Culture - Architecture

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE IN INDIAThough nothing remains of the cities built by the Mauryas, the splendour of power that the Mauryas tried to create is reflected in an account of the capital city of Pataiiputra given by Megasthenes. The city, occupying a parallelogram about 10 miles long and two miles wide, was girded by a stupendous wooden wall pierced with loopholes for the archers. The wall was topped by over 500 towers and provided with as many as 64 gates. Within the enclosure was the royal palace, which, in plan and decorative treatment, appears to have been inspired by the Achaemenid palaces at Persepolis in Iran. The imperial palace was still standing when the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa-Hien saw it around 400 A.D., and he was so impressed by the walls, doorways and the sculptured designs that he felt sure that they could not have been executed by nuinan hands.

Asoka, grandson of Chandragupta, embraced Buddhism and Use immense Buddhist missionary activities that followed encouraged in the field of art the development of distinct sculptural and architectural styles.Pillars: The court art of Asoka is best seen in tne white-grey sandstone columns erected by him al! over his empire either to mark a sacred site associated with Buddha’s life or to commemorate a great event. On many of these pillars are inscribed the famous edicts of Asoka propagating the ‘Dharma’ (Buddhist Law) or the imperial sermons to his people.

In the Bull capital from Rampurva (now in the National Museum at New Delhi) the bull is rendered naturalistically in a manner reminiscent of seal carving from the Indus civilisation, suggesting a continuity in tradition.

Rock-Cut Architecture: Asoka”s reign also saw the firm establishment of one of the most important and characteristic art traditions of South Asia — therock-ci.it architecture. The series of rock-cut sanctuaries in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills, near Gaya in Bihar, contain a number of inscriptions which show that they were donated for the habitation of certain Ajivika ascetics, perhaps followers of the Jain religion.

CAVE ARCHITECTUREBefore the Gupta period the chief architectural remains, other than stupas and their surrounding gateways and railings, are artificial caves, excavated for religious purposes. Early cave specimens were excavated on wooden models — standardised religious meeting places consisting of thatched huts. The early caves — two at Barabar -near Gaya) and Nagarjuni Hills — are quite unadorned. The inner walls of the caves are finely polished, no doubt by workmen of the school responsible for the polish of the Asokan pillars.

The earliest rock-cut caves in India are attributed to Asoka (273-232 B.C.) and his grandson Dasaratha. Eventually this rock-cut architecture, initiated by Asoka, developed into a powerful

and popular architectural style and gave the country nearly 1,200 excavations which are scattered in many parts.

The early Buddhist architecture covers the period from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd centuiy A. D. The first phase of excavations in Western India was related exclusively to early Buddhism, which meant the worship of the Buddha represented symbolically. The excavations took the shape of (1) the chaitya or prayer hall and (2) the vikara or monastery. Both initated in rock the structural forms practised, in less permanent materials like wood. The chaitya is the more important of the two constructions.

The second phase began in the 5th century. This phase was characterised by the virtual elimination of timbei and by the introduction of the Image of the Buddha as a dominant feature of the architectural design. Nevertheless the plan of the excavations, particularly of the chaitya, remained essentially the same as that of similar constructions of the earlier phase. The statue of the Buddha sometimes assumed gigantic proportions. The vihara also underwent a slight change: the inner cells, formerly inhabited by the monks alone now housed the image or the Buddha as well.

Elephanta Caves: On the island of Elephanta off the Bombay harbour, these caves are of the 8th century A.D. The islands derive their name from the giant carving of an elephant which used to stand at the old landing stage.The Ganesh Gumpha is one of the earliest examples of the Brahmanical temple and has been excavated in a rocky terrace, the outside consisting of a columned verandah, and approached by steps flanked by sculptured elephants. At each end of the facade is a pilaster (square pillar projecting from a wall) carved in the shape of a dvarapala (doorkeeper) with a huge spear. The masterpiece is a three faced mage (Trimurti) representing the Maheswara aspect of Siva. The left face presents the fierce male aspect of Siva, and the face on the right he gentle, feminine qualities of his all transcending nature. The other view is that the Trimurti represents Brahma [Creator), Vishnu (Preserver) and Siva (Destroyer). Other interesting sculptures in the cave show the marriage of Siva with Parvati; Bhairava: Siva in the tandava dance; Ravana, the demon king shaking Kailasa, Ardhanariswara “the Lo-d who is both Male and Female”.

