Mueller Thesis 2013

8/12/2019 Mueller Thesis 2013

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Tense, Aspect, Modality, and

Evidentiality Marking in South American

Indigenous Languages

Proefschrift

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor

aan de ad!oud "niversiteit #ijmegen

op ge$ag van de rector magnificus prof% mr% S%&%'%'% (ortmann,

volgens !esluit van het college van decanen

in het open!aar te verdedigen op dinsdag )* maart

om +%- uur precies

door

#eele 'anna M.ller

ge!oren op )/ mei +0/)

te Leer


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Promotor1Promotor1Promotor1Promotor1 Prof%Prof%Prof%Prof% drdrdrdr% Pieter Muysken% Pieter Muysken% Pieter Muysken% Pieter Muysken

&opromotore&opromotore&opromotore&opromotoren1n1n1n1 2r% ik van 3ijn2r% ik van 3ijn2r% ik van 3ijn2r% ik van 3ijn 4444"niversit5t"niversit5t"niversit5t"niversit5t 6.rich6.rich6.rich6.rich7777

2r% Mily &revels2r% Mily &revels2r% Mily &revels2r% Mily &revels

Manuscriptcommissie1Manuscriptcommissie1Manuscriptcommissie1Manuscriptcommissie1 Prof%Prof%Prof%Prof% drdrdrdr%%%% 8888eeeelenlenlenlen de 8oopde 8oopde 8oopde 8oop

Prof%Prof%Prof%Prof% drdrdrdr% (ees% (ees% (ees% (ees 8e8e8e8ennnngeveldgeveldgeveldgeveld 4"niversiteit4"niversiteit4"niversiteit4"niversiteitvanvanvanvan Amsterdam7Amsterdam7Amsterdam7Amsterdam7

Prof%Prof%Prof%Prof% drdrdrdr%%%% Pier MarcoPier MarcoPier MarcoPier Marco 9ertinetto9ertinetto9ertinetto9ertinetto 4Scuola4Scuola4Scuola4Scuola

#ormale Superiore, Pisa7#ormale Superiore, Pisa7#ormale Superiore, Pisa7#ormale Superiore, Pisa7


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Fr Mama un Papa.Fr Mama un Papa.Fr Mama un Papa.Fr Mama un Papa.

Fr Axel.Fr Axel.Fr Axel.Fr Axel.


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iTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vvvviiii

ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLSABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLSABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLSABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS viviviviiiiiiiii

1.1.1.1. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION 1111

2.2.2.2. TERMINOLOGY, FRAMEWORK, AND TOOLSTERMINOLOGY, FRAMEWORK, AND TOOLSTERMINOLOGY, FRAMEWORK, AND TOOLSTERMINOLOGY, FRAMEWORK, AND TOOLS 3333

2.12.12.12.1 INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION 3333

2.22.22.22.2 TERMINOLOGYTERMINOLOGYTERMINOLOGYTERMINOLOGY 3333

2.2.1 Marki! 3

2.2.2 C"#"$a%iv& #'r()&* +

2.2.3 A#i!"i%-

2.32.32.32.3 CONCE/TUAL FRAMEWORKCONCE/TUAL FRAMEWORKCONCE/TUAL FRAMEWORKCONCE/TUAL FRAMEWORK 0000

2.3.1 /r'%'%-(& %)&'r- a %)& a'ia$ a((r') 0

2.3.2 T)& '#ia& (ara#&%&r

2.3.3 Gra##a%ia$i4a%i' 5

2.3.6 O$i!a%'ri&** 17

2.3.+ S-*%a%ii%- 11

2.62.62.62.6 T8ET8ET8ET8E MODUS OPERANDIMODUS OPERANDIMODUS OPERANDIMODUS OPERANDIOF T8IS STUDYOF T8IS STUDYOF T8IS STUDYOF T8IS STUDY 11111111

2.+2.+2.+2.+ TOOLSTOOLSTOOLSTOOLS 1+1+1+1+

2.+.1 T)& $a!"a!& *a#($& 1+

2.+.2 T)& 9"&*%i'air& 22

3.3.3.3. TENSETENSETENSETENSE 2+2+2+2+

3.13.13.13.1 INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION 2+2+2+2+

3.23.23.23.2 DEFINITIONSDEFINITIONSDEFINITIONSDEFINITIONS 2222

3.2.1 /RESENT,/AST,a FUTURET&*& 23.2.2 R'%&&** &!r&&* 32

3.33.33.33.3 TENSELESS LANGUAGESTENSELESS LANGUAGESTENSELESS LANGUAGESTENSELESS LANGUAGES 33333333

3.3.3.3.6666 TENSE SYSTEMSTENSE SYSTEMSTENSE SYSTEMSTENSE SYSTEMS 3333

3.6.1 Ov&rvi&: 3

3.6.2 Biar- *($i% FUTURE;NONFUTURE 3

3.6.3 Si#($& *($i% FUTURE;NONFUTURE 67

3.6.6Biar- *($i% /AST;NON/AST 61


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ii3.6.+ T)r&& r'%&&** &!r&&* i %)& /AST +2

3..0R'%&&** &!r&&* i %)& FUTURE +3

3.. R'%&&** &!r&&* i %)& /AST a FUTURE +6

3..5 Di*"**i' +0

3.03.03.03.0 TY/OLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LETY/OLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LETY/OLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LETY/OLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LE 3333

3.3.3.3. GGGGEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LE 5555

3.53.53.53.5 GENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LE 03030303

3.5.1 I%r'"%i' 03

3.5.2 Mar'


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iii6.6.2Di*%ri"%i' i %)& *a#($& 5

6.+6.+6.+6.+ ITERATIVEITERATIVEITERATIVEITERATIVE 50505050

6.+.1D&ii%i' 50

6.+.2Di*%ri"%i' i %)& *a#($& 177

6.6.6.6. COM/LETIVE; INCOM/LETIVECOM/LETIVE; INCOM/LETIVECOM/LETIVE; INCOM/LETIVECOM/LETIVE; INCOM/LETIVE 17+17+17+17+

6..1D&ii%i'* 17+

6..2Di*%ri"%i' i %)& *a#($& 170

6.06.06.06.0 ANTERIORANTERIORANTERIORANTERIOR 111111111111

6.6.6.6. TY/OLOGICALTY/OLOGICALTY/OLOGICALTY/OLOGICALDISTRIBUTIONDISTRIBUTIONDISTRIBUTIONDISTRIBUTION ININININT8ET8ET8ET8ESAM/LESAM/LESAM/LESAM/LE 1161161161166.56.56.56.5 GEOGRA/8ICALGEOGRA/8ICALGEOGRA/8ICALGEOGRA/8ICALDISTRIBUTIONDISTRIBUTIONDISTRIBUTIONDISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LE 11111111

6.176.176.176.17 GENEALOGICALGENEALOGICALGENEALOGICALGENEALOGICALDISTRIBUTIONDISTRIBUTIONDISTRIBUTIONDISTRIBUTIONIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LE 123123123123

6.17.1 I%r'"%i' 123

6.17.2 Mar'


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iv+..1D&ii%i' 1+3

+..2Di*%ri"%i' i %)& *a#($& 1+6

+.0+.0+.0+.0 FRUSTRATIVEFRUSTRATIVEFRUSTRATIVEFRUSTRATIVE 1+1+1+1+

+.0.1D&ii%i' 1+

+.0.2Di*%ri"%i' i %)& *a#($& 1+5

+.+.+.+. DESIDERATIVEDESIDERATIVEDESIDERATIVEDESIDERATIVE 13131313

+..1D&ii%i'* 13

+..2Di*%ri"%i' i %)& *a#($& 13

+.5+.5+.5+.5 COMMAND TY/ESCOMMAND TY/ESCOMMAND TY/ESCOMMAND TY/ES 10101010+.5.1D&ii%i'* 10

+.5.2Di*%ri"%i' i %)& *a#($& 107

+.17+.17+.17+.17 TY/OLOGICALTY/OLOGICALTY/OLOGICALTY/OLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEDISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEDISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEDISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LE 17171717

+.11+.11+.11+.11 GEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTIONGEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTIONGEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTIONGEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LE 1111

+.12+.12+.12+.12 GENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LE 15151515

+.12.1 I%r'"%i' 15

+.12.2 Ara:aka 15

+.12.3 T"(@a 271

+.12.6 Caria 272

+.12.+ "&)"a 276+.13+.13+.13+.13 STABILITY OF MODALITYSTABILITY OF MODALITYSTABILITY OF MODALITYSTABILITY OF MODALITY 27+27+27+27+

+.12+.12+.12+.12 SUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARY 27+27+27+27+

.... EVIDENTIALITYEVIDENTIALITYEVIDENTIALITYEVIDENTIALITY 270270270270

.1.1.1.1 INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION 270270270270

.2.2.2.2 DEFINITIONSDEFINITIONSDEFINITIONSDEFINITIONS 275275275275

.2.1 FIRST8AND a VISUAL Evi&%ia$i%- 275

.2.2 NON


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v.+.+.+.+ GENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LE 23232323

.+.1 I%r'"%i' 23

.+.2 Ara:aka 230

.+.3 T"(@a 235

.+.6 Caria 267

.+.+ "&)"a 261

.... STABILITY OF EVIDENTIALITYSTABILITY OF EVIDENTIALITYSTABILITY OF EVIDENTIALITYSTABILITY OF EVIDENTIALITY 263263263263

.0.0.0.0 SUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARY 263263263263

0.0.0.0. DISCUSSION ANDDISCUSSION ANDDISCUSSION ANDDISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS 26+26+26+26+

0.10.10.10.1 INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION 26+26+26+26+

0.20.20.20.2 GEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8EGEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8EGEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8EGEOGRA/8ICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LESAM/LESAM/LESAM/LE 26262626

0.2.1 Ov&rvi&: 26

0.2.2 A&* v*. A#a4'ia 26

0.2.3 T)& C)a' 26

0.30.30.30.3 GENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONGENEALOGICAL DISTRIBUTION IN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LEIN T8E SAM/LE 2+72+72+72+7

0.60.60.60.6 TAME /ROMINENCETAME /ROMINENCETAME /ROMINENCETAME /ROMINENCE 2+2+2+2+

0.+0.+0.+0.+ STABILITYSTABILITYSTABILITYSTABILITY 2+2+2+2+

0.0.0.0. FUTURE RESEARC8FUTURE RESEARC8FUTURE RESEARC8FUTURE RESEARC8 27272727

REFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCES 22223333

SUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARY 202020203333

SAMENVATTING IN 8ET NEDERLANDSSAMENVATTING IN 8ET NEDERLANDSSAMENVATTING IN 8ET NEDERLANDSSAMENVATTING IN 8ET NEDERLANDS 202020200000

CURRICULUM VITAECURRICULUM VITAECURRICULUM VITAECURRICULUM VITAE 22221111


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viACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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viiiABBREVIATIONS AND SYABBREVIATIONS AND SYABBREVIATIONS AND SYABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLSMBOLSMBOLSMBOLS

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i>C/ '#(ara%iv&

DAT a%iv&

DECL &$ara%iv&

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DEVLD &va$"&

DIM i#i"%iv&

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DIST i*%a%, i*%a$

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>INV iv&r*&

I/D i#(&i%iv&

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1. Introduction 1

1. INTRODUCTION1. INTRODUCTION1. INTRODUCTION1. INTRODUCTIONThis study presents an analysis of morpho-syntactic Tense, Aspect, odality, and

!"identiality mar#in$ %henceforth& TA!' in a sample of () *outh American indi$enous

lan$ua$es %henceforth& *AI+s' ith re$ard to typolo$ical, $eo$raphical, and $enealo$ical

distriutions.1This chapter introduces the study and ser"es to emed it in the current

research on *outh American lin$uistics. An o"er"ie of the structure of the oo# is $i"en at

the end of this chapter. The main $oals of this thesis are tofold&

%i' to present a typolo$ical profile of morpho-syntactic Tense, Aspect, odality,and !"identiality mar#in$ in a sample of () *outh American indi$enouslan$ua$es,

%ii' to unco"er $enealo$ical and $eo$raphical relationships of *AI+s accordin$ tothe TA! profile ith special focus on lan$ua$e contact.

