(Mueller) Appendix

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from Caesar: Selections fom his C D B G

IntroductionTis Appendix is a revision o he one ha bears he same ile in Arhur appan Walkers Caesars Gallic War wihInroduc ion, Noes, Vocabulary, and Grammaical Appendix(Chicago and New York: Scot Foresman and Company,1907), pp. 424528. Examples derive primarily rom Caesars Commenari, bu a ew derive rom Cicero. eer-ences o Caesar provide book, chaper, and verse: 1.1.1 would, or example, reer o he rs senence o Caesars

D bell Gallic. Examples rom Caesars oher works include he ile and, i rom Cicero, name and ile.

PronunciationQ V

1. A vowelis usually shor:

a. Beore anoher vowel or beore h; as ine, nihil .b. Beore ndand n; as in laudandus, laudan.

c. In words wih more han one syllable, beore any nal consonan oher han s; as in laudem, lauda. (Bucompare lauds.)

2. A vowelis long:

a. Beore nf, ns, nx, and nc; as in nfer, cnsul, inx, incum.

b. When i resuls rom conracion; as in sse, rom iisse.

3. A vowelis usually long:

a. In one syllable words (monosyllables) no ending in b, d, l, m, or ; as in m, hc(bu compare aband

adwhere he vowels are shor).

P V

4. In classical Lain pronunciaion, long vowels, wheher hey were accened or no, were supposed o receivewice he ime given o he pronunciaion o shor vowels. In English, we generally give more ime only ohe vowels in accened syllables. Observing his rule maters more when we read Lain poery han i does

when we read Lain prose, bu atenion o vowels in Lain prose wil l help you when you urn o poery andi will increase your sensiiviy o he language generally.

a= ain uba = ainahere= e in ne = e in heyi= i inpin = i in machineo= o inor (noas in ho) = oinponyu= oo in book = oo in boo

y= French u or German ;bu his sound rarely occurs.


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S D

5. Diphhongs are he sounds produced by wo vowels when he rs slides ino he second so quickly ha iseems as i boh are pronounced simulaneously. A diphhong hus produces only one, no wo, syllables.Te ollowing diphhongs are hose ha appear in classical Lain:

ae= ai in aisleoe= oi in oilau= ow in how

euhas no English equivalen. un ogeher in one syllable he sounds ehoo. uihas no English equivalen. un ogeher in one syllable he sounds ooee. Tis diphhong appears in cui,

huic, cuius, and huius.

a. When he consonan i(= jin older classical ediions) appears beween wo vowels, as in maior, eius,roia, and cuius, a lhough iwas writen only once, i was pronounced wice, as i he spelling weremaiior, eiius, roiia, and cuiius. Te second iis he consonan, pronounced likey inye.

Te rs iis a vowel, which makes a diphhong wih he vowel ha precedes i. In such cases,

ai= aiin aisle ei = eyin hey oi = oiin oil uias indicaed above.

S C

6. Te consonans are generally pronounced as hey are in English, bu he ollowing poins should be noed:

cand g are always hard, as in canandgo i(he consonan, which is someimes prined j) =y inye nbeore c, g, q, andx= ng in sing

r should always be pronounced sshould always be pronounced as in his, never as in hese as in in, never as in naion v = w

x= ks z = dz ch, ph, h= c, p, bs,b=ps, p qu= qu in quar ngu= ngu in anguish su= sw as in sude, suvis, susc, and heir compounds.

a. When consonans are doubled, as in mitand annus, boh consonans should be pronounced, as heyare in ou-akeandpen-knie.We pronounce only one consonan in kityandpenny.

7. We generally consider ia consonan when i occurs beween vowels, and when i appears a he beginningo a word in ron o anoher vowel. In compounds o iaci(hrow), we nd he orm ici. We believe hain hese words he consonan iwas pronounced, even hough i was no writen, beore he vowel i. I weadop his rule, diciis pronounced as i i were spelled diiciand abicias i i were spelled abiici.


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Inection

N

G G

13. Lain nouns are classied as mascul ine, eminine, or neuer. For mos nouns, gender is grammaical raherhan biological. Ofen he gender o nouns can be deermined rom he nominaive ending. In oher in-sances, i mus be learned or individual words. Te ollowing rules should prove helpul.

a. Te names o male beings (human, animal, divine) as well as rivers, winds, and monhs are masculine.

b. Te names o emale beings (human, animal, div ine) as well as counries, owns, islands, plans, rees,and mos absrac qualiies areeminine .

c. Indeclinable nouns and inniives, phrases, and clauses used as nouns are neuer.

D

14. Tere are ve declensions o Lain nouns. Tey are dis inguished rom one anoher by he nal leter o hesem, and he ending o he geniive singular.

DECLENSION FINA L LEE o SEM EN DING OF GEN. SING.I. Firs aeII. Second o III. Tird consonan or i isIV. Fourh u s

V. Fifh or e

a. In a linguisical ly precise world, we are supposed o orm cases by adding case endings o he sem. Buwhen he sem ends in a vowel, ha vowel is ofen modied in some way, or is combined w ih he ruecase ending in some way wih he resul ha we can see neiher he sem-vowel nor he rue case ending.

Tereore i is more convenien o apply he name case ending o he combined sem-vowel and rue caseending, and o say ha he cases are ormed by adding case endings o he base (which manyincor-recly acuallyreer o as he sem). In common pracice (because i works), we nd he base o anoun by dropping he ending o he geniive singular.

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15. Te semends in ; he nominaive in a; (and he baseends in whaever remains a fer removing he geni-ive singular; see 14, c). Te gender is usually eminine.

lingua, F., ongue, language

SINGULA ENDINGSNominaive lingua a language (as subjec) aGeniive linguae o a language, languages ae

Daive linguae o or or a language aeAccusaive linguam a language (as objec) amAblaive lingu by, rom, in, or wih a language Vocaive lingua O language! a


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c. Nouns ending in iusregularly orm he geniive and vocaive singular wih , insead o w ih iiandie, and nouns ending in iumorm he geniive wih . Te words are accened as i he longer orm

were used; consil, o a plan; ini, o a beginning.

d. Proper names ending in ius, ius, and iusare declined like Giusand B.e. A ew words have uminsead o rumin he geniive plural; such as socium(or socirum), o he

allies.

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17. Tird declension semsend in a consonan or in i. Te nominaive case ending or masculines and emininesis an sor none; or neuers, none. Te basemay be ound by removing he geniive ending (see 14, a).

A. CONSONAN SEMS18. Sems ending in bor p (labial mues). Tese consonans are ormed wih he lips, and are hus called

labials. Because hey all silen immediaely afer being pronounced, hey are also called mues. Te

nominaive ending is s. prnceps, M., chie

Sem prncip-

SING. PLURLN. prnceps prncipsG. prncipis prncipumD. prncip prncipibus

Acc. prncipem prncipsAbl. prncipe prncipibusV. prnceps prncips

19. Sems ending in dor (denal mues). Tese consonans are ormed wih he eeh, and are hus calleddenals. Because hey all silen immediaely afer being pronounced, hey are also called mues. Tenominaive ending or masculines and eminines is s, and he nal dor o he sem is dropped beore henominaive ending.

laus, F.,praiseSem laud

mles, M., soldierSem mli

capu, N., headSem capi

SING. PLURL SING. PLURL SING. PLURLN. laus lauds mles mlis capu capiaG. laudis laudum mliis mlium capiis capiumD. laud laudibus mli mliibus capi capiibus

Acc. laudem lauds mliem mlis capu capia

Abl. laude laudibus mlie mliibus capie capiibusV. laus lauds mles mlis capu capia


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20. Sems ending in gor c(gutural mues). Tese consonans are ormed in he hroa (Lain: gutur=hroa),and are hus cal led guturals. Because hey all silen immediaely afer being pronounced, hey are alsocalled mues. Te nominaive ending is s, which combines w ih he na l gor co he sem o ormx.

lx, F., lawSem lg-

dux, M., leaderSem duc-

SING. PLURL SING. PLURLN. lx lgs dux ducsG. lgis lgum ducis ducumD. lg lgibus duc ducibusAcc. lgem lgs ducem ducsAbl. lge lgibus duce ducibusV. lx lgs dux ducs

21. Sems ending in lor r(liquids). Because we can coninue o pronounce hese consonans indeniely, heyseem o ow like liquids, hence heir name. Tere is no nominaive case ending.

cnsul, M.,consulSem cnsul-

mer, F., moherSem mr-

aequor, N., seaSem aequor-

SING. PLURL SING. PLURL SING. PLURLN. cnsul cnsuls mer mrs aequor aequoraG. cnsulis cnsulum mris mrum aequoris aequorumD. cnsul cnsulibus mr mribus aequor aequoribusAcc. cnsulem cnsuls mrem mrs aequor aequoraAbl. cnsule cnsulibus mre mribus aequore aequoribusV. cnsul cnsuls mer mrs aequor aequora

22. Sems ending in mor n(nasals). Because hese consonans resonae hrough he nose when pronounced,hey are ca lled nasals. Tere is no nominaive case ending, excep or he word hiems, which is he only

word wih a sem ending in m. Te nominaive o masculines and eminines usually drops he nal nandchanges he preceding vowel o .

hom, M., F., human beingSem homin-

rai, F., reasonSem rain-

men, N., riverSem min-

SING. PLURL SING. PLURL SING. PLURLN. hom homins rai rains men minaG. hominis hominum rainis rainum minis minumD. homin hominibus rain rainibus min minibusAcc. hominem homins rainem rains men minaAbl. homine hominibus raine rainibus mine minibusV. hom homins rai rains men mina


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23. Sems ending in s (alhough he s makes is appearance as anr, because schanges o rbeween wo vowels).Te nominaive has no case ending, bu usual ly ends in sand someimes in r.

ms, M., cusom

(Sem ms-)Base mr-

honor, M., honor

(Sem hons-)Base honr-

empus, N., ime

(Sem empos-)Base empor-

SING. PLURL SING. PLURL SING. PLURLN. ms mrs honor honrs empus emporaG. mris mrum honris honrum emporis emporumD. mr mribus honr honribus empor emporibusAcc. mrem mrs honrem honrs empus emporaAbl. mre mribus honre honribus empore emporibusV. ms mrs honor honrs empus empora

B. i-SEMS

24. Tird declension nouns are i-sems, i (1) hey are masculine and eminine nouns ending in isor sandhey have he same number o syllables in he geniive as in he nominaive or i (2) hey are neuer nounsha end in e, al, or ar.

