, of

course, cannot predetermine everything. 1ut it greatly affects the inherent or ac8uired advantages of any given situation.

1elow, we ta#e note of those natural features that define and distinguish different geographic regions, we also list those

historically prominent ethnolinguistic groupings in order to reveal movements of people across these geographic regions.

Sub6Saharan )frica4

orders4

5he Sahara >esert to the north, the <ndian ?cean and the =ed Sea to the east, the )tlantic ?cean to the west.

iomes4

<n the southwestern part of the region, we find the summer6dry evergreen shrubland and woodlands of the Western @ape 2the

fynbos3 and the warm desert and semi6desert shrubland of the Dalahari >esert. )long the eastern horn of the continent, the region from

the Ereat =ift to the =ed Sea, east of the Bthiopian highlands, there is warm desert and semi6desert shrubland 2including the ?gaden

>esert and northeast Denyan semi6deserts3. 5he mountain systems along the Bast )frican =ift contain most of the continents tropical

montane forests, but other tropical montane forest regions include the >ra#ensberg range of southern )frica, the @ameroon 9ighlands,

and the @ameroon ine volcanoes 2including Mount @ameroon, io#o, and SIo 5omJ3. 5he Sahel, that broad strip of land south of the

Sahara, is dry tropical shrubland. ?therwise, the bul# of the territories of Sub6Saharan )frica are tropical grasslands and tropical

rainforests. 5ropical rain forests of the region include the Euinea6@ongo forests of west )frica and the coastal forests of eastern )frica.

5he tropical grasslands of the region include, from north to south, the Sudanian savannah which runs from the )tlantic in the west to

the Bthiopian 9ighlands in the east, the Bast )frican )cacia Savannas which run from the Ereat a#es to the coastal forests of east )frica,

the Miombo woodlands which cross south6central )frica from )ngola in the west to 5anzania to the east, the Southern )frican ushveld,

and the Kambezian and Mopane Woodlands of lower6lying areas in the eastern half of southern )frica.

Bthnolinguistic Eroupings4

)fro6)siatic L9amitic 2erber, @ushitic3, Semitic 2Bthiopian, )rabic3, @hadic: Niger6@ongo Lantu,

olta6Niger 2Goruba, <gbo, ini, Fon, and Bwe3, Senegambian 2Fulani, Wolof3, Mande: Nilo6Saharan LNilotic, Nubian, @entral Sudanic,

Bastern Sudanic, Danuri: Dhoi6San LDhoi#hoi, San, Sandawe, 9adza: )ustronesian LMalagasy

5he Middle Bast and orth )frica4

orders4

5he Mediterranean Sea constitutes the regions north and northwestern border. 5he lac# Sea, the @aucuses Mountains, the

@aspian Sea, and the Dara#um >esert, constitute regions north and northeastern border. 5he 9indu Dush and the aluchistan >esert

constitute the regions far eastern border. 5he <ndian ?cean and Sahara >essert constitute the regions southern border.

iomes4

5he region can be subdivided into the following sub6regions, from east to west4 the <ranian lateau, Mesopotamia, the evant, the

)rabian eninsula, the )natolian eninsula, the Nile =iver alley, and the North )frica. 5he )rabian eninsula and North )frica are

predominantly warm desert and semi6desert shrubland. 5he <ranian plateau has warm desert and dry shrubland at its center , but this is

surrounded by montane forests, montane grasslands and montane shrubland that are cold6temperate to the northnorthwest and

warm6temperate to the southsouthwest. 5here are more warm deserts and dry shrubland <ranian eninsula meets the ersian Eulf.

Northern Mesopotamia has warm6temperate grasslands, while Southern Mesopotamia is desert and desert and semi6desert shrubland.

Much of the inner )natolian eninsula is temperate broadleaf forest, aside from the Northern )natolian conifer and deciduous forests

e/tending along the ontic Mountains. 5he evant and those parts of North )frica and the )natolian eninsula bordering the

Mediterranean Sea are summer6dry evergreen shrubland and woodlands.