This is the first comprehensi"e and comparati"e study of TA! in *outh American

lan$ua$es in a road sample and it ill hopefully ser"e as a asis for oth detailed studies of

TA! cate$ories in *AI+s as ell as those of a $loal typolo$ical nature. A uestionnaire

as desi$ned for Tense, Aspect, odality, and !"identiality, and the data of () lan$ua$es

ere entered in full, ith "arious additional lan$ua$es for specific sutopics %see section

/.0./'.

Until recently, there as a discrepancy eteen the enormous ran$e of *AI+s and their

deficient documentation, ut in the last decades the increasin$ numer of hi$h-uality

descriptions has made it possile to conduct lar$e scale research on *AI+s. A numer of

research uestions ha"e arisen, most prominently ith re$ard to the hi$h $enealo$ical

di"ersity and the spread of certain lan$ua$e families, ut also to the typolo$ical

characteristics and ho they contrast ith other parts of the orld. or instance, the most

recent count y 2ammarstr3m %/445, appendi6' presents 111 lan$ua$e families %or isolates'

in *outh America. or comparison, there are only )) families in !urasia %iid.'.

The nature of the topic, the methodolo$y, and the lan$ua$e sample present their on

sets of prolems, and it is important to list them here. irst, the cate$ories of Tense, Aspect,

odality, and !"identiality stand out y their closely connected semantic relationships and

the difficulties to demarcate the cate$ories from each other. *econd, the lan$ua$e sample is

a con"enience sample and therefore any e6trapolation on the asis of the results must e

ta#en ith caution. Third, the "ery fact that there are at least () different sources ith

different opinions of terminolo$y y the authors that ha"e I ha"e to reconcile ith my on

chosen definitions. ourth, e"en thou$h mostly ell documented lan$ua$es ere chosen,

the a"ailale $rammatical descriptions are often not sufficiently precise.

1I ac#noled$e the financial support from the !RC pro7ect 8Traces of Contact9.


18/297

/ 1. Introduction

It ecame apparent uite early in the study that a full analysis of TA! systems in the

sample as not feasile in the defined time frame. :ecause I as inspired y recent or# on

$rammaticali;ation %cf. :yee et al. 155


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2. Terminology, framework, and tools 3

2. TERMINOLOGY, R!M2. TERMINOLOGY, R!M2. TERMINOLOGY, R!M2. TERMINOLOGY, R!ME"OR#, !N$ TOOL%E"OR#, !N$ TOOL%E"OR#, !N$ TOOL%E"OR#, !N$ TOOL%2.& INTRO$'(TION2.& INTRO$'(TION2.& INTRO$'(TION2.& INTRO$'(TION

T)e *resent st+dy fo+ses on t)e o+rrene of mor*)o-syntati T!ME markers in 3

seleted %!ILs. It aims to ill+strate t)e ty*ologial T!ME landsa*e of %!ILs in a

om*arati/e *ers*eti/e and to ser/e as a starting *oint for )istorial ling+isti st+dies as

well as modeling lang+age ontat senarios. T)is )a*ter *resents t)e met)odologial

fo+ndations of t)e st+dy. irst, t)e s*eifi terminology of 0marking1 and w)at kinds of

markers o+r in t)e sam*le are dis+ssed in setion 2.2. %etion 2.3 *resents t)e

frameworks entral to t)is st+dy t)e *rototy*e t)eory, t)e anonial a**roa), and t)e

dominane *arameter. ea+se t)is st+dy fo+ses on grammatiali4ed markers,grammatiali4ation is 5riefly dis+ssed in setion 2.3.3 toget)er wit) its related notions of

o5ligatoriness 62.3.78 and systematiity 62.3.98. %etion 2.7 *resents t)e modus operandiof

t)is st+dy, 5ased on setion 2.3, and offers some general remarks a5o+t t)e le/els of

desri*tion in t)is st+dy and w)at is meant 5y 0mor*)o-syntati1. T)e lang+age sam*le

and t)e str+t+re of t)e :+estionnaire are *resented in setions 2.9. T)e definitions of t)e

indi/id+al T!ME ategories are gi/en in t)e res*eti/e setions in )a*ters 3 to .

")en *ossi5le, e;am*les are gi/en to ill+strate t)e *oint in :+estion. E;am*les +s+ally

onsist of t)ree lines mor*)eme 5y mor*)eme original in t)e first line, glossing in t)e

seond line, and t)e Englis) translation in t)e t)ird line. In ases w)ere t)e so+re

translation is not in Englis), an Englis) one is s+**lied. In some ases, t)e original e;am*les

do not )a/e glossing or mor*)eme se*arations< it was not attem*ted to s+5stit+te t)ese. In

general, t)ose e;am*les were a/oided 65+t see e.g. e;am*le 69.=88. It was attem*ted to kee*

as tr+e to t)e e;am*les in t)e so+res as *ossi5le, 5+t wit) some alterations glossings were

+nified and sim*lified in aordane wit) t)e Lei*4ig glossing r+les, and in some ases

e;isting glosses were re*laed for *+r*ose of ill+stration. or e;am*le, in 6.2&a8 t)e

*artile top is glossed 0>I%1instead of t)e original gloss 05e.seen1 to signal t)at top 5elongs

to >I%'!LE/identiality as defined in t)is st+dy. In ases w)ere t)e original gloss seems to 5e

a mistake, it was re*laed 5y t)e most o5/io+s andidate. or e;am*le, in e;am*le 6.&8, t)e

glossing 0!'1 was re*laed 5y 0!'?1, 5ea+se 0!'1does not o+r in t)e list of a55re/iations,

5+t 0!'?1does.

2.2 TERMINOLOGY2.2 TERMINOLOGY2.2 TERMINOLOGY2.2 TERMINOLOGY

2.2.& Marking2.2.& Marking2.2.& Marking2.2.& Marking

@as*elmat) 62AA, 2B8 arg+es t)at ling+ists s)o+ld refrain from +sing 0+nmarked, marked1

terminology, 5ea+se t)ese terms Cde/elo*ed a m+lti*liity of sometimes widely di/erging

sensesD, and )e s+ggests to re*lae t)em 5y 0o/ertly oded, +noded 4ero oded1 6i5id, 3A8.

I agree t)at t)ere )as 5een onf+sion a5o+t t)ese terms, 5+t wo+ld like to add t)at 04ero

oded1 is not neessarily t)e same as 0+noded1 and t)at one may +se 5ot) 0marking1 and

0oding1 as long as t)ey are learly defined. In t)is t)esis, 5ot) sets of terms are +sed

inter)angea5ly denoting t)e following one*ts 0marking, oding1 means t)at a ategory


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7 2.2 Terminology)as a /isi5le marker ontaining *)onologial mor*)ologial material. In t)at sense, a

ategory an only 5e marked or +nmarked, 5+t not less or more marked. !n e;am*le w)ere

of degrees of marking are dis+ssed is M+ysken 6&F=&8 w)o )as attem*ted to s)ow degrees

of Tense markedness. (o+nting t)e distanes 5etween *oint of referene, *oint of s*ee),

and e/ent moment, M+ysken onl+des t)at t)e )ig)er t)e distane, t)e more marked t)e

ategory in ase. or e;am*le, in t)e sim*le *resent all t)ree *oints o/erla*, and t)e

distane is 4ero. In t)e sim*le *ast, t)e *oints of referene and s*ee) o/erla*, 5+t t)e

e/ent moment is remo/ed, so t)e distane is one. T)erefore, t)e sim*le *ast was ass+med to

5e more marked t)an t)e sim*le *resent 6i5id. &FA&F&8 6for a dis+ssion of t)e terms *oint

of referene, s*ee), and moment of +tterane, see setion 3.2.&8. T)e *resent t)esis does

not attem*t to rank ategories aording to markedness, 5+t rat)er sorts t)em into marked

/s. +nmarked. In #aro, a la+se an 5e marked wit) t)e H!%T*artile coor 5e +nmarked for

H!%T 5+t still )a/e *ast time referene. !dditionally, H!%T an 5e indiated 5y an ad/er5

60yesterday18, and 5e 5ot) marked 5y a *artile and indiated 5y an ad/er5 in t)e same

la+se

62.78 #aro 6T+*an< Ga5as Jr. &FFF, &B9, F=, &F, &B98

6a8 p o=e-t cocococo

s)oot &%GK!'?-IN$ H%T

0I s)ot.1

658 o=ket-t c=tem

&%GKslee*-IN$ 5igK!$>0I sle*t a lot.

68 meganape n ameko top-ap matetmatetmatetmatet

)ere &%G ag+ar see-IN$ yesterday

0@ere I saw a t)e ag+ar yesterday.1

6d8 iym ket-t cocococo matetmatetmatetmatet

fat)er slee*-IN$ H%T yesterday

0at)er sle*t yesterday.1

In my a**roa), 62.7a8 and 62.7d8 are mor*)o-syntatially marked for H!%T, 5+t 62.758 and

62.78 are not. 62.7d8 is also not more marked 5ea+se it )as 5ot) a liti and an ad/er5.

Heri*)rasti onstr+tions and ad/er5s are not taken into ao+nt in t)is t)esis e;e*tw)en e;*liitly stated ot)erwise. T)is t)esis fo+ses on grammatiali4ed T!ME marking,

alt)o+g) ot)er means of e;*ressing T!ME are dis+ssed in a**ro*riate *laes. T)e

o**osites of 0marked, oded1 are 0+nmarked, +noded1, w)en a ategory laks a /isi5le

marker.

+rt)ermore, a word a5o+t t)e terms 0+nmarked1 and 04ero-marker1 is in order. In t)is

st+dy, 5ot) +nmarked and 4ero-marked ategories are treated t)e same, alt)o+g) t)ey do

not denote t)e same one*ts. I follow y5ee 6&FF78 w)o arg+es t)at a 4ero-marker is a

marker wit) semanti ontent, 5+t wit)o+t o/ert reali4ation in t)e form of a mor*)eme. It


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2. Terminology, framework, and tools 9is t)erefore t)e a5sene of an 6o5ligatory8 o/ert marker t)at e;*resses t)e e;istene of

anot)er, related meaning Cas an o/ert marker 5eomes more fre:+ent, t)e )earer an

infer t)at its a5sene is intentional and meaningf+l, leading to t)e de/elo*ment of 4ero-

grams&D 6i5id. 2928. y5ee 6i5id. 27A8 laims t)at se/eral riteria m+st a**ly to a marker to

5e a real 4ero-marker, inl+ding t)e inrease of fre:+eny of a marker t)at, additionally, is

o5ligatory and w)ose a5sene t)en an 5e inferred to 5e meaningf+l. ! ategory t)at is

+nmarked, on t)e ot)er )and, neit)er )as an o/ert marker nor does it lead t)e )earer to

infer a s*eifi meaning. or e;am*le, in many lang+ages t)e HERE(TI>E)as 5eome 4ero-

marked after t)e IMHERE(TI>E5eame o5ligatory 6i5id. 29A8. 'nfort+nately, d+e to different

+ses of t)e term 04ero-marker1 in t)e so+res and t)e tem*oral limitations of t)e *roet it

was not *ossi5le to disting+is) 5etween 4ero-marked and +nmarked ategories in t)is

st+dy. It is es*eially diffi+lt to infer o5ligatoriness and fre:+eny of markers in referene

grammars. or t)at reason, in t)is t)esis an +nmarked ategory may well 5e 4ero-marked

5+t is +ndeteted as s+). @owe/er, T!ME 4ero-marking in %!ILs may 5e wort)

in/estigating in t)e f+t+re.

2.2.2 (+m+lati/e mo2.2.2 (+m+lati/e mo2.2.2 (+m+lati/e mo2.2.2 (+m+lati/e mor*)emesr*)emesr*)emesr*)emes

In %!ILs, t)ere are often ases w)ere one marker e;*resses two or more T!ME ategories

sim+ltaneo+sly in an indi/isi5le +nit. a+er 62AA3, 33B8 alls t)is 0*ortmantea+1 C!

