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SMALL SCALE GOLD MINING AND LIVELIHOODS, A CASE OF
GWANDA DISTRICT, ZIMBABWE.
By
NHLANHLA MLILO
N0124877B
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters in
Development Studies
To the
Institute of Development Studies
At the
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, ZIMBABWE
MR. NEVEL TSHUMA
Submitted: August 2013
ii
DECLARATION
I declare that this research study is my work. It is submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements of the degree in Master’s in Development Studies at the Institute of Development
Studies in the National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo in Zimbabwe. I further
declare that the work is submitted for the first time at this university/faculty and that it has never
been submitted to any other university/faculty for obtaining a degree. I hereby cede copyright of
this product to the National University of Science and Technology.
…………………………………………
NHLANHLA MLILO
Student Number: N0124877B
On......................... day of ................................................................................2013.
iii
ABSTRACT
The study was an investigation into the effects of small-scale gold mining on livelihoods in
Gwanda district, wards 6 and 21. The researcher utilised both qualitative and quantitative data
collection methods. Research findings show that ASM is a viable source of livelihood for miners
who are now engaging in the activity full-time and contributes to the growth of down-stream
support businesses. The research also revealed that although the sector is contributing to the
strengthening of miner livelihoods it has negative effects on the livelihoods of non-miners and
the development of surrounding communities. Study findings show that a lack of sector specific
policy/legislation and poor institutional support has contributed to the lack of sustained growth
and minimal sector contribution to national and community development. Deep seated and
strained political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental management
conditions accompanied by a culture of patronage have become a threat to achieving sustainable
small-scale mining growth in the district and the country as a whole. Consequently, lack of
control by the communities, low minerals pricing and poor sector administration by government
has led to gross minerals smuggling, destruction of community social fabric and environmental
degradation. Recommendations from the study findings are for the enactment of a mining sector
policy that recognises, promotes and regulates small-scale mining. The study also recognised that
the enactment of appropriate policies alone would not be enough to promote the growth of the
ASM sector and increase its contribution to the economic growth of the nation and promotion of
livelihoods, there is need also for increasing the number of mineral buying points, official market
liberalisation in minerals pricing would ensure competitive prices compared to those in the
illegal markets thus eradicating minerals smuggling.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe gratitude to the individuals that helped me in their various capacities, Tobias Ndlovu,
Mabutho Singo and Xolani Donga; all of them colleagues, who understood my time constraints
and allowed me time out to attend to the research study. They helped with data collection as my
research assistants or enumerators; I am greatly indebted to them.
Special thanks to Mr Martin January from the Zimbabwe School of Mines for providing a
comprehensive small-scale mining data on Gwanda District and also assisting with establishing
links with key informants. I would like to thank my family (Nonhlanhla and Lwandle), not only
for financial support, but for their invaluable insights in critiquing my research instruments and
for proof reading my earlier chapters.
Lastly and most importantly, I wish to thank, Mr Nevel Tshuma my Study Supervisor, for his
impeccable guidance, encouragement, professional and technical advice in writing this
dissertation. He was a pillar of support throughout the research study. I am greatly indebted to
him for his comments and expert advice.
v
LIST OF TABLES/ FIGURES
TABLE 1: CRITERIA USED IN THE DEFINITION OF SMALL-SCALE MINING ACROSS AFRICA (UNECA 2003,
MWAIPOPO ET AL, 2004) ................................................................................................................................... 8
FIGURE 1: SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FRAMEWORK. ADAPTED FROM ASHLEY AND CARNEY 1999..... 24
FIGURE 2: ARTISANAL MINING POVERTY TRAP. ADAPTED FROM UNESCO, 2003 ....................................... 25
FIGURE 3: MAP OF STUDY AREA, BY AUTHOR. ................................................................................................... 30
TABLE 2: RESPONDENTS FOR QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................ 32
FIGURE 6: IMPACTS OF ASM ON LIVELIHOODS (SLF ANALYSIS OF STUDY).................................................. 38
FIGURE 4: GENDER BREAKDOWN OF RESPONDENTS ....................................................................................... 39
FIGURE 6: ENGAGEMENT OF MINERS (RESPONSES IN %) ................................................................................ 40
TABLE 3: RATE OF OCCURRENCE OF MEANS OF SURVIVAL ........................................................................... 41
TABLE 4: ANALYSIS TABLE ON UTILIZATION OF PROCEEDS FROM MINING ............................................... 44
FIGURE 7: IMPACT OF ASM ON COMMUNITY ..................................................................................................... 47
PICTURE 1: LAND MINED USING METAL DETECTORS ...................................................................................... 48
FIGURE 8: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ASM ON LOCAL LIVELIHOODS ................................................... 49
FIGURE 9: CHALLENGES FACED BY MINERS ...................................................................................................... 51
FIGURE 10: POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGES FACES IN ASM SECTOR .............................................. 53
FIGURE 11: IS IT EASY TO OBTAIN A MINING LICENSE? .................................................................................... 54
FIGURE 12: BENEFITS OF HAVING MINING LICENSE ........................................................................................ 55
FIGURE 13: ARE MINING LAWS BEING PROPERLY ENFORCED ....................................................................... 56
FIGURE 14: PERCEPTION ON AVAILABILITY OF SUPPORT TO ASM SECTOR ................................................. 58
FIGURE 15: AVAILABLE SUPPORT OFFERED TO ASM SECTOR ........................................................................ 58
FIGURE 16: ACCESSIBILITY OF INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT ............................................................................... 59
vi
ABBREVIATIONS
ASM Artisanal Small-Scale Mining
CASM Community Artisanal Small-scale Mining initiative
CRJP Council for Responsible Jewellery Practices
CSR Community Social Responsibility
EMA Environmental Management Agency
ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment programme
GDP Gross Domestic Product
H/H heads Household Heads
ICMM International Council on Mining and Metals
LSM Large Scale Mining
MIASA Mining Industry Association of Southern Africa
RDC Rural District Council
SLF Sustainable Livelihoods Framework
WCG World Gold Council
ZASMC Zimbabwe Artisanal and Small Scale Mining Council
ZIMVAC Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee
ZSM Zimbabwe School of Mines
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.2 Study Background 1
1.3 Statement of the Problem 4
1.4 Purpose of study 5
1.5 Specific Objectives 5
1.6 Research questions 5
1.7 Assumptions of the study 5
1.8 Justification of the study 6
1.9 Scope 6
1.9.1 Delimitation 6
1.9.1.1 Target area (Gwanda district, ward 6 and 21) 7
1.10 Artisanal and small scale mining characterization (Definition). 7
1.11 Definition of terms 9
1.11.1 Artisanal and Small-Scale Miners 9
1.11.2 Large-scale mining (LSM) 9
1.11.3 Ukutsheketsha 9
1.11.4 Otsheketsha 9
1.12 Limitations 9
1.13 Conclusion 10
CHAPTER 2 11
LITERATURE REVIEW 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Contextualizing ASM Impact on Livelihoods 11
2.2.1 Institutional framework for ASM 11
2.2.2 Livelihood impacts of ASM 17
2.2.3 Challenges faced by ASM 21
2.2.4 Sustainable livelihoods framework 23
2.2.5 Artisanal Mining Poverty Trap 25
2.3 Conclusion 27
CHAPTER 3 28
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 28
3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 Study Area Background 28
3.3 Research design 30
3.4 Study Population 31
3.5 Sampling 32
3.6 Entry into the Field 33
3.7 Data Collection 33
3.8 Data triangulation 35
viii
3.9 Conclusion 36
CHAPTER 4 37
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 37
4.1 Introduction 37
4.3.1 Summary of findings 37
4.3.2 Demographics 38
4.3.3 Miner engagement status 39
4.3.4 Livelihood impacts of ASM 40
4.3.5 Utilization of proceeds from mining 42
4.3.6 ASM and income levels 44
4.3.7 Impact of ASM on community 46
4.3.8 Impacts of environmental effects of ASM on local livelihoods 48
4.3.9 Community decision making on ASM 49
4.3.10 Challenges faced by miners 50
4.3.11 Mining policies 53
4.3.11 Benefits of operating with a license 54
4.3.12 Enforcement of mining legislation 55
4.3.13 Institutional support 56
4.4 Conclusion 59
CHAPTER 5 60
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 60
5.1 Introduction 60
5.2 Conclusions 60
5.3 Recommendations 61
5.6 Conclusion 62
REFERENCES 64
ANNEX 1: NON-MINERS QUESTIONNAIRE 68
ANNEX 2: MINERS QUESTIONNAIRE 71
ANNEX 3: KEY INFORMANT QUESTIONNAIRE 76
1
Chapter 1
1.0 Introduction
This chapter introduces the topic of the study; an investigation into the impacts of artisanal and
small scale mining on livelihoods, a case of Gwanda District, wards 6 and 21. ASM has been taken
as a form livelihood by majority poor rural communities with gold deposits or other minerals like
diamonds and glass. It is arguable that when pursued appropriately ASM has the potential of
transforming livelihoods. The essence of this research study is to examine the relationship between
ASM and livelihoods sustainability. Experiences and findings from other studies show that ASM
has had major negative environmental impacts; however they fall short of interrogating the complex
relationship between ASM and sustainable livelihoods.
1.2 Study Background
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining is a crucial livelihood activity employing more than 13
million workers and sustaining 80-100 million people worldwide. It produces between 350-800 tons
of gold per year contributing about 20-30% of global gold output1. The World Gold Council as
quoted in the Mining Weekly (Volume 19, 2013) reports that demand for gold Jewellery rose by
12% in the first quarter of 2013. The rise in demand also fuelled a corresponding rise in mining
activities in supply nations2. The people depending on small-scale gold mining are usually members
of poor rural households in developing countries, (Heemskerk and Oliviera, 2003). In most African
countries like Ghana, Madagascar and Zimbabwe, small-scale gold mining has become important
due to escalating poverty and lack of employment opportunities in the formal sector, (Logan 2004,
Murwendo et al 2011). As established in the preceding statement, in Zimbabwe, small-scale gold
mining has become important due to escalating poverty and lack of employment opportunities in
the formal sector.
1 The role of small-scale gold mining in promoting sustainable livelihoods among local communities in Kadoma district of Zimbabwe, Talent Murwendo, Oswell Rusinga and Hardlife Zinhiva, Clarion University of Pennsylvania, Clarion, Pennsylvania, Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa (Volume 13, No.7, 2011) 2 Upward Trajectory, Mining Weekly, Volume 19, 2013
2
Artisanal and small-scale mining can be traced back to the 13th century as evidenced by the
Portuguese- Monomotapa gold trade era, modern mining in Zimbabwe started at the turn of the 20th
century (Dreschler, 2001). Gold was the motive which led to the European colonization of
Zimbabwe, and gold has been the mainstay of its prosperity to the present time (Macgregor 1947).
Small-scale gold mining became a commercial activity in Zimbabwe in the 19th
Century when the
British South African Company (BSAC) received a charter to administer the country in 1890, (Wild
and Wiltshire 1971; Metcalf 2008, Murwendo et al 2011). Zimbabwe is a gold country. According
to the Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe (2010) the Achaean terrain of Zimbabwe is, in terms of gold
yield per square kilometer, the most productive of its kind in the world. The report further estimates
that 700 tons of gold, which represents about a third of the country's historical production, were
mined crudely from the seventh century to the start of modern mining activity at the turn of the 20th
century.
The expansion of gold panning was most rapid after the implementation of the Economic Structural
Adjustment programme (ESAP) of the early 1990s, which saw a significant decline in formal
employment and the subsequent move of labour into informal sectors in search of livelihoods
(Murombedzi 2005, Mabhena 2012). Unemployment increased to over 80% in the past decade due
to economic and political crises which drove away foreign and domestic investments (Bhebhe nd).
Bhebhe (nd) further argues that large-scale mines downsized their operations and even closed due
to high operational costs and political uncertainty, releasing many people to artisanal and small-
scale mining. The whole scenario was exacerbated by the collapse of large-scale commercial
farming activities following the Fast Track Land Reform Programme in the early 2000s.
Subsequent economic policies crafted by subsequent governments like Land Reform and
Indigenization policies further plunged the country into economic recessions hence further
promoting the sprouting of artisanal and small scale mining as a means of livelihoods for the rural
poor3. The resilience of artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities especially during economic
crises has proved to be one of the major sources of livelihoods in local communities where gold
3 Small Scale Mining and Sustainable Development within the SADC Region, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, International Institute for Environment and Development, No 84, August 2001
3
deposits are found since they provide employment and income for the day-to-day survival
(Noestaller et al, 2004).
The Zimbabwean economy is experiencing a slowing economic growth rate, according to the
Minister of Finance (2013) the country’s GDP has been revised down from 2012s 9.4% to 4.4%,
stating that the country is likely to witness a 5 year average growth rate of 5% going forward.
Finance ministry budgetary projections peg annual national gold production for 2013 to be
17,000kg. The country is losing a lot of money as Fidelity Gold Refiners is not capitalized to refine
gold4. According to Victor Gapare the president Chamber of Mines Zimbabwe, as quoted in the
Chamber of Mines Journal of November 2010, mining in 2010 contributed 47% towards the total
national GDP and a contribution to exports of 65% on the back of firming mineral prices and rising
production. Mining exports for 2010 are estimated at $1.2 billion, while the country’s GDP is
estimated at $6.1 billion, which implies a mining contribution to nominal GDP of about 20%5.
Thus, this establishes mining as the cornerstone in the Zimbabwean economy.
Although there are no formal statistics, over 60% of the formal laborers (teachers, soldiers, nurses
and those in the armed forces) disserted their posts during the period 2006 – 2008 to seek greener
pastures. A majority of those who left their formal jobs were involved in ASM and other crossed
the boarders to Europe and neighboring countries. The economic decline entrenched ASM as a
means of livelihoods, poor sector regulatory services, lack of adequate equipment and mining skills
led to environmental degradation.
The Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 165, which is administered by the Ministry of Mines,
Environment and Tourism, provides the main legislative framework for all mining activities in
Zimbabwe. While the act did not inhibit the development of ASM, it is not seen as promotional
either. Furthermore, the promulgation of the Mining (Alluvial gold) (Public Streams) Regulations in
1991 represented a bold step by the Zimbabwean government to recognize and regulate a sector that
had become too significant to ignore in terms of size, socio-economic and environmental effects
4 Minister of Finance, Zimbabwe National Budget 2013, Government Printers 5 From the president’s desk, Chamber of Mines Journal, Nov 2010 - Jan 2011
4
and general regional importance (Mponga and Ngorima, 2002). Mponga and Ngorima (2002)
further argue that the promulgation of these regulations removed an important structural constraint
to the growth of the sector by according it legal status.
The ministry of Youths and Youth Development through the Indigenization and Economic
Empowerment Act (act 14/2007, chapter 14:33) promoted the sprouting of numerous small scale
mines, this being seen as an empowerment drive. This policy provided the legal framework for the
establishment of the mines but has been criticized for not providing the institutional and technical
support requisite for running these mines sustainably. The rise in incidents of mine accidents is
evidence to this. The study will explore the ASM phenomenon, how it impacts on the livelihoods
and the environment, exploring the intricacies of the tradeoffs in this relationship. More recently,
the advent of metal detectors as gold prospecting devices has hit the gold mining sector.
Lack of consensus in government a regards ASM administration has further led to confusion in the
implementation of policy on mining. President R.G. Mugabe opening Zimbabwe’s fifth parliament
declared; “for the illegal panners, steps are on the way to decriminalize and allow them to work in
a legal way”6. The plan to legalise gold panning by small scale miners, usually working as
individuals was first mooted by the ministry of Mines in May 2013. In championing the drive to
legalizing artisanal small scale mining the minister reiterated that a third of gold deliveries in 2011
came from small scale miners commonly known as omakorokoza. David Coltart (2012) warns that
Zimbabwe faces “long term ruin” from the activities of gold panners7.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
The last decades have seen increased international and local attention paid to a number of features
of artisanal and small scale mining. This phenomenon exists mostly due to the need for income,
food, employment, asset ownership and decent living conditions which cannot be provided for
through the formal employment sector (Mwaipopo et al 2004). Studies have been conducted world
6 Government Gazette, Presidential Speech, Fifth Parliament opening 7 www.mikecampbellfoundation.com/page/freeforall-gold-mining-creates -waste-lands-coltart
5
over to ascertain the impacts of ASM on the community livelihoods at national level, however in
Zimbabwe few studies have been conducted at macro level to ascertain the impacts of ASM on
livelihoods therefore this study seeks to bridge that gap through investigating the impacts of ASM
on the livelihoods and the nexus between nexus between ASM and other environmentally based
livelihoods in Gwanda District.
1.4 Purpose of study
The purpose of the study is to examine the impacts of ASM on community livelihoods.
1.5 Specific Objectives
1. To determine the extent to which ASM has affected community livelihoods
2. To establish the effectiveness of ASM as a livelihood strategy
3. To determine the challenges faced by Artisanal and small scale miners
4. To establish institutional support available to Small scale miners
1.6 Research questions
1. To what extent has ASM impacted on community livelihoods
2. How effective has ASM been as a livelihood strategy
3. What challenges have are being faced by Artisanal and small scale miners
4. What institutional support is available to artisanal and small scale miners getting
1.7 Assumptions of the study
Most ASM mines/ miners operate illegally and their mining operations are from time to time
disturbed by police raids. It is assumed that by the government through the relevant arms of
governance will not have eradicated artisanal small scale mining by the time of the study.
Furthermore the study assumes that the demand for gold will remain high to want sustained ASM
operations in the study area.
6
Furthermore, it is the assumption of the study that political stability will remain in the country
allowing for access to field. Also the research proceeds under the assumption that ASM practices
will remain the same, mining legislation will not change for the duration of the programme.
1.8 Justification of the study
Gold mining is one of the sectors noted as having the potential to boost a country’s economy
through the attraction of foreign direct investment, employment creation and overall poverty
reduction. However, gold mining has accounted for negative social environmental problems which
have implications on the livelihoods of local communities. A study on the impact of mining on
livelihoods of local communities and livelihood strategies adopted as a survival mechanism is
relevant to provide deeper understanding of issues that can contribute to sustainable development
effort. The study on the impacts on ASM provides a fundamental basis for decision making for
organisations involved in the administration of mine rights, policy advocacy and management of the
environment in general.
It shall contribute to the exploration and furthering of understanding of the trade-offs on the
interaction between ASM, its livelihoods contributions and environmental sustainability. The study
will further interrogate the SLM put forward by DFID and the ASM poverty trap model put forward
by UNESCO as regards ASM and its sustainability and contribution to livelihoods.
Furthermore, the study shall bring in-depth insights and understanding in the field of ASM as a
vehicle to sustainable livelihoods and community development. It seeks to make real contributions
in the form of recommendations on policy and institutional structuring for a formalized and
sustainable ASM field.
1.9 Scope
1.9.1 Delimitation
The study investigated the impacts of ASM on the livelihoods of both miners and non-miners in
Gwanda district, wards 6 and 21.
7
1.9.1.1 Target area (Gwanda district, ward 6 and 21)
Zimbabwe inherited a mining system from Rhodesia where the country was divided into six mining
districts which are, Gwanda, Bulawayo, Hwange, Kwekwe, Harare and Mutare8. The study focused
on the Gwanda mining district which is administered by an Assistant Mining Commissioner in the
ministry of mines Gwanda Office. The area of the study was limited to wards 6 and 21 in Gwanda
district. The study targeted a range of district officials, members of the private sector, school of
mines, ward 6 and 21 communities and small scale miners operating in target wards.
The area of study was chosen given that the 2 largest gold mining companies in Gwanda mining
district are located in ward 21, ward 6 boasts of a resettlement area where most small scale gold
miners are resident. Mineral deposits in these wards are by far the richest across the Gwanda district
(Moyo 2013). Exploitation of the gold deposits formally and informally has been taking place for
longer in these two wards when compared to all other areas in Gwanda district that now have mines
sprouting up9. Also the area boosts of a number of registered small scale miners and those plying
their trade illegally, popularly known as otsheketsha/ amakorokoza. The rich pickings that ASM
offers and chances of employment from the mines in these two wards has attracted people from
across the country, mixing of people from different cultures of different skills sets and of differing
socio-cultural inclinations has also brought diversity in the community hence these two wards make
for a good study area of how small scale gold mining impacts on livelihoods of miners and non-
miners.
1.10 Artisanal and small scale mining characterization (Definition).
No universally accepted definition of ASM has been established across the globe10. The term has
been used to cover a broad spectrum of activities - from the army-run Hpakant jade mines in
8 An Outline of the Geological History of Southern Rhodesia, Geological Survey Bulletin No 38, A.M. Macgregor 9 Environmental damage caused by gold panning in Gwanda district {Zimbabwe} nd, Dumile Bhebhe, Masters in Disaster Risk Management University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 10 Increasing the contribution of artisanal and small-scale mining to poverty reduction in Tanzania, based on an analysis of mining livelihoods in Misungwi and Geita districts, Mwanza region, Rosemarie Mwaipopo, Wilson Mutagwaba,
8
Myamar, for example, where up to a million miners can be working on one site, to individual
garimpeiros panning for gold in the remote regions of the Brazilian Amazon, as well as former state
mining company workers or laid-off private company employees who have organised themselves
into cooperatives (Shoko nd, MMSD Global Report, 2002). At the national level in different
countries, criteria for identifying artisanal and/or small-scale mining are usually tied to the
legislative system. For example, in Ethiopia this relates to the depth of working and ban on use of
explosives; similarly, in Senegal SSM is recognized in accordance with the depth of working and
the production methods applied (Mwaipopo et al, 2004).
Table 1: Criteria used in the definition of small-scale mining across Africa (UNECA 2003, Mwaipopo et al, 2004)
Country Criteria
Côte d’Ivoire Level of mechanization
Ethiopia Annual production, level of mechanization
Ghana Capital investment, number of participants
Guinea Type of minerals exploited
Senegal Depth of working, crude production levels
South Africa Capital investment
Tanzania Capital investment, labour and technology requirements
United Nations Annual production capacity
Zambia Size of concession area
Zimbabwe Size of concession area, capital investment
The artisanal small-scale mining sector in Zimbabwe comprises primarily unregistered gold diggers
and panners (men, women and children alike) scattered along some 5000km or so of Zimbabwe’s
main rivers. Artisanal small scale miners are often defined as those who employ manual, low
technology mining conducted on a small scale (World Bank, 1995). These are further divided into
two categories, the legal and illegal.
David Nyange and Eleanor Fisher, A report prepared for the Department for International Development (UK),October 2004
9
The legally registered Artisanal and small-scale miners are those miners who have registered their
mining claims with the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) in accordance with the provisions of
the Mines and Minerals Act Chap. 21:05 (1996). The miners operate, or at least attempt to, within
the confines of mines and minerals Act, together with other relevant statutory instruments such as
the Mining Management and Safety Regulations, 1990(D’Souza, 2002; Quiroga, 2002).
1.11 Definition of terms
1.11.1 Artisanal and Small-Scale Miners - In this research ASM refers to mining by individuals,
groups, families, or cooperatives with minimal or no mechanization either legally or illegally.
1.11.2 Large-scale mining (LSM) - Established mining concessions legally recognized, employing
over 100people and listed on major global stock exchanges.
1.11.3 Ukutsheketsha – The use of crude mining and mineral ore processing methods.
1.11.4 Otsheketsha – Individuals involved in small scale artisanal gold mining using crude mining
and mineral ore processing methods.
1.12 Limitations
The High Court judgment (Constitutional Court ruling handed down on 31 May) paved the way for
the holding of elections on the 31st of July 2013, this constrained access to the field as political
activities (campaigning) were in full swing. Getting clearance from relevant stakeholders (Police,
Presidents Office, District Administrator and the RDC) was difficult as the election period is a very
sensitive period. Fears were that the researcher will campaign for one political party in the guise of
conducting research.
Use of the focus group discussion proved difficult as getting clearance for holding meetings was a
hustle during a highly volatile election period. The researcher conducted focus group discussions at
10
the mine sites for the miners and utilized community meetings as an opportunity to conduct focus
group discussions at community level. Focus group discussion guides and interview questionnaires
were shared with relevant authorities to demystify the research process. Respondents consent was
sought at all times.
1.13 Conclusion
This chapter introduced the topic of study: small scale mining and livelihoods, a case of Gwanda
District. The research sought to explore the intricate tradeoffs between ASM impacts on livelihoods
for miners and non-miners. The preceding chapter will explore the conceptual framework within
which ASM exists, interrogating findings of other research and policy provisions that either support
or suppress ASM.
11
Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Gold and diamond mining constitute more than half of all mineral exploitation worldwide, with an
estimated 6 to 9 million artisanal miners active in the gold and diamond sectors (Chupenzi, Ingram
and Schure, 2009). The Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit of 1998 stresses the need for good
management of resources at all local areas for the benefit of all global citizens. For any nation to
guarantee its future citizens of a good life, sustainable development should be at the core of its
resource management. This chapter reviews literature related to ASM and its impacts on
livelihoods. The chapter further reviews the Zimbabwean mining institutional framework as it
relates to ASM, impacts of livelihoods on community livelihoods, challenges faced the ASM sector
and the ASM poverty trap as promulgated by UNESCO amongst other literature.
2.2 Contextualizing ASM Impact on Livelihoods
2.2.1 Institutional framework for ASM
ASM has had unprecedented growth in developing economies over the past few decades11.
Artisanal and small-scale miners work largely in the ‘informal sector’, extracting valuable minerals
from primary ore bodies and is characterized by the lack of long-term mine planning/control. All
across the world, the consensus is that it can be legal or illegal, formal or informal and can
encompass everything from individual gold panners to medium scale operations employing
hundreds of people12. The lack of formalization of most operations serves as a serious impediment
to improving the sector’s contribution to sustainable development. It implies that most of their
businesses are not registered – they operate beyond government supervision and thus do not strive
to follow health and safety regulations or meet environmental standards and also do not remit taxes
nor trade their commodities through the formal markets.
11 Lei Shen & Aron James Gunson (2005), The role of artisanal and small scale mining in China’s economy, Journal of cleaner production, www.elservier.com/locate/jclepro 12 Lei Shen & Aron James Gunson (2005), The role of artisanal and small scale mining in China’s economy, Journal of cleaner production, www.elservier.com/locate/jclepro
12
Most countries lack policy frameworks that are flexible enough to accommodate ASM and this
impinges on their ability to operate13. The challenge faced in promoting the idea of legalizing ASM,
however, is that despite mounting evidence that points to ASM having become an integral
economic activity throughout sub-Saharan Africa, in many policymaking circles, it continues to be
viewed as a transient, “rush type” industry with few permanent linkages to the rural economy
(Hilsong, 2009, Maconachie & Hilson, 2011). The Ghanaian Government has done little to work
with mining groups to encourage legalization14. In China, despite many ASM operations being
illegal, the government (especially local government) has been intimately involved in the sector,
actively owning, operating and/ or encouraging ASM operations, although most have been
privatized15. As of April 2008, Cameroon had no industrial mining exploitation permits, the absence
of a coherent operational strategic code was blamed for the relegation of the mining sector as a
pillar of development in the country16. The prospecting, research, exploitation, circulation and
transformation of all minerals substances in the Republic of Congo are protected by Law No. 40-
2005 of April 2005, dubbed the Mining Code (Republic of Congo 2005). Articles 39-44 of the
Mining Code of the Republic of Congo govern the artisanal mining sector, including procedures for
annual artisanal mining permits.