Kanheri Caves: These caves near Bombay belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhist architecture, while the 5th century image of the Buddha in the chaitya hall suggests later additions. Altogether there are more than 100 caves here. Their main features are flights of connecting steps and stone seats which used to provide the monks with rest. Although many of the caves arc not of great artistic merit, they have some archaeological interest in as much as they cover the period from the 2nd to the 9th century A.D.

Jogeshwari Caves: They are within the island of Salsette which comprised the original “Bombay” island. Although greatly defaced, they are of interest as they belong to the last stages or the Mahayana Buddhist architecture. Brahmanical influence is evident for the shrines are isolated and stand in the centre of a cruciform hall with more than one entrance. The caves belong to the second half of the 8th century.

Montpezir (Manoapeswar) Caves: They are of particular interest as they are probably the only Brahmanical caves to be converted into a Christian shrine. Even today, there is a Christian orphanage, the ruins of an old Portuguese church, and a Francisian monastery nearby. The three caves date from the 8th century.

The Karla Caves: The Karla Caves, belong to the Hinayana period of Buddhist architecture. The main feature of this group is the chaitya which is amongst the largest and the best preserved in India. Its entrance, which is extremely imposing, is a kind of massive vestibule to the arcaded screen in its rear. The two giant pillars have a group of lions supporting a large wheel and though partly covered by debris they must have been about 50 feet in neight. They are somewhat peculiar, being detached from the main structure. The decorative railings and supporting elephants (half life-size and o.iginally with ivory tusks) at each end indicate an advanced stage of ornamental work in which symbols were used repeatedly and alternately. Interior or the chaitya hall consists of a colonnade, vaulting and sun-window. The sun-window, a wonderful arrangement for the diffusion of light, deflected the rays of the sun in such a manner that soft light fell in the stupa and the screen, halftones on the pillars and gloom in the aisles.

Bhaja Caves: The 18 Bhaja caves are supposed to have been built for Buddhist nuns. They were excavated in the 2nd century B.C. Owing to the ravages of time, the face and entrance of the main cave (No. 1?] are now open and provide us with an unrestricted view of the hall. The pillars are sloping, but the stilted vault is a fine piece of work. The stupa is very plain and in two parts, probably relieved, when originally built, by frescoes of which there is now little trace. The last cave to the south has some fine sculpture, including a prince sealed on an elephant, a prince in a chariot and three armed figures. The “dancing couple” is a justly famous piece of sculpture.

Bedsa Caves: The caves at Bedsa, belong to a siightiy later period than those at Bhaja. The chaitya resembles the great hall at Karla but is smaller. It has four pillars with carvings of horses, bulls and elephants mounted by male and female riders. Its ribbed roof is supported by 26 octagonal pillars, 10 feel high.

Ellora and Ajanta Caves: The Ellora Caves and the Ajanta Caves are near Aurangabad.

Chalukya and Rashtrakuta kings ruled over the Deccan from the middle of the 6th century A. D. to almost the end of the 12th century. The former were tolerant of all religions and as a result of their liberal patronage, the technique of excavating rock-cut temples reached a high degree of perfection. With the rise of the Rashtrakuta and other powers in the Deccan, there was a decline of Buddhist influence, but artistic activity continued unabated.

Rock-hewn architecture reached its zenith in Western India as the Western Ghats provided suitable sites for excavation and carving. No existing caves as such were used. Thus architecture was sculpture on a mass scale. The solidity of the rock obviated the need for periodic repairs and many of the temples are in a state of good preser/ation to this day. The keen sense for the beautiful among the architects is as remarkable as their advanced technical knowledge. It is interesting to note that the excavation usually proceeded from the top downwards—the natural rock-surface below providing a platform and eliminating the necessity of scaffolding.