)fro6)siatic L9amitic 2erber, @ushitic3, Semitic 2)rabic, 9ebrew, Bthiopian, )ssyrian, @optic, ?mani and

Gemeni tribal languages3: <ndo6Buropean LEreco6)natolian 2Eree#, )lbanian, )rmenian3, < ranian 2ersian, ashto, Durdish, alochi3,

<ndo6)ryan 2>ardic3, Nuristani: 5ur#ic L5ur#ish, 5ur#men, )zeri, Hzbe#:@aucasic L@ircassian 2)dyghe, Dabardian3, @hechen,

Eeorgian.



Burope4

orders4

5he regions southern border is constituted by the Mediterranean Sea. 5he regions western and northern border is constituted

by the )tlantic and )rctic ?ceans. 5he regions eastern border is constituted by the Hral Mountains and Hral =iver

iomes4

5he southern part of Burope bordering the Mediterranean Sea 2the <berian peninsulas, <talian peninsulas, and the Mediterranean

coast of the peninsula3 is summer6dry evergreen shrubland and woodlands. @old6temperate broadleaved deciduous forests predominate

in the North Buropean owlands. oreal forests predominate on the Scandinavian eninsula. While cold6temperate montane mi/edforests are predominant in the @entral Buropean Hplands and along the )lpine mountain systems 2the )lps, the )pennines, the al#ans,

the @arpathians, and the yrenees3. 5he cold6temperate short grasslands of the Ereat 9ungarian lain lay in the heart of the )lpine

mountain systems 2surrounded by the )lps, the al#ans, and the @arpathians3. West of the @arpathians and north of the blac# sea is the

H#rainian steppe above which lie cold6temperate broadleaf deciduous forests contiguous with those of the North Buropean owlands.

Bthnolinguistic Eroupings4 )fro6)siatic LSemitic 2)rabic, 9ebrew3: <ndo6Buropean L@eltic, Eermanic, <talic, Slavic, altic 2ithuanian,

atvian3, Ereco6)natolian 2Eree#, )lbanian, )rmenian3: Hralic L9ungarian, Finish, Bstonian: @aucasic L@ircassian 2)dyghe, Dabardian3,

@hechen, Eeorgian: 5ur#ic L5ur#ish: 1as8ue .

orth and @entral )sia4

orders4

5he Siberian acific constitutes the regions eastern border. 5he Hral Mountains and Hral =iver constitute the regions western

border. 5he )rctic ?cean is the regions northern border. From west to east, the regions southern borders are4 the ac# Sea, the @aucuses

Mountains, the @aspian Sea, the Dara#um >esert, the 9indu Dush, the 9imalayan, the 5ian Shan, the )ltai, the Eobi >esert, the Dhingan

Mountains, and the )mur =iver.

iomes4

5he regions far northern territories are arctic tundra 2the Siberian 5undra3 followed by a broad belt of boreal coniferous forest

2Siberian 5aiga3: the regions southern territories are cold6temperate steppeland, desert, and semi6desert shrubland 2the Burasian

Steppe3: and a narrow belt of cold6temperate deciduous forest spans the region betwi/t and between the Siberia and the Burasian Steppe.


<ndo6Buropean LSlavic, <ranian 2alochi, ashto, ersian, 5a$i#i3, <ndo6)ryan 2>ardic3: @aucasic L@ircassian

2)dyghe, Dabardian3, @hechen, Eeorgian: 5ur#ic L5ur#ish, 5ur#men, )zeri, Hzbe#, Daza#h, Dyrgyz, Hyghur: Mongolic LMongolian:

Sino65ibetan L@hinese, 5ibetan.

5he <ndian Subcontinent4

orders4

5he regions northern and northeastern borders are constituted by the 9indu Dush and 9imalayan Mountains. 5he regions

northwestern border is constituted by the aluchistan >eserts. 5he <ndian ?cean is the regions southeastern and southwestern borders.

iomes4

Much of the <ndian Subcontinent is tropical grassland and seasonal monsoon forests 2the >eccan lateau and <ndus6Eangetic

lain3. 9owever, there is warm desert and semi6desert shrubland in the northwest territories of the subcontinent 2from the 5har >esert

through to the aluchistan >eserts3: along the 9indu Dush and the 9imalayas are tropical montane forests. 5he far southwest territories

2west of the Western Ehats which fringe the )rabian Sea3 and the far eastern territories 2east of the rahmaputra =iver3 are tropical

evergreen rainforest 2from the midranges of the )ra#an Goma and @hin 9ills north into the @hittagong 9ills of angladesh, the Mizo

and Naga hills along the Myanmar6<ndian border, into the northern hills of Myanmar7dividing the rahmaputra and <rrawaddy3.