In Zimbabwe the Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 165, which is administered by the Ministry of
Mines and Mine Development provides the main legislative framework for all mining activities.
While the act does not inhibit the development of ASM, it is not seen as promotional either
(Mwaipopo et al, 2004). The act is complemented by 18 pieces of legislation administered by eight
other ministries, which cover the usage and management of natural resources, a situation that
sometimes lead to conflicts. For example, the Natural Resources Act sets the limit for cultivation on
riverbanks at 30m while the Forest Act sets the limit at 100m17. Despite the act being
13 Boosting Artisanal and Small-scale mining, Bulletin 4 14 Maconachie & Hilson, Artisanal gold mining: a new frontier in post-conflict Siera Leon?, 2011 15 Wright T. Small mines in the Chinese local industry, working paper no. 80 of National Library of Australia, 1998. 16 Tieguhog J Chupezi, Verna Ingram and Jolien Schure, Impacts of artisanal gold and diamond mining on livelihoods and the environment in Sagha Tri-National Park landscape, 2009. 17 Rosemarie Mwaipopo, Wilson Mutagwaba, David Nyange and Eleanor Fisher (2004), Increasing the contribution of artisanal and small-scale mining to poverty reduction in Tanzania, Based on an analysis of mining livelihoods in Misungwi and Geita districts, Mwanza region, A report prepared for the Department for International Development (UK)
13
complemented by a host of other legal provisions, in Zimbabwe the Mines and Minerals
Development act supersedes all other acts, thus natural reserves or agricultural land can be laid to
waste if there is need for exploitation of mineral resources on the same land18, an example being
displacement of the Marange communities to pave way for exploitation of diamonds on the lands
and the Lupane forests destruction to tap gas in the area. Sunga and Marinda (1998) argue that the
enactment of the Mining Act, Chapter 165 has made it possible for all interested parties to
extensively explore the mineral potential of the country. They assert that in its application it has
eliminated the need for direct negotiations over the minerals rights between landowners and
potential miners, as is the case with other countries for example South Africa.
Furthermore, the promulgation of the Mining (Alluvial gold) (Public Streams) Regulations in 1991
represented a bold step by the Zimbabwean government to recognize and regulate a sector that had
become too significant to ignore in terms of size, socio-economic and environmental effects and
general regional importance (Mponga and Ngorima, 2002). Mponga and Ngorima (2002) further
argue that the promulgation of these regulations removed an important structural constraint to the
growth of the sector by according it legal status. The Mines and Minerals Development minister is
quoted in a rally in Umzingwane district (Matabeleland South Province, Zimbabwe) as having
blessed ASM. Many critiques view these statements as political overtones to secure support for his
political party, however in the everyday world of otsheketsha this is in the spirit of Indigenization.
The effectiveness of the Ministry of Mines in administering the Act is constrained by lack of human
and financial resources.
“Besides the Mines Act there are other pieces of legislations, which govern the
usage, and management of natural resources like the Natural Resources Act
(1975); Parks and Wildlife Act (1975) and the Hazardous Substances and Articles
Act (1971)” (Interview - Martin January, School of Mines, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe,
2013).
18 Government of Zimbabwe, Mines and Minerals Act
14
More recently, the advent of metal detectors as gold prospecting devices has hit the gold mining
areas. Lack of consensus in government a regards ASM administration has further led to confusion
in the implementation of policy on mining. President R.G. Mugabe opening Zimbabwe’s fifth
parliament declared; “for the illegal panners, steps are on the way to decriminalize and allow them
to work in a legal way”19. The plan to legalize gold panning by small scale miners, usually working
as individuals was first mooted by the ministry of Mines and Minerals Development in May 2013.
In championing the drive to legalizing artisanal small scale mining the minister reiterated that a
third of gold deliveries in 2011 came from small scale miners commonly known as omakorokoza.
David Coltart (2012) warns that Zimbabwe faces “long term ruin” from the activities of gold
panners20.
Legalization of the ASM sector should help to ensure that negative social and environmental effects
of the sector are better managed and will enable governments to capture more of the revenues from
the sector. In Tanzania for example, the implementation of a mineral trade liberalization policy in
the late 1980s created to formalize ASM sector increased the legally traded gold production from
US$0.55m in 1985 to US$38.78m in 1992 (Hentschel et al. 2002). According to the Chamber of
Mines Zimbabwe, as quoted in the Chamber of Mines Journal of November 2010, mining in 2010
contributed 47% towards the total national GDP and a contribution to exports of 65% on the back
of firming mineral prices and rising production. Mining exports for 2010 are estimated at $1.2
billion, while the country’s GDP is estimated at $6.1 billion, which implies a mining contribution to
nominal GDP of about 20%21. Thus, this establishes mining as the cornerstone in the Zimbabwean
economy. These gains were realised following the decentralization of the Fidelity Printers gold
buying offices22, this enabled the country to capture gold from small-scale miners across the
country’s districts. January (2013) asserts that the lack of government success in controlling ASM
activities has in part been due to a tendency for regulatory frameworks to be control-oriented, with
few obvious benefits or incentives for miners. He further argues that Artisanal Small-scale miners
will only formalize and register their operations if they see some real advantages to doing so.
19 Government Gazette, Presidential Speech, Fifth Parliament opening 20 www.mikecampbellfoundation.com/page/freeforall-gold-mining-creates -waste-lands-coltart 21 From the president’s desk, Chamber of Mines Journal, Nov 2010 - Jan 2011 22 Victor Gapare, Chamber of Mines Journal of November 2010
15
In the evolvement of the mining sector over centuries, not only have national governments been
developing laws and regulations, but regional and international organisations have also exerted
influence23. Numerous mining associations for the promotion and advocacy of miner’s issues have
been sprouting across the world and Zimbabwe. Regional initiatives to promote the small-scale
mining sector are more pronounced in the western, eastern and southern parts of Africa. Global
initiatives include the Community Artisanal Small-scale Mining (CASM) initiative supported by
the World Bank aims to increase networking, information sharing and best practices sharing among
ASM stakeholders and plays a coordination role between ASM assistance projects and donor
funding (MMSD 2002).
The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) is a multi-partnership organisation that
commits cooperate members to implement its principles under sustainable development framework,
including global standards, public reporting, and independent assurance and sharing of best
practices24. The World Gold Council (WCG), a global advocate for gold committed to playing a
key role in development of responsible gold mining25. The Council for Responsible Jewellery
Practices (CRJP) promotes ethical, social and environmental practices throughout the diamond and
gold Jewellery supply chain, from mine to retail shop26. Lastly but not least, the Kimberly process,
was initiated by African diamond-producing countries in May 2000 to develop an international
certification scheme for rough diamonds to prevent ‘conflict diamonds’ from entering legitimate
markets (Kimberly process 2004). Criticism of these institutions has been that they exist mostly to
tackle issues governing the LSM sector rather than dispersed small-scale mining. This research will
amongst other things seek to investigate whether ASM in Zimbabwe is ripping benefits from these
institutions.
Regionally, in the Congo Basin, only Cameroon and the DRC have setup nationally supported
structures to facilitate small-scale mining (Chupezi, Ingram and Schure 2009). In Mozambique, 61
23 Tieguhog J Chupezi, Verna Ingram and Jolien Schure, Impacts of artisanal gold and diamond mining on livelihoods and the environment in Sagha Tri-National Park landscape, 2009. 24 http://www.icmm.com/sd_framework.php 25 http://www.icmm.com/iccm_principles.php 26 http://www.responsiblejewellery.com/what.html
16
cooperatives have been established as a part of pilot project. These groups are given government
support on legal issues, technical assistance and training27. Zimbabwe has its fair share of mining
support associations, institutions such as the Mining Industry Association of Southern Africa
(MIASA), Zimbabwe Chamber of Mines, National Miners Association of Zimbabwe, Gold Miners
Association of Zimbabwe, Minerals Marketing Corporation of Zimbabwe, Mining Affairs Board,
Gwanda Mining Association all purport to have miners concerns at heart and help them access
capital. Some groups of artisanal miners form cooperatives in order to comply with the law in
countries which require ASM to be structured, others to access services (Chupenzi, Ingram and
Schure, 2009).
In recognition of the shortcomings of the legislative provisions in administering the artisanal and
small scale mining sector a new association, the Zimbabwe Artisanal and Small Scale Mining
Council (ZASMC) was launched in Gwanda in June 2013. In the past the government, through the
police department embarked on blitz arresting illegal artisanal and small scale miners saying their
mines were not registered and their activities threatened the environment. The ZAMSC president as
quoted in the Business Chronicle (21 June 2013), “national registration of ASMs started in
Gwanda, Matabeleland South Province. The province is one of the regions with the highest number
of gold deposits as well as artisanal and small scale miners”28. The association working together
with ASM mining associations may just provide a sustainable solution to enhance the socio-
economic contributions of ASM to local communities and the national GDP through regularizing
the trade of gold and ensuring CSR by ASMs. The ZAMSC president further argues that the ASM
sector in Zimbabwe has been largely crippled by poor funding from financial institutions and the
central government. The impact of institutions such as mentioned above have been varied, in
Zambia for example, a recent report highlighted the unsustainability and ‘paralyzed’ nature of the
regional mining bureau, which is deprived of a means to meet its own costs on an ongoing basis
with little incentive to collect revenue29. Similarly, each of Ghana’s seven small-scale mining
district centers are without adequate communication facilities, computing and staff (Hilson and
Potter, 2003; Kramcha, 2004), a case similar to that faced by mining associations in Zimbabwe.
27 Artisanal and Small-scale mining: Improving the contribution of Artisanal and Small-scale mining to sustainable development 28 Mr Wellington Takavarasha, Small-scale miners formalize operations, Business Chronicle, 21 June 2013 29 Fredrikson, Goran, Study on the regional mining bureas (Zambia), 2003
17
2.2.2 Livelihood impacts of ASM
In recent times, thinking about poverty and sustainable development has begun to converge around
the linked themes of vulnerability, social protection and livelihoods (Mabhena 2010). Chambers
and Conway (1995) define a livelihood as “a means of gaining a living” or “a combination of the
resources used and the activities undertaken in order to live” (as cited in Scoones 2009:172). Elliss
and Ade Freeman (2005), explain the term livelihood as an attempt to capture both what people do
in order to earn a living and the resources that provides them with capability to build a satisfactory
living taking into account risk factors, institutional and policy context that either helps or hinders
them in their pursuit of viable living (as cited in Yaro 2010). However the most widely recognized
and accepted definition is based on Chambers and Conway (1991), they assert that a livelihood
“encompasses the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living, a livelihood is
sustainable which can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks , maintain or enhance its
capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation
which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the long and
short term” (as quoted in Hilson and Bachirigah, 2007).
The mining industry has been a key in development of many civilizations, underpinning the iron
and bronze ages, the industrial revolution and the infrastructure of today’s information age30.
Hentscchel et al (2000) argues that ASM takes place throughout the world but is more pronounced
in developing countries in Africa, Asia, Oceania and central and South America. Today more than
100million people worldwide depend directly or indirectly on ASM for their livelihoods (CASM
2008, Chupenzi, Ingram and Schure 2009). The worlds 10 to 15 million artisanal miners produce
25% of the world’s gold (UNIDO 2009). ASM supports the formal economy by producing extra
minerals to fill the gap left by the formal mining concerns; for instance, in Brazil women work in
the reprocessing of tailings ‘pallaris’ to supplement their husbands’ earnings through selling the
mineral to formal mining concerns (Mpendazoe 1996; Manzungu and Sithole, 1999; Dreschler
2001; Jerez 2001; Mabhena 2012). In DRC and Sierra Leone, artisanal gold and diamond mining
30 Chupenzi, Ingram and Schure, Impactsof artisanalgold and diamond mining on livelihoods and the environment in the Shangha Tr-National Park, 2009
18
make up 75% of national mining production. In most African countries like Ghana, Madagascar and
Zimbabwe, small-scale gold mining has become important due to escalating poverty and lack of
employment opportunities in the formal sector, (Logan 2004; Murwendo et al 2011). As previously
mentioned, in Zimbabwe mining exports for 2010 are estimated at $1.2 billion, while the country’s
GDP is estimated at $6.1 billion, which implies a mining contribution to nominal GDP of about
20%31, following the decentralization of the Fidelity Printers gold buying offices32.
A well supported small-scale mining sector is an engine of economic growth, fuelling the expansion
of a series of downstream and allied service industries (Noetstaller et al, 2004). Noestaller et al
(2004) further argue that the paradox of ASM is that although it has many more local linkages than
LSM these linkages are not economically robust. Estimates from the ISG are that, in Africa today,
ASM directly employs over 8 million workers who, in turn support over 45 million dependents33. In
Tanzania, for instance, small scale mining became prominent after the implementation of the
structural adjustment programme of the late 1980s and early 1990s (Mabhena 2012), this is also the
case with Zimbabwe, furthermore the economic crunch following the implementation of the land
reform programme and implementation of a sanctions regime leading to massive closures of
companies lead to the proliferation of ASM as an alternative source of employment.
Hilson (2009) asserts that ASM plays a pivotal role in alleviating poverty in the developing world
and contributing significantly to national revenues and foreign exchange earnings. However,
Maconachie and Hilson (2011) argue that the employment, income and production generated from
ASM often come with significant costs to miners and nearby communities’ health, safety and
environment. The estimated 2 000 gold panners in Gwanda can be assumed to present “new jobs”
in the economy of which 1 428 were full time and another 672 part time. Based on full time jobs
therefore total person years of employment from gold panning were approximately 1770 in 2000.
Using this assumption of twice the number of panners’ results in approximately 3 500-person years
of employment (Bhebhe, nd).
