Moving backward, moving forward? - ReliefWeb · 2018-02-05 · financial inclusion and protection of remittance recipients, including through advice, goal setting, strategies to build

VOLUME 7 - ISSUE 1 WINTER 2018

Moving backward, moving forward?

Forced displacement and mixed migration in the IGAD region Caroline Njuki, Senior Programme Coordinator, Woldamlak Abera, Forced Displacement Officer, IGAD

Helping refugees become self-reliant: the Ugandan model Muhumed Hussein & Leeam Azoulay, Norwegian Refugee Council

Storm in the Central Mediterranean: European priorities, Libyan realitiesDaniel Howden, Senior editor at Refugees Deeply

Migration and development: A virtuous circleLouise Arbour, UN Special Representative for International Migration

Focus on Migration

EditorialThe migration situation has monopolized the agenda of European leaders during past years. The EU’s external policies have been focusing on addressing the ‘root causes’ of migration, and utilising the EU toolbox to establish partnerships on border governance, management of migration, security, and development. In an attempt to jointly address issues of migration governance, UN Member States will adopt in 2018 the two first-ever global agreements aimed at addressing migration and at providing durable solutions for refugee: the global compacts on migration and refugees. Fostering the economic and social benefits of migration, also through the commitments made in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, constitutes an important aspect of the negotiations leading to the compact for safe, orderly and regular migration.

To contribute to these debates, we dedicated this GREAT Insight’s Winter issue to the relationship between migration and development processes and their implications for policies. We invited authors from different spheres of work - intergovernmental organisations, NGOs, academia, media, and the private sector - to reflect on drivers of migration, mobility and displacement, explore their interaction with socio-economic development processes and give insights on how policies and programmes can and should address these links. The first four articles introduce current policy frameworks and approaches, at the global, European and African levels. The aim of these frameworks in their distinct ways is to govern migration processes, enforce laws, ensure rights and support the economic transformation potential of migration and displacement. As such they often have to balance a fine line and navigate tensions between different objectives. This section gives an overview over the negotiations for the UN Global Compacts, explores EU-Africa cooperation on migration after the recent Summit, provides insights into African regional migration governance and presents some critical reflection on associating EU development cooperation with migration control.

The articles in the second section investigate how policies land on the ground. The various articles uncover a snapshot of how policy processes and frameworks influence realities of displaced persons, irregular migrants and refugees in different geographic contexts in Africa. The different perspectives shed light on some of the challenges and opportunities that policy-makers, those working on the ground, migrants and refugees face. They examine how livelihoods are supported, threatened and changed through migration processes. The last section presents existing practical initiatives and ideas to improve migration governance and enhance its development potential through programmes and projects. It offers an illustration through exploring current initiatives of various organisations.

This issue of GREAT Insights highlights the complexities around migration and mobility as well as the growing need for comprehensive migration governance that is embedded in sustainable development strategies. We very much hope you will enjoy reading the various articles and as always welcome comments and suggestions for our work. Guest editorsNoemi Cascone and Anna Knoll, Migration Programme, ECDPM

ECDPM’s Great Insights magazine offers a quick and accessible summary of cutting-edge analysis on international cooperation and Europe-Africa relations. It includes an independent overview of analysis and commentary from a wide variety of experts and high-level officials and provides updates on policy debates in Africa and Europe.

Disclaimer: The views expressed are those of individual authors.

Publisher ECDPMExecutive editor Virginia MucchiGuest editors Noemi Cascone and Anna KnollEditorial and production assistance Jacquie Dias and Noemi Cascone Web editor Jacquie Dias

Cover Immigration Officer processing travel documents, Immigration Office, Kilambo. Photo Credit: IOM/Robert Beechey. Copyright: International Organisation for Migration.Cover design by Yaseena Chiu- van ‘t Hoff

Art Direction and design of layout Yaseena Chiu-van ‘t HoffDesign, layout and production Claudia Backes

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Great Insights |Spring 2018 3

2 Editorial

Policy frameworks and processes

4 Migrationanddevelopment:Avirtuouscircle Louise Arbour, UN Special Representative for International Migration

7 AU-EUSummit,migration,mobilityandYouth Birgitte Markussen, Director and Deputy Managing Director for Africa, European External Action Service, Brussels

11 Forceddisplacementandmixedmigration challengesintheIGADregion Caroline Njuki, Senior Programme Coordinator, and Woldamlak Abera, Forced Displacement Officer, IGAD

14 Regionalgovernanceregimestofoster labourmobilityanddevelopmentinAfrica Christopher Changwe Nshimbi, Deputy Director DST/NRF, University of Pretoria

18 Migrationisnotanemergency Elly Schlein, MEP and the European Parliament's Committee on Development (DEVE)

Realities on the ground

20 GenderedeffectsofcorruptionontheCentral Mediterraneanroute Vittorio Bruni, Consultant, and Ortrun Merkle, PhD fellow,UNU-MERIT and the Maastricht Graduate School of Governance

23 Migrationpoliciesanddevelopment:The dilemmaofAgadez Fransje Molenaar, Research fellow at the Conflict Research Unit (CRU), Clingendael Institute