*ortmantea+ mor*) is a mor*) w)i) reali4es P more t)an one mor*)emeD. ikel Q

Ni)ols 62AAB, &==8 refer to *ortmantea+ mor*)emes 6or *ortmantea+ formati/es8 as

om5ining feat+res t)at also e;ist inde*endently. or e;am*le, ren) duis a *ortmantea+of de0of1 and le 0t)e1. T)e *resent st+dy +ses ikel Q Ni)ols1 62AAB8 term 0+m+lati/e1 for a

mor*)eme t)at om5ines two 6or more8 feat+res, 5+t wit)o+t oe;isting inde*endent

forms 6as wo+ld 5e t)e ase wit) *ortmantea+ mor*)emes8. ! *rototy*ial +m+lati/e

marker )ere om5ines two or more meanings w)i) always a**ly at t)e same time. or

e;am*le, in Tiriy, t)e s+ffi; -ja marks HRE%ENTTense and IMHERE(TI>E!s*et, and in a la+se

t)is marker e;*resses 5ot). T)at means t)at if one a**lies, t)e ot)er o5ligatorily a**lies as

well.

62.98 Tiriy 6(ari5an< Meira &FFF, 2FF8

fevereiro po tarno-ton eperu p-ja-n

e5r+ary LO( Tiriy-(OL fr+it gat)er-HR%.IH>-$'0In e5r+ary, t)e Tiriy gat)er fr+its.1

(+m+lati/e markers 6)enefort) also alled +m+lati/es8 an 5e ross-ategorial, 5+t ne/er

intra-ategorial a marker may )a/e two meanings from eit)er Tense, !s*et, Modality, or

E/identiality, for e;am*le H!%Tand HERE(T, 5+t ne/er from t)e same s+*er-ategory, e.g.

&%)ort for Cgrammatial mor*)emeD 6y5ee et al. &FF7, 28.


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2.2 TerminologyH!%T and 'T'RE.")en a marker e;)i5its two 6or more8 meanings from t)e same ategory,

s+) as HRE%ENTand H!%T,t)is marker is defined as not +m+lati/e, 5+t am5ig+o+s 6see t)e

following setion8.

2.2.3 !m5ig+ity2.2.3 !m5ig+ity2.2.3 !m5ig+ity2.2.3 !m5ig+ity

In T!ME, mor*)emes similar to +m+lati/es also o+r am5ig+o+s mor*)emes. !

+m+lati/e mor*)eme always om*rises se/eral meanings at t)e same time, 5+t an

am5ig+o+s mor*)eme, alt)o+g) )a/ing se/eral meanings, only )as one meaning in a

s*eifi onte;t. ! ty*ial e;am*le is a 5inary Tense distintion, e.g. of t)e ty*e 'T'RE

NON'T'REw)eret)e NON'T'REmarker *oints to eit)er a HRE%ENT or H!%Tinter*retation, i.e.

is am5ig+o+s 5etween HRE%ENT and H!%T. T)is is not a +m+lati/e mor*)eme, 5ea+se in a

la+se not 5ot), 5+t only one meaning a**lies. or e;am*le, in @i;karyana t)e marker -

yahaa**lies to NONH!%T, i.e. one marker odes for eit)er HRE%ENTor 'T'RE6and it an also 5e

inter*reted as 0+ni/ersal18 6$er5ys)ire &FBF, &3=8. ")i) Tense is at+ally a**lia5le in t)e

la+se )as to 5e esta5lis)ed 5y onte;t, 5+t it an ne/er 5e 5ot) at t)e same time.

!m5ig+ity is ty*ially intraategorial, i.e. +s+ally o+rs 5etween feat+res wit)in one

ategory, in o**osition to +m+lati/es w)i) are always ross-ategorial.

62.8 @i;karyana 6(ari5an< $er5ys)ire &FBF, &3=8

namryekyahayahayahayaha

0)e is going )+nting 6now81 or 0)e will go )+nting 6sometime soon81, or 0)e )+nts1

6i.e. )e is a man w)o )+nts8.

T)e :+estionnaire does not make a distintion 5etween +m+lati/e and am5ig+o+s markers

in t)e sense t)at 5ot) get a *ositi/e entry in all of t)e ategories t)ey enode. %*eifiations

are made in t)e omment setion.

(+m+lati/e and am5ig+o+s mor*)emes are interesting from a dia)roni *oint of /iew,

sine t)e *resene of s+) mor*)emes in a lang+age *oints towards a )ig) degree of

grammatiali4ation. T)is st+dy will dis+ss t)e degree of e;*onene 6i.e. ategories t)at

form +m+lati/es8 w)ere rele/ant.

To o+tline t)e *ro5lemati stat+s of T!ME regarding am5ig+ity I now dis+ss a few

om*liated e;am*les. or e;am*le, a HERE(TI>E marker an also e;*ress H!%TTense, an

IMHERE(TI>Emarker an )a/e @!IT'!L f+ntions, a 'T'RETense marker an 5e +sed toe;*ress INTENTIONal, and a diret E/idential may )a/e E*istemi +ndertones. It is im*ossi5le

to esta5lis) lear-+t 5orders and instead one s)o+ld regard t)e ategories as l+sters t)at

s)are traits. T)e l+sters )a/e *rototy*ial meanings t)at are entral to a s*eial feat+re,

e.g. H!%TTense refers to a *oint in time *re/io+s to t)e *oint of s*ee) andor referene.

T)ere are feat+res t)at s)are t)is definition, e.g. t)e HERE(TI>Ean )a/e H!%TTense

meaning, 5+t is disting+is)a5le 5y stating t)at t)is is not t)e ore meaning of HERE(TI>E,

+st a side effet, or seondary meaning. !ording to $a)l 6&F=98, t)e ore meaning is

0fo+sing1, and t)e grey area in 5etween two feat+res 0im*reise1. @e laims t)at t)e fo+s of


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2. Terminology, framework, and tools Ba ategory e:+als a *rototy*e and assigns a maor stat+s to t)e Cone*t of a dominant

*arameterD, i.e. a feat+re may )a/e se/eral traits, 5+t only one is dominant and t)erefore

t)e ore meaning. T)is a**roa) is in a *osition to ao+nt more or less satisfatorily for

T!ME relations)i*s and it will 5e followed )ere 6see following setions8.

T)ere is a differene 5etween +m+lati/e and am5ig+o+s mor*)emes and mor*)emes

t)at seemingly )a/e two f+ntions 5+t +nder lose sr+tiny +st )a/e one dominant

meaning and anot)er one res+lting from it 6seondary meaning8. 'nfort+nately, it is not

always *ossi5le to disern w)i) is dominant and w)i) is seondary. In ase one is not s+re

to w)i) ategory a ertain marker 5elongs 6e.g. H!%T Tense or HERE(TI>E!s*et8, one s)o+ld

esta5lis) t)e ore meaning. ! marker t)at always )as *ast time referene, 5+t only

sometimes marks *resent rele/ane of a *ast e/ent is *redominantly H!%TTense marking

wit) a seondary !NTERIORmeaning. In ase t)e marker seems to always mark 5ot), refer to

t)e dis+ssion a5o+t +m+lati/e mor*)emes a5o/e. In t)at way, one an make a list of

/al+es of a marker, e.g. a marker may )a/e t)e following /al+es S%E, Sintentional,

S+nertainty, 5+t not any of t)e ot)er definitions. T)+s, t)e rele/ant marker marks 'T'RE,

INTENTION,and 'N(ERT!INTY. Ideally, a so+re indiates t)e stat+s of t)ese meanings, 5+t t)at

is not always t)e ase. T)e 5iggest *ro5lem wit) t)is a**roa) is t)at t)e s*eifi lang+age

so+re neessarily )as to )a/e a fair amo+nt of e;am*les. T)ere is also t)e risk of 5eing

misg+ided 5y a translation.

2.3 (ON(EHT'!L R2.3 (ON(EHT'!L R2.3 (ON(EHT'!L R2.3 (ON(EHT'!L R!ME"OR#!ME"OR#!ME"OR#!ME"OR#

2.3.& Hrototy*e t)eory and t)e anonial a**roa)2.3.& Hrototy*e t)eory and t)e anonial a**roa)2.3.& Hrototy*e t)eory and t)e anonial a**roa)2.3.& Hrototy*e t)eory and t)e anonial a**roa)T)e semanti ategories of Tense, !s*et, Modality, and E/identiality are )allenging as

t)ey are not lear-+t. In order to define lang+age-s*eifi T!ME markers, 5+t also in order

to esta5lis) ross-ling+istially /alid one*ts, I dis+ss two ty*ologial a**roa)es t)at are

im*ortant to str+t+re and disting+is) t)e ategories 6i8 t)e *rototy*e t)eory, w)i) )as

already 5een a**lied to Tense and !s*et 5y $a)l 6&F=98, and 6ii8 t)e anonial a**roa)

w)i) was introd+ed 5y (or5ett 62AA38 and a**lied to t)e *)enomenon of agreement.2T)e

following setion ill+strates )ow t)ese a**roa)es a**ly to t)e st+dy of T!ME.

Originally de/elo*ed in t)e &FBAs 5y t)e ogniti/e *sy)ologist Eleanor Ros) and

olleag+es, *rototy*e t)eory was first a**lied to Tense and !s*et in a ross-ling+isti

st+dy 5y $a)l in &F=9. T)e most 5asi *ro5lem in defining and disting+is)ing T!ME feat+res

is t)eir f+44y 5o+ndaries, and *rototy*e t)eory 6also alled *rototy*e semanti t)eory8,ado*ted to t)e s*eial needs of T!, offers t)e, in my o*inion, 5est s+ited a**roa) to kee*

t)ese ategories a*art. T)e arg+ments of t)e standard *rototy*e t)eory are t)at, firstly,

t)ere are ategories and t)at, seondly, some s*eimen of t)ese ategories an 5e arranged

into 5eing 05etter1 s*eimen t)an ot)ers, e.g. an appleis a 5etter s*eimen of t)e ategory

fruitt)an an oliveis 6see #lei5er &FF= for e;am*les8. ! *rototy*e is t)en t)e 5est s*eimen

of a ategory 5y /ote of t)e maority Ct)e term 0*rototy*e1 as 5est s*eimen or rat)er

2or t)e anonial a**roa) 5eing a**lied to t)e MiraUa agreement system see %eifart 62AA98.


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= 2.3 (one*t+al frameworke;am*le, 5est re*resentati/e or entral element of a ategory P. T)e *rototy*e is t)e

s*eimen t)at is deemed most fitting 5y t)e s*eakers.D 6Translation N.M.8 6#lei5er &FF=,

3&8.3! *rototy*e is not an indi/id+al s*eimen 6e.g. for ird t)eparrot of my neighor8 5+t a

s+5ategory 6parrot8. Ros) et al. 6&FB8 esta5lis)ed t)e *rototy*es in e;*eriments 5y asking

*eo*le w)i) s*eimen of, for e;am*le, a series of )airs 5est re*resented t)e ategory

)air. T)ey t)en formed a sale of )airs, t)e )ig)est of w)i) was t)e *rototy*e. T)is

annot 5e done for T!ME, )owe/er, so t)at we )a/e to esta5lis) t)e *rototy*es for T!ME

ategories in a different way. T)e ad/antage of t)e *rototy*e t)eory is t)at it is fle;i5le, i.e.

allows for less *rototy*ial mem5ers of a ategory. T)e disad/antage is t)at T!ME

*rototy*es annot 5e esta5lis)ed 5y /ote of maority and t)at not e/en two s)olars may

at+ally agree on t)em. ! f+rt)er general disad/antage of t)e *rototy*e t)eory is t)at it is

*ro5a5ly +lt+re-s*eifi. $efining T!ME ategories for lang+age om*arison re:+ires

mo/ing from lang+age-internal feat+res to more a5strat one*ts, w)i) t)e *rototy*e

t)eory annot gi/e +s. It is not s+ffiient to )oose e.g. Englis) 'T'REas *rototy*e and

om*are all ot)er lang+age s*eifi 'T'RE%against it< an ideal one*t of 'T'REis needed.