<ndo6Buropean L<ranian 2alochi, ashto3, <ndo6)ryan 29industani, engali, un$abi, Marathi, =a$asthani,

Eu$arati, ho$puri, ?dia, Nepali, Sindhi, Sinhala, )ssamese, >ardic3,: >ravidian L5elugu, 5amil, Malayalam, Dannada: Sino65ibetan

L5ibetan, urmese, Meithei: )ustro6)siatic LMonODhmer, Nicobarese: )ustronesian LMalay: )ndamanese .

Ereater @hina and the Western acific =im4

orders4

5he regions eastern border is constituted by the acific ?cean. 5he regions southwestern border is constituted by the <ndian

?cean. From west to east, the regions northwestern and northern borders are constituted by the 9imalayan Mountains, the 5ien Shan

Mountains, the )ltai Mountains, the Eobi >esert, the Dhingan Mountains, and the )mur =iver.

iomes4

5he northeast territories of the region are primarily cold6temperate deciduous forest 2the Ereat @hinese lain north of the

Gangtze =iver, the Manchurian lain, the northeastern portion of the Dorean eninsula, the northern portion of Capanese )rchipelago,

and the northern half of 5aiwan3. 5he southwestern portion of the Dorean eninsula and the southern portion of the Capanese

)rchipelago are cold6temperate evergreen rainforests. 5he western territories of the region are montane forest 2the Nanzhao plateau3,



followed by temperate mid6altitude grassland 2the oess lateau3, followed by cold desert and semi6desert shrubland 2the 5ibetan lateau

and the 5a#lama#an and Eobi >eserts3. etween the Gangtze and the earl =iver, in the Sichuan asin and the Southern 9ills of @hina,

there is moist warm6temperate evergreen forest. 5he region is tropical south of the earl =iver on the )sian @ontinent, on the lower half

of 5aiwan, and throughout the islands of the Malay )rchipelago. 5ropical seasonal monsoon forests predominate on the <ndochina

eninsula and tropical evergreen forests predominate in the rest of the region on the Malay eninsula and the Malay )rchipelago.


Sino65ibetan L@hinese, 5ibetan, urmese:

)ustronesian LMalay, 5agalog 2Filipino3, Cavanese, alinese,Formosan: )ustro6)siatic LMonODhmer, ietnamese: 5ai6Dadai L5hai, ao: 5ur#ic LHyghur: Mongolic LMongolian: Doreanic

LDorean: Caponic LCapanese: Miao6Gao L9mong6Mien.

?ceania4

orders4 5he acific <slands of )ustralia, Melanesia, Micronesia, olynesia.

iomes4

Melanesia and Micronesia are covered by tropical and subtropical evergreen forests, as is much of olynesia. New Kealand has

temperate deciduous forests in its northern and western ends, and has montane and temperate grasslands at its center. @entral )ustralia

is warm desert semi6desert shrubland. Southwestern )ustralia is summer6dry evergreen shrubland and woodlands. Northern )ustralia is

covered by subtropical grasslands and shrublands. Southeastern )ustralia is covered by temperate forests and temperate grasslands.


)ustronesian LMalay, 5agalog 2Filipino3, Maori, 9awaiian: )boriginal )ustralian languages LamaONyungan,

Non6amaONyungan:apuan L5ransONew Euinea.

orth )merica4

orders4

West is the acific ?cean, Bast is the )tlantic ?cean, North is the )rctic ?cean, Southern is the <sthmus of anama

iomes4

5he territories of the far north are arctic tundra followed below by a broad strip of boreal forest 2the @anadian 5undra and

5aiga3. South of the boreal forests, cold6temperate broadleaved deciduous forests predominate in the territories between the )tlantic

@oast and the Mississippi =iver 2Bastern Forests and Woodlands3. West of the Mi ssissippi =iver there are tall grassland prairies, followed

by short grassland prairies 2the Ereat lains of the )merican West3 , followed by the montane forests of the =oc#y Mountains.