The Ajanta Caves accidentally discovered by a shooting party in 1829, are excavated out of amygdaloid trap rock, and situated in the scarped side of a deep ravine that is shaped like a crescent. They are entirely Buddhist and date from about 200 B.C. to approximately 650 A.D. It hs of Interest to note that the Chinese Buddhist travellers, Hiuen Tsang and Fa Hien, refer to Ajanta in accounts of their travels.

Of the 29 excavations, four are chaitya halls (all differing in design) and the rest are viharas. The decorative motifs differ with the age of the excavations. The Hinayana and Mahayana phases are also well defined, the first being simpler, the second being much more decorative, and characterised by images of the Buddha. The caves are unique in that they combine three forms of art - architecture, sculpture and painting.

The paintings sought their Inspiration from the Jatakas, legendary Buddhist stories. Caves No. 13, 12, 10, 9 and 8 (according to chronological sequence) belong to the Hinayana perioJ No. 11,14,15,16,17, 19,18, and 20 and perhaps No. 6 and 7 belong to a later Mahayana period ending approximately 580 A.D. No. 1 to 5 and 21 to 29, also Mahayana in character, came into existence between 500 and 650 A.D. Caves 19 and 26 (chaitya) and 1 and 16 (viharas) are good representative specimens. No. 16 is one of the most important caves, being the most elegant architecturally. The shrine has a large statue of the Buddha preaching. This cave contains the famous fresco of “The Dying Princess” The Ellora Caves are unique because the visitor can see three styles of architecture at one place; 12 Buddhist, 5 Jain and 17 Brahmanical caves being located here side by side.

The paintings sought their Inspiration from the Jatakas, legendary Buddhist stories. Caves No. 13, 12, 10, 9 and 8 (according to chronological sequence) belong to the Hinayana perioJ No. 11,14,15,16,17, 19,18, and 20 and perhaps No. 6 and 7 belong to a later Mahayana period ending approximately 580 A.D. No. 1 to 5 and 21 to 29, also Mahayana in character, came into existence between 500 and 650 A.D. Caves 19 and 26 (chaitya) and 1 and 16 (viharas) are good representative specimens. No. 16 is one of the most important caves, being the most elegant architecturally. The shrine has a large statue of the Buddha preaching. This cave contains the famous fresco of “The Dying Princess” The Ellora Caves are unique because the visitor can see three styles of architecture at one place; 12 Buddhist, 5 Jain and 17 Brahmanical caves being located here side by side.

Unlike the Ajanta cave temples, they are excavated In the sloping sides of a hill and not in a perpendicular cliff. As a result, most of the temples have courtyards and sometimes an outer wall or rock with an entrance rthrough the 10th century Arab geographer Masudi, and the European Thevenot who -visited the temples in 1667, have left accounts of these cave temples in their writings. The Buddhist temples were excavated between 350 to 700 A.D. Compared with the Brahmanical temples they are austere and solemn C&ve No. 10, the only chaitya at Ellora, is in the form of a chapel, reminiscent of Ajanta and Eiephanta. It is called Visvakarma, the name indicating its dedication to the patron saint of the craftsman Caves No. 11 and 12 are some of the few cave in India with more than one storey.

The next group consist-of Brahmanical caves, excavated between the seventh and the early eighth century. No. 14, Ravan ki Khai (Excavation of Ravan) is different from the Buddhist

temples, having a front aisle of 4 pillars, 12 columns enclosing a central hall and, beyond, a shrine standing by itself at the end of the half. The south wall has Saiva sculptures; the north wall has Vaishnava (i.e. pertaining to Vishnu) sculptures: representations of Durga, Lakshmi, the Varaha or boar incarnation of Vishnu, etc. Inside the shrine is a figure of Durga. Cave No. 15 is the Dasavatara cave.