31 From the president’s desk, Chamber of Mines Journal, Nov 2010 - Jan 2011 32 Victor Gapare, Chamber of Mines Journal of November 2010 33 Dr Gavin Hilson, Formalizing Artisanal and Small-scale mining: Challenges and way forward, presentation at The University of Reading
19
The creation of a sustainable future for Africa may lie in its ability to develop and maximize its
natural resources (Commission for Africa 2005; Diamond facts 2006; Chupezi, Ingram and Schure
2009). In addition to providing cash income to local and national economies, ASM is labour
intensive and thus a major purveyor of employment, reducing rural unemployment rates
(Maconachie & Hilson 2011). A vibrant small-scale mining economy spawns the development of
numerous downstream industries which would help absorb the breath of skill, in the form of youth
“graduates” from vocational training programmes, who are currently jobless. In Tanzania, for
example, several local equipment manufacture businesses, including fabricators of wood winches
and washing drums, have emerged to service a burgeoning artisanal gold mining economy (Hinton
and Veiga 2004; Maconachie & Hilson 2011). In Ghana these organisation/ companies carry the
label ‘Mine Support Service Companies’, and have facilitated a transition from artisanal or
traditional mining to semi-mechanized and mechanized mining methods in some mining districts,
particularly Tarkwa (Aryee, 2003).
Artisanal and Small-scale mining is an attractive employment option for rural areas and in crippled
economies, barriers to entry are minimal and activity levels are dynamic because precious minerals
often rise in value during periods of economic crisis, as in Zimbabwe during the financial crunch of
the 2000s. In 1998, ASM in China earned RMB4.36 billion (US$0.5 million). ASM operations in
the Shade province of China provided employment for 15,000 peasants since 2000, greatly
mitigating poverty in Shabe’s rural areas (Maconachie & Hilson, 20011). In Ghana, it is estimated
that 30,000 people are employed within the legalized small-scale mining sector (World Bank,
1995), with the minerals Commission and Ghana Chamber of mines noting that 60% of the
country’s total mining labour force is employed in small-scale mines (Hilson 2001; Kramcha 2004).
Kramcha (2004) argues that in countries such as Brazil, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, the
number of illegal miners operating is also in the hundreds although employment statistics are
notoriously difficult to capture. In Zimbabwe, ASM support industries are largely sprouting in the
services sector, thus ASM has led to increased revenues for stores (bottle stores, grocery and
furniture stores), the catering services and an increase in transport business. Sex work has also been
on the increase.
20
Ye Q and Zhang (1998), argue that employment provided by ASM has helped lower crime and
suicide rates in rural areas, assisted in raising living standards and minimise rural-urban migration
in ASM areas. The Gwanda Social Services Officer argues that in Gwanda unlike China, ASM has
contributed to a rise in crime rate. Bhebhe (nd) argues that the employment and income generated
allows panners to support their families either in whole (for full time panners) or in part (for part
time panners who have farm plots or other seasonal jobs). The revenues generated from minerals
trade help build infrastructure in the respective countries. For example, in 1966, Botswana had only
3 miles of paved road, today there are nearly 4000miles, as well as public transportation system,
there is now a country-wide digital telephone network, consisting of several thousand miles of fibre
optic cable (Maconachie & Hilson, 20011). According to Murwendo, Rusinga and Zinhiva (2011),
in Zimbabwe most of the money from ASM is spent on consumption goods. About 28% miners
spend money on food, 25% on clothes, 14% on electrical gadgets while only 3% spend on
remittances. This revealed that most of the miners ventured into mining as a survival strategy rather
than as a long-term investment. Income from ASM is at times used to help pay for fees, buy food,
and other necessities. Thus, panners who are successful in finding gold might have a small cash
surplus after meeting normal living expenses. The importance AS mining may hold for households
and local economies, it is not recognized as a key livelihood activity within national planning. For
example, ASM was not brought into the first PRSP. There are now, however, some signs of a shift
with research and consultation currently taking place under Government auspices; however it is
likely that the dominant view will be in terms of administration and environmental issues rather
than social and economic issues for AS miners (URT, 2004; Mwaipopo, Mutagwaba, Nyange and
Fisher 2004).
According to Mwaipopo et al (2004), livelihood sustainability of ASM communities is challenged
by two key aspects. Firstly is the fact that ASM is based on production of non-renewable resources,
and secondly is the limited geological knowledge that participants in ASM have about the resource
potential in their areas. The interplay of power dynamics of who gets what, when and how, shows
how power is negotiated between actors such as local bureaucrats, councilors and local
communities with regards to mining activities and outcomes. According to Bryant and Bailey
(2008), the power which actors possess either in greater or lesser amounts influences the outcomes
21
of mining (Livelihood outcomes) activities thus creates an unequal relationship between actors
(artisanal and small scale miners) and local communities thus bringing into perspective thesis study
of how ASM affects livelihoods of these groups.
2.2.3 Challenges faced by ASM
The problems associated with small scale mining are numerous and fairly common to all
developing countries of the world. They range from the disruption of local community life, conflict
over land (which in the case of Brazil’s Yanomani Indians resulted in the death of about 1500
people during a gold rush in 1987), numerous environmental impacts which affect the delivery of
common property services to local communities (Shoko, nd). ASM is challenged technically34.
Miners usually lack knowledge about legislation on health and safety, protection of the
environment, mineral rights and a decent work environment.
Furthermore ASM lacks access to appropriate technology because without capital to invest suitable
plant and equipment becomes prohibitively expensive. Consequently short-term mining operations
are soon abandoned once the easy ore is extracted, often leaving behind long-term environmental
damage35. In a Strategy for African Mining (Strongman, 1992) by the World Bank, Africa’s chief
source of financial support for the mining sector, bank officials are rather more interested in
partnering directly with multinational mining houses and facilitating, through the implementation of
sweeping reforms, the expansion of large scale mineral exploitation and ultimately industrial scale
activity36. Despite facilitating minimal economic growth in the likes of Tanzania, Ghana and Mali,
subjecting the bank to significant criticism (Ross 2001, Pegg 2006; Maconachie & Hilson 2011)
this blueprint for mine development continues to be rigidly adhered to throughout sub-Saharan
Africa. Furthermore, it is argued that ASM has continued to feature in some comprehensive sector
support programmes implemented across the globe but has generally been an “add-on” or
afterthought, given attention after implementation of frameworks for large-scale mining (Hilson,
2009, Maconachie & Hilson 2011), Zimbabwe’s lack of a proper policy framework and funding
facility for ASM sector is evidence enough.
34 Boosting Artisanal and Small-scale mining, Bulletin 4 35 Hilson 2012, Poverty traps in small scale mining communities: the case of sub-Saharan Africa. 36 Maconachie & Hilson, Artisanal gold mining: a new frontier in post-conflict Siera Leon?, 2011
22
The informal unregulated nature of much ASM across the globe makes it vulnerable to illegal
dealings37. Unregulated ASM becomes easy prey of organised crime and para-military operations,
especially in high value minerals like diamonds, gold and coltan. Rebel groups in countries like
Siera Leon, DRC and Angola have used ‘conflict minerals’ to finance military campaigns against
established government. In Sierra Leon, the development of a legitimate gold industry is crippled
by the fact that there are currently few incentives for buyers to export their gold through official
channels; the remoteness of many gold producing areas, a lack of mobility for buyers, porous
international boarders near the mining areas and low official buying prices all encourage illicit
trading (Maconachie and Hilson, 2011), just as is the case with Zimbabwe.
Issues such as health and safety, including the use of mercury, public health, including the high
incidence of STDs and HIV/AIDS in mining areas as well as those related to outbreaks of
contagious diseases such as cholera and malaria. In Bolivia, for example, a miner can be expected
to live only 48 years (Quiroga, 2001; Kramcha 2004), no official statistics exists for Zimbabwe. In
South Africa, experts believe that the industry hardest hit by HIV/AIDS is mining, with studies
showing infection rates from one-quarter to almost one-half of the country’s miners, in Zambia
18% of the copper miners are estimated to be HIV positive and in Botswana were diamonds
account for half of the governments total revenue, a third of the industry’s employees are estimated
to be HIV-positive (Kramcha 2004). Although no official statistics exist in Zimbabwe on HIV
prevalence rates on the mining sector, isolated data like SANDVIK sero-prevalence survey of 2005
that revealed that the HIV prevalence rate at the company was 15%38, the minister of Mines and
Mining Development39 in his address at a Zimbabwe School of Mines graduation said, ‘the disease
is haunting the mining industry’40, furthermore the concerted efforts by the National AIDS Council
in rolling out behaviour change programmes in mining towns is evident to the growing concern of
HIV/ AIDS in these areas.
37 Boosting Artisanal and Small-scale mining, Bulletin 4 38 SANDVIK, Sandvik Mining and Construction Zimbabwe combating HIV & AIDS, (nd) 39 Minister of Mines and Minerals Development 2013, Dr Obert Mpofu 40 NewsDay, High prevalence of HIV and AIDS in mines - Minister
23
The sustainability of ASM underpinned livelihoods is highly contested due to the high magnitude of
environmental degradation it is associated with. ASM activities in Kadoma are viable at the
expense of the environment and social relations because most of the miners do not have a sense of
entitlement to mining claims41.
2.2.4 Sustainable livelihoods framework
In recent times, thinking about poverty and sustainable development has begun to converge around
the linked themes of vulnerability, social protection and livelihoods (Mabhena, 2010). Chambers
and Conway (1995) define a livelihood as “a means of gaining a living” or “a combination of the
resources used and the activities undertaken in order to live” (as cited in Scoones 2009:172).
However the most widely recognized and accepted definition is based on Chambers and Conway
(1991), they assert that a livelihood “encompasses the capabilities, assets and activities required for
a means of living, a livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stresses and
shocks , maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood
opportunities for the next generation which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local
and global levels and in the long and short term” (as quoted in Hilson and Bachirigah, 2007)
Stephen Morse et al (2009), assets that the model defines livelihoods in terms of the ability of a
social unit to enhance its assets and capabilities in the face of shocks and stresses over time. SLA
first seeks to identify the important assets in livelihood, their trends over time and space as well as
the nature and impacts of shocks and stresses (environmental, economic and social) upon these
assets. With regards to livelihood strategies, the framework identifies three broad groups of
strategies: livelihood intensification, diversification and migration, of which are important for the
construction and enhancement of livelihood outcomes and poverty reduction within an evolving
social, political, economic and environmental context (Snoones 1998, Yaro 2010). The framework
further acknowledges the fact that livelihood approaches are holistic and entail a broad range of
issues - policies, institutions and processes which are reflected in how power, politics and social
differentiation influence livelihood choices. According to Yaro (2010), these issues could create
constraints and opportunities for communities, households and individuals in their quest for a viable
41 Murwendo, Rusinga and Zinhiva, The role of small-scale gold mining in promoting sustainable livelihoods among local communities in Kadoma district of Zimbabwe, 2011
24
means of living. The SL framework places people, particularly rural poor people, at the center of a
web of inter-related influences that affect how these people create a livelihood for themselves and
their households.
Key components of the SLA are assets and capital endowment, which are human capital, physical
capital, financial capital, social capital and natural capital as represented in the SLA by the asset
pentagon42. Linking the research to the SLA, the researcher asks key questions such as, does the
enterprise (ASM) affect access to assets, or change their quality or productivity; if natural resources
are used, are they used sustainably, how does the exploitation of natural capital impact on other
means of livelihoods based on natural capital; are cash earnings invested in human capital
(education, health) or other reserves (financial, physical assets) and does the enterprise strengthen
or undermine community co-operation and institutions, particularly institutions for common
property resource management?
Figure 1: Sustainable livelihoods framework. Adapted from Ashley and Carney 1999
42 Developing methodologies for livelihood impact assessment: Experience of the African Wildlife Foundation in East Africa, Working paper 129, Overseas Development Institute, Portland House, London UK, Caroline Ashley and Karim Hussein, 2000.
25
Mwaipopo et al (2004) argue that livelihood sustainability of ASM communities is challenged by
two key aspects. Firstly, the fact that ASM production is based on production of non-renewable
resources, and secondly is the limited geological knowledge that small-scale miners have about the
resource potential in their areas and technical skills on mining. Lastly the livelihoods approach
describes how livelihood strategies translate into outcomes and other livelihoods sources. The thesis
endeavors to investigate how revenues generated from ASM impact on the livelihoods of both
miners and non-miners.
2.2.5 Artisanal Mining Poverty Trap
The institutional and technical challenges faced by small-scale miners across have in most cases led
to the perpetuation of a vicious cycle of poverty. UNESCO promulgated ASM poverty trap model.
Poor and inadequate policies, inefficient equipment and an inability to diversify income earning
activities may be the main driving forces behind the impoverishment of ASM43. According to
findings from studies done by UNESCO artisanal mining if poorly managed can lead to a poverty
trap.
Figure 2: Artisanal mining poverty trap. Adapted from UNESCO, 2003
43 Artisanal and small scale mining: Improving the contribution of Artisanal and Small scale mining to sustainable development (nd)
26
The link between environment and livelihoods has long been made in many parts of the world44. In
particular, a vicious circle of degradation of the environment from small-scale mining can increase
poverty and thus exacerbate dependence upon natural resources. Studies across the globe and
Zimbabwe have revealed the link between environmental degradation and livelihoods poverty trap
(Mabhena 2010).
Labonne and Gilman (1990) note that poverty results from a denial of choices, which implies living
in a marginal and vulnerable environment; lack of opportunities further exhausts this environment.