25. Because his declension became conused wih ha o consonan sems, he i does no appear consisenly,and no absolue rule can be given or he endings. Masculine and eminine nouns usual ly have accusaiveem, ablaive e, and accusaive plurals eiher in sor s. Neuers have ablaive .

urris, F., owerSem urr-

hosis, M., enemy(Sem hosi-)

Base hos-

caeds, F., slaugher(Sem caedi-)

Base caed-SINGULA

N. urris hosis caeds

G. urris hosis caedisD. urr hos caedAcc. urrem hosem caedemAbl. urr or e hose caedeV. urris hosis caeds

PLURLN. urrs hoss caedsG. urrium hosium caediumD. urribus hosibus caedibusAcc. urrs or s hoss or s caeds or sAbl. urribus hosibus caedibusV. urrs hoss caeds


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cuble, N., couch(Sem cubli-)

Base cubl-

vecgal, N., ax(Semvecgli-)

Basevecgl-

SINGULAN. cuble vecgalG. cublis vecglisD. cubl vecgl Acc. cuble vecgalAbl. cubl vecgl V. cuble vecgal

PLURLN. cublia vecgliaG. cublium vecgliumD. cublibus vecgl ibus

Acc. cublia vecgliaAbl. cublibus vecgl ibusV. cublia vecglia

a. Mos nouns ending inisare declined like hosis.Arar (orAraris), M., he (river) Saone, and Liger(orLigeris), M., he (river) Loire, are declined in he singular like urris. Ignis, M.,re, and nvis, F., ship,ofen have he ablaive .Mare, N., sea, is declined like cuble, bu appears in he plural generally onlyin he nominaive and accusaive cases.

C. MIXED SEMS26. Some hird declension nouns wih consonan sems have borrowed he geniive plural ending iumand

he accusaive plural ending srom he i-sems. In his caegory, we nd mos one syllable words ending

in sand xha are preceded by a consonan as well as mos nouns ending in nsand rs, and a ew nounsending in s, is.

clins, M., dependenSem clien-

urbs, F., ciySem urb-

SING. PLURL SING. PLURLN. clins cliens urbs urbsG. clienis clienium urbis urbiumD. clien clienibus urb urbibusAcc. clienem cliens or s urbem urbs or sAbl. cliene clienibus urbe urbibusV. clins cliens urbs urbs


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D. I EGULA NOUNS27. Te ollowing nouns are irregular:

senex, M., old man os, N., bone vs, F.,orce bs, M., F., cow Iuppier, M.,Jupier

SINGULAN. senex os vs bs IuppierG. senis ossis vs bovis IovisD. sen oss v bov IovAcc. senem os vim bovem IovemAbl. sene osse v bove IoveV. senex os vs bs Iuppier

PLURLN. sens ossa vrs bovsG. senum ossium vrium bovum orboumD. senibus ossibus vribus bbus orbbus

Acc. sens ossa vrs bovsAbl. senibus ossibus vribus bbus orbbusV. sens ossa vrs bovs

28. Te gender o many hird declension nouns is revealed by he meaning o he word (see 13). Te ollowingrules may help or deermining he gender o hird declension nouns, bu you should keep in mind ha hereare many excepions o hem.

a. Masculine:nouns ha end in , or, s, er, ur,or es. (Excepions o his rule include nouns haend in d, g,ori; see nex secion.)

b. Feminine: nouns ha end in d, g, i, s, s, is, s, ys, or x, and, when preceded by a con-sonan, nouns ha in s.

c. Neuer: all oher nouns; namely, nouns ha end in a, e, , y, c, l, n, , ar, ur, and us.

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29. Te stemo ourh declension nouns ends in u; he nominaive masculine ends in us, he nominaiveneuer in . Te basemay be ound by removing he geniive singular ending.

passus, M.,pace corn, N., hornSING. PLURL SING. PLURL

N. passus passs corn cornuaG. passs passuum corns cornuumD. passu passibus corn cornibusAcc. passum passs corn cornuaAbl. pass passibus corn cornibusV. passus passs corn cornua

a. Domus, house, manus, hand, and dus,Ides, are eminine.

b. Te daive singular o nouns in ussomeimes ends in .

c. Te daive and ablaive plural o a ew nouns someimes end in ubus.

d. Domus, F., house, has some second declension orms. Te orms in general use are:


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SING. PLURLN. domus domsG. doms domuum

D. domu or dom domibusAcc. domum domsAbl. dom ordom domibusV. domus domsLocaive dom (a home) domibus

F D

30. Fifh declension nouns have a semha ends in and a nominaive in s. Tey are usually eminine.

rs, F., hing dis, M., F., daySING. PLURL SING. PLURL

N. rs rs dis dis

G. re rrum di dirumD. re rbus di dibusAcc. rem rs diem disAbl. r rbus di dibusV. rs rs dis dis

a. In he singular, disis eiher masculine or eminine (he eminine is usually used in he sense o an ap-poined day or or a long space o ime); in he plura l, disis mascul ine. Is compounds are also masculine.

b. Te ending o he geniive and daive singular o fh declension nouns is afer a vowel, eafer aconsonan. Someimes he ending is used insead o eiher.

c. Disand rsare he only nouns o his declension ha are declined hroughou he plural.Acis, sps,and a ew ohers have plural orms only in he nominaive and accusaive.

A

F S D A

31. magnus, large

SINGULA PLURLMasc. Fem. Neuer Masc. Fem. Neuer

N. magnus magna magnum magn magnae magnaG. magn magnae magn magnrum magnrum magnrumD. magn magnae magn magns magns magns

Acc. magnum magnam magnum magns magns magnaAbl. magn magn magn magns magns magnsV. magne magna magnum magn magnae magna


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lber,fee


N. lber lbera lberum lber lberae lberaG. lber lberae lber lberrum lberrum lberrumD. lber lberae lber lbers lbers lbersAcc. lberum lberam lberum lbers lbers lberaAbl. lber lber lber lbers lbers lbersV. lber lbera lberum lber lberae lbera

noser, our


N. noser nosra nosrum nosr nosrae nosraG. nosr nosrae nosr nosrrum nosrrum nosrrumD. nosr nosrae nosr nosrs nosrs nosrsAcc. nosrum nosram nosrum nosrs nosrs nosraAbl. nosr nosr nosr nosrs nosrs nosrsV. noser nosra nosrum nosr nosrae nosra

A G I .

32. Nine adjecives o he rs and second declensions have a geniive singular ha ends in us (he geniiveo aleris usually ius) and a daive singular ha ends in in all genders. Tese nine adjecives are alius,anoher, slus, only, us, whole, llus, any, nllus, no, nus, one, aler, he oher, uer, which (o wo), andneuer, neiher. In he plural, he case endings o hese adjecives are exac ly he same as hey are or magnus.Noe also he ending udin he neuer o alius.


N. alius alia aliud ali aliae aliaG. ali us ali us ali us alirum alirum alirumD. ali ali ali ali s ali s ali sAcc. alium aliam aliud alis alis aliaAbl. ali ali ali ali s ali s ali s

SINGULA SINGULA SINGULA Masc. Fem. Neuer Masc. Fem. Neuer Masc. Fem. Neuer

N. nus na num us a um alerus alera alerum

G. nus nus nus us us us alerius alerius aleriusD. n n n aler aler alerAcc. num nam num um am um alerum aleram alerumAbl. n n n aler aler aler


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33. Adjecives o he hird declension include boh consonan sems and i-sems. Tird declension adjeciveswih hree endings have a differen orm in he nominaive singular or each gender. Tird declension adjec-ives wih wo endings have one orm in he nominaive singular or he masculine and eminine and anoheror he neuer. Tird declension adjecives wih one ending have he same orm in he nominaive singularor all hree genders. Excep comparaives, all hird declension adjecives wih wo or hree endings alwayshave in he ablaive singular.

A. CONSONAN SEMS34. wo Endings.

forior, braver(a comparaive, hence e, no in he ablaive)

SINGULA PLURLMasc. & Fem. Neuer Masc. & Fem . Neuer

N. orior orius orirs oriraG. oriris oriris orirum orirumD. orir orir oriribus oriribusAcc. orirem orius orirs oriraAbl. orire orire oriribus oriribusV. orior orius orirs orira

a. All comparaives ollow his patern; bu pls, more, is irregular and deecive (i.e., i does no appear inall heoreically possible orms). In he singular, i is used only as a noun.

SINGULA PLURLNeuer Masc. & Fem. Neuer

N. pls plrs plra

G. plris plrium plriumD. --- plribus plribusAcc. pls plrs ors plraAbl. plre plribus plribus

35. One Ending (hence e, no in he ablaive).

veus, old

SINGULA PLURLMasc. & Fem. Neuer Masc. & Fem. Neuer

N. veus veus veers veeraG. veeris veeris veerum veerum

D. veer veer veeribus veeribusAcc. veerem veus veers veeraAbl. veere veere veeribus veeribusV. veus veus veers veera

a. Te adjecive prnceps, chie, ollows his patern. Dves, rich, also belongs here, bu has diaor henominaive, accusaive, and vocaive neuer plural.


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orins, rising

SINGULA PLURLMasc. & Fem . Neuer Masc. & Fem . Neuer

N. orins orins oriens orieniaG. orienis orienis orienium orieniumD. orien orien orienibus orienibusAcc. orienem orins oriens or s orieniaAbl. oriene or oriene or orienibus orienibusV. orins orins oriens orienia

a. Mos hird declension adjecives wih one ending ollow his patern as well as all pariciples in nsandns. Pariciples usually have an ablaive singular ha ends in only when hey are used as adjecives,and in ewhen hey are used as pariciples or nouns.

C A

39. Te regular comparaive endings are he hird declension adjecive endings ior (M. & F.), ius(N.). Tesuperlaive, issimus, a, um, uses rs and second declension adjecive endings. Tey are added o he

base o he posiive orm o he adjecive (which is ound by removing he case ending rom he geniivesingular). Examples: alus, a, um, high; alior, ius, higher; alissimus, a, um, highes; foris, brave;forior, braver; forissimus, braves.

40. Adjecives in erorm he comparaive regularly, bu orm he superlaive by adding rimuso he nomina-ive o he posiive. Example: cer, sharp (base, cr-), crior, cerrimus.

41. Mos adjecives in ilisorm he comparaive and superlaive regularly. Six adjecives, however, alhoughhey orm he comparaive regularly, orm he superlaive by adding limuso he base o he posiive.Tese six are facilis, easy; diffi cilis, diffi cul; similis, like; dissimilis, unlike; humilis, low; gracilis, slender.Example: facilis, facilior, facillimus.

I C A

42. bonus, melior, opimus,good, beter, bes. malus, peior, pessimus, bad, worse, wors. magnus, maior, maximus, big, bigger, bigges. parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, leas. mulus, pls, plrimus, much, more, mos. dexer, dexerior, deximus, on he righ, avorable (because good omens appeared on he righ).

D C A

43. Te ollowing comparaives and superlaives lack an adjecive in he posiive because hey are ormed rom

sems no used as adjecives: (cir, adv., on his side) cierior, ciimus, closer, closes.

(d, prep., down) derior, derrimus, worse, wors. (inr, prep., in, wihin) inerior, inimus, inner, inmos.

(prae, prep., beore) prior, prmus,ormer, rs.(prope, adv., near) propior, proximus, nearer, nex.

(ulr, adv., beyond) ulerior, ulimus,arher, arhes.


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44. Te ollowing adjecives rarely use he posiive orms, excep when hey are used as nouns (and hen gener-ally in he plural):

(exerus) exerior, exrmus(eximus), ouer, oumos.

