MPS 1053

Testing & Evaluation in

Science & Maths Education

Week 3

Learning Theories & Assessment

Assessment

• General principles for assessment

• Traditional assessment

• Standard-based assessment

• Humanistic assessment

• OBE & Constructive Alignment

• PEKA & Project Works

How one person's abilities compare in quantity with those of another is none of the teacher's business. It is irrelevant to his work. What is required is that every individual shall have opportunities to employ his own powers in

activities that have meaning.

(John Dewey , Democracy and Education, 1916)

Learning theories

& assessment?

Learning theories

• Behaviourism

• Cognitivism

• Constructivism

• Cooperative learning

• Inquiry-based learning

• Problem-based learning

• Project-based learning

• Computer-based learning

• Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Gagne, Bruner…

Behaviourism

• Stimulus-Response (automatic)

• Reward-Punishment

• Assessment is based on the correct

response for the stimulus given.

• Reward is given when correct response is

demonstrated.

• Punishment is given when incorrect or no

response is exhibited.

• Refer – Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike, etc.

Behaviourism

• Assessment is based on what can be

observed outwardly.

• The stimuli and responses are measurable.

• This satisfied the demands of school

administrators, teachers, parents and

politicians, particularly at times of

standardized testing.

Behaviourism

• If the learning theory practiced in the

educational system is as such, then the

assessment method will be to satisfy the

practice.

• If the aim of behaviourist learning is to

produce automatic response to certain

stimulus, the assessment will aim at

evaluating how fast a student can respond

to such stimulus.

Behaviourism

• When teachers are confronted with the need

to have their children perform well in an

increasing number of standardised tests,

such as SPM, the methods of learning

instant responses (to stimuli) become valid.

(Mahon, 2004)

Cognitivism

• Taking into the consideration of inward and

unobservable thinking ‘behaviours’.

• Based on information processing model –

sensory registration, short-term memory and

long-term memory.

• Refer - Gestalt, Atkinson, Shiffrin, etc.

Cognitivism

• Assessment will include thinking skills and

processes, misconceptions, problem solving

skills (not just the solutions), creativity,

metacognition, etc.

• Example: marks are allocated for the

solution paths of a question, not solely to the

answer given.

Cognitivism

• Learn from mistakes

• Errors are not rewarded with punishment but

is an important piece of information to

assess students’ learning and teacher’s

instruction.

Constructivism

• Mathematics is a cumulative, vertically

structured discipline.

• One learns mathematics by building on the

mathematics that one has previously learned.

• Assessment should be used as a tool to

enhance both the students’ learning and the

teacher’s understanding of the students’

current understanding. (asking non-

judgemental questions)

Constructivism

• Knowledge is constructed by the learner, not received.

• Learners come to science learning with existing ideas

about many natural phenomena.

• The learners’ existing ideas have consequences for the

learning of science.

• It is possible to teach science more effectively if account

is taken of the learner’s existing ideas.

• Knowledge is represented in the brain as a conceptual

structure.

• It is possible to model learners’ conceptual structures.

• Each individual’s conceptual structure is unique. (Taber, 2006)

Constructivism

• Learners are not viewed as passive but are seen as

purposive and ultimately responsible for their own

learning.

• Learning is considered to involve an active process

on the part of the learner.

• Knowledge is not ‘out there’ but is personally and

socially constructed.

• Teachers also bring their preconceptions to learning

situations in their subject area as well as in their

views of teaching and learning.

(Driver, 1988)

Constructivism

Constructivist teachers: • Encourage & accept student autonomy &

initiative

• Use raw data & primary sources along with

manipulative, interactive & physical materials.

• Use cognitive terminology when framing tasks

(e.g., classify, analyse, predict, create, etc.)

• Allow student responses to drive lessons, shift

instructional strategies & alter content

• Seek elaboration of students’ initial responses. (Brooks & Brooks, 1993)

Constructivism

Constructivist teachers: • Inquire about students’ understandings of

concepts before sharing their own understandings

of those concepts

• Encourage students to engage in dialogues both

with the teachers & with one another.

• Encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful,

open-ended questions to teachers and each other.

• Nurture students’ natural curiosity through

frequent use of learning cycle model. (Brooks & Brooks, 1993)

Constructivism

Constructivist teachers:

• Engage students in experiences that might

engender contradictions to their initial hypotheses

and then encourage discussion.

• Allow a waiting time after posing questions.

• Provide time for students to construct

relationships and create metaphors.

(Brooks & Brooks, 1993)

Inquiry-based learning

• Learning through students’ discovery and

problem-solving.

• Problems/topics are from the students (trigger

students’ interest), especially their questions.

• Teacher doesn’t teach but helps students to

learn for themselves.

• Knowledge is built by students out of their

own interest through discovery and problem-

solving.