Labone and Gilman (1990) further asset that in the most basic of situations, nomadic small-scale
miners use basic equipment and operate under harsh and risky conditions, they face considerable
challenges in their efforts to mechanize, unable to mobilize the funds needed to purchase
sophisticated equipment . Further understanding of the UNESCO Artisanal and Small scale mining
poverty trap reveals that a key to livelihood improvement is ensuring that the natural resource base
used by the poor is maintained and even improved. Sustainable livelihood strategies imply that the
economic needs of individuals and communities are integrated into the maintenance of the
environment. Ashley and Hussein, (2000) asset that poverty is multidimensional and the approaches
to reduce it have to be similarly multidimensional: political, economic, social and environmental.
Therefore, the reduction of poverty requires opportunities for the poor to do more for themselves in
all these sectors.
The major challenge in devising pro-poor policies for artisanal miners is to understand the
perception of the poor45. By interacting with them, one can gain their trust to achieve a real and
lasting ownership of the development process (Ashley and Hussein, 2000). In application of this
concept, many scholars agree that the poorest miners need access to productive resources and
appropriate knowledge of their use. In the case of artisanal mining, where there already is access to
resources, the challenge is to improve organisation and techniques.
44 Lei Shen, Aron James Gunson (2005), The role of artisanal and small scale mining in China’s economy, Journal of Cleaner Production 14 (2006), www.ciencedirect.com 45 Livelihoods and policy in the artisanal and small scale mining sector – An overview, Center for Development Studies, University of Wales Swansea (2004)
27
Yaro (2010) argues that one method would be to channel some of the income to spur alternative
production activities that demonstrate the possibility of sustainability. In some rural communities,
there is an over-reliance on mining as the sole potential economic engine as in the case of
Matabeleland South Province after the falloff the livestock industry. This dependence suggests a
potential opportunity to invest mining income in other livelihood activities. Thus the thesis
investigates how incomes from mining contribute to the livelihoods of miners and non-miners, does
mining income promote down-stream businesses. The UNESCO ASM poverty trap concept also
argues that, up-scaling of mining technology may contribute towards poverty reduction. Within
poor artisanal communities, women and children contribute significantly to household income.
2.3 Conclusion
The above discussed frameworks and the legislative provisions for ASM point to the research
questions and would help address them in this paper. Whereas the legislative provisions for mining
provide the basis of how legal arrangements have implications on ASM practice in Zimbabwe, the
SLA concept provides a foundation to the understanding of how livelihoods are constructed thus
would enable the researcher to make an informed inquiry and analyse of responses as to how ASM
impacts on livelihoods. The UNESCO ASM poverty trap model serves as a guide to previously
noted trends on the impacts of ASM on livelihoods.
To this end, the next chapter (3) discusses the research methodology utilized in the study.
28
Chapter 3
Research methodology
3.1 Introduction
Research methodology is seen by Miller (1979) as the planned sequence of the process involved in
conducting research. The research methodology is unquestionably the most complex process in
research given the enormous variability in their different paradigms, operations and the interactions
that take place. Stenbacka (2001) has it that the methodology situates the researchers in the
empirical world and connects them to specific sites, persons, groups, institutions, physical places
and bodies of relevant interpretive materials including documents and archives. It also seeks to
address the general planning of the research process, strategies and data collection techniques.
The quantitative approach was the dominant mode of research employed; the adoption of this mode
of inquiry was intended to permit full investigation of ASMs impacts on livelihoods in the selected
communities. Further to the quantitative method that was adopted, the researcher used qualitative
techniques for data validation. According to Kagan quoted by Bogdan and Biklen (1992) and Mites
and Huberman (1994) they argued that qualitative method of research enables researchers to learn
about how people behave in their contemporary surroundings and their lives. Through the
qualitative approach the researcher was able to observe and describe events as they occurred,
studied human interaction and responses as influenced by the need to enhance their livelihoods.
3.2 Study Area Background
Gwanda district (in Matabeleland South Province) consisted of 24 wards, is one of the driest
districts of Matabeleland South Province of Zimbabwe. The district has a population of 116 357
people (56,524 males and 59,833 females), target wards which are wards 6 and 21 have total
populations of 4,911 and 7,812 respectively based on the ZimStats, 2012 Census preliminary report.
The district falls under Agro-ecological region 5, characterized by very low erratic rainfall ranging
from 300mm to 400mm per annum. In the last 20 years Zimbabwe has experienced consecutive
droughts, a number of flash floods, crop pests and livestock diseases. These hazards have also
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affected and have been worse in Matabeleland Provinces (Ndlovu 2012), Gwanda District being
amongst the worst affected. Ndlovu (2012) also argues that droughts and prolonged dry spells have
contributed to chronic food insecurity and heavy loss of livestock through lack of pastures, water
and diseases. In the past people were surviving on small grains cropping and livestock rearing.
However droughts, diseases and recent economic meltdown in Zimbabwe have exacerbated the
situation. Since the beginning of the 21st
century small-scale gold mining activities have taken
center stage as a result of recurring droughts, loss of jobs through resettlement in large-scale
commercial farms, retrenchments as a result of ESAP (Murwendo et al 2011, Metcalf, 2008).
Ever worsening humanitarian situation has forced government and NGOs to intervene with relief
activities. A major relief activity is food aid (WFP, 2012). “World Food Programme and other
NGOs have been assisting communities for the past 15 years with food after each failed
agricultural season” (Social Services Officer, Gwanda RDC 2013). Livestock quality has
deteriorated and the monopolistic market controlled by the government has been offering low
prices. Gold panning has resulted in land degradation (Mabhena, 2012). Mabhena (2010) in his
thesis “Visible Hectares, Vanishing Livelihoods” further assets that a lot of vegetation has been
destroyed and the district is now susceptible to desertification due to improper land use, increased
human activity and impact of climate change. Increased human activities especially increased
unregulated open cast mining, increased number of livestock in relation to land and pastures have
damaged the environment (Ndlovu 2012). The discovery of gold and other minerals has resulted
sudden population growth in the district and target wards in particular as they are located in gold
belts46.
46 Gwanda District Strategic Plan 2012
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Figure 3: Map of study area, by author.
3.3 Research design
The researcher employed a combination of the exploratory and cross sectional research designs.
Exploratory research involved literature review and conducting focus group interviews. The
exploration of the ASM phenomena in this way helped the researcher’s need to triangulate data
obtained through interviews and questionnaires. The objective of exploratory approach was to
identify key issues and key variables. The researcher also employed cross-sectional study method in
observing a representative subset of the target population, during the research period. This approach
enabled the researcher to describe some features of the population, such as engagement in mining,
mining methods, use of proceeds from mining and how environmental impacts of ASM have
affected livelihoods.
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3.4 Study Population
The term population in research is used in much more definite way than as it is in its meaning
related to people. Aggarwal (1988:14) stated that the term population, in research, is used in a
broader sense than its common place meaning as a population of people. Aggarwal (1988) stated
that population may consists of persons, answers to various items of test, the behavior of inanimate
objects such as throws of dice or coins, cities, families, opinions of the electorate of a nation and the
like. In Aggarwal’s (1988) view, a population is a well-defined group of any of these.
In relation to the study, population referred to the people involved in artisanal and small scale
mining and the local residents of wards 21 and 6 of Gwanda district. The target population was
consisted of mine workers (from both the legally registered and illegal mines), local leadership,
local residents and the business community in the two wards. At a broader level, the project
engaged the local authorities and mining associations operational in the district and the two target
wards in particular.
There are 12 Artisanal and Small Scale Mines in the two target wards, each mine with an average of
20 workers although the figure fluctuates from time to time dependent on gold output prospects.
From these 12 mines, the research targeted 5 respondents from each mine. Ward 6 has a total
population of 4,911 people in 1,023 households; the research however targeted two villages in ward
6 which are Sigodo village and Gwakwe village because of their proximity to the mining area. 3
small scale mines are located in Sigodo village, these mines and those in ward 21 draw some of
their labour-force from Gwakwe village. Ward 21 has a total population of 7,812 people in 2,229
households; the two largest gold mines in Gwanda district which are Blanket Mine and
Vumbachikwe Mine are located in this ward. The majority of the households in this ward are in the
mining compounds as they are employed by the two large mines.
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The research targeted respondents for the research as show in table 2 below.
Table 2: Respondents for Questionnaire
Ward Artisanal and Small Scale
Mines
Local community Total # of
respondents
# of Mines Targeted # of Households Targeted
6 5 30 miners 30 H/H heads 60
21 8 30 miners 98 30 H/H heads 60
3.5 Sampling
Sampling is defined as “the process of selecting units (for example people, organizations) from a
population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to
the population from which they were chosen”47. The advantages that accrue from using a sample
rather than the entire population is the reduced cost in terms research budget to reach the entire
research population. Sampling enabled the researcher to manage time since the volume of data
collected was reduced, this enhance accuracy in data collection.
Sampling procedures used in the research were the stratified random sampling for miners and non-
miner respondents and the snow ball sampling method for key informants.
Stratified random sampling is a sampling method that involves the division of a population into
smaller groups known as strata. The strata are formed based on members' shared attributes or
characteristics. A random sample from each stratum is taken in a number proportional to the
stratum's size when compared to the population. These subsets of the strata are then pooled to form
a random sample.
The researcher firstly divided the target population based on ward boundaries and then further
divided these on village boundaries. For ward 6, two villages (Sigodo and Gwakwe) out of 6
villages were targeted. In ward 21 only the resettlement area was targeted. The main advantage
47 http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/sampling.php. Online (17/06/2013)
33
realised with use of stratified sampling was its ability to capture key population characteristics in
the sample. Similar to a weighted average, this method of sampling produces characteristics in the
sample that are proportional to the overall population.
The researcher also utilized the snowball sampling method. Aggarwal (1998), posits that the term
snowball sampling stems from the analogy of a snowball, which begins small but becomes bigger
and bigger as it rolls downhill. According to Aggarwal (1998) snowball sampling is used to
describe a sampling procedure in which the sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as the
study proceeds. The researcher used the snowball sampling method in the selection of mining
administration agencies and other key informants (ASM associations, gold buyers and other
relevant stakeholders) for the in-depth interviews. The subjects identified firstly by the researcher
served as informants for the identification of more subjects. The advantage of this method was that
it enhanced detailed acquisition of information from knowledgeable individuals and practitioners in
the field of ASM. However, the only noted disadvantage with this sampling method was that it was
time consuming in terms of scheduling and obtaining consent with targeted respondents, also it
required strict management as the scope of the subject responses kept on increasing posing the
danger of derailing the study focus by too much data.
3.6 Entry into the Field
This was important in determining the successful completion of the research and collection of data.
At the field level authorization to conduct research was granted by the District Administrator and
the Community Relations Officer Zimbabwe Republic Police (Gwanda).
3.7 Data Collection
Drew, et.al (1985) described data collection from a research perspective as the actual execution of
the investigation which involves data recording through administering questionnaire, or interviews
and recording responses. According to Drew, et.al (1985) researchers should seek for data from a
variety of sources and of different types. He called this triangulation and argued that it can be
achieved by interviewing individuals with different point of view.
34
Before carrying out data collection, the researcher conducted a pretest of the data collection tools
especially the in-depth and focus group interviews. This was necessitated by the fact that the quality
of data to be analyzed is dependent on the quality of data that would be recorded. The pretest
enabled the researcher to acquire skills on gaining rapport and techniques to administer research
instruments. The data collection instruments used were the in–depth interview, focus group
discussion and observation.
The researcher developed and employed questionnaires (see Annex 1 and 2) to capture in a
statistical form the responses to the research questions. Drew, et.al (1985) assets that
questionnaires have advantages over some other types of survey tools in that they are cheap to
develop and administer, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone
surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. Boyce (2006)
however argues that such standardized answers may frustrate users, questionnaires are also sharply
limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus,
for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical. However,
for this research a majority of respondents were literate, for the illiterate the researcher translated
the questionnaire into the local language (Ndebele). Research questionnaires were administered to
60 miners and 60 non-miners.
In-depth interviews were conducted with key informants (see Annex 3). Boyce (2006) defines in-
depth interviews as a qualitative research technique that involves conducting intensive individual
interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a particular idea,
programme and situation. In this study, the researcher used a one-on-one interview approach with
selected respondents. Interviews were undertaken to examine the impact of ASM on livelihoods of
miners and local community members, livelihood strategies carved out to enhance economic
wellbeing and finally problems local communities encounter in their livelihoods strategies. Use of
in-depth interviews was proved appropriate in interviewing people with busy schedules especially
technicians, mine workers other professionals. Respondents for the in-depth interviews were
selected through a snowballing sampling method. This method was time consuming as it involved a
35
lot of travelling, to make appointments with respondents before undertaking the same journey again
for the purpose of conducting the actual interview. This increased the research costs for
transportation and communication.
According to Pratt and Loizos (1992) focus group interviews are intended to encourage collective
response and to identify differences of opinion as well as areas of consensus within the group. At
the same time, focus groups capitalize on group dynamics. Scholars argued that the hallmark of
focus groups is the explicit use of the group interaction to generate data and insights that would be
unlikely to emerge without the interaction found in groups. The researcher conducted four focus
group discussions (two for the miners and two for the non-miners. These were used for validation
(triangulation) of data obtained through in-depth interviews and questionnaires. Use of this method
of data collection enabled the researcher to note group dynamics, such as the differences in
problems experienced by the groups, hidden attitudes and perceptions.
In addition to the above mentioned data collection methods utilized, the researcher also used the
camera and observation methods to verify data presented by respondents. Use of a camera was done
with the consent of the participants being observed.
3.8 Data triangulation
Triangulation is used to indicate that more than two methods were used in a study with a view to
double (or triple) check results. This is also called "cross examination"48. Triangulation in particular
refers to the application and combination of several research methodologies in the study of the same
phenomenon49. Triangulation is a powerful technique that was used in the validation of data
through cross verification from more than two sources. The multiple methods used in the study
were the in-depth interview, questionnaires and focus group discussions.