The Kailasa temple, dedicated to Siva, is considered to be the noblest and most magnificent achievement of the ancient Hindus, and represents Siva’s celestial abode, Mt. Kailasa. It was executed under the patronage of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. It is perhaps the grandest monolithic excavation in the world. The architects worked from above downwards, until they struck one gigantic solid rock which they shaped into a temple. ,The hillside was cut down to the level of the base of the hill and it has been estimated that 3 million cubic feet of rock were chiselled out. The remarkable imagination which conceived it, the unstinted labour which was spread over an uninterrupted period of a hundred years and finally, the sculpture with which it is adorned have been aptiy summed by Percy Brown: “This plastic decoration is .... something more than a record of artistic form, it is a great spiritual achievement, each portion being a rich statement glowing with meaning”.

Kailasa stands in the middle of a vast court in which are carved colossal elephants and other animals. The main temple is dedicated to Siva. The temple proper stands on a plinth and has an impressive frieze of boldly carved elephants and lions. The temple is approached by flights of steps and is double-storeyed with chapels and monastic halls hewn out of the rock.

Over the temple rises the tower in three tiers, with a projecting gable front surmounted by a cupola. The interior consists of a pillared hall with a cruciform central aisle. The Frescos on the wall have scenes from the Ramayana executed with superb artistry and craftsmanship. The pavilion has Siva’s bull, Nandi, in front. The two pillars on either side of the Nandi shrine are called dhvajstambhas (flag-staffs). They have symbolic carvings pertaining to the cult of Siva and are fine works of art.

The final group of five Ellora caves belong to the Jains. The most interesting are the Indra Sabha (Assembly Hall of Indra, King of the Gods) and Jagannath Sabha (Assembly Hall of the Lord of the Universe). The Indra Sabha is a two-stored shrine cut into the rock to a depth of over 200 feet and is approached through a rock-hewn doorway leading into a square courtyard. To the right is an imposing statue of an elephant. The upper storey is borne on 12 profusely sculptured pillars and both these and the broad surface dividing the two storeys arc profusely carved, the upper one having images of the 24 Jain trikankaras. The ceiling over the large altar is in the form of a large lotus. At each end of the hall is a large shrine containing a statue of Mahavira. This temple is possibly the earliest of the Jain group.

The Jagannath Sabha is similar in plan to the Indra Sabha but smaller. The shrine is a small antechamber with a well pro-portioned torana (arch), and within it is a seated Mahavira. The walls arc recessed for figured sculptures and the pillars are richly carved in the best Jain traditions. On the top of the hill in which the Jain caves are excavated is a rock-hewn statue of Parasnath, and protected by a building over 200 years old.Al Hole Pattadakal and Badami: The architecture of these three places prefigures the typical

Hindu temple and dates between 600 and 750 A.D. The earliest is the group at Aihole consisting of about 70 temples, almost 30 of which arc inside a walled and bastioned enclosure.

The oldest is the one called Ladh-khan, where on the portico we find the beginnings of the asana (seat), an ornamental feature of later, especially medieval, Hindu temples. The Durga temple is an apsidal temple and over the apse is a short pyramidal tower, or sikhara, a feature of the subsequent Hindu temples. The Durga Temple has some remarkable sculpture.

One of the last temples to be built at Aihole is the Jain temple of Meguti constructed about 634 A.D. Smaller blocks of stone are used, indicating an advancement in building technique. Temple No. 53 (Brahmanical) and 39 (Jain), together with the Meguti temple, show influences of the Dravidian style which is characterised by square pyramids in several storeys and the ornamentation is less than that which is characteristic of typical Chalukyan architecture.

The temples at Pattadakal, too, are both Hindu and Jain and belong to the Chalukyan as well as the Dravidian styles. Most of them were built between the 7th and the 8th century A.D. The general characteristic of the Chalukyan temples is the spacing out of the surface by means of pilasters, an idea which was elaborated by later architects. The temple of Papanath is in the Chalukyan style. The Dravidian style temples, of which the Virupaksha is the best, are different, being recognised by their square pyramidal sikharas that culminate in domes. Though not as graceful as their Chalukyan counterparts, they have a certain power all their own.An ancient stronghold of the Chalukyans in the early 6th century. Vatapi (Badami) was the capital of their great ruler Pulakesin II. Conquered by the Pallavas in 640, it again rose in 653 A.D. but the Rashtrakutas occupied it in 753 A.D.