(nferus) nferior, nmus(mus), lower, lowes.(poserus) poserior, posrmus(posumus), later, las.(superus) superior, suprmus(summus), higher, highes .

C A A

45. When an adjecive ends in a usha is preceded by a vowel, i generally orms he comparaive and super-laive by using he adverbs magis, more, and maxime, mos. Many oher adjecives employ his mehod as

well. Example: idneus, suiable; magis idneus, more suiable; maxim idneus, mos suiable.

C A

46. Mos adverbs are ormed rom adjecives in all he degrees o comparison.

a. Teposiiveorm o he adverb is ormed rom adjecives o he rs and second declensions by adding o he base; such as lus, wide, l, widely.Adjecives o he hird declension add eror iero hebase, excep hird declension adjecives whose base ends in n,which insead add only er; some exam-ples include audx, audcis, bold, audacer, boldly; foris, brave, forier, bravely; prdns, prdenis,

pruden , prdener,prudenly. Te neuer accusaive singular o adjecives o al l declensions may alsobe used adverbial ly; such as mulum, much, facile, easily.

b. Te comparaiveorm o he adverb is idenical wih accusaive singular neuer o he comparaive ormo he adjecive; such as lius, more widely, audcius, more boldly, forius, more bravely, prdenius,more prudenly, pls, more, facilius, more easily.

c. Te superlaive orm o he adverb is ormed by adding eo he base o he superlaive orm o he ad-jecive; or, less ofen, is is accusaive singular neuer; such as lissim, mos widely, audcissim, mos

boldly, forissim, mos bravely, prdenissim, mos prudenly, plrimum, mos, facillime, mos easily.


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N

47. Numeral adjecives belong o hree caegories: cardinals,which answer he quesion how many? such asone, wo, hree, ec.; ordinals,which answer he quesion in wha order? such as,rs, second, hird, ec.; anddisribuives,which answer he quesion how many a a imeor how many o each? such as, one a a ime (orone o each), wo a a ime (or wo o each), hree hree a a ime (or hree o each), ec.

Roman Numerals Cardinal Numbers Ordinal Numbers Disribuive NumbersI. nus, -a, -um prmus,-a, -um singul, -ae, -a

II. duo, -ae, -a secundus oraler bnIII. rs, ria erius ern orrnIV. quatuor qurus quaernV. qunque qun us qun

VI . sex sex us snVI I. sepem sepimus sepn

VI II. oc ocv us ocnIX. novem nnus novn

X. decem decimus dnXI. ndecim ndecimus ndnXII. duodecim duodecimus duodn

XIII. redeci m erius decimus ern dnXI V. quatuordecim qurus deci mus quaern dnXV. qundec im qun us decimus qun dn

XV I. sdeci m sex us decimus sn dnXV II. sependecim sepimus decimus sepn dn

XV III. duodv gin duodvcsimus duodvcnXI X. ndvgin ndv csimus ndvcnXX. vgin vc simus vcn

XX I. nus e v gin (vgin nus) vc simus pr mus vcn sing ulXX VI II duodrgi n duodr csimus duodr cn

XX IX ndr gin ndr csi mus ndr cnXX X. rg in rcsimus rcn

XL . quadrg in quadrgsimus quadrgnL qunqugin qunqugsimus qunqugn

LX. sexgin sexgsimus sexgnLXX. sepugin sepugsimus sepugn

LXXX. ocgin ocgsimus ocgnXC. nngi n nngsimus nngn

C. cenum censimus cenniCI. cenum (e) nus censimus (e) prmus cenn (e) singulCC. ducen, -ae, -a ducensimus ducn

CCC. recen recensimus recnCCCC. quadringen quadringensimus quadringn

D. qungen qungensimus qungnDC. sescen sescensimus sescn

DCC. sepingen sepingensimus sepingnDCCC. ocingen ocingensimus ocingn

DCCCC. nngen nngensimus nngnM. ml le ml lsimus singula m lia

MM . duo ml ia bis m llsi mus bna mlia

a. Te ending nsimusis ofen used or simus.


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48. Te cardinal numbers nus, duo, andrsare declined; cardinals rom quatuoro cenumare indeclin-able; cardinals rom duceno nngenare declined like he plural o magnus(31); mlle, when usedas an adjecive, is indeclinable, bu, when used as a subsanive, i is declined like he plural o cuble(25)and generally spelled mlia. Ordinal numbers are declined like magnus, disribuives like he plural o

magnus.

49. For he declension o nus, see 32. Is plural usually means only or alone,bu i is used in he sense o onewih nouns ha are used only in he plural; such as, na casra, one camp. Duoand rsare declined asollows:

duo, wo rs, hreeMasc. Fem. Neu. M. & F. Neu.

N. duo duae duo rs riaG. durum durum durum rium riumD. dubus dubus dubus ribus ribusAcc. dus, duo dus duo rs, rs ria

Abl. dubus dubus dubus ribus ribus50. Te numbers ha would all beween he numbers provided in he able in 47may be produced as ollows:

In a combinaion o ens and ones, he ones may precede he ens, ollowed by e; as in rs e quadrgin,hree and ory = ory-hree; or he ens may precede he ones, bu wihou an e; as in quadrgin rs,ory-hree. In oher combinaions o wo numbers, he higher number precedes he lower number, wih or wihoue; as in ducen (e) vgin, wo hundred (and) weny. In combinaions o hree or more numbers, he orderis as in English, wihou e; as in duo mlia sescen vg in sex, wo housand, six hundred weny-six.

P

P P

51. Firs person, ego,I/ Second person, ,you

Firs person, ego,I Second person, ,youSING. PLURL SING. PLURL

N. ego ns vsG. me nosrum ornosr u vesrum orvesrD. mihi nbs ibi vbsAcc. m ns vsAbl. m nbs vbs

a. Tere is no personal pronoun or he hird person. A demonsraive pronoun generally serves in is place,ofen is, he, ea, she, id, i, 57, alhough oher demonsraive pronouns may be used as well. When, how-ever, him, her, hem, ec., reer o he subjec (163), reexive pronouns are used or he hird person.

b. Nosrumandvesrum are he orms used as pariive geniives (101); nosrandvesrare he ormsused as objecive geniives (98).

c. Te preposiion cumis encliic wih personal pronouns (i.e., i ataches o he personal pronoun); as innbscum, wih us.


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R P

52. Tere is no nominaive orm o reexive pronouns because hey canno be he subjecs o nie verbs (in-niives have accusaive subjecs), and hey canno agree wih he subjec o nie verbs. For he rs andsecond persons, he personal pronouns are also used as reexives. For he hird person, however, here is aspecial pronoun.

Firs person, me,o mysel

Second person, u,o yoursel

Tird person, su,ohimsel, o hersel, o isel

SING. PLURL SING. PLURL SING. PLURLG. me nosrum or

nosru vesrum or

vesrsu su

D. mihi nbs ibi vbs sibi sibiAcc. m ns vs s sAbl. m nbs vbs s s

a. Te preposiion cumis encliic wih reexive pronouns (i.e., i ataches o he reexive pronoun); as in

scum, wih himsel.

P A & P

53. SINGULA PLURL1s person meus, -a, -um, my noser, -ra, -rum, our2nd person uus, -a, -um, your veser, -ra, -rum,your3rd person eius(gen. sing. o is) his, her, is

(when no reerring o he subjec).erum, erum, erum(gen. sing. o is)

heir(when no reerring o he subjec)3rd person reexive suus, -a, -um, his, her, is (when

reerring o he subjec)suus, -a, -um, heir (when reerring o he

subjec)

D P54. hc, his (near he speaker)

SINGULA PLURLMasc. Fem. Neu. Masc. Fem. Neu.

N. hc haec hoc h haec haecG. huius huius huius hrum hrum hrum

D. huic huic huic hs hs hsAcc. hunc hanc hoc hs hs haecAbl. hc hc hc hs hs hs

55. ise, ha (near he person spoken o)


N. ise isa isud is isae isaG. isus isus isus isrum isrum isrum

D. is is is iss iss issAcc. isum isam isud iss iss isaAbl. is is is iss iss iss


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56. Ille, ha (somehing more remoe).


N. ille illa illud ill illae illaG. illus illus illus illrum illrum illrum

D. ill ill ill ills ills illsAcc. illum illam illud ills ills illaAbl. ill ill ill ills ills ills

57. is, his, ha, he, she, i (unemphaic)


N. is ea id e, i eae eaG. eius eius eius erum erum erum

D. e e e es, is es, is es, isAcc. eum eam id es es eaAbl. e e e es, is es, is es, is

58. dem, he same


N. dem eadem idem dem oredem eaedem eademG. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem erundem erundem erundem

D. edem edem edem isdem oresdem isdem oresdem isdem oresdemAcc. eundem eandem idem esdem esdem eademAbl. edem edem edem isdem oresdem isdem oresdem isdem oresdem

T I P

59. ipse, sel


N. ipse ipsa ipsum ips ipsae ipsaG. ipsus ipsus ipsus ipsrum ipsrum ipsrum

D. ips ips ips ipss ipss ipssAcc. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipss ipss ipsaAbl. ips ips ips ipss ipss ipss

T R P60. qu, who, which


N. qu quae quod qu quae quaeG. cuius cuius cuius qurum qurum qurum

D. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibusAcc. quem quam quod qus qus quaeAbl. qu qu qu quibus quibus quibus


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a. Qucumqueand quisquis, whoever, are generalizing relaives. Te quo qucumqueis declined regu-larly (i.e., decline quand add cumque). Quisquis, quicquid(quidquid), and ququare he onlycommon orms o quisquis.

b. Te preposiion cumis usually encliic wih (i.e., i ataches o) he relaive pronoun; as in quibuscum,wih whom.

I P & A

61. Te inerrogaive adjecive qu, quae, quod, wha? is declined like he relaive pronoun (60). Te iner-rogaive pronoun quis, quid, who, wha? is used in he singular.

quis, who? wha?

SING.Masc. & Fem. Neu.

N. quis quidG. cuius cuius

D. cui cuiAcc. quem quidAbl. qu qu

a. Te encliic namis someimes added o an inerrogaive o srenghen i; quisnam, who (in he world)?

b. Cumis usually encliic wih (i.e., i ataches o) he inerrogaive pronoun, as in qucum, wih whom?

I P & A

62. Te indenie pronouns are quis, qu, and compounds ormed w ih quis, quas heir base. Quisand quin his sense are generally declined like he inerrogaives.

PONOUN ADJECIVE

quis, quid, any one qu, quae (qua), quod,anyaliquis, aliquid,some one aliqu, aliquae (qua), aliquod,somequispiam, quidpiam, some one quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam,somequisquam, quicquam (quidquam), any one(in he

ablaive singular and or all plurals, orms o llus, -a,-umare used)

(orms o llus, -a, -umare used)

quvs, quaevs, quidvsorqulibe, quaelibe, quidlibe, any one (you like)

quvs, quaevs, quodvsorqulibe, quaelibe, quodlibe, any you like

qudam, quaedam, quiddam, a cerain one qudam, quaedam, quoddam, a cerainquisque, quidque, each quisque, quaeque, quodque,each

. For quand aliqu, he nominaive and accusa ive plural neuer are qua(or quae) and aliqua.b. In he declension o qudam, mbecomes nbeore d; as in quendam. (Compare 58.)