Southsouthwest of the =oc#y Mountains is the desert and semi6desert shrubland of the Mo$ave and the Sonora. Northwest of the =oc#y

Mountains are, from east to west, the short grasslands of the @olorado lateau, the cold desert of the Ereat asin, the short grasslands of

the @olumbia lateau and Sna#e =iver lain, the @ascade mountains, and the cold6temperate evergreen rain forests of the acific

Northwest. South of the temperate rain forests of the acific Northwest, along the acific @oast, there is the summer6dry evergreen

shrubland and woodland of @alifornia, followed by the desert of the a$a ennisula, and the dry woodlands of Bl @abo. 5he =oc#y

Mountains brea# apart into the ?ccidental and ?riental Sierra Madre mountain chains, between which lies the semi6arid highlands of

the Me/ican plateau. 5here are alternating regions of dry tropical forests and moist tropical forests along the )tlantic and acific @oasts

of Mesoamerica which culminate in the Gucatan eninsulas moist broadleaf forests on the )tlantic @oast. 5he moist tropical forests of

the Gucatan, interspersed with tropical grasslands, flow down into @hiapas highlands and down to the <sthmus of anama.


a6>enJ

LNava$o: )lgic L)lgon8uian, @ree, ?$ibwe: <ro8uoian L@hero#ee, Mohaw#: @addoan LWichita,

awnee: lateau enutian LDlamath, Nez erce: Hto6)ztecan L)ztecNahuati: Mus#ogean L)labama, @hic#asaw, @hoctaw,

@ree#6Seminole: Guman LDumeyaay: ?tomanguean LKapotec, Mi/tecan: SiouanO@atawban La#ota: Bs#imoO)leut : Mayan .

South )m erica4

orders4

West is the acific ?cean, Bast is the )tlantic ?cean, Northern is the <sthmus of anama, South is the )rctic ?cean.

iomes4 West of the )ndes Mountains we have, from north to south, tropical rain forest along the anama asin, warm desert and /eric

shrubland along the Nazca =idge, temperate shrubland followed by mid6altitude broadleaf and mi/ed forest along the @hile asin, and

cool temperate evergreen rain forest south of the @orcovado Eulf. Bast of the )ndes we have , from south to north4 the desert and

semi6desert shrubland of atagonia: the tall grassland of the ampas: the tropical grassland of the razilian highlands and the Mato

Erosso lateau, the tropical shrubland of the Eran @haco and @ampos @atinga, and the )mazon rainforest: and the tropical grasslands

and tropical shrubland of the Euyana lateau 2opposite the tropical rain forests west of the )ndes3.


Puechua L<nca: Macro6Ce L )mazonian and Mato Erosso tribal languages: 5upiOEuarani L)mazonian, Mato

Erosso, and razilian coastal tribal languages: @hon Llanguages of the tribes of 5ierra del Fuego and atagonian: )rawa# .



Fourth, we must be able to classify the different business sectors operating at the present moment..

Bnergy

roducers and sellers of energy4 the petroleum industry, the natural gas industry, the coal industry, the nuclear power

industry, the renewables industry, and traditional fuel industries 2firewood, peat3

Materials

roducers and sellers of durable materials 2wood, stone, plastics, paper, metals, metalloids, bio6synthetics3

@hemicals

roducers and sellers of consumable chemicals 2commodity chemicals, diversified chemicals, fertilizers and agricultural

chemicals, industrial gases, and specialty chemicals3

<ndustrials @apital Eoods

6 roducers, sellers, and servicers of capital goods 2i.e., manufactured products utilized in the production of

goods and services3

rofessional Services

6 roviders of commercial Q professional services for businesses and governments 2product design,

product engineering, management consulting, scientific consulting, accounting, legal, public relations, human resources,

research and development, etc.3

ogistics

6 roviders of pac#aging, storage, and transportation services

@onstruction uilders of infrastructures and facilities on location4 residential and non6residential buildings 2single family homes,

apartment comple/es, office buildings, office par#s3: public and private infrastructures 2water, sewage, power lines,

communication lines, roads, bridges, etc.3

>efense Q Security Materiel

6 roducers, sellers, and servicers of military Q security e8uipment and facilities.