Three of the temples are Brahmanical (550 to 580 A.D.), and there is a Jain temple which dates back to 650 A.D.; and they alllndicate considerable architectural progress since the days of Aihole. Certain features are shared by all — a pillared verandah, a columned hall and a small square cell (shrine for an image) cut deep into the rock. The exterior is comparatively plain, except for a running border of grotesque ganas (dwarfs). The interior, in contrast, is carved with a wealth of beautiful sculpture. The decoration is excellent but the general plan is somewhat uncertain, as Hindu temples were still at an early stage of development.

The temple dedicated to Vishnu has an inscription that gives the date of its construction as A.D.-573, and is the largest of all. Two temples penetrate unusually deep into the rock and the facade of each consists of a colonnade of four pillars forming the verandah, with two pillars forming an entrance to the central hall.

The Jain temple, (probably excavated in the middle of the next century), imitates the Brahmanical temples, but is smaller in size and has distinguishing elements designed to suit Jain ritual. This phase of rock-cut architecture was of a temporary nature and the art was soon to the out completely.

Nasik Caves: To south west of Natik, on the main Bombay road, is an important of 23 Buddhist caves belonging to the Hinayana period of Buddhist architecture, and dating back to the 1st century A.D. When the Buddha was not represented anthropomorphically, his spiritual presence

was denoted by a throne, a footstool, or footprints. This group of caves, called Pandu Lena, is on the easternmost side of the three conical peaks at the extreme end of the Trimbak range of hills. They consist of three large hails and one fine chapel.

Junagadh Caves: Uparkot (meaning citadel) is an ancient fortress which has been the scene of historic sieges between the middle of the 14th and end of the 16th century A.D. Its entrance, in the form of an archway, is a fine specimen of the Hindu torana. Uparkot has many interesting Buddhist caves and was evidently the site of a Buddhist monastery in ancient times. Some of the caves, apparently, were two or three storeys high. Belonging to about 300 A.D., their outstanding features are the halls, connected by winding staircases. In the upper chamber is a small refractory and a tank surrounded by a corridor, all supported by six richly carved columns indicative of fine craftsmanship.

Bagh Caves: In Bagh, Madhy Pradesh, there are nine sandstone Buddhist caves with beautiful frescoes and sculptured stonework. A tentative dating assigns them to 6th century A.D. but they may have predated the Ajanta frescoes.

Undavalli: The Undavalii caves near Vijayawad-(A.P) are 7th century Hindu cave temples cut into five tiers along the slope of a back granite hill. The main attraction is a reclining statue of Vishnu, sculpted from a single block of granite. Buddha is given pride of place.

THE STUPAThe stupa was not unknown in India before the time of Asoka. it was originally a simple burial mound of earth and bricks erected by the Vedic Aryans. There is no evidence of veneration paid to relic-mounds in the pre-Maurya period. From the time Asoka divided up the existing body relics of the Budaha and erected monuments to enshrine them, the stupas became objects of cult worship. Gradually, in Buddhist art and religion, the stupa came to be accepted as a sort of architectural body representing the Buddha himself. The core of the stupa was of unburnt brick, and the outer face of burnt brick, covered with a thick layer of plaster. The stupa was crowned by an umbrella of wood or stone, and was surrounded by a wooden fence enclosing a path for pradakshina.

HUMAN FIGURESSeveral stone sculptures of human figures demonstrating characteristics of Maurya period have been found. Of these, one is an extremely well-preserved statue of a female ‘Chowrie’ (fly whisk) bearer (now in the Patna Museum) which was found by villagers at Didarganj. The technique, surface refinement and high polish undoubtedly relate it to the Maurya period.

The figure wears a hip-hugging garment over her lower body: its diaphanous folds are depicted by double-incised lines across her legs. Heavy ornaments, including a jewelled or beaded girdle, anklets, armbands, necklaces and earrings adorn the figure. This type of feminine attire will be seen throughout the development of Indian art with some variation, but essentially, the clinging lower garment, bare torso and abundant jewellery became the norm.