T)is is t)e to*i of t)e ne;t *aragra*).

!not)er ty*ologial a**roa), w)i) to my knowledge )as not 5een a**lied to T!ME

5efore, is t)e anonial a**roa) 5y (or5ett 62AA3, 2AAB8. ")ereas t)e *rototy*e t)eory

works wit) a 5ottom-+* a**roa), i.e. draws definitions from em*irial data, t)e anonial

a**roa) om5ines a to*-down and 5ottom-+* a**roa) in t)at it *ro*oses a definition and

ma*s it against at+al data. It )as a ore definition t)at is t)e res+lt of Ctaking definitions

to t)eir logial end*ointD and w)i) allows Cto 5+ild t)eoretial s*aes of *ossi5ilitiesD6(or5ett 2AAB, F8. %o instead of )oosing a 5est e;em*lar *rototy*e 6e.g. Englis) 'T'RE8 t)e

anon *ro/ides an ideal one*t 6t)e *oint of e/ent is after t)e *oint of s*ee)8 t)at is t)en

ma**ed against lang+age-s*eifi instanes< t)is is w)at $a)l means wit) *rimary meaning.

ot) *rototy*e t)eory and anonial a**roa) allow for gradation. In a sense, a anonial

instane is t)e same as $a)l1s *rototy*e. $a)l1s *rototy*es de/iate from t)e original

*rototy*es in t)at t)ey are not t)e 5est e;am*le of a gro+*, 5+t rat)er an ideal, w)i) is

meant 5y a anonial instane. T)+s, $a)l a5strated t)e original *rototy*e t)eory and

en)aned t)e meaning of a *rototy*e to denote an ideal, w)i) )as later 5een la5eled

0anonial instane1 5y (or5ett.

2.3.2 T)e dominane *arameter2.3.2 T)e dominane *arameter2.3.2 T)e dominane *arameter2.3.2 T)e dominane *arameter! T!ME marker rarely )as only one meaning, 5+t in order to 5e a5le to sort it into a

ategory one needs to deide w)i) ategory it 5elongs to 5y esta5lis)ing its *rimary

meaning in terms of dominane. In a lang+age ? wit) a marker om5ining 'T'REand e.g.

'N(ERT!INTY, one )as to look at a set of e;am*les to esta5lis) w)i) one is dominant. ")en

all e;am*les )a/e 'T'REmeaning 5+t only sometimes a Modal meaning as well, 'T'REis

3Cder egriff des Hrototy*s als 5estes E;em*lar 54w. eis*iel, 5ester >erteter oder 4entrales Element

einer #ategorie P. $er Hrototy* ist das E;em*lar, das /on den %*re)ern als 5estes anerkannt wirdD.


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2. Terminology, framework, and tools Ft)e dominant meaning, and t)e marker is t)erefore a Tense marker. $a)l 6&F=9, F8 alls t)is

a Cone*t of dominant *arameterD w)i) Cis often rele/ant in t)e desri*tion of T!ME

ategories. or e;am*le, t)e ategory Herfeti/e will +s+ally 5e inter*reted as 0*erfeti/e1

and 0*ast1, alt)o+g) wit) t)e first feat+re learly dominantD. In relation to t)e anonial

a**roa), t)is means t)at t)e anonial meaning is t)e dominant one. It is of o+rse

*ossi5le t)at markers )a/e se/eral meanings t)at always o+r in all instanes, i.e. t)ey are

+m+lati/e mor*)emes 6.f. setion 2.2.28.

2222.3.3 Grammatiali4ation.3.3 Grammatiali4ation.3.3 Grammatiali4ation.3.3 Grammatiali4ation

T)e in)erent semanti *ro*erties of T!ME ategories s+ggest t)at T!ME feat+res are *art

of a ontin++m. T)ey are strongly related to ea) ot)er, to t)e *oint of o/erla**ing. "it)in

t)is ontin++m, markers are *rone to s)ift meaning, some more easily t)an ot)ers, and also

to s)ift form and *osition in t)e la+se. It is t)is one*t+al linkage 5etween t)e ategories

t)at failitates grammatiali4ation *roesses 5etween T!ME ategories. %)ift of meaning is

t)+s a *rominent )arateristi of grammatiali4ation or 0grammatii4ation1 6f. y5ee et al.

&FF7, @eine Q #+te/a 2AA9, Narrog Q @eine 2A&&, to name 5+t a few8. T)e following

*aragra*)s 5riefly introd+e t)e one*t of grammatiali4ation and w)y it is so im*ortant

in o+r +nderstanding of T!ME ategories.

Grammatiali4ation is a *roess in w)i) a ertain le;eme +ndergoes )anges in

meaning and form, and e/ol/es to t)e stat+s of grammatial element. ()anges in meaning

inl+de a generali4ation of t)e original semanti ontent, or red+tion 6erosion, 5lea)ing,

narrowing et.8. ()anges in form inl+de red+tion of mor*)o-*)onologial material, i.e.s)ortening or ondensing. T)e )ange of meaning and form s+5se:+ently leads to a )ange

of word lass as well, i.e. a formerly inde*endent le;eme is fo+nd in a m+) more restrited

en/ironment s+) as t)e affi; slot. T)e /ario+s )anges a le;eme +ndergoes to 5eome

more or less grammatiali4ed are ommonly referred to as grammatiali4ation *at) or

line. T)is is a /ery general definition of grammatiali4ation, 5ased on y5ee et al. 6&FF78

w)o in/estigated Tense, !s*et, and Modality regarding grammatiali4ation *at)s in a

glo5al sam*le of B lang+ages. !ording to t)em, a grammatial marker e;ists on a s*eial

*oint along a grammatiali4ation *at) and an only satisfatorily 5e desri5ed

dia)ronially in a way t)at allows for ross-ling+isti om*arison Csyn)roni +ni/ersals

)a/e 5een el+si/e in t)e area of grammatial meaning 5ea+se at any gi/en time a gram1s

+ses stret) o/er a se:+ene of links in t)e grammatiali4ation )ain. Only t)e dia)roni*ers*eti/e an re/eal )ow t)ese +ses are related and )ow a gi/en gram om*ares to

similar grams in ot)er lang+agesD 6i5id. 2=&8. In ot)er words, for a marker to 5e om*ara5le

one s)o+ld know w)ere it ame from and at w)i) *oint of grammatiali4ation it e;ists

now, 5ot) in meaning and in form. T)is is, of o+rse, )ardly feasi5le for %!ILs, 5ea+se for

most of t)e lang+ages we do not )a/e s+ffiient )istorial data for dia)roni analyses.

@owe/er, y5ee et al. 6i5id.8 *ro/ide +s wit) a n+m5er of +ni/ersal grammatiali4ation

*at)s t)at ena5le +s to infer *ro5a5le so+res of s*eifi markers. In addition, a general

interest in grammatiali4ation )as also res+lted in a n+m5er of st+dies of *arti+lar


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&A 2.3 (one*t+al framework*)enomena in %!ILs 6e.g. E**s 2AA= a5o+t t)e grammatiali4ation of a 'T'REmarker from

t)e le;eme for 0wood1 in @+*8. !lt)o+g) inferring grammatiali4ation *at)s of T!ME

markers in %!ILs is not a maor resear) to*i of t)is st+dy, t)ey are of onsidera5le )el*

w)en sorting and om*aring markers.

Grammatiali4ation does not only ontri5+te to o+r +nderstanding of T!ME markers

and t)eir lang+age-internal de/elo*ment, it )as also 5een demonstrated t)at it an 5e

triggered 5y ontat and t)+s re/eal ontat in ontig+o+s regions wit) +nrelated

lang+ages. T)+s, ontat of a lang+age wit) a ertain grammatiali4ed marker an trigger

grammatiali4ation of a mor*)eme in an adaent lang+age, as arg+ed, among ot)ers, 5y

@eine Q #+te/a 62AA98. ! region t)at feat+res se/eral instanes of transfer 5y

grammatiali4ation of +nrelated lang+ages is alled 0grammatiali4ation area1 5y

grammatiali4ation area P we +nderstand a gro+* of geogra*)ially ontig+o+s lang+ages

t)at )a/e +ndergone t)e same grammatiali4ation *roess as a res+lt of lang+age ontatD

6i5id. &=28. @eine Q #+te/a *ro*ose se/eral grammatiali4ation areas world-wide, and one

s*eifially in %!. In t)e >a+*Vs, ontat-ind+ed grammatiali4ation is known to )a/e

)a**ened 5etween T+anoan and Tariana 6!rawakan8. or e;am*le, t)e ategory of a

%E(ON$@!N$IMHER!TI>E 6C$o t)is 5ea+se someone else told yo+WD8 was transferred from

T+anoan to Tariana. Tariana did not originally )a/e a %E(ON$@!N$IMHER!TI>Eand instead

e;tended t)e meaning of t)e %E(ON$@!N$marker -pidato IMHER!TI>E 6i5id. 2&78. It is 5eyond

t)e range of t)is st+dy to *ro*ose grammatiali4ation areas in %!, 5+t ontat-ind+ed

grammatiali4ation may e;*lain t)e distri5+tion of ertain T!ME markers, +st like

lang+age internal grammatiali4ation does.

2.3.7 O52.3.7 O52.3.7 O52.3.7 O5ligatorinessligatorinessligatorinessligatoriness

Grammatiali4ation, es*eially t)at w)i) e/ent+ally leads to a 4ero-marker, is most likely

w)en one or more meanings are o5ligatorily e;*ressed in a s*eifi lang+age 6y5ee &FF7,

2928. In general, any ategory is o5ligatory w)en a la+se +nmarked for t)at ategory

meaning is +ngrammatial. T)at meaning is +s+ally tied to a s*eifi marker or a *aradigm

of markers. or y5ee 6&F=9, 2A28, a ategory is o5ligatory w)en it is om*+lsory in e/ery

finite la+se regardless of w)et)er its meaning is red+ndant. 'nfort+nately, lang+ages are

not t)at *ersistent wit) regard to o5ligatoriness. or instane, in Tariana grammatial

Tense marking is o5ligatory 5+t an 5e dro**ed, for instane, in narrati/es w)en t)e

tem*oral frame )as 5een esta5lis)ed 6!ik)en/ald 2AA3, 2=F8.!**arently, t)ere is a differene 5etween o5ligatoriness of marker and o5ligatoriness of

meaning. ")en t)e meaning is e;*ressed solely 5y one marker, t)en 5ot) oinide, 5+t

w)en t)e meaning is *ossi5ly e;*ressed 5y alternati/e means, t)ey o/erla* only *artly.

T)at e;*lains w)y it is *ossi5le to dro* a Tense marker in narrati/es or s+5ordinate la+ses,

5ea+se t)e meaning is still t)ere, alt)o+g) t)e o/ert marker is not.

In t)is st+dy, it )as not 5een *ossi5le to systematially differentiate 5etween t)e

o5ligatory and o*tional marking of a ategory. T)is is d+e to t)e fat t)at many so+res

sim*ly do not refer to o5ligatoriness, and t)at w)en t)ey do, t)ey are not entirely


27/297

2. Terminology, framework, and tools &&onsistent in t)eir definitions. T)is is one of t)e fators t)at led to t)e e;l+sion of 4ero-

markers as well, 5ea+se o5ligatoriness of one ategory is /ital for t)e grammatiali4ation

of anot)er ategory into a 4ero-marker. T)erefore, t)is st+dy inl+des markers w)ose

o5ligatoriness is +nknown.