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V

63. Tere are our conjugaions o Lain verbs. Tey are disinguished rom one anoher by he nal vowel ohe sem, which we can see mos clearly in he presen inniive.

CONJUGAION FINAL VOWEL OF SEM PESEN INFINIIVE ENDINGI. reII. reIII. e (i, u) ereIV. re

64. Al l verb orms can be produced on he basis o one o hree sems, which we derive rom a verbs principalpars (see 65): he presen sem (which we derive rom he rs and second principal pars), he perecsem (rom he hird principal par), and he supine sem (rom he ourh principal par). In regular verbs,he perec and supine sems are based on he presen sem, bu in some irregular verbs hey are ormed ondisinc roos.

a. Verb orms based on he presen sem (derived rom he rs and second principal pars) include in boh

he acive and passive: he presen, imperec, and uure indicaive; he presen and imperec subjuncive;he imperaive; and he presen inniive. Addiional verb orms include in he aciveonly: he presenpariciple and gerund; and, in hepassiveonly: he gerundive.

b. Verb orms based on he perec sem (ound in he hird principal par) include in he acivevoice only:he perec, pluperec, and uure perec indicaive; he perec and pluperec subjuncive; and heperec inniive.

c. Verb orms based on he supine sem (ound in he ourh pr incipal par) include in boh he acive andpassive: he uure inniive; in heaciveonly: he uure pariciple and supine; and, in hepassive only:he perec, pluperec, and uure perec indicaive; he perec and pluperec subjuncive; he perecinniive; and he perec par iciple.

65. Te principal pars o a verb are hose orms commonly lised by grammars and dicionaries o reveal averbs conjugaion as well as is various sems. Tese pa rs are, in he acive, (1) he rs person singularpresen indicaive (as he rs prinicipal par), (2) he presen in niive (o indicae he conjugaion and givehe presen sem), (3) he rs person singular perec indicaive (o give he perec sem), (4) he supine(o give he supine sem).

For example, he principal pars o laudare:

laud, laudre(presen sem, laud-) laudav(perec sem, laudv-) laudum(supine sem, laud-).

For mos Lain verbs, no supine exiss. Oher orms are hen supplied. Raher han he supine, someexbooks supply he perec passive pariciple as ourh principal par. For example, laudusraher han

laudum. In such cases, one nds he supine by removing a us raher han a um. A a ll evens, because hereis no one orm ha can be supplied or all verbs, he supine is commonly used or he sake o convenience.


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C S( )

66. Principal pars: sum, esse, fu, furum, be

a. Because here is no supine, we use he uure ac ive pariciple as he ourh principle par or orms based

on he supine sem.INDICAIVE SUBJUNCIVE

SING. PLURL SING. PLURLPresen Presen

sum sumus sim smuses esis ss sises sun si sin

Imperec Impereceram ermus essem (or orem) essmus (or ormus)ers eris essis (or oris) essis (or oris)

era eran esse (or ore) essen (or oren)

Fuureer erimuseris eriiseri erun

Perec Perecu u mus uerim uermusuis uisis uers uerisui uerun (orure) ueri uerin

Pluperec Pluperecueram uermus uissem uissmusuers ueris uisss uissisuera ueran uisse uissen

Fuure Perecuer uerimusueris ueriisueri uerin

IMPERIVE PAICIPLE

Presen Fu. urus2nd pers. es ese INFINIIVEPresen Pres. esse

2nd pers.es ese Per.uisse3rd pers. es suno Fu.urus esse orore


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F C

67. Acive principal pars: laud, laudre, laudvi, laudum,praise

Passive prinicipal pars: laudor, laudr, laudus sum, be praised

ACIV E VOICE PASSIVE VOICEINDICAIVE SUBJUNCIVE INDICAIVE SUBJUNCIVE

Presen PresenSing. laud laudem laudor lauder

lauds lauds laudris or re laudris orrelauda laude laudur laudur

Plur. laudmus laudmus laudmur laudmurlaudis laudis laudmin laudminlaudan lauden laudanur laudenur

Imperec Imperec

Sing. laudbam laudrem laudbar laudrerlaudbs laudrs laudbris or re laudrris or relaudba laudre laudbur laudrur

Plur. laudbmus laudrmus laudbmur laudrmurlaudbis laudris laudbmin laudrminlaudban laudren laudbanur laudrenur

Fuure FuureSing. laudb laudbor

laudbis laudberis or relaudbi laudbiur

Plur. laudbimus laudbimur

laudbiis laudbiminlaudbun laudbunur

Perec PerecSing. laudv laudverim laudussum laudussmus

laudvis laudvers lauduses laudussislaudvi laudveri lauduses laudussin

Plur. laudvimus laudvermus laudsumus laudsmuslaudvisis laudveris laudesis laudsislaudvrun or re laudverin laudsun laudsin

Pluperec PluperecSing. laudveram laudvissem lauduseram laudusessemlaudvers laudvisss laudusers laudusessislaudvera laudvisse laudusera laudusesse

Plur. laudvermus laudvissmus laudermus laudessmuslaudveris laudvissis lauderis laudessislaudveran laudvissen lauderan laudessen


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Fuure Perec Fuure Perec Sing. laudver lauduser

laudveris lauduseris

laudveri lauduseriPlur. laudverimus lauderimuslaudveriis lauderiislaudverin lauderun

IMPERIVEACIV E VOICE PASSIVE VOICE


2nd pers. laud laude laudre laudmin

Fuure Fuure

2nd pers. laud laude laudor3rd pers. laud laudan laudor laudanor

INFINIIVEACIV E VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Presen laudre laudrPerec laudvisse Fuure laudrus esse laudum r

PAICIPLEACIV E VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Presen laudns Perec laudusFuure laudrus laudndus

SUPINE(Acive Voice)Accusaive laudumAblaive laud

GEUND(Acive Voice)Geniive laudand

Daive laudandAccusaive laudandum

Ablaive laudand


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S C

68. Acive principal pars: mone, monre, monu, monium, warn

Passive principal pars: moneor, monr, monius sum, be warned


Presen PresenSing. mone moneam moneor monear

mons mones monris or re moneris orremone monea monur moneur

Plur. monmus monemus monmur monemurmonis moneis monmin moneminmonen monean monenur moneanur

Imperec Imperec

Sing. monbam monrem monbar monrermonbs monrs monbris or re monrris or remonba monre monbur monrur

Plur. monbmus monrmus monbmur monrmurmonbis monris monbmin monrminmonban monren monbanur monrenur

Fuure FuureSing. monb monbor

monbis monberis or remonbi monbiur

Plur. monbimus monbimur

monbiis monbiminmonbun monbunur

Perec PerecSing. monu monuerim moniussum moniussmus

monuis monuers moniuses moniussismonui monueri moniuses moniussin

Plur. monuimus monuermus monisumus monismusmonuisis monueris moniesis monisismonurunorre monuerin monisun monisin

Pluperec PluperecSing. monueram monuissem moniuseram moniusessemmonuers monuisss moniusers moniusessismonuera monuisse moniusera moniusesse

Plur. monuermus monuissmus moniermus moniessmusmonueris monuissis monieris moniessismonueran monuissen monieran moniessen


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Fuure Perec Fuure Perec Sing. monuer moniuser

monueris moniuseris

monueri moniuseriPlur. monuerimus monierimusmonueriis monieriismonuerin monierun



2nd pers.mon mone monre monmin

Fuure Fuure

2nd pers. mon mone monor3rd pers. mon monen monor monenor


Presen monre monrPerec monuisse Fuure monirus esse monium r


Presen monns Perec moniusFuure monirus monendus

SUPINE(Acive Voice)Accusaive moniumAblaive moni

GEUND(Acive Voice)Geniive monend

Daive monendAccusaive monendum

Ablaive monend


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T C

69. Acive principal pars: dc, dcere, dx, ducum, lead

Passive principal pars: dcor, dc, ducus sum, be led


Presen PresenSing. dc dcam dcor dcar

dcis dcs dceris or re dcris orredci dca dciur dcur

Plur. dcimus dcmus dcimur dcmurdciis dcis dcimin dcmindcun dcan dcunur dcanur

Imperec Imperec

Sing. dcbam dcerem dcbar dcererdcbs dcers dcbris or re dcerris or redcba dcere dcbur dcerur

Plur. dcbmus dcermus dcbmur dcermurdcbis dceris dcbmin dcermindcban dceren dcbanur dcerenur

Fuure FuureSing. dcam dcar

dcs dcris or redce dcur

Plur. dcmus dcmur

dcis dcmindcen dcenur

Perec PerecSing. dx dxerim ducussum ducussmus

dxis dxers ducuses ducussisdxi dxeri ducuses ducussin

Plur. dximus dxermus ducsumus ducsmusdxisis dxeris ducesis ducsisdxrun or re dxerin ducsun ducsin

Pluperec PluperecSing. dxeram dxissem ducuseram ducusessemdxers dxisss ducusers ducusessisdxera dxisse ducusera ducusesse

Plur. dxermus dxissmus ducermus ducessmusdxeris dxissis duceris ducessisdxeran dxissen duceran ducessen


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Fuure Perec Fuure Perec Sing. dxer ducuser

dxeris ducuseris

dxeri ducuseriPlur. dxerimus ducerimusdxeriis duceriisdxerin ducerun



2nd pers.dc (irregular or dce) dcie dcere dcimin

Fuure Fuure

2nd pers. dci dcie dcior3rd pers. dci dcun dcior dcunor


Presen dcere dcPerec dxisse Fuure ducrus esse ducum r


Presen dcns Perec ducusFuure ducrus dcendus

SUPINE(Acive Voice)Accusaive ducumAblaive duc

GEUND(Acive Voice)Geniive dcend

Daive dcendAccusaive dcendum

Ablaive dcend


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F C

70. Acive principal pars: audi, audre, audv, audum, hear

Passive principal pars:audior, audr, audus sum, be heard


Presen PresenSing. audi audiam audior audiar

auds audis audris or re audiris orreaudi audia audur audiur

Plur. audmus audimus audmur audimuraudis audiis audmin audiminaudiun audian audiunur audianur

Imperec Imperec

Sing. audibam audrem audibar audreraudibs audrs audibris or re audrris or reaudiba audre audibur audrur

Plur. audibmus audrmus audibmur audrmuraudibis audris audibmin audrminaudiban audren audibanur audrenur

Fuure FuureSing. audiam audiar

audis audiris or reaudie audiur

Plur. audimus audimur

audiis audiminaudien audienur

Perec PerecSing. audv audverim audussum audussmus

audvis audvers auduses audussisaudvi audveri auduses audussin

Plur. audvimus audvermus audsumus audsmusaudvisis audveris audesis audsisaudvrunorre audverin audsun audsin