ersonnel

6 Military and security contractors.

@onsumer Eoods and

Services

Food

6 roducers of food 2food crops, dairy, meat, and processed foods and drin#s3

?ther @onsum ables

6 roducers of household and personal products 2soap, toothpaste, shampoo, tissues, toilet paper,

lotion, etc.3

>urables

6 roducers of consumer durables and apparel 2cars, clothes, electronics, sports e8uipment, coo#ware, firearms,

toys, shoes, etc.3

Media

6 roducers of media 2boo#s, magazines, posters, movies, music, television and radio programs, theatre, visual arts,

etc.3

=etailers of Food and ?ther @onsumables

6 =etailers of food, household products, and personal products 2grocery stores,

convenience stores, etc.3

=etailers of >urables and Media 6

=etailers of consumer durables, apparel, and media 2department stores, clothing stores,

boo# stores, music stores, movie theaters, playhouses, concert venues, art galleries, etc.3

@onsumer Services

6 roviders of consumer services 2coo#s, maids, nannies, waiters, mechanics, personal lawyers,

personal accountants, etc.3

9ealth Q Wellness io65ech

6 roducers of pharmaceuticals and biomedical technologies 2drug companies, manufacturers and servicers of

medical devicese8uipment3

9ealthcare

6 roviders of health care e8uipment and services 2hospitals, doctors, dentists, nurses, medical technicians,

pharmacists, etc.3

Finance, <nsurance, and =eal

Bstate

an#ing

6 roviders of ban#ing services

>iversified Financials

6 roviders of non6ban#ing financial products and services, including various lending products

2home e8uity loans and credit cards3, securities, and investment products 2stoc#s, bonds, pensions, and mutual funds3.

<nsurance

6 roviders of insurance 2agents, bro#ers, carriers, managers3

=eal Bstate

6 roviders of real estate 2agents, dealers, developers, managers, investment trusts3

<nformation and

@ommunications

5echnology

Software

6 roviders of software Q <5 services 2software, web design, social networ#s, search engines, email, digital media

platforms, data storage, <5 management3

9ardware 6 roducers and servicers of information technology hardware Q e8uipment 2computers, mobile devices,

communication cables, satellites3

>ata 5ransmission

6 roviders of information transport services 2landline and wireless telephone networ# providers,

<nternet providers, providers of cable and satellite 5 subscriptions, etc.3

Bducation

roviders of academic or professional training and certification

Social Services

roviders of public services that aim to organize communities and promote opportunity.

ublic Htilities

?perators of infrastructure for public services and providers of services for using public infrastructures 2electricity,

natural gas, water, sewage, waste management, etc.3



Finally, to properly understand the present moment, we must understand how different regimes in different

regions developed during four successive historical periods4

1.

>uring the emergence of a global political6economic order centered around Buropean <mperialism between 1%0!

and 101%:

!. >uring the auto6cannibalistic culmination of Buropean <mperialism in the wars that too# place between101% and

10%&:

". >uring the @old War, between 10%& and 1001, in which the Hnited States and the Soviet Hnion, successors loc#ed in

conflict over the ideological legacy of Buropean <mperialism, sought to perpetuate Buropean intervention in and

control over the affairs of non6Buropean peoples after the old Buropean powers were e/pelled by anti6colonial

independence movements:

%. >uring the contemporary period, beginning in 1001, in which the triumphant successors to the ideological legacy of

Buropean <mperialism, the Hnited States and its Western Buropean allies, are been forced to come to terms with the

disintegration of Buropean predominance as they lose their capacity to effectively intervene in and control the affairsof non6Buropean peoples. 5his, the last and final retreat of prodigious and sustained Buropean political intervention

and control in the non6Buropean rest6of6the6world, ushers in an era of instability in many regions, as different

regional and foreign actors compete to fill the power vacuums created by the collapse of the Soviet Hnion and the

waning of the power and influence of the Hnited States.

Documents

Muindi Fanuel Muindi - Notes on Sociological History