2.3.9 %ystematiity2.3.9 %ystematiity2.3.9 %ystematiity2.3.9 %ystematiity

T!ME markers, es*eially )ig)ly grammatiali4ed ones, are strongly em5edded in

grammatial systems, i.e. are *art of om*le; *aradigms. ! ategory is taken into ao+nt in

t)is st+dy regardless of w)et)er it is re*resented 5y markers in all instanes in a *aradigm

or only *artially. Haradigms an 5e defeti/e. or e;am*le, @+allaga X+e)+a )as a 'T'RE

*aradigm for *erson and n+m5er, 5+t t)e forms for t)e seond *erson are )omo*)ono+s

wit) t)ose of t)e HRE%ENT6"e5er &F=F, &AA8. In Tiriy, t)e non-olleti/e HRE%ENT IMHERE(TI>E

and 'T'RE IMHERE(TI>E)a/e a (ERT!INTY$'IT!TI>E distintion t)at is neit)er *resent in t)e

olleti/e forms nor in t)e HRE%ENT HERE(TI>E, 'T'RE HERE(TI>E, or in t)e H!%TTenses 6Meira

&FFF, 2F98. !s lang+ages an )a/e only *artial o5ligatoriness, t)ey also an )a/e *artial

*aradigms. Ne/ert)eless, markers of defeti/e *aradigms are still taken into ao+nt )ere.

or Tiriy, for e;am*le, t)at means t)at Tiriy is oded to )a/e marked E*istemi Modality,

e/en t)o+g) only in HRE%ENT IMHERE(TI>Eand 'T'RE IMHERE(TI>E.

2.7 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] T@E !"#$% "&'()*#+!"#$% "&'()*#+!"#$% "&'()*#+!"#$% "&'()*#+O T@I% %T'$YO T@I% %T'$YO T@I% %T'$YO T@I% %T'$Y

T)is setion e;*lains t)e f+ndamental framework of t)is st+dy w)i) was *artially

introd+ed in setion 2.3.In t)is st+dy, t)e definitions gi/en in t)e res*eti/e setions are t)e ideal, i.e.

anonial *rototy*ial, meanings w)i) were inferred from *re/io+s st+dies. Lang+age-

s*eifi markers may more or less anonially *rototy*ially re*resent t)ese meanings.

or e;am*le, 'T'REis generally ae*ted to 5e t)e grammatiali4ed e;*ression of time

onstit+ting t)at t)e *oint of s*ee) is 5efore t)e *oint of e/ent. !ordingly, t)is is t)e

definition of 'T'RE+sed in t)is st+dy 6f. setion 3.2.&8. +t markers e;*ressing 'T'REare

not neessarily restrited to t)is ideal definition. or e;am*le, a 'T'REmarker may also

e;*ress $'IT!TI>E. In t)at ase, one needs to esta5lis) w)i) meaning is dominant, or

w)et)er t)ese meanings are e:+ally dominant 6i.e. a +m+lati/e mor*)eme8.

$a)l 6&F=9, 338 arg+es t)at t)ree le/els of desri*tion )a/e to 5e *resent in a s+essf+l

ty*ologial st+dy of T!ME one for +ni/ersal ategories, i.e. H!%T,followed 5y t)e le/el oflang+age-s*eifi ategories 6e.g. H!%Tin Englis)8. T)e t)ird le/el denotes t)e dimensions of

one*t+al s*ae, i.e. t)e 0:+arks1 t)at make +* t)e s*ae of a *rototy*e. or e;am*le, t)e

+ni/ersal ategory H!%Tis reali4ed in t)e lang+age-s*eifi ategory H!%TTense in Englis),

and t)e meaning of Englis) H!%Tis *ast time. +t *ast time is not restrited to H!%TTense

and may in some lang+ages also 5e a *art of HERE(TI>E!s*et.Nat+rally, *ast time referene

and H!%TTense oinide, as t)e semanti ontent of H!%TTense is *ast time, 5+t a ategory is

not restrited to )a/e only one :+ark. 'T'RETenseoften inl+des not only f+t+re time

referene 5+t also Modal meanings like IMHER!TI>E, *lanning, desire et., de*ending on t)e


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&2 2.7 T)e mod+s o*erandi of t)is st+dyindi/id+al lang+age. T)e :+arks are t)e om*onents t)at need to 5e semantially defined,

as t)ro+g) t)em t)e )ig)er ategories get t)eir meaning.

T)is t)esis works wit) two 5asi distintions s+*erategories and t)eir res*eti/e

s+5ategories. %+*erategories are indiated 5y an initial a*ital, e.g. Tense, Modality,

!s*et, and E/identiality to disting+is) t)em from )omo*)ones s+) as tense and mood, as

in CI walked into a 5ar and t)e mood was :+ite tenseD. %+5ategories are formatted in small

a*s, regardless of w)et)er t)ey also re*resent s+5ategories of s+5ategories, e.g.

IMHERE(TI>Eand (ONTIN'!TI>E are not formally )ierar)ially disting+is)ed alt)o+g)

(ONTIN'!TI>Eis a s+5ategory of IMHERE(TI>E6f. setion 7.&8. T)is is done in order to

esta5lis) /isi5le differenes 5etween terms like H!%Tand *ast, t)e former 5eing t)e

ling+isti ategory and t)e latter referring to a general one*t of time, not 5eing restrited

to t)e ling+isti definition. (ategories t)at are not dealt wit), and t)+s not defined, in t)is

st+dy reei/e no e;tra marking. or e;am*le, interrogati/e, negation, indiati/e, et. are

reogni4a5le as not 5eing *art of t)e :+estionnaire. T)e s+*erategories are ass+med to 5e

lang+age +ni/ersals for t)e *+r*ose of ross-ling+isti om*arison, alt)o+g) t)is st+dy does

not laim t)at t)ey are.

ig+re 2.& Le/els of desri*tion

!s *ointed o+t 5y @as*elmat) 62A&A8, indi/id+al lang+age desri*tions neessarily work

wit) desri*ti/e sets a**lia5le to t)e res*eti/e lang+age, w)i) means t)at t)ey are not

om*ara5le ross-ling+istially, as no *arti+lar ategory )as an e;at one-to-one

orres*ondene to a ategory of anot)er lang+age. Instead, one needs to work wit)

om*arati/e one*ts t)at are Cs*eifially designed for t)e *+r*ose of om*arison t)at areinde*endent of desri*ti/e ategoriesD 6@as*elmat) 2A&A, 78. T)e *ro5lem of lang+age-

*arti+lar ategories t)at denote different one*ts from lang+age to lang+age is dee*ly

rooted wit)in T!ME, not only 5ea+se of different lang+age internal *roesses, 5+t also

5ea+se of t)e tendeny of resear)ers to a**ly terminology t)at is not s+ffiiently defined.

T)+s, two lang+age-s*eifi IRRE!LI%markers may well 5e different in all 5+t terminology,

5+t t)at s)o+ld not *ose a *ro5lem as long as 5ot) +ses are defined. %ome a+t)ors of

desri*ti/e grammars first often do not make a distintion 5etween lang+age *arti+lar and

+ni/ersal ategories, and seond do not always define t)eir terminology. T)is is aggra/ated


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2. Terminology, framework, and tools &35y t)e fat t)at T!ME ategories are )ig)ly interrelated and wit)o+t definition one is

+na5le to disting+is) feat+res and ends +* om*aring two ategories t)at are not t)e same

at all, sim*ly 5ea+se 5ot) )a/e 5een la5eled t)e same.7

@as*elmat)1s om*arati/e one*ts a**roa) offers a sol+tion for t)e way to find

ling+isti +ni/ersals in om*aring not ling+isti feat+res, 5+t one*ts. ! modified /ersion

of om*arati/e one*ts an 5e fo+nd in t)is t)esis. T)e 5ases for ross-ling+isti

om*arison are t)e ategories, w)i) are defined 5y *rototy*ial anonial meanings 6see

5elow8. It s)o+ld 5e 5orne in mind t)at e.g. t)e ategory H!%Tdoes not neessarily fit one-

to-one to lang+age s*eifi H!%T markers.

T)is st+dy fo+ses on T!ME ategories t)at are marked mor*)o-syntatially. $+e to

t)e limits of t)e *roet *eri*)rasti onstr+tions, ad/er5s, f+ll /er5s et. are not taken

into ao+nt, alt)o+g) t)ey are *ro5a5ly not less interesting wit) regard to lang+age

ontat, lang+age )ange, grammatiali4ation, and ty*ology. It is )o*ed t)at a

om*lementing st+dy of non-mor*)o-syntati T!ME of t)e same sam*le will 5e ond+ted

in t)e f+t+re. Mor*)o-syntati marking )ere inl+des affi;es, litis, *artiles, a+;iliaries,

and stem )ange s+**letion 6and for some :+estions, also re*etitionred+*liation8. T)ese

are *artially disting+is)ed 5y t)eir a5ility to o+r as 5o+nd or free mor*)emes and t)eir

a5ility to take mor*)ology affi;es and litis annot o+r on t)eir own, 5+t )a/e to 5e

atta)ed to a )ost, w)ereas *artiles and a+;iliaries are free mor*)emes, alt)o+g) *artly

restrited to ertain *ositions in t)e la+se 6lang+age-de*endent8. ! *artile annot take

affi;es or litis, w)ereas a+;iliaries are a5le to reei/e /er5al infletional mor*)emes. T)e

5o+ndaries are fl+id, w)i) leads to lassifiation *ro5lems. or e;am*le, in a+re6!rawakan8, se/eral ad/er5s and *artiles are )omo*)ono+s and o5/io+sly t)e *artiles

deri/e from t)e ad/er5s, e.g. t)e HERE(T*artile C)as 5een deri/ed from t)e ad/er5 ver

0already1, e/en t)o+g) t)e ad/er5ial +se is )ardly disting+is)a5le from t)e *artile +seD

6$anielsen 2AAB, 2B28. In general, t)e terms 0*artile1 and 0ad/er51 are often +sed

inter)angea5ly 60*artile1 is also infamo+s for 5eing +sed for e/ery marker t)at o+ld not

5e sorted into any ot)er word lass8 and one )as to rely on t)e original so+re information.

! T!ME marker always )as so*e o/er t)e /er5 *)rase, regardless of its *osition in t)e

la+se. or e;am*le, a marker t)at atta)es to no+ns and )as no so*e o/er t)e /er5al

ation of t)e la+se is not a Tense marker. +t w)en t)at same marker also )as /er5al

so*e, t)en it is a Tense marker.9or e;am*le, in !*+rin t)e 'T'REmarker -koan o+r

on non-/er5al 5ases as well as on t)e /er5, 5+t it always )as so*e o/er t)e /er5al ation6a+ndes 2AAA, 7&A8. In MamaindZ t)ere is a set of tem*oral markers t)at e;l+si/ely o+r

on no+ns 6i.e. nominal Tense markers8, in addition to a distint set of /er5al Tense markers

6E5er)ard 2AAF, 3738. ot) lang+ages are oded as )a/ing Tense markers, 5+t t)e MamaindZ

7T)is *arti+larly )a**ens wit) t)e terms 0*erfet1 and 0*erfeti/e1 6f. setion 7.B8.9or a dis+ssion of t)e nominal tense see Nordlinger Q %adler 62AA7, 2AA=8, Ton)a+ser 62AAB8, and

6M+ysken 2AA=8.


30/297

&7 2.7 T)e mod+s o*erandi of t)is st+dynominal Tense markers are not taken into ao+nt in t)is st+dy, 5ea+se t)ey do not )a/e

/er5al so*e.