48 Cheng, Liying (2005: 72) Changing language teaching through language testing: A wash back study. Cambridge University Press. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science)#Types. ( 15.06.2013) 49 Bogdan, R. C. & Biklen, S. K. (2006). Qualitative research in education: An introduction to theory and methods. Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 978-0205512256. from - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science)#Types. (15.06.2013)
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3.9 Conclusion
Three major data collection instruments, namely the questionnaire, focus group discussion and
interviews were identified as appropriate in approaching this social science study. Guiding
questions for each method identified were then established and research questionnaires pre-tested
for validity.
Finally the data was collated, analysed and synthesized ready for interpretation, discussion and
conclusion drawing. This entailed reducing the massive volume of information, identifying
significant patterns, and constructing a framework for communicating the essence of what the data
revealed or in simple terms, organizing it, describing it, and categorizing it according to sources of
verification or questions. This proved an invaluable exercise with the shared experiences facilitating
the explanation and interpretation of the results. Chapter 4 is data presentation and analysis.
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Chapter 4
Data Presentation and Analysis
4.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the data presentation and analysis for the research conducted from the 22nd
of July to the 1st of August 2013 on the impacts of artisanal and small scale mining on livelihoods, a
case of Gwanda District, wards 6 and 21. Research tools used were the questionnaire and focus
group discussion. The following chapter is a data presentation and analysis interrogating the
complex relationship between ASM and livelihoods for miners and non-miners in wards 26 and 6
of Gwanda district.
4.3 Research findings
4.3.1 Summary of findings
The researcher used the Sustainable Livelihood Framework in the interrogation of the nexus
between ASM and livelihoods. Figure 5 below summarises the research findings.
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Figure 6: Impacts of ASM on livelihoods (SLF analysis of study)
4.3.2 Demographics
Pie chart below shows that there were more male respondents (74% males) than females (26%
males), mining is a traditionally male dominated profession. It is expected that having more male
respondents was an advantage as ASM is mainly undertaken by males hence their assessment of the
mining situation is expected to be more accurate.
39
Figure 4: Gender breakdown of respondents
4.3.3 Miner engagement status
Research findings shows that ASM has been a viable source of livelihood for the miners, this
assertion is supported by the majority of respondents (75%) as shown in figure 6 below. The few
respondents who argue that mining is not a full time employment reported that to supplement their
income miners are engaged in a variety of activities that include engagement in crime, gambling
and agricultural livelihoods (crop and animal husbandry). As noted in many other studies, in many
areas mining is a seasonal occupation with proceeds reinvested in farming and ranching, the case is
largely similar in Gwanda were miners reinvest their capital in other income earning activities.
However it was noted in focus group discussions that most miners are migrants, they reinvest their
income in their home areas not necessarily in Gwanda or wards 6 and 26 were the study was
undertaken. These findings show that ASM has had a positive impact on human capita through
increased employment and increase in revenues earned by miners leading to sustenance of other
livelihood capitals.
40
Figure 6: Engagement of miners (responses in %)
4.3.4 Livelihood impacts of ASM
Respondents further argued that the sector has become a profitable sector, these sentiments are
supported by ministry of finance. Respondents argue that the profitability of ASM is attributed to
the engagement of miner’s fulltime in mining. The fact that there are no minimum qualifications
required for one to become a miner has ensured access to the sector by many people thus
contributing to provision of employment for the majority. Increased employment has led to positive
gains in the financial, physical, human and social capitals. 20% of the respondents were not sure if
ASM has become a profitable endeavor or not.
The researcher drew comparisons on respondent’s perception on the rate of occurrence/ promotion
of various means of survival to investigate how ASM has impacted on the financial, human and
social capitals. Respondent’s responses were categorized into 7 categories as follows: crime,
prostitution, gambling, size of land under crops and size of livestock herds. Table 3 below shows
responses acquired showing respondent’s perception of how the current situation compares to
period before mining.
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Table 3: Rate of occurrence of means of survival
Item Increased (%) Decreased (%)
1 Crime 88 12
2 Prostitution 56 44
3 Gambling 20 80
4 Land under crop 0 100
5 Livestock herds 12 88
The majority of respondents noted that while ASM has had a positive impact on livelihoods, it has
also contributed to the rise in occurrence of negative coping mechanisms adopted by both miners
and non-miners alike over the past few years. 88% of the respondents noted a rise in crime rates and
56% a rise in prostitution. Focus group discussions revealed that the rise in crime rates is caused by
the lack of financial security associated with an ASM mining economy, poor cash flow injection
into the main economy coupled with the negative effects of ASP on the environment have led to
poor performance of other sectors such as agriculture (crop and animal husbandry). Most common
crimes in the target area were noted to be muggings done mostly by miners who would have failed
to prosper through the mining endeavor, statistics from Gwanda ZRP show that in the past year
only there have been three cases of attempted murder.
According to Sigodo village secretary, most marriages of miners are necessitated by a need for
security by females as they cohabit with the highest earners of the season. Although, females are
also involved in mining their earnings are usually less as compared to those of their male
counterparts since they are not able to work in deep shafts owing to lack of proper equipment and
the physical effort needed for conducting deep underground mineral ore extraction. These
sentiments were also echoed by a stamp mill manager, he concurs with the assertions made by the
village secretary above, he further notes that the quarry loads brought in for milling by female
miners are relatively smaller than those brought by males. Generally female miners earn less than
males owing to the above mentioned factors.
No conclusive consensus was reached on prostitution as only 56% of the respondents reported a rise
in prostitution compared to the 44% who reported a decrease. Information obtained through focus
group discussions show that the majority of miners are cohabiting, the rate of changing partners is
42
very high, and it is difficult however to then term that occurrence prostitution. Rise in levels of
prostitution has a negative effect in that it has a potential to decimate the human capital through the
spread of diseases like HIV/ AIDS. With these negative effects on the human capital, it then can be
concluded prostitution may lead to a reversing of the gains on livelihoods brought forward by ASM
as proceeds will no longer be reinvested in the promotion of other sectors but used to care for the
sick thus leading to economic stagnation or decline.
Furthermore, all respondents (100%) reported that land under agriculture and livestock herds (88%)
have been on the decline since the beginning of ASM in the area. This is in agreement with
responses from focus group discussions were respondents attributed a reduction in cropping area to
competition for labour and other capitals (financial and physical) between mining and field
activities. The decline in livestock herds has been as a result of the decimation of pastures by
miners who use metal detectors, poisoning of livestock though irresponsible use of mining
chemicals in rivers and other water sources50. The ZSM argues that the above stated challenges
further puts credence to the assertions of the ASM poverty trap model that ASM leads to the
perpetuation of poverty through mismanagement of non-renewable resources.
4.3.5 Utilization of proceeds from mining
Analysis of the impact of ASM on the human capital show that there has been an increase in
amongst other issues access to education for children through increased incidents of payment of
school fees. Table 4 below shows that 66% of miners and 60% of non-miners stated that the mining
proceeds have been used in the payment of education fees for miners and non-miners children alike.
The physical capital (road, household and other service infrastructure) of the target wards have not
changed significantly since the commencement of mining activities. Focus group discussions
revealed that most miners are not permanently resident in the area, they send money to their homes
for reinvestment and purchasing household goods. These research findings are in agreement with
those of the ZIMVAC 2013/2014 season, the report states that during the 2012/ 2013 consumption
year, poor roads, transport, infrastructure and communication (17.2%) and production water
shortages (11.5%) were cited as the most common challenges faced by the sampled communities.
50 Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Gwanda District Office
43
This was followed by poor access to education (8.9%), inadequate health facilities (8.8%) and poor
water and sanitation (8.8%)51. Respondents conceded to the fact that there is a high incidence of use
of mining proceeds in purchase of food, 78% and 80% by non-miners and miners respectively,
through focus group discussions respondents revealed that the drop in the number of incidents of
miners begging for food from neighbors is a sign that ASM has contributed to an improvement in
food security It however has to be noted that food security has improved only in mining areas of
these wards, the ZIMVAC 2013/2014 draft survey report highlights that Matabeleland South
Province has the highest food insecurity population, pegged at 32% (196 508 Households) for the
2013/2014 season, a rise of 2% when compared to the 2012/2013 season which stood at 30%. The
same report pegs Gwanda District food insecure population at 25.1%, amber codes ward 6, one of
the target wards as being critically food insecure52.
Profitability of ASM has not been translated to prosperity for all sectors in the economy hence there
are still many vulnerable groups and some of these resort to crime. As shown in table 4 below 64%
of respondents who are miners and 80% of non-miners reported an increase in the incidents of use
of mining proceeds in the purchase of clothes. The rise of sale of cheap second hand clothes in flea
markets coupled with hawkers stationed at stamping mills53 selling these wares has increased the
incidents of miners immediately purchasing clothes after obtaining their proceeds from gold. The
low levels of use of mining proceeds in payment of lobola noted by both miners and non-miners
alike was attributed to the informal nature of the marriages entered into by the panners.
51 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee draft report for 2013/ 2014 season, published August 2013, pp. 141 52 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee draft report for 2013/ 2014 season, published August 2013, pp. 125, 152, 218 53 Stamping mills – these are ore crushing mills for the extraction of gold from rocks.
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Table 4: Analysis table on utilization of proceeds from mining
Item
Miners No-miners
Yes (%)
1 Pay education fees for children 66 60
2 Health (pay health expenses for family) 54 72
3 Purchase enough food at home 72 68
4 Purchase clothes 64 80
5 House construction 10 10
6 Purchase TV 40 45
7 Purchase radio 88 75
8 Pay lobola 6 40
Key informants revealed that there are regressive psycho-social tendencies associated with informal
small-scale mining. They argue that the majority of miners fail to plan for their future owing to the
promise of getting more gold tomorrow, thus they fail to build or renovate houses. True to the
assertions by key informants, one miner said there was no hurry in planning for the future as
‘igolide kalipheli kuphela amandla endoda’ (literally translated, means gold reserves can never be
finished, it is only ones energy that fails). This they argue, also explains the flamboyant life styles
synonymous with miners immediately after selling their gold were they splash their money without
foresight for provision for the future. The majority of miners in focus group discussions revealed
that they did not have medical aid or life policy savings.
4.3.6 ASM and income levels
When asked if they were getting more money now than 5-10 years ago most miners (68%) stated
that their incomes have increased. This they attributed to amongst many factors, the gains of the
land reform programme, working with district elites in mining hence ensuring their safety from
prosecution even if they are working without mining licenses, the advent of the vuvuzela mining54
and or those operating in legally registered mines the continued albeit at a slow rate acquisition of
mining equipment has helped in increasing production. Mining experts from the Zimbabwe School
of Mines argue that the use of metal detectors has led to an increase in miner incomes as the process
involves minimal labour as compared to underground mining and also miners can cover vast tracks
54 Clifford Mabhena (2012): Mining with a ‘Vuvuzela’: reconfiguring artisanal mining in Southern Zimbabwe and its implications to rural livelihoods, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 30:2, 219-233. Mining with a vuvuzela refers to the use of metal dictators in the search for gold.
45
of land. They further posit a question if the increased income measures up to the environmental
degradation caused by this form of mining. In addition to the earlier mentioned reasons for the rise
in incomes, miners in focus group discussions all concurred that more experience gained over the
years in mining contributed largely towards a rise in earnings as their efficiency in resource
utilization has increased and lag time in production has decreased.
Few miners (12%) stated that their income has decreased over the past years. 20% of the miners
report that the earnings from ASM have remained largely the same over the years despite the
gradual ASM activities. The low government prices have contributed to the proliferation of the
black market and smuggling of gold to neighbouring countries like South Africa and Botswana.
Miners reporting huge increases in their earnings are largely involved in gold smuggling or selling
through unofficial channels. The president of the Zimbabwe Artisanal and Small Scale Miners
Council (ZASMC) argues that the country needs to legalize and register all small scale miners and
also provide competitive prices for the purchase of gold so as to motivate miners to sell in official
markets.
Although no formal statistics on trends of gold output by the ASM sector have been obtained,
miners highlighted that there have been variances in output and profitability of the sector over the
years. On the economic front, monetary policies like the dollarization have had a positive impact on
profitability and production. This the miners attribute to the firming of gold prices and also the
stabilization of inflation allowing for retention of value of proceeds. Global demand has also been a
constant determinant of production and profitability, as earlier stated the World Gold Council as
quoted in the Mining Weekly (Volume 19, 2013) reports that demand for gold Jewellery rose by
12% in the first quarter of 2013. The rise in demand also fuelled a corresponding rise in mining
activities in supply nations55 and also a corresponding rise in gold prices.
Legal experts consulted concurred with miners’ assertions that national policies have had an impact
on ASM productivity and profitability in the country. The expansion of gold panning was most
rapid after the implementation of the Economic Structural Adjustment programme (ESAP) of the
55 Upward Trajectory, Mining Weekly, Volume 19, 2013
46
early 1990s, which saw a significant decline in formal employment and the subsequent move of
labour into informal sectors in search of livelihoods (Murombedzi 2005, Mabhena 2012). In target
wards, respondents noted that ASM proliferation started increasing during the period of the
implementation of the Land Reform programme. This period was characterized by opening up of
lands previously privately owned (farms), unrestricted access to these lands coupled with minimal if
any regulatory structures to manage the lands promoted proliferation of illegal mining activities.
The rise of ASM through the land reform policy was not without its negative impacts, Mabhena
(2010) assets that unregulated mining in resettlement areas has caused wanton environmental
degradation, contributed to an increase in food insecurity owing to reduction in land under crops
and decimation of wild life. The former Minister of Education (David Coltart) weighs in on these
sentiments noting that Zimbabwe faces “long term ruin” from the activities of gold panners56.
These negative environmental effects of ASM if left unchecked can lead to a poverty trap not only
for miners but other individuals not involved in mining.