Pluperec PluperecSing. audv eram audvissem auduseram audusessemaudvers audvisss audusers audusessisaudvera audvisse audusera audusesse

Plur. audvermus audvissmus audermus audessmusaudveris audvissis auderis audessisaudveran audvissen auderan audessen


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Fuure Perec Fuure Perec Sing. audver auduser

audveris auduseris

audveri auduseriPlur. audverimus auderimusaudveriis auderiisaudverin auderun



2nd pers.aud aude audre audmin

Fuure Fuure

2nd pers. aud aude audor3rd pers. aud audiun audor audiunor


Presen audre audrPerec audvisse Fuure audrus esse audum r


Presen audins Perec audusFuure audrus audiendus

SUPINE(Acive Voice)Accusaive audumAblaive aud

GEUND(Acive Voice)Geniive audiend

Daive audiendAccusaive audiendum

Ablaive audiend


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T -C

71. Acive principal pars: capi, capere, cp, capum, ake

Passive principal pars: capior, cap, capus sum, be aken


Presen PresenSing. capi capiam capior capiar

capis capis caperis or re capiris or recapi capia capiur capiur

Plur. capimus capimus capimur capimurcapiis capiis capimin capimincapiun capian capiunur capianur

Imperec Imperec

Sing. capibam caperem capibar capierercapibs capers capibris or re capierris or recapiba capere capibur capierur

Plur. capibmus capermus capibmur capiermurcapibis caperis capibmin capiermincapiban caperen capibanur capierenur

Fuure FuureSing. capiam capiar

capis capiris or recapie capiur

Plur. capimus capimur

capiis capiemincapien capienur

Perec PerecSing. cp cperim capussum capussmus

cpis cpers capuses capussiscpi cperi capuses capussin

Plur. cpimus cpermus capsumus capsmuscpisis cperis capesis capsiscprunorre cperin capsun capsin

Pluperec PluperecSing. cperam cpissem capuseram capusessemcpers cpisss capusers capusessiscpera cpisse capusera capusesse

Plur. cpermus cpissmus capermus capessmuscperis cpissis caperis capessiscperan cpissen caperan capessen


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Fuure Perec Fuure Perec Sing. cper capuser

cperis capuseris

cperi capuseriPlur. cperimus caperimuscperiis caperiiscperin caperun



2nd pers.cape capie capere capimin

Fuure Fuure

2nd pers. capi capie capior3rd pers. capi capiun capior capiunor


Presen capere capPerec cpisse Fuure caprus esse capum r


Presen capins Perec capusFuure caprus capiendus

SUPINE(Acive Voice)Accusaive capumAblaive cap

GEUND(Acive Voice)Geniive capiend

Daive capiendAccusaive capiendum

Ablaive capiend


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C F

72. When he perec sem ends inv, hevis someimes dropped, and usually he wo vowels are brough ogeheras a resul conrac. Such orms are someimes called sy ncopaed.

a. Perecs in v, v, and v, and oher enses based on he same sem, someimes (seem o) dropve,v, orvibeore ror s.

Examples: laudsti or laudvist; laudsse or laudvisse; delrunt or delvrunt; nrim ornverim.

b. Perecs in vand oher enses based on he same sem someimes drop vin all orms. W hen he com-binaion o vowels resuling rom his is iis,i usually conracs o s.

Examples: audior audv; audieramor audveram; audisseor audvisse.

D V

73. Deponen verbs have passive orms wih acive meanings. Bu he uure passive pariciple remains passivein meaning, and he perec pariciple is someimes passive in meaning. On he oher hand, hey have heollowing acive orms: uure inniive, presen and uure pariciples, gerund, supine.

In he indicaive, he subjuncive, and he imperaive, he ollowing verbs have he same orms ha heverbs in heir corresponding conjugaion oulined above (6871) have in he passive voice.

horor,horr,horussum, urge

vereor, verr,veriussum,ear

sequor, sequ,secussum,ollow

parior,parr,parussum, share

adgredior,adgred,adgressussum, atack

1s(67) 2nd(68) 3rd(69) 4h(70) 3rd i(71)

INFINIIVE

Presen horr verr sequ parr adgredPerec horus esse verius esse secus esse parus esse adgressus esseFuure horrus

esseverirus esse secrus

esseparrus

esseadgressrus

esse

PAICIPLEPresen horns verns sequns parins adgredinsPerec horus verius secus parus adgressusFuure horrus verirus secrus parrus adgressrusFuure passive horandus verendus sequendus pariendus adgrediendus

GEUND

horand, ec.

verend, ec.

sequend, ec.

pariend, ec.

adgrediend,, ec.

SUPINEhorum, verium, secuum, parum, adgressum,


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74. Semi-deponen verbs have acive orms or he enses based on he presen sem and passive orms or heenses based on he perec sem.

aude, audre, ausus sum, daregaude, gaudre, gavsus sum, rejoice sole, solre, solius sum, be accusomed

fd, fdere, fsus sum, rus

P C

75. Acive periphrasic consr ucions express houghs abouuture or intended acion. Tey are ormed bycombining he uure acive pariciple wih he verb sum:

Presen: laudrus sum,Iam abou o praise, I inend o praise.

Imperec: laudrus eram,I was abou o praise, I inended o praise , ec.

76. Passive periphrasic consrucions express obligaion or necessiy. Tey are ormed by combining he uurepassive pariciple wih he verb sum:

Presen: laudandus sum,I am o be praised, I have o be praised.

Imperec: laudandus eram,I was o be praised, I had o be praised, ec.

I V

SumAnd Is Compounds

77. For he conjugaion o sum,see 66. Sumis conjugaed in he same way when combined in compounds wihhe preposiions ad, d, in, iner, ob, prae, sub, and super. Praesumhas a presen pariciple: praesns.

78. In he compound absum, sumis conjugaed in he same way, bu is used insead o abbeore f, whichyields fu, furus, ec. Tere is a presen par iciple: absns.

79. In he compound prsum, sumis conjugaed in he same way, bu he preposiion prhas is original ormprdbeore all orms o sumbeginning wih e; as in, prdesseand prderam. Te presen ense is, prsum,prdes, prdes, prsumus, prdesis, prsun.

80. Possum, be able, can, is a compound o po and sum.

Principal pars: possum, posse, pou

INDICAIVE SUBJUNCIVEPresen possum, poes, poes

possumus, poesis, possunpossim

Imperec poeram possemFuure poer

Perec pou pouerimPluperec poueram pouissemFuure Perec pouer

INFINIIVE PAICIPLEPresen posse ponsPerec pouisse


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81. fer, ferre, ul, lum, carry

ACIVE VOICE

INDICAIVE SUBJUNCIVE

Presen er, ers, ererimus, eris, erun

eram

Imperec erbam erremFuure eram

Perec ul ulerimPluperec uleram ulissemFuure Perec uler

PASSIVE VOICE

INDICAIVE SUBJUNCIVEPresen eror, erris, erur

erimur, erimin, erunur

erar

Imperec erbar errerFuure erar

Perec lus sum lus simPluperec lus eram lus essemFuure Perec lus er

ACIV E PASSIV EIMPERIVE

Presen er ere erre eriminFuure er ere eror

er erun eror erunor

INFINIIVEPresen erre errPerec ulisse lus esseFuure lrus esse lum r

PAICIPLEPresen erns Perec lus


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82. vol, velle, volu, be willing nl, nolle, nlu, be unwilling ml, mlle, mlu,preer

INDICAIVEPresen vol nl ml

vs nn vs mvsvul nn vul mvulvolumus nlumus mlumusvulis nn vulis mvulisvolun nlun mlun

Imperec volbam nlbam mlbamFuure volam nlam mlam

Perec volu nlu mluPluperec volueram nlueram mlueramFuure Perec voluer nluer mluer

SUBJUNCIVEPresen velim nlim mlimImperec vellem nllem mllemPerec voluerim nluerim mluerimPluperec voluissem nluissem mluissem

IMPERIVEPresen nl nleFuure nl nle

nl nlun

INFINIIVEPresen velle nlle mllePerec voluisse nluisse mluisse

PAICIPLEPresen volns nlns


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83. F, be made, be done, become, happen, supplies he irregular passive o faci, make. Te vowelappears beoreall vowels excep beore he vowel ewhen e appears in he combinaion er. In his case, becomes .

Principal pars: f, er, facus sum

INDICAIVE SUBJUNCIVEPresen f, fs,

fmus, fis, funfam

Imperec fbam eremFuure fam

Perec facus sum facus simPluperec facus eram facus essemFuure Perec facus er

IMPERIVE INFINIIVE PAICIPLEPres. f, fe Pres. er

Per. facus esse Per.facus84. e, re, i, ium,go

INDICAIVE SUBJUNCIVEPresen e, s, i

mus, is, euneam

Imperec bam remFuure b

Perec i(or v) ierimPluperec ieram iissem or ssemFuure Perec ier

IMPERIVE INFINIIVE PAICIPLEPres. , e Pres. r Pres. ins(Gen. eunis)Fu.

eeun

Per. iisse or sse

Fu. irus esse Fu. irus

GEUND SUPINEeund, ec. ium,

a. In he enses based on he perec sem, iiusually conracs obeore s.

85. D, dare, ded, daum,give, is conjugaed like a verb o he rs conjugaion, excep ha he sem-vowel isregularly shor a. appears only in he ollowing acive orms: ds, d, dns.


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D V

86. Te mos imporan deecive verbs (deecive because hey lack presen ense orms) are he perecsmemin,I remember; d,I hae; and coep,I have begun. Noice ha memin and d, alhough perec inorm, are used wih presen meanings. Teir pluperecs and uure perecs have he meanings o imperecsand uures.

INDICAIVEPerec memin d coepPluperec memineram deram coeperamFuure Perec meminer der coeper

SUBJUNCIVEPerec meminerim derim coeperimPluperec meminissem dissem coepissem

IMPERIVESingular memen

Plural memene

INFINIIVEPerec meminisse disse coepisseFuure srus esse coep rus esse

PAICIPLEPerec sus coepusFuure srus coeprus

a. Insead o coep, he passive orm coepus sumis regularly used when a passive inniive depends on

i. Example: laudr coepus es, he began o be praised.

I V

87. Impersonal verbs correspond o English impersonals wih i. Tey have no personal subjec, bu mos o hemake as subjec a subsanive clause or someimes a neuer pronoun. Tey appear only in he hird personsingular o he indicaive and subjuncive enses, he presen and perec inniives, and occasionally in hepariciples and gerund. Impersonal verbs include:

a. Mos verbs expressing acions o naure; such as plui, i rains.

b. Te ollowing, which are exclusively impersonal: dece, i becomes; libe, i pleases; lice, i is permited;misere, i causes piy ; opore, i is righ; paenie, i repens; pige, i displeases; pude, i shames; rfer,

i concerns; aede, i wearies.Al l o hese excep rferbelong o he second conjugaion.c. Personal verbs ha are used impersonally wih a special meaning; such as accdit, it is added, rom

accd,I approach.

d. Te passives o mos inransiive verbs; as pugnur, i isough.