62.&8 !*+rin 6a+ndes 2AAA, 7&A, 9&78

6a8 kopiti-ka-ra-kokokoko o-kama nominal 5ase

5+ket-HR$-O(-'T 3-make

06It1s8 t)e 5+ket t)at s)e1ll make.1

658 iye ,-oka-pe-no-na-kokokoko /er5al 5ase

HT( 3M-kill-H>-&%G.OJ-3HL-'T

0%o, t)ey will kill me.1

62.28 MamaindZ 6Nam5ikwaran< E5er)ard 2AAF, 373, 72F8

6a8 ta-alekhan-leleleleiiii-tu nominal Tense

HO%%&-)ief-H%T-N%

0my *ast )ief1

658 jalakatun-tu .n-let-,-n.nn.nn.nn.n-a /er5al Tense

)owler.monkey-N% s)oot-I.H%T-%J3-H%T-$E(L

0@e s)ot a )owler monkey 6in intermediate *ast time8.1

Markers an o+r on a+;iliaries and also 5e a+;iliaries t)emsel/es in %)i*i5o-#oni5o t)e

main /er5speo- 05egin1, keyo- 0finis)1 andjene- 0sto*1 an also f+ntion as a+;iliaries wit)

!s*et+al meaning 6>alen4+ela 2AA3, 3&F8. In $[w, t)e HERE(TI>Emarker is an a+;iliary

deri/ed from t)e /er5j/t0to kill1 6Martins 2AA7, 2FA8

62.38 $[w 6Nada)+*< Martins 2AA7, 2FA8

6a8 m01 ja2 p34 j/tj/tj/tj/t m014t /er5

one timeo+rney grand*arent kill +tia

0One t)e grandmot)er killed an ago+ti.1 6orig. 0'ma /e4 a a/ mato+ +ma +tia.18

658 tih po j/tj/tj/tj/t 0-duh a+;iliary

3%G to.s*lit H> *lant-firewood

0@e s*lit firewood.1 6orig. 0Ele ra)o+ len)a.18

To s+mmari4e, t)e *resent st+dy takes into ao+nt mor*)o-syntati T!ME marker. T)edefinitions of t)e T!ME ategories in t)is )a*ter are ideals *rototy*es anonial

instanes 5ased on *re/io+s st+dies. ! marker m+st )a/e t)e *rototy*ial meaning as t)e

dominant one. In ase t)ere are two or more dominant meanings it is eit)er a +m+lati/e or

am5ig+o+s marker. It does not matter w)et)er a marker is +m+lati/e or am5ig+o+s,

5ea+se in 5ot) instanes t)e ategory is oded as marked. or f+rt)er information a5o+t

oding strategies see setion 2.9.2.


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2. Terminology, framework, and tools &92.9 TOOL%2.9 TOOL%2.9 TOOL%2.9 TOOL%

2.9.& T)e lang+age sam*le2.9.& T)e lang+age sam*le2.9.& T)e lang+age sam*le2.9.& T)e lang+age sam*le

T)e lang+age sam*le +sed in t)is st+dy was designed to 5alane geogra*)ial and

genealogial di/ersity of %!IL% wit) a fo+s on ertain families and regions, taking t)e

a/aila5ility of good desri*tions into ao+nt. T)e 5asis for t)e analysis is a :+estionnaire,

w)i) is t)e to*i of t)e following setion. In t)is setion I *resent t)e lang+age sam*le and

)ow it was om*iled.

T)e 5asis of t)is *arti+lar sam*le is a list of A lang+ages w)i) was om*iled for t)e

ER( *roet CTraes of (ontat 6To(8D. One of t)e main goals of t)e *roet is to integrate

t)e growing 5ody of desri*ti/e work w)i) )as 5eome a/aila5le in t)e last deades. or

t)is st+dy, t)ree additional lang+ages were )osen in order to e;*and t)e o/erage of

maor lang+age families X+e)+an 6(+4o X+e)+a8 and T+*an 6N)eengat\ and %aterV-

MawV8 so as to allow for more detailed genealogial analysis. T)e original To( lang+age

sam*le was om*iled 5ased on t)ree *rini*les first, to *rofile t)e known maor lang+age

families as well as smaller ones and isolates +nlassified lang+ages 6genealogial di/ersity8alen4+ela 2AA35

Yamina)+a Hanoan a+st Q Loos 2AA2

@+allaga X+e)+a X+e)+an "e5er &FFIm5a5+ra X+e)+a X+e)+an (ole &F=2, &F=9

8u9co 7uechua X+e)+an aller 2AA2, 2AA3

(a/ineUa Taanan G+illa+me 2AA=, G+illa+me *..

(+5eo T+anoan Morse Q Ma;well &FFF

$esano T+anoan Miller &FFF

#aritiana T+*an E/erett 2AA

#aro T+*an Ga5as Jr. &FFF

Mekens T+*an Gal+io 2AA&, Gal+io *..

%ater:-!a: T+*an %il/a 2A&A


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2. Terminology, framework, and tools &FEmVrillon T+*an, G+aran Rose 2AA3

#amai+r^ T+*an, G+aran %eki 2AAA

(oama-(oamilla T+*an, G+aran >alleos Yo*^n 2A&A

Ta*iete T+*an, G+aran Gon4^le4 2AA9

*heengat T+*an, G+aran da (r+4 2A&&

Yanam Yanomaman Goodwin Gme4 &FFA

Itonama +nlassified (re/els 2AA, (re/els *..

Leko +nlassified >an de #erke 2AAF, >an de #erke *..

Mo/ima +nlassified @a+de 2AA

Y+rakarV +nlassified >an Gin 2AA, >an Gin *..< Gi**er 2A&&

#anoZ +nlassified aelar 2AA7

#wa4a +nlassified >an der >oort 2AA7, >an der >oort *..

Tr+mai +nlassified G+irardello &FFF

M+ni)i +nlassified Gi5son &FF

H+ina/e +nlassified Girn 2AA=

'rarina +nlassified Olawsky 2AA

"arao +nlassified Romero-ig+eroa &FFB


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2A 2.9 ToolsMa* 2.& !**ro;imate *osition of lang+ages in t)e sam*le at *oint of ontat


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2. Terminology, framework, and tools 2&Ma* 2.2 Model ma* of t)e %!ILs sam*le


38/297

22 2.9 Tools2.9.2 T)e :+estionnaire2.9.2 T)e :+estionnaire2.9.2 T)e :+estionnaire2.9.2 T)e :+estionnaire

T)e 5asis for t)is st+dy is a :+estionnaire w)i) was de/elo*ed aording to t)e str+t+re

of T!ME ategories as well as aording to t)e onfig+ration of t)e om*lete Traes of

(ontat data5ase. T)e final data5ase will 5e made *+5li in 2A&3 and all t)e data will 5e

trans*arent. ea+se t)e indi/id+al *ro*erties of t)e feat+res and w)y t)ey were )osen

are dis+ssed in detail in t)e res*eti/e setions, t)is setion onentrates on t)e str+t+re

of t)e :+estionnaire. It s+ffies to say )ere t)at, gi/en t)e tem*oral limitations of t)e

*roet, it was attem*ted to inl+de a mi;t+re of t)e maor ategories 6e.g. HRE%ENT for

Tense, HERE(TI>Efor !s*et, RE!LI%for Modality, and IR%T@!N$for E/identiality8 and t)ose

w)i) may 5e onsidered more marginal, 5+t not less interesting 6e.g. $E%I$ER!TI>E,

R'%TR!TI>E,*olite (OMM!N$8.

T)ere are two ways to a**roa) T!ME systems 5ottom-+* or to*-down. T)e 5ottom-+*

a**roa) looks at t)e indi/id+al markers and t)eir distri5+tion. It starts wit) t)e o5et of

interest and e;amines its /al+es. T)is is t)e ideal ase if one attem*ts a desri*ti/e work,

5+t +nfeasi5le for a :+estionnaire. T)e /ery nat+re of a :+estionnaire is esta5lis)ing lear

5o+ndaries 5etween meanings, to demarate meaning ! from . T)e /ery nat+re of T!ME,

on t)e ot)er )and, is t)at ! and 6and ( and $ and E and P8 are related to ea) ot)er and

annot easily 5e se*arated. In order to esta5lis) some kind of ommon gro+nd as a 5asis for

om*arison, t)e to*-down a**roa) is ado*ted )ere a set of definitions f+ntions as a

tem*late and is a**lied to t)e data. T)is )as t)e disad/antage of losing information a5o+t

markers, 5+t I )a/e ommented +*on t)is w)en neessary in 5ot) t)e st+dy and t)e

:+estionnaire.T)e :+estionnaire )as fo+r to*i setions, one ea) for T!ME, amo+nting to a total of 39

:+estions. Ea) :+estion asks for a s*eifi feat+re and )as its own n+m5er w)i) odes t)e

setion 6& for Tense, 2 for MoodModality, 3 for !s*et, and 7 for E/identiality8 and t)e

de*endeny to ot)er :+estions, e.g. :+estion &.2.& odes for Tense 6&8, it is de*endent of t)e

seond :+estion 628, and it is t)e first to ome in line 6&8. T)e order of t)e setions and

:+estions is not im*ortant< ea) inde*endent :+estion an 5e answered wit)o+t ons+lting

ot)er :+estions. ! list of all :+estions is gi/en 5elow

Tense

&.& Is *resent tense marked mor*)o-syntatially_

&.2 Is f+t+re tense marked mor*)o-syntatially_&.2.& In terms of remoteness, )ow many f+t+re tenses are marked mor*)o-syntatially_

&.3 Is *ast tense marked mor*)o-syntatially_

&.3.& In terms of remoteness, )ow many *ast tenses are marked mor*)o-syntatially_

Modality

2.& Is realis mood marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2.2 Is irrealis mood marked mor*)o-syntatially_


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2. Terminology, framework, and tools 232.3 Is im*erati/e mood marked mor*)o-syntatially wit) one marker for more t)an

one *erson and n+m5er_

2.7 Is im*erati/e for &st *erson only marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2.9 Is im*erati/e for 2nd *erson only marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2. Is im*erati/e for 3rd *erson only marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2.B Is *ro)i5iti/e marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2.= Is a *olite mild weak im*erati/e marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2.F Is intentional marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2.&A Is t)ere a *otential modal marker e;*ressing a *otential reality 65+t not neessarily

e;l+ding *ast referene8_

2.&& Is ertainty marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2.&2 Is d+5itati/e marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2.&3 Is fr+strati/e marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2.&7 Is *+r*osi/e marked mor*)o-syntatially_

2.&9 Is desiderati/e marked mor*)o-syntatially_

!s*et

3.& Is *erfeti/e marked mor*)o-syntatially_

3.2 Is im*erfeti/e marked mor*)o-syntatially_

3.3 Is anterior marked mor*)o-syntatially_

3.7 Is a )a5it+al ation marked mor*)o-syntatially_

3.9 Is a ontin+ati/e ation marked mor*)o-syntatially_3. Is an iterati/e ation marked mor*)o-syntatially_ 6single andor m+lti*le

re*etition8_

3.B Is a om*leti/e ation marked mor*)o-syntatially_

3.= Is an inom*leti/e ation marked mor*)o-syntatially_

E/identiality

7.& Is first)and information marked mor*)o-syntatially_

7.2 Is non-first)and information marked mor*)o-syntatially_

7.3 Is seond)and information marked mor*)o-syntatially 6may inl+de t)ird-)and

information8_

7.7 Is :+otati/e marked mor*)o-syntatially_7.9 Is /is+al e/identiality marked mor*)o-syntatially_

7. Is inferred e/identiality marked mor*)o-syntatially_

7.B Is ass+med e/identiality marked mor*)o-syntatially_

T)e data5ase only s)ows 5inary /al+es, i.e. eit)er a lang+age e;)i5its a mor*)o-

syntatially marked feat+re, or not. @owe/er, for t)is *arti+lar st+dy, m+lti*le /al+es are

gi/en. Ea) :+estion )as an answer key w)i) *ro/ides *ossi5le /al+es. T)ese /al+es differ

marginally from :+estion to :+estion, 5+t always )a/e a *ositi/e, a negati/e 60No18, and an


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27 2.9 Tools+nknown 60_18 /al+e. Hositi/e /al+es inl+de t)e following o*tions affi;, liti, *artile,

a+;iliary, stem )ange s+**letion, im*erati/e marker and additional marker 6:+estion 2.=

only8, re*etition 6of *arts8 of t)e /er5 6!s*et :+estions only8, and n+m5ers in t)e ase of

:+estions &.2.& and &.3.& 6remoteness degrees8. ! :+estion reei/es a *ositi/e entry w)en

t)ere is mor*)o-syntati marking of t)at feat+re, negati/e w)en t)ere is none, aording

to so+re. T)e :+estionnaire odes for markers of t)e /al+e ty*es affi;es, litis, *artiles,

a+;iliaries, and stem )ange in main, non-negati/e, non-interrogati/e la+ses. T)e *ossi5le

/al+es for ea) answer differ, e.g. ITER!TI>E)as t)e additional /al+e of re*etition of 6*arts

of8 t)e /er5, and t)e Tense remoteness :+estion /al+es are n+m5ers 5eginning at 4ero 6i.e.

no remoteness degrees8. or ea) :+estion it is also *ossi5le to answer wit) 0_1 in ases

w)ere t)e so+res do not mention t)at s*eifi feat+re. (ertain Modalities are e;e*tions to

t)e main la+se r+le, e.g. IRRE!LI% markers may a**ear in s+5ordinate la+ses, as do

HOTENTI!L markers.T)e HRO@IITI>Eof o+rse o+rs in negati/e la+ses. or a more detailed

dis+ssion look at t)e res*eti/e definition setions. !ll :+estions wit) a *ositi/e entry

s*eify t)e information so+re 6a+t)or, date and *age n+m5er8, and negati/e entries also

get a so+re entry w)en t)e a5sene of t)at feat+re is s*eifially stated.