4.3.7 Impact of ASM on community
Figure 7 below shows that 60% of the respondents assert that ASM has contributed to an increase in
markets for downstream businesses. Major industries benefiting from the proliferation of ASM are
the retail (grocery and bottle stores) and the industry support businesses such as carpenters and
electricians. These findings are in line with findings by Aryee (2003) in Ghana and those of Hinton
and Veiga (2004) in Tanzania, were they report that several local equipment manufacture
businesses, including fabricators of wood winches and washing drums, have emerged to service a
burgeoning artisanal gold mining economy (Maconachie & Hilson 2011).
Rise in mining has had a negative effect on the social capital as it has contributed to a rise crime
rates. In 2012 alone the ZRP Gwanda reports that there have were nine (9) murder cases reported
and investigated in wards 6 and 2157. Respondents also noted that there has been an increase in
muggings and gambling. These findings correlate assertions by Maconachie and Hilson (2011) who
argue that the employment, income and production generated from ASM often come with
significant costs to miners and nearby communities’ health, safety and environment.
56 www.mikecampbellfoundation.com/page/freeforall-gold-mining-creates -waste-lands-coltart 57 ZRP Gwanda, Public Relations Officer, 21 July 2013
47
Only 10% of the respondents noted that ASM has contributed to improved infrastructural
development. The low level of infrastructural development in the area was attributed to the fact that
most miners are migrants from out of Gwanda district hence they reinvest their earnings in their
home areas. Also the land ownership structure makes it difficult for infrastructural development as
most miners are either lodgers or staying in shacks in the mining areas hence not allowed to make
permanent infrastructural developments.
Figure 7: Impact of ASM on community
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4.3.8 Impacts of environmental effects of ASM on local livelihoods
Picture 1: Land mined using metal detectors Picture 2: Unprotected dis-used shaft mines
Past studies have almost all conceded to the fact that mining especially ASM has had a largely
negative impact on the environment. More recently, the advent of metal detectors as gold
prospecting devices has hit the gold mining areas in Zimbabwe and Gwanda district. Picture 1
above shows land mined following detection of availability of gold, caterpillars and hundreds of
miners descend on the land and strip it bare of top soil and vegetation in search of gold.
Deforestation caused by mining using detectors has led to, among many other negative impacts,
destruction of eco-life and has been implicated by many scholars to lead to increased runoff.
Picture 2 shows disused mine shafts left un-reclaimed and unsecured by small scale gold miners in
ward 6, Gwanda district. These unprotected disused mine shafts pose a trap for domestic animals
and wildlife, can be breeding site for parasites like mosquitoes and destroy the scenic view of an
area.
The majority of respondents (60%) reported that ASMs environmental effects have had negative
effects on local livelihoods (Figure 6 below). Main effects noted were the un-reclaimed and
unsecured mines that present hazards to livestock in the areas. The ZIMVAC 2013/2014 draft
survey report states that Matabeleland South Province the highest cause of livestock (cattle) loss in
49
the province is drought, pegged at 69%58. Environmental effects of mining thus further compound
on the effects of drought in crippling the ranching industry. Furthermore, mining has led to a
hardening of water (salty water) following the use of chemicals in minerals processing. Although
large mines have protected tailings facilities, the water they use in minerals processing seeps into
the ground and eventually contaminates the underground water system. Drilling of deep mine shafts
in the areas has also been blamed for the drying up of boreholes near the mines. 30% of the
respondents noted that the environmental effects of mining have had no effect on local livelihoods
as mining is not conducted in the middle of the community. Only 10% of the respondents reported
that the environmental effects of ASM have had no effect on local livelihoods. It thus can be
concluded from data obtained that the environmental impacts of mining have a largely negative
impact on local livelihoods.
Figure 8: Environmental impacts of ASM on local livelihoods
4.3.9 Community decision making on ASM
In Zimbabwe the Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 165, which is administered by the Ministry of
Mines and Mine Development provides the main legislative framework for all mining activities.
Furthermore, the Mining (Alluvial gold) (Public Streams) Regulations of 1991 represented a bold
step by the Zimbabwean government in the regulation of the sector. All respondents noted that they
58 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee draft report for 2013/ 2014 season, published August 2013, pp. 90
50
have not been involved in decision making on mining. Thus it can be concluded that the
promulgation of the mining laws has not been translated to empowering communities to make
decisions or be involved in decision making on mining activities in their communities. Key
informants revealed that mining laws in Zimbabwe employ a top-down approach were decisions are
made at an executive level and only pushed on communities for implementation. In Gwanda
district, 70% of gold belt area is under Caledonia Mining Corporation the owners of Blanket Mine
concession59, they are responsible for leasing out to small scale registered miners, not the
community that will have to live with the miners. Unregistered miners only need to find a rich gold
belt then they start mining even without consulting community members.
4.3.10 Challenges faced by miners
Figure 9 below shows that the majority of respondents (54%) cited lack of capital as a major
challenge faced by the ASM sector. Most of the small-scale miners are not legally registered hence
they cannot access loan facilities in banks and other financial houses. Legal experts interviewed
argue that the Mines and Minerals Development Act in the country favors Large Scale Miners
(LSM), leading to a low investor confidence in the ASM sector as there is poor security of
investment. 15% of the respondents cited the harsh government legislation that is available in
dealing with the sector as a leading deterrent in the growth of the sector. In agreement with the
views of the miners the Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe notes that the ministry of Mines and
Mining Development published new mining fees and charges on 27 January 2012, these fees and
charges are very high compared to those that are paid in other countries with significant mining
industries for similar activities60.
In addition to the prohibitive costs of obtaining a prospectors license there are added costs of
acquiring an environmental assessment certificate (EAC) required before a mining license can be
awarded. Miners note that the department of EMA has not done enough to educate them on
environmental management. Continued harassment of miners by the police in mining areas has led
to the rise in corruption were miners have resorted to bribing officers. The lack of incentives for
59 Ministry of Mines and Minerals Development, Gwanda District Office, August 2013 60 The Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe, 2012 Annual Report
51
abiding with government requirements to register have mainly lead to the proliferation of gold
smuggling, respondents also argued that selling through official channels comes at a loss for miners
owing to very low government prices hence their preference of illegal markets.
Further to the above mentioned challenges faced by miners, 31% of the miners stated that a lack of
equipment has crippled many operations. As mentioned earlier, approximately 70% of area with
rich gold belts in Gwanda district is under the Caledonia Mining Corporation which operates
Blanket Mine and the working arrangement has been that small-scale miners should not insert
headgears on their mines and also are limited to 60m deep operations. This has led to failure to fully
exploit mineral resources in the area. Despite Blanket Mine placing restrictions to the amount of
mechanization for the small-scale miners, miners’ ability to procure equipment is prohibited by lack
of capital and failure to access loans.
15%
31%54%
Low production
Harsh gorvernment laws
lack of equipment
Fall in prices
Lack of organisation
Lack of capital
Figure 9: Challenges faced by miners
On challenges faced by the ASM sector, figure 10 below shows that the highest number of
respondents (33%) mentioned that the challenges faced in ASM are other than the need for
formalization (30%), promotion of financing for the sector (20%) and provision of training for
miners (13%). The 33% argued that the complex nature of the challenges faced by the ASM sector
call for a multi-pronged approach in solving them. Top amongst the suggested possible solutions
52
was the need for concerted efforts to minimise or eradicate corruption in the administration of the
sector.
Furthermore, respondents argued that there is a need for development of appropriate legislature to
fully administer the sector. In agreement with these sentiments, the Mines and Minerals
Development Deputy Minister61 while officially opening the 2013 Mine Entra expo noted that the
ASM sector has not been proactive in creating linkages with the rest of the economy, as the country
still exports raw materials62. In a bid to reduce the challenges faced by miners, including the ASM
sector the ministry is crafting a Minerals Development Policy aimed at transforming the industry.
The Deputy Minister, addressing delegates during the Zimbabwe Artisanal and small scale mining
Councils Mine Entra Conference noted that following the documentation of the numerous
challenges faced by the ASM sector, the government has come up with the syndication programme
and service centers. Under the syndication, the government will formalize the ASM sector
organizing miners into groups and licensing them. The successful implementation of the
syndication programme will see the government providing extension support to small-scale miners
and creating employment opportunities. In addition, the programme will see more revenue inflows
into government coffers since minerals produced will be formally marketed through the service
centers63.
The ZAMSC president however notes that government initiatives although noble will only be
successful if coupled/ supported with an equal commitment in offering a competitive buying price
for gold and capital injection in agreement with 20% of the respondents who argued that securing
capital/ investments to support the growth of the ASM sector is critical to the sectors growth and
sustainability. Legal experts in Gwanda concur with the president of ZAMSC and the miners in that
the establishment of service centers and licensing of miners is a half measure if miners are not
going to be capitalized, the market stimulated to be favorable for trading to be done formally and
also the government legislative arms committed to administering policies on mining appropriately.
Legal experts also note that the problems faced by miners arise and are perpetuated by the elites
61 Mines and Minerals Development Deputy Minister, Gift Chimanikire, 2013 62 Creating linkages in mining, Daily Bulletin, Mine Entra 2013, 26 July Issue 63 Government to formalise artisanal, informal miners, Daily Bulletin, Mine Entra, 26 July Issue
53
who are benefiting from the current setup. 13% of the respondents noted that there is a need for
trainings on sustainable mining if the problems of ASM sector are to be solved.
Figure 10: Possible solutions to challenges faces in ASM sector
4.3.11 Mining policies
All miners interviewed including key informants stated that they are aware that mining in
Zimbabwe is governed by legislations, the Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 165 and the Mining
(Alluvial gold) (Public Streams) Regulations in 1991, which are administered by the Ministry of
Mines and Mine Development. It is noted that these provide the main legislative framework for all
mining activities in the country.
Legal experts however note with concern that while these acts do not inhibit the development of
ASM, they are not promotional either. There is need for a comprehensive Mineral Development
Policy to guide the development of the minerals industry. The Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe
states that the government is in the process of developing a new comprehensive Mineral
Development policy that will also encompass the administration of ASMs.
13 small-scale mines in wards 6 and 26 are legally registered and have valid mining licenses. A host
of other miners operating in river banks and in abandoned mine shafts are unregistered. The
54
research focused on all people involved in mining hence both the registered miners and unregistered
ones were interviewed and involved in focus group discussions.
Figure 11 below shows that the majority of respondents (50%) are of the opinion that obtaining
mining licenses is a difficult process. Many miners stated that they have in the past tried and failed
to obtain prospectors licenses due to a variety of reasons, to amongst them being the requirement of
too many documents acquired in different offices in different towns and the prohibitive costs of
acquiring a license. 30% of the respondents argued that is easy to obtain a mining licenses. They
argue that one needs only to have all required documentation in order to obtain the license. Those
saying that it is difficult to obtain a mining license argue that the requirements for one to obtain a
mining license are in themselves prohibitive for many prospective miners. Only 20% of the
respondents stated that they were unaware if the obtaining a mining license is easy or difficult as
they have never interested themselves in the process of obtaining a mining license.
Figure 11: Is it easy to obtain a mining license?
4.3.11 Benefits of operating with a license
Figure 12 below shows that the majority of respondents (60%) argue that having a mining license
has one major benefit in that miners have freedom to exploit and sell minerals. Respondents note
that police raids have largely rendered the operations of illegal miners difficult as they are always
55
on the run, if caught miners are forced to bribe the officers with the gold they would be having to
avoid persecution. 20% of the respondents reported that operating with a miner’s license enabled
them to easily market and carry their gold to markets without fear of prosecution. They further
explained that the freedoms they enjoy are far outweighed by the poor prices they have to contend
with in selling their gold through the formal markets were the prices are very low compared to the
parallel market. Focus group discussions and key informants all concur on the fact that small-scale
miners are now in the practice of selling smaller portions of their produce to the government in
order to satisfy a licensing requirement and the larger portion through the informal markets so that
they could make reasonable profits in their operations. A further 20% of the respondents noted that
there are no benefits accrued from operating with a license.
Figure 12: Benefits of having mining license
4.3.12 Enforcement of mining legislation
Respondents were of varied views on the issue of the administration of available mining policies in
the country, 50% of the respondents argued that mining laws are not being properly administered on
the ground yet 33% argue to the contrary, that these laws are being properly administered.
Respondents who stated laws are being properly administered assert that the legal provisions
currently available as law on mining were not crafted to administer the small-scale mining sector
hence in their application there are challenges when it comes to regulation of the ASM sector, this
56
however they argue does not mean that the pieces legislation/ policy are not being implemented
properly. Legal experts and other key informants argue that the current mining laws favor LSMs,
hence even in setting up of mining fees the focus is on the LSM sector and in the process crippling
the ASM sector as noted by the Chamber of mines of Zimbabwe64.
Figure 13: Are mining laws being properly enforced
Figure 13 above shows that 17% of the respondents were not aware if legislation is being properly
implemented or not. Findings from focus group discussions revealed that these respondents were
aware that there is legislation governing the operations of mining however they were not aware of
its nature. Thus, this calls for a massive awareness campaign on awareness on policy for the mining
community.
4.3.13 Institutional support
The majority of respondents (55%) were not aware of any support offered to small-scale miners in
Zimbabwe. They stated that they have heard of the formation of Small-scale mining
Corporations/Associations however despite joining some of there have not been any real benefit
they accessed or any support either technically or in promotion of market linkages. 27% state that
they are aware of support available to small-scale miners, the majority of those in this group are
64 Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe, Annual Report 2012
57
mine owners and former professionals who went into mining following the economic crunch in the
country. Figure 14 below shows that from the 27% who alluded to the availability of support to
small-scale miners, the majority (50%) asset that marketing support from Small-scale mining
associations and the Ministry of Mines and Minerals Development, 30% said there is technical
support offered in the form mining skills and environmental management trainings yet only 20%
argued that there is support in the form of provision of exploration equipment. Findings from key
informants and focus group discussions show that support available for small scale miners includes
market linkages such as the Mine Entra, ASM conferences and linking miners to loan facilities such
as the Ministry of Youth Development and Empowerment, the Women Miners Association also
through the Ministry of Women’s Affairs has access to loan facilities. Figure 15 below shows that
60% of the respondents who noted the availability of support for small-scale miners said that
accessing these facilities was difficult. Respondents argued that the difficulty in accessing the
support was mainly due to the lack of legal registrations by most small-scale miners, for those
legally registered the loan requirements are prohibitive as most entrepreneurs have no facilities to
declare as collateral in loan applications.