Inquiry-based learning

• Three components for assessment:

• Contents – mastery of concepts

• “Doing” – investigation, discovery,

problem-solving

• Thinking skills – reasoning

(Hein & Lee, 1999)

Inquiry-based learning

• Suggested assessment methods:

• Portfolio

• Performance task

• Project

• Demonstration

• Discourse assessment – oral assessment

• Rubrics - performance

• Anecdotal Notes – teacher’s observation notes

• Student-kept records – journal / diary

Cooperative learning

• Cooperative Learning is a relationship in a group of

students that requires positive interdependence (a

sense of sink or swim together), individual

accountability (each of us has to contribute and

learn), interpersonal skills (communication, trust,

leadership, decision making, and conflict

resolution), face-to-face promotive interaction, and

processing (reflecting on how well the team is

functioning and how to function even better).

(Johnson & Johnson, 2009)

Cooperative learning

• Assessment will involve students/classmates

of the same group (peer assessment).

• Additional sources of labour to conduct

assessments and communicate results.

Students are a natural source of help and

assistance to teachers when labour intensive

performance, authentic, or total quality

assessment practices are used.

(Johnson & Johnson, 2009)

Cooperative learning

•More modalities to be used in the assessment

and communication process. Learning in

cooperative groups allows for assessment

procedures that cannot be used when students

work alone, individualistically, or competitively.

•The possibility for more diverse outcomes

(many difference sources of assessment data).

(Johnson & Johnson, 2009)

Cooperative learning

•The possibility for students to learn from the

assessment and reporting experiences.

Learning is enhanced when the assessment

requires group members to discuss the

accuracy, quality, and quantity of their own

and each other's work.

•Less possibility of teacher bias affecting the

assessment and evaluation process.

•Opportunity for group and individual

assessments.

Problem-based learning (PBL)

• Knowledge is learned through group

problem-solving.

• Teacher is the facilitator giving lesser and

lesser guidance and instruction as the

students progress.

• The problems are open-ended, challenging

and sometimes there is no one correct

answer.

Problem-based learning (PBL)

• The aim is not to solve problems but to learn

from the process of group discussion in

solving problems where the students

discover knowledge through the process.

• Students are viewed as an active part of the

learning and assessment processes.

• Criterion-referenced

• Peer and self assessments

• Assessing skills in complex and

professional situations.

(MacDonald, 2005)

Problem-based learning (PBL)

• Assessment should ideally be based in a

practice context in which students will find

themselves in the future - whether real or

simulated.

• Assess what the professional does in their

practice, which is largely process-based

professional activity, underpinned by

appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes.

(MacDonald & Savin-Baden, 2004)

Problem-based learning (PBL)

• Assessment should reflect the learner’s

development from a novice to an expert

practitioner and so should be developmental

throughout the programme of studies.

• Students should begin to appreciate and

experience the fact that in a professional

capacity they will encounter clients, users,

professional bodies, peers, competitors,

statutory authorities, etc. who will, in effect, be

‘assessing’ them.

Problem-based learning (PBL)

• Students should also be able to engage in

self-assessment and reflection as the basis

for future continuing professional

development and self-directed learning.

• Ensure that there is alignment between our

objectives and the students’ anticipated

learning outcomes, the learning and

teaching methods adopted, and the

assessment of learning strategies, methods

and criteria.

Problem-based learning (PBL)

Learning - Assessment

Belief about Learning Assessment Method

understands the same things in

different ways

Assessment items have

personalized content

holds different interests and goals assess achievements that will reveal

students' readiness to accomplish

their own goals

responds in different ways, for

example, some are better at oral than

at written expression

allow students to perform in ways

that afford them the best chance to

show what they know

thinks at their own rate, so some

people need more time to think things

through (or need other differences in

conditions) than others

allow different conditions and

amounts of time so test-takers can

demonstrate what they know

What is your practice of

learning theories?

What do you believe how

knowledge is learned by

your students?

How do/will you plan

your assessment?

References

• Brooks, J. G. & Brooks, M. G. (1993). In Search of Understanding: The Case for Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

• Driver, R. (1988). A constructivist approach to curriculum development. In P. Fensham (Eds.), Development and dilemmas in science education (pp.133-149). London: The Falmer Press.

• Hein, G. E. & Lee, S. (1999). Assessment in science inquiry. In Foundations – Inquiry: Thoughts, views and strategies in K-5 classroom (Vol. 2) (pp.99-107). National Science Foundation (Access online at http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2000/nsf99148/start.htm).

• Johnson, R. T. & Johnson, D. W. (2009). The cooperative learning center at the University of Minnesota. Access online on 22nd July 2009 at http://www.co-operation.org/

• Mahon, L. (2004). Teaching, learning & assessment: The road to democracy. Australia: Victoria University. (Access online at http://www.aare.edu.au/04pap/mah04273.pdf).

• MacDonald, R. (2005). Handbook of Enquiry & Problem Based Learning. In Barrett, T., Mac Labhrainn, I., Fallon, H. (Eds). Galway: CELT

• MacDonald, R.F. and Savin-Baden, M. (2004) “A Briefing on Assessment in Problem-based Learning,” LTSN Generic Centre Assessment Series.

• Taber, K. S. (2006). Constructivism’s new clothes: The trivial, the contingent, and a progressive research programme into the learning of science. Foundation of Chemistry, 8(2), 189-219. DOI: 10.1007/s10698-005-4536-1