$+e to t)e final str+t+re of t)e data5ase, t)e :+estionnaire allows for only one answer

*er :+estion, 5+t t)ere are ases of m+lti*le *ossi5le answers. or e;am*le, a lang+age t)at

e;*resses H!%T Tense 5y two markers, e.g. one s+ffi; and one *artile, annot )a/e 5ot)

answers in t)e /al+e ol+mn. T)e marker t)at is most grammatiali4ed is entered, wit) t)e

*referene going from affi; 6most grammatiali4ed8 o/er liti to *artile and a+;iliary. I

)a/e ke*t trak of alternati/e ways of marking in t)e :+estionnaire in t)e omment setion.One feat+re marked 5y two mor*)emes s)o+ld 5e rare, )owe/er. Often one marker )as a

slig)tly different meaning, so for t)e :+estionnaire one s)o+ld aref+lly onsider t)e

en/ironments 5ot) markers o+r in. ")at seems like two H!%Tmarkers may 5e oneH!%T

marker and one HERE(TI>Emarker. Or one of 5ot) markers is t)e general one and t)e ot)er

only added to on/ey remoteness degrees. Or t)ey are in om*lementary distri5+tion, one

in asserti/e la+ses, and one in interrogati/e la+ses. T)e )oie made is in fa/or of degree

of grammatiali4ation, dominane 6in terms of fre:+eny or *rod+ti/ity8, and o+rrene

in asserti/e, *ositi/e main la+ses 6some Modal ategories 5eing e;e*tions8.

T)e following fo+r )a*ters onstit+te t)e main 5ody of t)e st+dy. T)ey first *resent

t)e definitions of t)e T!ME ategories +sed in t)is st+dy and t)en *resent t)e res+lts, wit)

a fo+s on geogra*)ial and genealogial distri5+tions. T)ey are arranged as follows Tense6)a*ter 38, !s*et 6)a*ter 78, Modality 6)a*ter 98, and E/identiality 6)a*ter 8. T)ey are

ordered to reflet t)e order in t)e :+estionnaire and an 5e read se*arately wit)o+t )a/ing

to ons+lt t)e ot)ers, wit) t)e e;e*tion of t)e sta5ility setions. %etion 3.&A introd+es

t)e one*t of tem*oral sta5ility neessary to +nderstand t)e sta5ility setions in t)e ot)er

)a*ters. In order to f+lly +nderstand t)e *oints of o/erla* I reommend reading all

)a*ters in t)e order t)ey are gi/en.


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3. Tense 25

3. TENS3. TENS3. TENS3. TENSEEEE3.1 INTRODUCTION3.1 INTRODUCTION3.1 INTRODUCTION3.1 INTRODUCTION

Klein (2009, 4041) clais !"a! lan#$a#es can e%&'ess !ie in si% ie'en! *a+s !"'-$#"

Tense, s&ec!, /!i-nsa'!, !e&-'al ae'ials, !e&-'al &a'!icles, an isc-$'se &'inci&les.

O !"ese, !"e -c$s - !"is c"a&!e' is -n Tense !ense is a #'aa!ical ca!e#-'+ - !"e e'

in i!s !'ai!i-nal $ne's!anin#, i! se'es !- l-ca!e !"e si!$a!i-n in 'ela!i-n !- !"e n-* -

!"e s&eec" ac! (ii. 40). s&ec! *ill e eal! *i!" in !"e -ll-*in# c"a&!e', $! eca$se

Tense an s&ec! a'e "i#"l+ 'ela!e, i! *ill e en!i-ne *"e'e 'elean! "e'e. /!i-nsa'!,

!e&-'al ae's, an isc-$'se &'inci&les a'e n-! c-e in !"e 6$es!i-nnai'e an

!"e'e-'e n-! -' -nl+ &a'!l+ isc$sse "e'e, $! inee !"e'e *-$l e en-$#" a!e'ial !-all-* -' see'al isse'!a!i-ns -n eac" - !"ese. Since &a'!icles - all $ne' + eini!i-n

- -'&"-7s+n!ac!ic a'/in# (see c"a&!e' 2), !"e+ a'e incl$e in !"is s!$+.

I a lan#$a#e "as -'&"-7s+n!ac!ic Tense a'/in# (-li#a!-'+ -' n-!) i! is Tense, an i

i! -es n-! i! is Tenseless (c. Si!" 2005, S!assen 1998, C-'ie 195 e!c. -' siila'

classiica!i-ns). T"is -es n-! en!ail !"a! a lan#$a#e "as n- eans - e%&'essin# !ie $!

si&l+ !"a! i! lac/s s$c" -'&"-7s+n!ac!ic a'/in#. Tense lan#$a#es in !"is sa&le can e

ie'en!ia!e acc-'in# !- *"ic" is!inc!i-ns !"e+ a/e

1. T*-7*a+ is!inc!i-ns (s$c" as :UTURE;NON:UTURE an.

T"e -ll-*in# sec!i-ns isc$ss !"ese s+s!es in e!ail, $! e-'e a *-' a-$! !"e $se

- !"e !e' s+s!e is necessa'+. s+s!e en-!es a #ene'al sean!ic c-nce&! an -es

n-! 'ee' !- a s&eciic s+n!ac!ic s!'$c!$'e, s$c" as -'e' - ai%es. I a lan#$a#e "as -ne

e'al sl-! -' Tense an an-!"e' -' ?-ali!+, an !"e :UTUREa'/e' is in !"e ?-al sl-!, i!is nee'!"eless !'ea!e as Tense as l-n# as !"is is !"e &'ia'+ eanin# - !"e eleen! (-'

!"e &'-lea!ic 'ela!i-ns"i& - :UTURE*i!" ?-ali!+ see el-* sec!i-n 3.8).

T"is c"a&!e' s!a'!s *i!" !"e *-'/in# eini!i-ns - Tense an 'e-!eness e#'ees

(sec!i-ns 3.2.1 an 3.2.2). De!aile anal+ses - Tenseless lan#$a#es (3.3), !"e ie'en! Tense

s+s!es -cc$''in# in !"e sa&le (3.4), an !"e lan#$a#es *"ic" a'/ !"e a%ial n$e'

- Tenses (3.5) -ll-*. Sec!i-n 3.> -c$ses -n 'e-!eness e#'ees. Sec!i-ns 3.8 !- 3.9 &'esen!

i's! !"e !+&-l-#ical is!'i$!i-n in !"e sa&le (3.8) an !"en -c$s -n !"e #e-#'a&"ical (3.)


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2> 3.2 Deini!i-ns

an #eneal-#ical (3.9) is!'i$!i-n - Tense a'/in#. T"e !+&-l-#ical s!aili!+ - Tense is

isc$sse in sec!i-n 3.10, an a s$a'+ is #ien in 3.11.

3.2 DE:INITIONS3.2 DE:INITIONS3.2 DE:INITIONS3.2 DE:INITIONS

3.2.13.2.13.2.13.2.1


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3. Tense 28

&-in!s, incl$in# !"e &-ssiili!+ !"a! !"e+ -e'la&. @-*ee', !"is e%&lana!i-n ails !-

&'-ie -' Tenses ancilla'+ !- !"e &as!7&'esen!7$!$'e c-n!in$$

(3.2) Ia$'a $ec"$a ($ec"$an= C-le 192, 143)

Marya Agatu-pi kawsa-shka-ta kri-rka-ni

?a'Ja #a!-7in lie7


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2 3.2 Deini!i-ns

!"e &'esen!, an &as! an $!$'e ein# le! -' 'i#"! 'es&ec!iel+. Tense n-* is !"e 'ela!i-n

e!*een an+ !*- &-in!s al-n# !"is !ie line. (T"e'e a'e -i-$s la*s *i!" !"e

'e&'esen!a!i-n - !ie in a s!'ai#"! line, as isc$sse in C-'ie (ii.), $! i! *ill e $se

"e'e nee'!"eless -' !"e sa/e - is$al e-ns!'a!i-n.) C-'ie $ses a 'ee'ence &-in!

*"ic" "e calls eic!ic cen!e'. @is a'#$en! is !"a! Tense is a eic!ic ca!e#-'+, i.e. Tense

nees a cen!'al &-in! a'-$n *"ic" !"e !e&-'al 'ela!i-ns 'e-le. L"en !"e eic!ic cen!e'

alls in!- !"e &'esen! -en! an !"is is n-! s&eciicall+ e%&'esse, i! #ene'a!es an as-l$!e

Tense. L"en !"e 'ee'ence &-in! is n-! s&eciicall+ lii!e !- !"e &'esen! !ie, i.e. a+

"ae &'esen! as -ne &-ssiili!+ (e&enin# -n c-n!e%!, in!e'&'e!a!i-n, e!c.), i! #ene'a!es

'ela!ie Tense. I! is i&-'!an! !- 'ealiBe !"a! !"e 'ee'ence &-in! "as !- e s&eciicall+ s!a!e

in 'ela!ie Tense an a+ e -n an+ l-ca!i-n -n !"e !ie line, incl$in# !"e &'esen!

-en!, *"e'eas as-l$!e Tense "as an -e'la& - &'esen! -en! an 'ee'ence &-in!

*i!"-$! s&eciicall+ a'/in# i!. T"e'e-'e !"e as-l$!e;'ela!ie Tense is!inc!i-n is n-! -ne

- "ain# !"e 'ee'ence &-in! c-inciin# *i!" !"e &'esen! -' n-!, $! 'a!"e' *"e!"e' !"is is

e%&lici!l+ s!a!e (ii. 5). T"e


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3. Tense 29

A-!" can "ae !"e


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30 3.2 Deini!i-ns

e%a&le !"e s$i% 7shta*"ic" a'/s :UTUREin P$'a/a'Q in as-l$!e as *ell as 'ela!ie

Tense

(3.3) P$'a/a'Q ($nclassiie= an in 200>, 11, 12)

(a) tishil mi-la-bobo-shtashtashtashta-tu :UTURE

n-* 2S7::.OA7"i!;/ill7:UT71


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3. Tense 31

(c.. N-'lin#e' M Sale' 2004 an 200, T-n"a$se' 2008, ?$+s/en 200). Aeca$se !"e -c$s

- !"is !"esis is -n sean!ics !"e &-si!i-n - !"e -'&"ee in 6$es!i-n -es n-! a!!e' as

l-n# as !"e !e&-'al eanin# 'ee's !- !"e e'al ac!i-n s&eciie in !"e sae cla$se.

In cases *"e'e -ne an !"e sae a'/e' "as sc-&e -e' a n-inal c-ns!i!$en! -' !"e ac!i-n

- !"e cla$se i! is s!ill !'ea!e as Tense a'/e', $! *"en a a'/e' -cc$'s e%cl$siel+ *i!"

sc-&e -e' a n-inal c-ns!i!$en! i! is n-!. :-' e%a&le, !"e


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32 3.2 Deini!i-ns

Tale 3.2 Te'in-l-#+ -' as-l$!e Tenses$!"-'


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3. Tense 33

'e-e '- !"e


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34 3.3 Tenseless lan#$a#es

(c) na-.a-ge*ge*ge*ge*

37#-7DIR.!"i!"e'

G@e *en! a*a+.