20% of the respondents as shown in figure 16 asset that they are unaware if the available support
services are easily accessible. Only 20% argue that the facilities are easily accessible. Key
informants posit that the support services are easily accessible. They argue that a lack of awareness
on proper channels to be followed to obtain the support largely caused by the poor communication
amongst miners and the poor coordination efforts of small-scale mining cooperatives in information
dissemination and awareness building for the stifled access to support.
58
Figure 14: Perception on availability of support to ASM sector
30%
20%
50%
Technical training
Exploration equipment
Marketing
Figure 15: Available support offered to ASM sector
59
Figure 16: Accessibility of institutional support
4.4 Conclusion
The chapter presented and analysed data obtained from the field. The researcher interviewed a total
of 160 respondents, there were 60miners and 60 non-miners. Research findings show that ASM has
been a viable means of livelihood for miners with little contribution to those of the non-mining
community. ASM has not only been contributing to the growth of employment rates for rural poor
but also for urban dwellers and professionals. Challenges faced by the sector are numerous and
complex requiring multi-sectorial collaboration and commitment to proper administration of the
sector.
60
Chapter 5
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 Introduction
Research on the nexus between ASM and livelihoods in Gwanda District took place just after the
holding of the harmonized elections in the country yet before the announcement of the election
results. The atmosphere during this period was tense, the country operating under a caretaker
government. This situation compounded the challenges of access target area and suspicion on
motives of researcher. The heightened political contestations, coupled with fear of authorities by
miners, especially those operating without permits further hindered the data collection process.
Chapter 1 introduced the statement of the problem, background and rationale of the study,
research questions, the significance of the study and assumptions. The conceptual framework and
literature review to enhance understanding of the study was dealt with in detail in Chapter 2 of
the study, while Chapter 3 covered the research methodology. Research results, findings,
discussions and analysis were presented in Chapter 4. This chapter then (Chapter 5) attempts to
summarily present the research conclusions and put forward possible solutions,
recommendations on way forward and implications for future study.
5.2 Conclusions
The chapter focused on research data presentation and analysis. Research findings show that
ASM has become a leading source of livelihoods in the target wards and possibly in gold rich
areas. This sector has become the leading employer for unskilled and semi-skilled laborers in
rural and urban areas. Growth of the sector has been coupled with both positive and negative
impacts on the human, physical, social, natural and human capitals. From data gathered it
emerged that the positive impacts of ASM as a livelihood strategy far outweigh its negative
impacts. Furthermore, the research came to the conclusion that ASM has been an effective
livelihood strategy, promoting the growth of downstream industries, enhancing human capital
61
development, however its contribution to the livelihoods of non-miners is limited as there is no
means of transfer of mining proceeds for injection into community development.
Respondents noted with great concern the destruction of environment (deforestation, siltation of
dams, poisoning of water sources with mining chemicals and drying up of water bodies owing to
drop in water table) from which they mainly drove their livelihoods and the rise in unsavory
coping means like crime and prostitution. Respondents argue that with proper administration the
sector stands to be amongst the highest contributors to improving the livelihoods of community
members.
Data obtained through various methods revealed that the ASM sector is faced with a lot of
challenges, chief amongst which is the lack of proper legislative framework for the
administration of the sector, poor mineral pricing in the formal sector and lack of institutional
support (lack of capital, training and equipment). Prohibitive conditions for the acquiring of
mining licenses have contributed to a continued failure to register by miners. Although, it was
stated by some respondents that there is institutional support available for mall-scale miners, the
prohibitive conditions for the access to those resources makes it difficult for startup miners to
reach out and get assistance.
The research thus was able to bring to light the nexus between ASM and livelihoods of both
miners and non-miners alike, noting the institutional and operational challenges faced by the
ASM sector.
5.3 Recommendations
Following the above research findings the following are the recommendations:
1. The government should be lobbied to come up with a comprehensive Mines and Mineral
Development policy, taking lessons from China and South Africa amongst other
countries who have managed to put in place policies that regulate and promote the growth
of the mining sector targeting both the LSM and ASM.
62
2. An enabling environment should be promoted for a healthy growth of the sector.
Relevant ministries and institutions should make support (financial and technical)
accessible to all requiring the support. For instance, the conditions/requirements for
accessing loans by small-scale miners should be different from those of large scale
miners as these two institutions have differing operational environments, while LSM has
many assets they can put up as collateral, small-scale miners do not have assets to use as
collateral.
3. Decentralisation of minerals purchasing offices and offering competitive prices so as to
minimise/ eradicate minerals smuggling. Research findings show that ASM is a profitable
endeavour yet its contribution to minerals deliveries to central government is minimal as
most of their produce they sell in the informal sector were prices are attractive.
4. Further to the above recommendations, the researcher would recommend that mining
policy should promote close interaction and empower communities in decision making
on mining as this is of importance in preserving the mining town’s heritage and identity.
Although it is still too early to review the impact of the community ownership scheme in
community development, the researcher recommends that this be adapted for small-scale
mines so that they too can contribute towards the development of the surrounding
communities.
5. It is also recommended that there be further studies on the psycho-social impacts of ASM
on miners and non-miners alike.
5.6 Conclusion
The persistent vulnerability, poverty and dependency in the Gwanda District is largely a direct
result of protracted droughts, economic slump in the country and poor policy framework. The
rise of ASM as an alternative source of livelihood in the country was a direct response to the
above mentioned challenges coupled with massive unemployment. The chapter presented
research conclusions and recommendations for improving the ASM sector and improving its
contributions to the economy and the livelihoods of the rural populations. Also evident from the
research findings were the deep seated and strained political, economic, social, technological,
63
legal and environmental conditions that have become a threat to achieving sustainable ASM
sector.
64
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ANNEX 1: Non-miners questionnaire
Questionnaire number: ……………… Date: ……………………
My name is Nhlanhla Mlilo; I am currently studying for a Master’s Degree in Development
Studies at the National University of Science and Technology and carrying out a research. You
have been selected from other villagers to help provide your views about small-scale gold
mining. The information that you provide will be used for academic purposes only. This survey
is voluntary and the information you give will be confidential. Please feel free, as no names will
be quoted on the production of the report document.
Section A: Demographics
Sex:
1=Male, 2=Female
Age:
1=10-15years, 2=16-20years, 3=21-25years, 4=26-35years, 5=36-45years, 6=46years and above
Village:
1=Gwakwe, 2=Sigodo, 3=Ward 26 resettlement
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Section B - To what extent has ASM impacted on community?
69
Have the activities of mining been profitable?
1=Yes, 2=No, 3=Not sure
If yes, how has it been profitable
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
In what ways has the community benefited from mining?
1=increased market for downstream businesses, 2=increased infrastructural development,
3=increased negative coping mechanisms (crime/ prostitution), 4=Other
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
How are livelihoods changing as a result of mining?
1=Positively, 2=Negatively, 3=No change
How have the environmental effects of mining affected local livelihoods?
1=Negatively, 2=Positively, 3=No effect
Comment……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Have you participated in any training or decision making on gold panning?
1=Yes, 2=No
Do you think miners are using proper methods in gold extraction?
1=Yes, 2=No, 3=Not sure
Are there any socio-cultural problems associated with the operations of small scale mining?
1=Yes, 2=No
70
If Yes, can you please state them
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Section C - How effective has ASM been as a livelihood strategy?
Engagement of miners
1=Fulltime, 2=Part-time
If Part-time, what alternative means of livelihood do they undertake?
1=Farming, 2=Crime, 3=Prostitution, 4=Trading, 5=Livestock rearing, 6=Gambling, 7=Other
In your opinion when compared to period before mining, what has been the rate of the
following? (Tick were appropriate)
Item Increased Decreased Comment
Crime
Prostitution
Gambling
Land under crop
Livestock herds
Number of
businesses opened
HIV prevalence
Compared to period before mining, has money from gold mining helped people achieve any of
the following?
Item Yes No
Pay education fees for children
Health (pay health expenses for family)
Purchase enough food at home
Purchase clothes
House construction
Purchase TV
71
Purchase Radio
Pay lobola
ANNEX 2: Miners questionnaire
Questionnaire number: ……………… Date: ……………………
My name is Nhlanhla Mlilo; I am currently studying for a Master’s Degree in Development
Studies at the National University of Science and Technology and carrying out a research. You
have been selected from other miners to help provide your views about small-scale gold mining.
The information that you provide will be used for academic purposes only. This survey is
voluntary and the information you give will be confidential. Please feel free, as no names will be
quoted on the production of the report document.
Section A: Demographics
Sex:
1=Male, 2=Female
Age:
1=10-15years, 2=16-20years, 3=21-25years, 4=26-35years, 5=36-45years, 6=46years and above
What was your source of livelihood before mining?
1=Farming, 2=Formal labour, 3=Petty trading, 4=General hand in homesteads, 5=Other
Occupation as a miner:
1=Fulltime, 2=Part time
72
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Section B - How effective has ASM been as a livelihood strategy?
Is mining your principal source of livelihood?
1=Yeas, 2=No
If No, what other work do you do?
1=Farming, 2=raising livestock, 3=paid labour, 4=trading, 4=other
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Are you getting more gold now than 5-10 years ago?
1=More, 2=Less, 3=The same as before
What are the reasons responsible for an increase/ decrease in the profits you make?
1=More experience, 2=Good price, 3=Help from family/ hire, 4=New site discovered,
5=Fall in price, 6=No sales, 7=Impoverishment, 8=Overexploitation, 9= Other
How do you see the mining industry in 10-20 years?
1=Same, 2=better, 3=Worse
Give an alternative venture you will undertake if you abandon gold panning
1=Farming, 2=Ranching, 3=Formal employment, 4=Other
(Specify)………………………………
73
Compared to period before mining, has money from gold mining helped you achieve any of the
following?
Item Yes No
Pay education fees for children
Health (pay health expenses for family)
Purchase enough food at home
Purchase clothes
House construction
Purchase TV
Purchase Radio
Pay lobola
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Section C - What challenges are being faced by Artisanal and small-scale miners?
In your opinion, what are the major problems faced in mining?
1=Low production, 2=Harsh government laws, 3=lack of detecting/ exploiting equipment, 4=Fall
in prices, 5=Lack of organisation, 6=Closure of buying offices, 7=Lack of capital, 8=Other
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
How do you think these problems can be resolved?
1=Assistance to get working material, 2=legal registration, 3=Assistance to get legal
papers, 4=open sales offices in operational area, 5=train miners in safe mining techniques,
6=create cooperatives, 7= other
………………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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Section D - What institutional support is available to artisanal and small scale miners
getting?
Are there national laws that govern mining practices?
1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware
If there are laws, are they being enforced properly?
1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware
Is there any support available for small scale miners?
1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware
If yes, what kind of support is available?
1= Educational, 2= Technical training 3= Exploration equipment, 4=Marketing, 5=Other
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Is it easy to access the support?
1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware
If No, what are the challenges, and how do you think they can be overcome?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Do you have a mining license?
1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware
Is it easy to obtain a mining license?
1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware
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What are the benefits you receive from having a license?
1=Freedom to exploit and sell, 2=support from government, 3=Funding, 4=Marketing assistance, 5=No
support,
6=Other………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
What other mining cooperatives exists and what support are they offering?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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ANNEX 3: Key informant questionnaire
Questionnaire number: ……………… Date: ……………………
My name is Nhlanhla Mlilo; I am currently studying for a Master’s Degree in Development
Studies at the National University of Science and Technology and carrying out a research. You
have been selected from other miners to help provide your views about small-scale gold mining.
The information that you provide will be used for academic purposes only. This survey is
voluntary and the information you give will be confidential. Please feel free, as no names will be
quoted on the production of the report document.
Topic of inquiry: Artisanal and Small-scale mining in Zimbabwe, a case of Gwanda district.
Respondent: …………………………………………………….. Organisation:
…………………………………………………….
Contact details...........................................................................................................................................
1. Is there a clear government policy on small-scale mining sector?
1=Yes, 2=No, 3=Not sure
If yes, what type of support, education or incentives have miners received after incorporation?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Are legislation and regulations effective in the small-scale mining sector?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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3. What entails a successful formalization of the artisanal mining sector?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. What is your opinion on the application of existing mining laws on small-scale miners?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Are regulations properly enforced?
1=Yes, 2=N, 3=Not sure
6. What local measures are used to encourage/ enforce efficient mining?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. In your opinion, what are the major problems / obstacles faced in artisanal mining?
1=Social, 2=Economic, 3=Environmental, 4=Legal/regulatory, 5=Institutional,
6=Technical
8. How do you think these problems can be solved?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
9. Do you know of any projects/ institutions that have helped the ASM sector to become more
efficient? 1=Yes, 2=No
10. If yes, please list the projects and their contributions
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. Are there viable alternative livelihoods for miners?
1=Yes, 2=No, 3=Not sure
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12. If yes, are they being sought out?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
13. What are the environmental impacts of small scale mining?
1=Biodiversity loss, 2=water pollution, 3=disruption of ranching, 4=soil
depression, 5=Lowering of water tables, 6=air pollution, 6= other (please specify
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
14. Do you think miners are conscious of the negative impacts of their activities?
1=Yes, 2=No, 3=Not sure
15. If yes, What mitigation measures are they using?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
16. Any other information
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………