GANDHARA SCHOOLThe most notable of the Gandharan icons was that of the Buddha seated in the position of a yogi. Dressed in a monk’s garment, his head displays the signs of his supernatural powers — the large ears; the third eye on his forehead, and the protuberance on his head. These three indicate that he hears all, sees all and knows all. Although the forms are clearly influenced by foreign art, the iconography is strictly Indian, showing that this art represents a fusion of native and foreign elements. The great strength of the classical elements in the art of the Gandhara province is best seen in the portrait heads and the representations of classical deities which found their way into the Buddhist art of north-western India. The same influence is also seen in the relief carvings which, both in their artistic style and in much of their iconographical detail, are closely related to Roman relief sculptures of Imperial times. The position of the figures, the treatment of the body and the architectural forms used are all clearly derived from Roman models.

MATHURA SCHOOLThe first three centuries of the Christian era saw the golden period of the Mathura school of sculpture. The new ideals of Mahayana Buddhism inspired the sculptors. According to Indian authorities the creation of the Buddha image was the greatest contribution of the artists of this school. Its material was for centuries the white-spotted red sandstone. Some of the school’s inspiration was Jaina though it also drew inspiration from Iranian and Greco Roman styles. Striking remains show a female figure from the railings of a stupa, probably Jaina. Richly jewelled, figures exaggeratedly broad of hip and slender of waist, with their graceful, almost provocative, attitude, these sculptures exemplify the remarkable ancient Indian outlook on life which did not see anything incongruous in the representation of frank ‘ sensuality in the context of piety and renunciation of the monastery.

TEMPLE STYLESThe setting up of sanctuaries for the images of gods goes back perhaps to the second century B.C. The devagrahas of the pre-Christian centuries which have been excavated are in an extremely fragmentary state. But built of perishable materials they apparently afforded little scope for architectural principles. It was in the Gupta period that building with lasting materials began, such as dressed stone and brisk. The Gupta period marks the beginning of Indian temple architecture. Out of the initial experimentation two major styles evolved i.e. Nagara and Dravida style.

Nagara and Dravida styles: The Shilpa Shastras recognize three styles - Nayara, Dravida and Vesara — along with a geographical distribution of each. Nagara: northern region; Dravida.

Dravida country i.e. south; Vesara: the territory between the Vindhyas and the Krishna. These are really not strictly based on geographical divisions, but merely indicate the dominating style in a region. Actually the three styles ultimately resolve into two, the Nagara and the Dravida.

The Nagara style temple is a square with a number of graduated projections — rathakas — in the middle of each face which gives it a cruciform shape on the exterior.

A tower [shikhara] gradually curving inwards and capped by a spheroid slab with ribs round the edge (amalaka) give elevation. Thus the two major characteristics of this style are the cruciform ground plan and the curvilinear tower.

INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTUREThe last decade of the twelfth century A.D. marked the beginning of the permanent association of the Muslims with India. The establishment of Muslim rule in the north brought together two great architectural traditions. Certainly a synthesis and fusion of the best in both traditions evoived, all the more remarkable because of the basic differences between the two. The mode of prayer and the rituals of the Muslims differed essentially from Hindu traditions; the mosque and the mausoleum were centres of Islamic architecture in India — concepts which again differed from the Hindu tradition. The methods of construction of the two peoples differed: in view of the fact that buildings in Islamic countries were made of brick, lime and mortar, the style of architecture was arcuate, i.e. based or, arches, vaults and domes; here the material being stone, the style was trabeate, employing pillars, lintels and pyramidal towers or slender spires. The concepts of decoration and ornament differed, as it depended, in the case of the Muslims, upon different religious beliefs. The Muslims, under religious injunction, avoided representation of living beings, their decor.:lion taking the form of flat surface ornament depicting arabesque or geometrical and floral patterns, inscriptions in various styles of writing, gilding and painting, inlay on marbie through opus sectile or pietra dura. The Hindus revelled in a rich ornamentation, expressivu of natural, particularly human forms.