Siila'l+ !- , 42, 435)

(a) kaa d3a2ra4atane itahe-riririri-t52=nininini=t5a

!"is les"Zlan es!'-+7IRR71SSSRE?


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3. Tense 35

T"e 'e-!eness encli!ic can -' a !e&-'al ae' !-#e!"e' *i!" !"e 'eass$'ance encli!ic

tau taul2Gea'lie' (Ola*s/+ 200>, 505). S- al!"-$#" U'a'ina "as -ne a'/e' !"a! -es 'ee'

!- !e&-'al 'e-!eness, i! is !'ea!e "e'e as ein# Tenseless, eca$se i! is n-! a #ene'al

Tense a'/e'.

T'$ai is a siila' -'e'line case. I! a'/s Tense + s&ecial Tense; -c$s &a'!icles. T"e

&a'!icles ka inan chi ina'e Tense; -c$s &a'!icles, e%&'essin# ne* in-'a!i-n, e&"asis

e!c., $! ka inals- a'/s -'


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3> 3.4 Tense s+s!es

ina'+ s&li! (see sec!i-n 3.4.2), all-*s -' cla$ses !"a! a'e a'/e *i!" a se&a'a!e se! -

Tenseless a'/e's (Ee'e!! M Ke'n 1998, 310). S-e -'&"ees cann-! e $se *i!" Tense

a'/e's $! 'e6$i'e Tenseless e'al inlec!i-nal cli!ics, s$c" as !"e ne#a!ie a* >ara.

(3.11) La'i (C"a&ac$'an= Ee'e!! M Ke'n 1998, 3)

?uerec ****aaaa tocwa wari*@

see NE.S


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3. Tense 38

inca'na!i-ns a'/in# -' :UTURE, i.e. a cla$se $na'/e *i!" !"a! a'/e' is a$!-a!icall+


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3 3.4 Tense s+s!es

Tale 3.3 Tense s+s!esTenselessTenselessTenselessTenseless Aa$'e, Tsai/i,


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3. Tense 39

(3.13) Ka'i!iana (T$&Jan= Ee'e!! 200>, 2>, 2>9)

(a) B-ta-seCB-tttt

1S.AS7S


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3. Tense 41

(c) apakata-kokokoko kam(#-sawaku 8F: apakata-kokokoko uw a-sa-ru

a!e'7:UT s$e'7TE?tomorrow*in (3.18a). T"e'e

a'e !*- s$i%es *"ic" inica!e G!--''-*, ea'l+ (7a*m) an Gla!e, ni#"! (7a*n; 7n), *"ic" -

n-! 6$ali+ as Tense a'/e's $! 'a!"e' s&eci+ a -en! - !"e a+. T"e+ $s! -cc$' *i!"

!"e s&ec!$al s$i%es -' $'a!ie(7en) an 'e#'essie(7err) (ii. 90)

(3.18) Panes"a ('a*a/an= D$7T'i&& 1998, 118, 91)

(a) Hsapatcha*cha*cha*cha* ahuen@

GT--''-* Ill #-. (-'i#. G?a]ana i'Q.)

() Ierramu*en@

GLe ea! in !"e -'nin#. (-'i#. GC-e-s &-' la a]ana.)

T"e si&le s&li! - :UTURE;NON:UTUREis !"e sec-n -s! 'e6$en!l+ -cc$''in# Tense s+s!e

in !"e sa&le, -nl+ -$!'an/e + !"e :UTURE;


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42 3.4 Tense s+s!es

() noboto-ma saba rihaba kona-tetetete

c"il7


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60/297

44 3.4 Tense s+s!es

Saan -li#a!-'il+ a'/s Tense an Eien!iali!+=


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3. Tense 45

a'a*a'a -e'!l+ a'/s 'ecen!, is!an!, an a'


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3. Tense 48

1. Re-!eness in !"e :UTURE, $! n-! ; 0), ?aain (3; 0), ?a!ses (3; 0), Caine]a (2; 0), Desan- (1; 0) ,


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4 3.> Re-!eness e#'ees

(3.25) K*aBa ($nclassiie= an e' --'! 2004, 392, 391, 392)

(a) segunQa;era-####PPPP####-'wy

?-na+7RE?.


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3. Tense 49

l-n# !ie a#-, al!"-$#" !"e c$!7- &-in! is l$en! (i/"enal 2003, 29). Ka'-s 'ecen! an

'e-!e; +!"ical 3.>3.>3.>.4.4.4.4 T"'ee 'e-!enessT"'ee 'e-!enessT"'ee 'e-!enessT"'ee 'e-!eness e#'eese#'eese#'eese#'ees in !"ein !"ein !"ein !"e


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Eien!iali!+. T"e n-n7is!an!


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3. Tense 51

() r-onye-yatEokoyatEokoyatEokoyatEoko

3SA.1OA7see7REC.3.>3.>3.>.5.5.5.5 :-$' 'e-!eness e#'ees:-$' 'e-!eness e#'ees:-$' 'e-!eness e#'ees:-$' 'e-!eness e#'ees in !"ein !"ein !"ein !"e 345).

(3.31) #$a'$na (ia'-an= Oe'all 2008, 33>, 33, 343, 344)

(a) ti-mamamama-ha-0 'ecen!

sa+ZFO:7REC.


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() tuna-na-Ka kahama-inu a-ia-ha-0 'e-!e

*a!e'all7CC7DD 'ea7NR CO171>2)

T"e cli!icsaEiis n-! &'-$c!ie an+ -'e $! s!ill 'ec-#niBe + s&ea/e's -' a 'e-!e


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3. Tense 53

(e) niEutas-p*antep*antep*antep*ante i-lon-hen wikyi

s-lie's7


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!"e'e-'e e%&lain !"e D`* Tense 'e-!eness s+s!e. T"e sae "-ls -' ?e/ens, *"ic" is

- !"e T$&Jan ail+. T"e -!"e' -'e T$&Jan lan#$a#es in !"e sa&le - n-! s"-* a siila'

'e-!eness s+s!e.

3.>3.>3.>3.>.... Re-!eness in !"eRe-!eness in !"eRe-!eness in !"eRe-!eness in !"e


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3. Tense 55

-cc$' *i!" !"e #ene'al :UTURE a'/e' (c. ii. >02, e%a&le 48). T"e is!an! &as! &a'!icle

j*%m is c--n in na''a!ies, $! can als- 'ee' !- !"e !ie !"e s&ea/e' "ea' !"e s!-'+

(ii. >04). T"e is!an! :UTURE &a'!icle t%ne%is!s s+nc"'-nicall+ &a'allel as an ine&enen!

ae'ial an can als- inica!e a si&le :UTURE*"en !"e $s$al :UTUREa'/e's a'e

$n#'aa!ical (ii. >0>). I! can c-7-cc$' *i!" !"e #ene'al :UTUREa'/e's as *ell. T"$s,

al!"-$#" !"e 'e-!eness a'/e's in @$& a'e n-! 'es!'ic!e !- l-ca!in# an ac!i-n -n !"e

!ie line, !"e+ - a'/ ac!i-ns in c-n!'as! !- -!"e' ac!i-ns an can !"e'e-'e e c-nsie'e

Tense a'/e's. T"e !ie s&ans a'e n-! $'!"e' eine. T"e sae "-ls !'$e -' ?i'a]a,

*"ic" "as an ieia!e :UTUREan 'ecen! an 'e-!e


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5> 3.> Re-!eness e#'ees

() moa-tian-ronki i-pao-nininini-ke jema-bo yama

al'ea+7TE?


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3. Tense 58

7;ai &'-al+ is als- a &a'! - !"e


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'e-!eness is!inc!i-ns in -!" Tenses "ae ei!"e' -'e in !"e 0 lan#$a#es is!'i$!e -e' !"e #l-e, an a! leas! "is

clai !"a! !"e is!inc!i-ns a'e -'e n$e'-$s in !"e


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3. Tense 59

s&eec". l--/ a! Lic"J s"-*s !"a! !"e 'e-!eness is!inc!i-ns ieia!el+ e-'e !"e

&-in! - s&eec" a'e $c" -'e ie'en!ia!e !"an !"-se $'!"e' a*a+. T"'ee - !"e si%


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>0 3.> Re-!eness e#'ees

L"en a lan#$a#e "as !"e sae a-$n! - 'e-!eness e#'ees in


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3. Tense >1

T"e sa&le 'eeals n- clea' #e-#'a&"ical &a!!e'n as !- a'/in# - 'e-!eness e#'ees (c.

a& 3.1). Re-!eness e#'ee a'/in# is s&'ea all -e' !"e c-n!inen! an ailies i! is

a'/e in T$&Jan, T$can-an, 'a*a/an, A-'an, Ca'ian, C"-c-an, C"-nan, ia'-an,

Naa"$&, ?a!ac-an, Nai/*a'an,


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>2 3.> Re-!eness e#'ees

?a& 3.1 Dis!'i$!i-n - 'e-!eness e#'ees in !"e sa&le


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3. Tense >3

3.83.83.83.8 TP


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>4 3.8 T+&-l-#ical is!'i$!i-n in !"e sa&le

a'/in# in !"is s!$+. On !"e -!"e' "an, !"is eans !"a! Tense a'/in# is n-! a $nie'sal

in !"e sa&le, *"ic" *as al'ea+ s"-*n *i!" sli#"!l+ ie'en! eini!i-ns - Tense + e.#.

C-'ie (195) an S!assen (1998) -' #l-al sa&les.

ene'aliBa!i-ns 1. an 2. can e e%&laine + !"e esi#n - !"e 6$es!i-nnai'e an !"e

-cc$''ence - c$$la!ie Tense a'/e's, i.e. NON:UTURE-' NON


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3. Tense >5

I! "as een &'ei-$sl+ s$##es!e !"a! :UTUREinee is n-! een a Tense a! all, $! 'a!"e'

a ?-al. Aesie !"e sean!ic a'#$en! (see &a'a#'a&" a-e) !"e -ne - -'al

as+e!'+ is '-$#"! -'!" -!en :UTUREa'/e's a'e enc-e ie'en!l+ !"an 2, 91)(a) paroray at paatpaatpaatpaat (t k` $rp masopi=b(

a'aill- #e! :UT I !-a+ ni#"!DT

GI *ill "$n! 'aill- !-ni#"!.

() o-kwe-a-rrrr=(t kBpkBba=b(

1S7cli7T@E?7


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>> 3.8 T+&-l-#ical is!'i$!i-n in !"e sa&le

L"e'eas inee in -s! lan#$a#es *i!" :UTURE an


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3. Tense >8

eience -' a lan#$a#e !"a! "as !e&-'al a'/e's e%&'essin# s&a!ial 'ela!i-ns. T"is

"+&-!"esis ce'!ainl+ nees $'!"e' anal+sis.

Onl+ !"'ee lan#$a#es cann-! e acc-$n!e -' + !"e Tense s+s!es -$!line in sec!i-n

3.4 (U'a'ina, T'$ai, an ?a&$c"e). T"is s$&&-'!s !"e iea !"a! #'-$&in# SIFs in!-

Tenseless, :UTURE s.


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> 3.8 T+&-l-#ical is!'i$!i-n in !"e sa&le

Tale 3.8 Oe'! Tense a'/in# in !"e SIFs (a'/ a'/e)FNUEFNUEFNUEFNUE :?IFP:?IFP:?IFP:?IFP :UT:UT:UT:UT Ia$'a

$ec"$a

$ec"$an 2

28 C$Bc- $ec"$a $ec"$an 2

2 Kan- Unclassiie 2

29 Panes"a 'a*a/an 2

30 T'$ai Unclassiie 2

31


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3. Tense >9

3.3.3.3. EOR Ta'iana 'a*a/

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Mueller Thesis 2013