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Syntax

S

88. A senence is a group o words brough ogeher o express a complee hough. I consiss o a leas wo

parshesubjec (abou which somehing is said), and hepredicae (wha is said abou he subjec). Tesewo essenial pars may be modied in various ways. A senence may consis o a single verb, because hesubjec is implied by is ending.

As in English, Lain senences are declaraive, inerrogaive, imperaive, or exclamaory.

89. A Simple Senencehas one subjec and one predicae. Example: Caesar vni, Caesar came.

90. A Compound Senenceconsiss o wo or more simple senences o equal value. Tese senences are calledcoordinae clauses, and are conneced by coordinaing conjuncions; i.e., by conjuncions wih such meaningsas and, bu, or, or. Example: Caesar vni e Gall fgrun, Caesar came and he Gauls ed.

91. A Complex Senenceconsiss o a simple senence (called he main orprincipal clause),modied by one ormore dependen senences (called subordinae or dependen clauses).Te clauses are conneced by relaive

pronouns or by subordinaing conjuncions; i.e., by conjuncions wih such meanings as in order ha, so ha,i, because, alhough, when, aer, beore. Example:ubi Caesar vni, Gall f grun, when Caesar came, heGauls ed.

F C

92. Te cases help o show in wha relaion o he res o a senence any given subsanive sands. Tis is shownin English almos enirely by word order and by he use o preposiions. Te possessive case in English may,however, illusrae he use o he Lain cases: he ending sin he soldiersarms indicaes ha soldier modi-es arms and ha he soldier is he possessor o he arms. Bu in he Engl ish senences he soldier (subjec)

ghs , he kills he soldier (direc objec), he gives he soldier (indirec objec) a sword. Only word order showshe relaion o he word soldiero he res o he senence, while in Lain mleswould be used in he rs

senence, mliemin he second, and mliin he hird.93. Bu each o he cases, excep he nominaive and he vocaive, ex presses more han one hing. Consequenly

we mus know wha uses each case can have, and mus hen deermine which one o hese uses i has in hesenence in which i occurs. Tis can be deermined someimes by he meaning o he word isel, someimes

by he obvious meaning o he senence, someimes by he ac ha anoher word needs a cerain case osaisy is meaning and ha case appears jus once in he senence. Examples: he accusaive may expressduraion o ime, bu mliem, a soldier, could no be used in his sense, while muls anns, many years,is quie probably used in his way. Dci plum mliem vulnervissemigh mean eiher he says ha a jav-elin wounded he soldier, or a soldier wounded he javelin,bu he later ma kes much less sense. Persusi, he

persuaded , needs a daive o express he person persuaded, and, i here is jus one daive in he senence, isuse is hen eviden.

94. For urher clearness many relaions are expressed in Lain by preposiions, alhough no by so many as inEnglish. Examples: m lie inerfecus es, he was killed by a soldier; cum mlie vni, he came wih (in hecompany o) a soldier.


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A S (N)

95. ULE: A noun ha explains anoher noun and represens he same person or hing is pu ino he samecase.

Compare 97. Such a noun may be eiher a predicae noun or an apposiive.a. ULE: A predicae noun is conneced wih he subjec by sum or by a similar linking verb.

Examples o such linking verbs include appear, become, seem, be called, be chosen, be regarded, and helike.

Examples: Ps fui cnsul,Piso was consul; Ps facus es cnsul,Piso became consul; Ps appelluses cnsul,Piso was called consul. For he predicae accusaive wih verbs o calling, ec., see 126.

b. RULE: A noun in apposition to other nouns is set next to the noun that it explains without a connectingverb.

Examples: Ps, cnsul, mli Psn gladium dedi.Piso,he consul, gave a sword o Piso, he soldier.

N C96. Te nominaive case is used or he subjec o a nie verb (i.e., verbs in he indicaive, subjuncive, and imperaive

moods).

Example: Gallia es dvsa(1.1.1), Gaul is divided.

G C

G N

97. GENERL ULE: A noun ha explains or limis anoher noun, bu does no represen he same personor hing (compare 95) is pu in he geniive case.

Te relaionship beween wo nouns is usual ly expressed in English wih he preposiion o,bu also ofenwihor or wih oher preposiions. Tese combinaions o nouns are divided, according o heir meaningsino he groups arranged below in 98105.

A geniive may be eiher (a) atribuive, depending direcly upon anoher noun; as in domus Caesaris,Caesars house; or (b)predicaive, conneced by sumor a similar linking verb; as is domus es Caesaris, hehouse is Caesars.

a. Apposiional Geniive. Bu he geniive is someimes used insead o an apposiive; i.e., i someimesrepresens he same person or hing as he noun on which i depends. Example: turum comitumsenna(Cic. Ca.1.12), ha sewage, your comrades (lierally he sewage o your comrades).

At

98. Subjecive and Objecive Geniives. Tese depend on nouns ha have corresponding verbal ideas, such asamor, love,rom am,I love. Te hough expressed by he noun and limiing geniive can be expanded inoa senence. I he geniive hen becomes he subjec, i is a subjecive geniive; i i becomes he objec, i is anobjecive geniive. Examples: amor paris, he love o he aher, may imply ha he aher loves, (subjecive),or ha someone loves his aher (objecive); occsum slis(1.1.22), he seting o he sun (subjecive); regncupidiae(1.2.2), by he desire or power (objecive).


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99. Possessive Geniive.

ULE: Te geniive may express he possessor.

Te possessive adjecives are regularly used insead o he possessive geniive o personal pronouns. Ex-

ample: fnibus Belgrum(1.1.16), by he erriory o he Belgaeversus fnibus vesrs, by your erriory.a. A geniive or possessive adjecive mus precede causor gri,or he sake o.Examples: huius poeniae

caus(1.18.14),or he sake o his power; me caus,or my sake.

100. Descripive Geniive.

ULE: Te geniive modied by an adjecive may describe a person or hing by naming some qualiy.

Compare he descripive ablaive (141). Tis geniive is regularly used o express measure. Examples:huiuscemod sents cnsultum(Cic. Cat.1.4), a decree o this kind; trium mnsium molita cibria(1.5.7),ood or hree monhs.

101. Pariive Geniive (Geniive of he Whole).

ULE: Te geniive may express he whole o which a par is menioned.

Tis geniive may depend on any subsanive, adjecive, pronoun, or adverb which implies a par o a whole.Examples: erum na pars(1.1.15), one par o hem; hrum omnium forissim(1.1.6), he braves o allhese; ubinam genium sumus(Cic. Ca.1.9), where in (no o) he world are we?

a. Noe especially he geniive o a noun, or o he neuer singular o a second declension adjecive usedsubsanively, depending on a neuer singular adjecive or pronoun or on saisused subsanively. Ex-amples: quanum bon(1.40.17), how much (o) good; sais causae(1.19.6), suffi cien (o) reason.

b. In place o his geniive he ablaive wih dor exis ofen used, especially wih cardinal numerals andwih qudam. Example: nus flis capus es(1.26.12), one o his sons was capured.

c. English ofen uses o in apparenly similar phrases when here is real ly no pariive idea. Lain does nohen use he geniive. Example: h omns(1.1.3), all o hese.

102. Geniive of Maerial.

ULE: Te geniive may express he maerial o which a hing is composed.

Example: aciem leginum quatuor(1.24.3), a batle line (consising) o our legions.

P

103. Possessive Geniive.Te possessive geniive (99) is ofen used predicaively. Noe especially such phrasesas es hominis, i is he par (duy, characerisic) o a man. Example: es hoc Gallicae cnsuedinis(4.5.4),his is a characerisic o he Gallic cusoms.

104. Descriptive Genitive.Te descripive geniive (100) is ofen used predicaively. Example: sentscnsulum es huiusce mod, he decree is o his kind.

105. Te Geniive of Value.Wih sumand verbs o similar meaning, and wih verbs o valuing, indenie valueis expressed by he geniive. Compare he ablaive o price (147). Te words commonly so used are magn,parv, an, quan, plris, minris. Example: an eius griam esse osendi(1.20.14), he assured himha his fiendship was o such value.


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106. ULE: Many adjecives ake a geniive o complee heir meaning. Tey are:

a. egularly, adjecives wih such meanings as conscious (o), desirous (o), mindul (o), sharing (in), skilled

(in), and heir opposies, and plnus,ull (o). Examples:belland cupid(1.2.13), desirous o ghing;rsmliris perissimus(1.21.9), mos skilled in miliary science.

b. Someimes wih he geniive, someimes wih he daive (122), similis, like; dissimilis, unlike. Tegeniive is more common o living objecs, and regular o personal pronouns. Example: u similis(Cic.Ca.1.5),like you;vr simile(3.13.11),probable (like he ruh).

c. Occasionally oher adjecives. Example: locum medium utrusque(1.34.2), a place midway betweenhem.

G V

107. Verbs of emembering and Forgeting.

ULE:Mmin, bear in mind, reminscor, remember, and oblvscor,orge, govern eiher he geniiveor he accusaive.

Te geniive is regular o persons, he accusaive o neuer pronouns. Examples: reminscerur veerisincommod(1.13.11), he should remember the ormer disaster; veteris contumliae oblvsc(1.14.7), to

orge he ormer insul .

108. Verbs of Judicial Acion.

ULE: Verbs o accusing, acquiting, convicing, and condemningake a geniive o he charge.

Te penaly is expressed by he ablaive. Example: m ineriae condemn(Cic. Ca. 1.4), I pronouncemysel guily o inaciviy.

109. Verbs of Emoion.

RULE: Te Impersonal verbs misere,pity, paenie, repent, pige, dislike, pude, be ashamed, aede, bedisgusted, take the genitive o the person or thing which causes the eeling, and the accusative o the personwho has he eeling.

Te personal verb misereor,piy, also akes he geniive. Examples: m merum facrum numquampaenibi(Cic. Ca.4.20),I shall never repen o my deeds; m eius misereor eius misereor,I piy him.

110. Ineres and fer.

ULE: Te impersonal verbs ineres and rfer,I concerns, i is o he ineres o, ake he geniive o heperson concerned.

Bu i he person is expressed in English by a personal pronoun, ineresis used wih he ablaive singulareminine o a possessive pronoun. Exa mples: re pblicae inersi(2.5.5), i is o he ineres o he sae; me

ineres, i is o my ineres.111. ULE: Poior occasionally governs he geniive.

For poiorwih he ablaive see 145. Example: Galliae por (1.3.22), o become masers o Gaul.


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D C

112. Te daive expresses ha o ororwhich anyhing is done or is . Te daive may depend on a verb or on anadjecive or, very rarely, on a noun. I may also modiy a whole senence wihou depending on any one word.

113. Indirec Objec. GENERL ULE: Te daive denoes he person or hing indirecly affeced by he acion o a verb.

Te indirec objec depends closely on he verb, while he daive o reerence (120) modies he wholeclause.