The architecture of India on the advent of Islam showed these two seemingly opposite styles mingling in a spirit of give and take in varying degrees in different parte of the country, depending, of course, on local conditions and availability of raw material. If the qualities of strength and grace, typical of Hindu monuments, were borrowed by the Muslims, who also used the trabeate system, they, in turn, contributed the conceptions of breadth and spaciousness and the methods of spanning big spaces with arches and covering large areas with domes. Other features introduced by the Muslims were the minar and minaret, stalactite, and half-domed double porta! on the structural side. The monuments more than anything else, of this period speak of the fusion of diverse elements that embodies the “composite culture”.

The Indo-lslamic architecture falls into two phases: the Pathan (1206 toe. 1550 AD.), which ends with Sher Shah of the Suri dynasty, and the Mughal (1556-1707 A.D.), beginning with Akharand ending with Aurangzeb. While the first period has been called one of uncertainty and improvisation, it was during the Mughal period that what may be called a “universal Indian style of Islamic architecture” came into being. The building of the Quwwatul-Islam mosque by Qutbud-Din Aibak in Delhi during 1191-98 marks the beginning of the new style of architecture in India, Though in plan it is what a mosque should be, the materials used came from the spoils of Hindu buildings. It was, therefore, felt necessary »;o construct an arched screen of Islamic pattern covering the front of the prayer hall.

MUGHAL PERIODThe Mughals had appeared on the Indian scene early in the 16th century with Babur, the Timurid ruler of Farghana and Kabul, defeating the Lodi Su’tans of Delhi and the Rajput Ranas of Mewar in 1526-27. His son Humayun made unsuccessful attempts to subjugate Bengal, Malwa and Gujarat, and after a temporary period of instability, finally managed to get*a strong foothold in the country. With this, indo-lslamic art and architecture in India entered a significant phase.

SIKH ARCHITECTUREThe Sikh rulers borrowed from the Mughals for their building style, but adapted it to create a new style. The most important product of Sikh expression is supplied by the Golden Temple at Amritsar (1764), set in the centre of a large sheet of water and connected with the mainhnd by a causeway. Its foundation was laid Dr. Guru Ram Das and it was completed by his son Arjun Dev. The typical features of this Sikh form of architecture according to Percy Brown, are the multiplicity of chatris or kiosks which ornament the parapets, angles, and every prominence or projection; the invariable use of the fluted dome generally covered with brass or copper-gilt; the frequent introduction of oriel orembowed windows with shallow elliptical cornices and supported on brackets, and the enrichment of all arches by numerous foliations.

RAJPUT ARCHITECTUREThe Rajput forms which ran parallel to the Mughal are picturesque and romantic. Most of them have hanging balconies of all shapes and sizes, and even long loggias supported on rows of elaborately carved brackets. A common striking feature is a carved cornice arcade in shape, producing shadows arched like’ a bow.

THE EUROPEAN INFLUENCEThe Europeans who came to India for trade, established their settlements at. various places.

In these settlements they built European style houses, besides me factories. When their foothold became strong, they began to construct more durable structures such as strong fortresses and imposing churches. The forts had no architectural significance. The Portuguese at Goa established impressive churches in the style ot Iberian architecture, and the English, though in a less ambitious manner, built churches resembling the English village churches.

A distinct type of building thus began to emerge in India. However, the Victorian style itself, being imitative rather than original, did not have a vitality of its own to inaugurate in India what could have been an Indo-British (like the Indo- Islamic) style of architecture. The Victorian architects in India made a mistake by attempting to copy oriental styles while trying to construct public buildings. Big brickwork building with iron supports and domed roofs represented Victorian architecture at its worst. On the whole, therefore, the nineteenth century English style did not manifest itself in any way comparable with past architecture.

The Palladian Style of architecture was soguht to be introduced in India by some other British officers in the 18th century. ‘Constantia’, a building erected by General Martin at Lucknow is the best specimen of this style in India. A greai; central tower rising from the succession of terraced roofs is a characteristic of this style.