114. Indirec Objec wih ransiive Verbs.

ULE: Many verbs govern an indirec objec in addiion o a direr objec.

Verbs ogiving and saying ake an indirec objec especially requenly. Te daive is usually ranslaed byo, less ofen byor. For he indirec objec wih ransiive verbs compounded wih a preposiion (daive

wih he compound verb: see 116. Example: e fliam da(1.3.15), he gives (o) him a daugher.

a. Dn,give, presen , and a ew oher verbs ake eiher he daive o he person and he accusaive o he

hing, or he accusaive o he person and he ablaive o he hing. Examples: e librum dn,I give (o)him a book; eum libr dn,I presen him wih a book.

b. Some verbs, insead o permiting boh he accusaive and he daive, can use eiher, bu each wih adifferen meaning. Especially cnsul, consul or consul or, and meu,ear orear or. Examples: s mcnsulis(Cic. Ca. 1.13), i you consul me (ask my advice); cnsulie vbs(Cic. Ca.4.3), consul or

yourselves (or your own ineress).

c. Tis use o he daive is reained w ih he passive voice. Example: e flia daur, a daugher is given o him.

115. Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs. Te daive is used wih all inransiive verbs whose meaningpermis i. Because many o hese verbs seem o be ra nsiive in English, he indirec objec wih such verbsin Lain mus be ranslaed wih a direc objec in English.

ULE: Te daive (usually o he person) is used wih many verbs meaning bene or injure, commandor obey, please or displease, serve or resis, rus or disrus, believe, envy, avor, pardon, persuade, spare,hreaen, and he like.

Examples: cvi persusi(1.2.3), he persuaded he sae;novs rbus sudba(1.9.8), he was anxious ora revoluion;Allobrogibus impervi(1.28.7), he commanded he Allobroges.

a. Te daive is used wih some phrases o similar meanings, as audins sum, obey, and dem habre, rus.Example: cui dem habba(1.19.15), whom he rused.

b. Many o hese verbs which are ordinarily inransiive occasionally ake an accusaive o he hing, usu-ally a neuer pronoun. Examples: prvinciae mlium numerum impera(1.7.4), he levies a number osoldiers on he province; id es persusi (1.2.6), he persuaded hem o his (lierally, he persuaded his ohem).

c. No all verbs wih he meanings given above are inransiive. Te mos imporan excepions are heverbs dlec, deligh, iube command, iuv,please,ve,orbid,which are ransi ive and hereore akehe accusaive (124). Example: Labinum iube(1.21.5), he commands Labienus.

d. Since only he direc objec o he acive voice becomes he subjec o he passive (124, b), no inransi-ive verb can have a personal subjec in he passive. Te verbs o 115can be used in he passive onlyimpersonally, and he daive is reained, alhough i is usual ly ranslaed as a subjec. Examples: Caesarpersude,I persuade Caesar,becomes Caesar m persudur, Caesar is persuaded by me (lierally,i is persuaded o Caesar by me).


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116. Te Indirec Objec wih Compound Verbs.

I. When hey are compounded wih verbs, cerain preposiions usual ly give hose verbs a meaning ha,in Lain, requires he daive. I he simple verb is ransiive, he compound verb governs a direc objec in

addiion o he indirec. Te daive is va riously ranslaed wih such verbs: when i is ranslaed wihfom,i is someimes called he daive o separaion.

ULE: Te daive is required wih many compounds o ad, ane, con, d, in, iner, ob, pos, prae, pr,sub, super; and wih some compounds o ab, circum, and ex.

Examples: cum omnibus praesren(1.2.5), since hey excelled all; fniims bellum nferre(1.2.12), omake war upon heir neighbors; mnin Labinum praeci(1.10.7), he pus Labienus in command o heworks; sc mli drac(2.25.13), having snached a shield fom a soldier.

II. ULE: Te daive is used wih compounds o sais andbene.

Example: s Aedus saisfacian(1.14.19), i hey make resiuion o he Aedui.

a. Te meaning o he compound does no always permi he daive. A mong he mos imporan excepions

are he ransiive verbs, adgredior, atack; incend, burn; inerci, kill; oppugn, assaul;bu hereare many ohers. Example: es adgressus(1.12.9), having atacked (or atacking)hem.

b. Very ofen wih hese compounds he preposiion is repeaed, or some oher preposiion is used, govern-ing is proper case, insead o he daive. Tis is he case especially i place is designaed or i moion isexpressed. Example: illum in equum inuli(6.30.15), he pu him on a horse.

c. Te daive is reained wih he passive. Example: mntin Labinus praecitur,Labienus is put incommand o he works.

117. Daive of Possession.

ULE: Te daive is used in he predicae wihsum odenoe he possessor.

Te daive o possession may be ranslaed as a nominaive wih he verb have. Examples: mihi es liber,

I have a book (lierally a book is o me);dmonsran sibi nihil esse(1.11.12), hey declared ha hey hadnohing (lierally, here was nohing o hem).

118. Daive of Agen.

ULE: Te daive is used wih he passive periphrasic (76) o express he agen.

Compare he ablaive o agen (137), which is used wih he oher orms o he passive. Example: nnexspecandum sibi saui(1.11.13), he decided ha he mus no wai (lierally, ha i mus no be waied byhim).

a. Te ablaive o agen (137) is ofen used wih he passive periphrasic, especially i he daive would beambiguous. Example: cvi persudendum es, he sae mus be persuaded by you.

119. Daive of Purpose (and he Double Daive).

ULE: Te daive may express purpose or endency,

Tis daive is especially common wih sum. I is ofen ound in connecion wih anoher daive (indi-rec objec, daive o reerence, daive o possession) in he double daive consrucion. Examples: quemauxili Caesar mseran(1.18.27), whom hey had sen o aid Caesar (lierally, whom hey had sen or anaid o Caesar);qu novissims praesidi eran(1.25.14), who were guarding he rear (lierally, who were ora guard o he rear).


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120. Daive of eference.

ULE: Te daive may name he person wih reerence o whom he saemen is made.

Tis daive does no depend on any one word (compare 113), bu loosely modies he whole predicae.

I ofen akes he place o a geniive modiying a noun. Examples: cibria sibi quemque efferre iubent(1.5.8), hey order each one o carry ood or himsel; ss Caesar ad peds pricrun (1.31.4), hey hrewhemselves a Caesars ee.

121. Ehical Daive.Te ehical daive is a daive o reerence wih so weak a meaning as o be unnecessary ohe sense. I designaes he person o whom he hough is o ineres and usually shows some emoion. Isuse is conned o personal pronouns. Example: ongilium mihi dxi(Cic. Ca. 2.4), he ook me ouongilius, he ook ou my ongilius, he ook ou ongilius (and I have some ineres in his), or simply he ookou ongilius.

122. Daive wih Adjecives.

ULE: Adjecives meaning fiendly or unfiendly, like or unlike, useul or useless, equal, , near, or sui-able govern he daive.

Examples: plb accepus(1.3.14), accepable (pleasing) o he people; proxim sun Germns(1.1.9), heyare neares o he Germans; casrs idneum locum(6.10.5), a place suiable or a camp.

a. Insead o a daive, some o hese adjecives use a preposiion ha akes is proper case. Example: adamciiam idneus, suiable or fiendship.

b. Like he preposiion prope, he adjecives propiorand proximusand he adverbs propiusand proximsomeimes govern he accusaive. Example: proxim henum(1.54.3), neares he Rhine.

c. For similisand dissimilis, see 106, b.

A C

123. Subjec of Inniive. ULE: Te accusaive is used as he subjec o he inniive.

Example: cerior facus es Helvis rdxisse(1.12.5), he was inormed ha he Helveii had led across.

124. Direc Objec.

ULE: Te accusaive is used wih ransiive verbs o express he direc objec.

Te direc objec may be eiher (a) he person or hing direcly a ffeced by he acion o he verb, as pu-erum lauda, he praises he boy; or (b) he hing produced by he acion o he verb, as conirinem fci,he ormed a conspiracy.

a. Te direc objec may be a subsanive clause (228, 229, 262, 277).

b. Te direc objec o he acive voice becomes he subjec o he passive. Examples: puer laudur, heboy is praised; coniri faca es, a conspiracy was ormed.

c. Many compounds o inransiive verbs wih preposiions, especially ad, circum, in, per, praeer, sub,rns, have ransiive meanings, and hus ake accusa ive direc objecs. Example: re, o go, inransiive;

bu men rnsre, o cross (go across) he river.

d. Many verbs ha are ransiive in English are, however, inransiive in Lain; see especially 115.


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129. Accusaive in Exclamaions.

ULE: An accusaive is someimes used as an exclamaion.

Example: O fornam rem pblicam(Cic. Ca. 2.7), Oh, orunae sae! Te nominaive and vocaive

are less ofen used in he same way.130. Accusaive of ime and Space.

ULE: Te accusaive is used o express duraion o ime and exen o space.

Te noun mus be one meaning ime or disance, as, dis, day,or ps,oo. Compare 152and 148. Ex-amples: rgnum muls anns obinuera(1.3.10), he had held he royal power many years; mlia passuumducena quadrgin paban(1.2.16), exended wo hundred and ory miles.

131. Place o Which.

ULE: Place o which is regularly expressed by he accusaive wih ad orin, bu he names o owns andhe words domus andrs omi he preposiion.

Compare 134, a, and 151. Examples: ad idicium cogit(1.4.14), he brought to the trial; in agrumNricum rnsieran(1.5.11), hey had crossed over ino he Noreian erriory; s Massiliam cnfere(Cic.Ca. 2.14), he will go o Marseilles; domum rediinis(1.5.6), o a reurn home.

a. Adis, however, someimes used in he sense o owards (no o), or in he viciniy o. Example: ad Genavamperveni(1.7.4), he reached he viciniy o Geneva.

V C

132. Te name o he person addressed is pu in he vocaive. Example: dsile, commlines(4.25.11),jumpdown, comrades.

A C

133. A an earl ier sage in is developmen, Lain had wo more cases han i has in is classical orm: he insru-menal and he locaive. Te original ablaive mean separaion (fom), he insrumenal mean associaionor insrumen (wih or by), and he locaive mean place where (in). Te orms o hese hree cases unied inhe Lain ablaive. As a resul, his single case has meanings ha originally belonged o hree separae cases.Tis ac accouns or he many and widely differing uses o he ablaive.

134. Ablaive of Separaion.

ULE: Separaion is usually expressed by he ablaive, wih or wihou ab, d, or ex.

Wih some verbs boh consrucions are used. Te individual usage o oher verbs mus be learned. Forhe so-called daive o separaion see 116, I. Examples: sus fnibus es prohibent(1.1.13), they repelhem fom heir own erriory; quae hosem pugn prohibren(4.34.9), which kep he enemy fom batle;

Bibrace abera(1.23.2), he was disan fom Bibrace.a. Place fom which:wih verbs expressing moion:

ULE: Place fom which is expressed by he ablaive wih ab, d, orex, bu he names o owns and hewordsdomus and rs omi he preposiion.

Compare 131and 151. Examples: u d fnibus sus exren(1.2.4), o go ou fom heir erriory;qu ex prvinci convnerant(1.8.2), who had gathered fom the province; Rm profgrunt(Cic.Ca. 1.7), hey ed fom Rome; dom exre(1.6.1), o go ou fom home.

Abis, however, used wih names o owns o expressfom he viciniy o.


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b. RULE: With verbs and adjectives o depriving, feeing, being without, and the like, the ablative withouta preposiion is generally used.

Examples: magn m me lberbis(Cic. Ca. 1.10),you will fee me fom grea ear; proeli absinba

(1.22.11), reused batle (lierally, refained fom batle).135. Ablaive of Source.

RULE: Te ablative, usually without a preposition, is used with the participles nus and orus to expressparenage or rank.

Examples: amplissim genere nus(4.12.13), born o he highes rank; sorrem ex mre (nam) (1.18.16),his siser on his mohers side.

136. Ablaive of Maerial.

ULE: Te maerial o which anyhing is made is expressed by he ablaive wih ex, less oen by he abla-ive wih d.

Example: nvs facae ex rbore(3.13.5), he ships were made o oak.

137. Ablaive of Agen.

ULE: Te agen o he passive voice is expressed by he ablaive wihab.

Te agen is hepersonwho perorms he ac. Compare he ablaive o means (143), and he daive o agen(118). Example: exercium ab Helvis pulsum(1.7.13), ha his army had been roued by he Helveii.

138. Ablaive of Cause.

ULE: Cause is expressed by he ablaive, generally wihou a preposiion.

Examples: grti et largitine (1.9.5), because o his popularity and lavish giving; quod su victoriglrirenur(1.14.11), ha hey boased (because) o heir vicory.

a. Cause is more requenly expressed by causand he geniive (99, a); by he accusaive wih ob, per, or

proper; and by dor exwih he ablaive. Examples: proper angusis(1.9.2), because o is narrowness;qu d caus, (1.1.11), and or his reason.

139. Ablaive of Comparison.

ULE: Wih comparaives, han may be expressed by he ablaive.

Examples: lce sun clarira ua cnsilia(Cic. Ca. 1.6),your plans are clearer han day; nn amplius qunsau sns mlibus passuum(1.15.14), no more han ve or six miles (compare b).

Tis is no o be conused wih he ablaive o measure o difference (148).

a. When quamis used or han, he wo nouns compared are in he same case. Te ablaive is generally usedonly when he rs noun is nominaive or accusaive, and when he senence is negaed.

b. Pls, minus, amplius, and longiusare ofen used insead o pls quam, ec. Example: quae ampliusocingenae n eran vsae empore(5.8.19), o which more han 800had been in sigh a one ime.

140. Ablaive of Accompanimen.

ULE: Accompanimen is expressed by he ablaive wih cum.

Example: u cum omnibus cpis exren(1.2.4), o go ou wih all heir roops. In miliary phrases cumissomeimes omited.

Example: Caesar subsequbur omnibus cpis(2.19.1), Caesar ollowed wih all his roops.


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141. Descripive Ablaive.

ULE: Te ablaive modied by an adjecive may describe a person or hing by naming some qualiy.

Te ablaive may be used in his way eiher atribuively or predicaively. Compare he descripive geniive

(100). Examples: homins inimc anim(1.7.15), men o unfiendly disposiion; nndum bon animvidrenur (1.6.11), hey did no ye seem (o be) well disposed (o a good spiri).

142. Ablaive of Manner.

ULE: Manner is expressed by he ablaive, usually wih eiher cum or a modiying adjecive, rarely wihboh.

Examples: pars cum cruci necbur (5.45.5), some were killed wih orure; magns iineribus(1.10.8),by orced marches.

a. Ablaive of Accordance.

ULE: In some common phrases he ablaive means in accordance wih.

Te ablaive o accordance (or means wih he meaning o in accordance wih) is especially com-mon wih he ollowing nouns, modied by eiher an adjecive or a geniive cnsutdine, ire,iuss (iniuss), lge, mribus, seneni, spone, volune. Examples: iniuss su(1.19.4), wihouhis orders; mribus sus(1.4.1), in accordance wih heir cusoms; su volune(1.20.11), in accordancewih his wish.

b. Ablaive of Atendan Circumsances.

ULE: Someimes he ablaive expresses siuaion or an atendan circumsance.

Usually i is impossible o disinguish clearly he ablaive o atendan circumsances rom he ordinaryablaive o manner. Examples: imperis popul mn (1.18.22), under he sovereigny o he Roman

people; inervll pedum durum iungba(4.17.9), he joined a a disance apar o wo ee.

143. Ablaive of Means.

RULE: Te means or instrument by which a thing is done is expressed by the ablative without a preposition.

Compare he ablaive o agen (137). Example: rgni cupidie inducus(1.2.2), inuenced by he desireor royal power.

a. Noice he ablaive wih he ollowing wordsverbs and adjecives olling (excep plnus, 106);fd, cnfd, rus in; nor, rely upon ; lacess (proeli),provoke (o batle); adsufacus, adsuus,accusomed o; frus, relying upon. Examples: nr loc cnfdban(3.9.12), hey rused in he naureo he counry; nll offi ci adsufac(4.1.17), accusomed o no obedience.

144. Ablaive of he Way.

ULE: Te road or way by which a person or hing goes is expressed by he ablaive o means.

Examples: frmen quod mine Arar navibus subvexera(1.16.5), he grain which he had brough up(by way o) he Saone; edem iinere conendi(1.21.8), he advanced by he same road.

145. Ablaive wih Special Deponen Verbs.Te ablaive is used wih or, use, fruor, enjoy, fungor,perorm,ulll , poior,ge possession o,vscor, ea, and heir compounds.

Tis is an ablaive o means, bu should be ranslaed as a direc objec. Examples: edem us cnsili(1.5.9), adoping (having used) he same plan; imperi por(1.2.6), o ge possession o he governmen.


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A A

157. RULE: Adjectives (including participles and adjective pronouns) agree with their nouns in gender, number,and case.

Examples: hom bonus, a good man; mulier bonae, o a good woman;bellrum magnrum, o grea wars.a. An adjecive can reer o more han one noun:

1. I atribuive, he adjecive regularly agrees wih he neares noun. Examples:vir bonus e mulier, agood man and woman;bella e vicriae magnae,grea wars and vicories.

2. As a predicae, he adjecive regularly agrees wih all he nouns o which i reers, and mus, hereore,be plural. I he nouns are o he same gender he adjecive usually a kes ha gender; oher wise i isneuer unless one or more o he nouns denoe hings wih li e, in which case he adjecive is usuallymasculine raher han eminine, eminine raher han neuer. Bu he adjecive may be neuer underalmos any circumsances. Examples: homins e mrs sun bon, he men and heir characers aregood; homins e arma sun magn, he men and heir arms are large; mons e mina sun magna,he mounains and rivers are large.

A U S

158. Adjecives are rarely used as subsanives (i.e., as nouns) in he singular, more commonly in he plural. Temasculine is used in al l cases in he sense o man or men, and he eminine in he sense o woman or women.Te neuer is used in he sense o hing or hings, and commonly only in he nominaive and accusaive be-cause hese are he only cases in which mascul ine and neuer orms can be dis inguished rom each oher.Bu he geniive singular neuer is common as he pariive geniive (101, a). Examples: mul, many men;mulrum, o many men; mulae, many women; mulrum, o many women; mula, many hings; mulrumrrum, o many hings.

A A159. Some adjecives are commonly used where English generally preers adverbs, primarily when such adjecives

modiy he subjec or objec. Examples: invus vni, lieral ly he came unwilling = he came unwillingly or hewas unwilling o come; prmus vni, lieral ly he he rs came = he came rs or he was he rs o come.

A P M

160. Some adjecives mean only a par o an objec. Te mos common o hese adjecives are mus, nmus, hebotom o; medius, he middle o; summus, he op o; prmus, he rs par o; exrmus, he las par o; reli-quus, he res o. Examples: in colle medi(1.24.3), on he middle o (hal way up) he slope; summus mons(1.22.1), he op o he mounain; prm noce(1.27.12), in he rs par o he nigh; mul di, lae in he day.

C S161. Comparaives and superlaives o boh adjecives and adverbs are usually o be ranslaed by he correspond-

ing English orms; bu he comparaive is someimes o be ranslaed by quie, raher, somewha, or oo, hesuperlaive by very. Examples: diurnirem impniem(1.14.15), quie long immuniy; cupidius nsec(1.15.5),ollowing oo eagerly; mone Ir alissim(1.2.9), by he very high mounain Jura.

a. Te superlaive is ofen srenghened by quam, w ih or w ihou a orm o possum. Exa mples: quammaximum numerum(1.3.3), quam maximum poes numerum(1.7.4), asgrea a number as possible,or he greaes possible number.


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162. A personal pronoun (51) is rarely used as he subjec o a nie verb excep or emphasis or conras. Ex-ample: ego mane, abs,I remain, you go.

a. Te rs person plural (we) is used more ofen or he rs person singular (I) han i is in English. On heoher hand, he plural o he second person is no used or he singular, as is done in English. Example:u supr dmnsrvimus(2.1.1), asI (lierally we)have said beore.

P

163. GENERL ULE: eexive pronouns reer o he subjec o he clause or senence in which hey sand.

eexive pronouncs correspond o mysel, himsel, ec., in such senences asI praise mysel, he praises himsel.Tis use o mysel, ec., mus no be conused wih he use in such senences as I mysel praise him, wheremysel emphasizesI and is in apposiion wih i. Tis later use corresponds o he Lain inensive pronoun(172). Te reexive o he hird person has wo uses.

164. Te Direc eexive.

RULE: Su and suus are used inevery kind o sentence or clause to reer to the subject o the clause in whichhey sand.

Example: eum vide qu s lauda,I see he man who praises himsel.

165. Te Indirec eexive.

ULE: In a subordinae clause ha expresses he hough o he main subjec su and suus are also usedo reer o he main subjec (i.e., he subjec o he main clause) insead o he subjec o he subordinaeclause in which hey sand.

Tis rule is especially imporan in indirec saemen (271) where he whole indirec saemen expresseshe hough o he speaker, and consequenly every pronoun reerring o he speaker is regularly some orm

o suor suus. Example: Caesar dci m s laudvisse, Caesar says ha I praised him (i.e., Caesar).166. Te eciprocal Expression.Te reexive pronouns are used wih inero express he reciprocal idea, one

anoher, each oher. Examples: iner ns laudmus, we praise one anoher or each oher; obsids u inerss den(1.9.10), ha hey give hosages o each oher.

P P

167. Te possessive pronouns (or adjecives) are rarely expressed excep or clearness or conras. Example:Caesar exercium dx i, Caesar led (his) army.

a. Suusis he adjecive o he reexive pronoun su, and is used in he same way. See 164and 165.

D P168. Hcreers o somehing near he speaker, and is someimes called he demonsraive

Documents

(Mueller) Appendix