26 StormintheCentralMediterranean:European priorities,Libyanrealities Daniel Howden, Senior Editor at Refugees Deeply

29 Helpingrefugeesbecomeself-reliant:the Ugandanmodel Muhumed Hussein, Uganda Country Director and Leeam Azoulay, East-Africa Policy Adviser for the Norwegian Refugee Council

Existing initiatives and ideas

32 Buildingresilience,creatingnewopportunities intheEUneighbourhood Dario Scannapieco, Vice-President at the European Investment Bank

35 TheEU'smigrationagenda:Whataboutlegal migrationpathways? Anna Knoll, Head of Migration Programme and Noemi Cascone, Policy Officer, ECDPM 38 Shifttheparadigm,fromcharitytocryptospace Kilian Kleinschmidt, Founder and CEO of IPA, switxboard GmbH

41 Leveragingmigrationforprogresstowardsthe 2030Agenda David Suttie, Policy Advisor, IFAD and Rosemary Vargas-Lundius, former Policy Advisor, IFAD

Contents

New arrivals: Refugees from South Sudan arrive at the Bidibidi refugee camp in northern Uganda. Photo: NRC/Nashon Tado

4 | Great Insights | Winter 2018

Migration and development: A virtuous circle

Barbershop,Somaliregion,Ethiopia.Photo:RikkaTupaz/UNMigrationAgency(IOM)2017.

Migration is an overwhelmingly positive story, with significant social, economic, and cultural benefits for all involved. The global compact for safe, orderly, and regular migration is a unique opportunity to remove barriers that are hindering the development contribution of migration.

ByLouiseArbour

Viewedglobally,migrationisoverwhelminglypositiveformigrantsandtheircommunities,bothoriginanddestination.Itisapotentmotorofdevelopmentandalife-changingexperienceforallinvolved.

Infact,the2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopmentadoptedin2015recognisesthepositivecontributionmigrantsmaketoinclusivegrowthandsustainabledevelopment.Itisworthstressingthatfacilitatingsafe,orderly,andregularmigrationisaspecifictargetwithinSustainableDevelopmentGoal(SDG)10,toreduceinequalitywithinandamongcountries.Inother

words,the2030Agendaframesmigrationasaninstrumentofprosperity,notasafailureofdevelopment.

Subsequently,in2016attheUNSummitforRefugeesandMigrants,HeadsofStateandGovernmentcommittedthemselvestodevelopaglobalcompactforsafe,orderly,andregularmigration,tobegroundedinthe2030Agenda.Thesetwoimportantdevelopmentsareinextricablylinked:theforthcomingglobalcompactcantrulyhelprealiseandimplementthe2030Agenda,andthereforepresentsuswithanopportunitywecannotaffordtomiss.Tofailwouldleave

Great Insights | Winter 2018 5

Migration and development: A virtuous circle

usunequippedbothtoharvestthepotentialofmigrationforthebenefitofsomanymigrantsandcommunities,andriskperpetuatingthedownfallsofill-managedmigration.Inotherwords,migrationanddevelopmentcanbemutuallyreinforcing,throughavirtuouscircle.

MigrantcontributionstodevelopmentMigrantscontributetodevelopmentinmanyways.TheUS$429billioninremittancessentbacktodevelopingcountriesin2016isoneofthemosttangiblecontributionsmigrantsmaketoachievingtheSDGsintheircountriesoforigin.However,remittancesalonecannotachievetheirintendedresultiftheconditionsofthosesendingandthosereceivingthesemoneysarenotconducivetodevelopment.Inparticular,theimpactofremittancescanbeleveragedthroughgreaterfinancialinclusionandprotectionofremittancerecipients,includingthroughadvice,goalsetting,strategiestobuildsavings,andevenhelpinopeningasavingsaccount.

Migrants’contributionstothedevelopmentoftheircountriesoforigingofarbeyondfinancialremittances.Theyincludetransfersandcirculationofideas,skills,andknowledge.Migrantsbringentrepreneurshipandbuildingofinvestmentnetworks,andtheyhelpbreakdowngenderstereotypes.

Fortheirnewcommunities,migrantsalsobringsubstantialdevelopmentbenefitsallowingeconomiestogrowmorerapidly.Moreover,whilemanymigrantssendhomeremittances,theseaccountfor,onaverage,15%oftheirearningswith85%remainingintheirnewcommunities.Thesefundsgotowardspaymentoftaxes,housing,goods,andservices,thuspromotinggrowthandprosperity.

Thesepositiveimpactsaremaximisedwhenrestrictiveanddiscriminatorypolicies,laws,andsocialnormsthathindercontributionsofmigrantsareeliminated.Migrantwomeninparticularfacemultipleandintersectinglayersofdiscrimination:asmigrants,aswomen,andoftenasirregularworkersbecausemanyareemployedintheinformalsector.Evenhighly-skilledwomenexperiencediscrimination,forexample,byvisaregulationsthatdonotallowthemtoworkpart-timeortotakeacareerbreak.

DevelopmentaidandmigrationInclusivedevelopmentmay,intime,changetheconfigurationofmigratorypatterns.Aspeopleareliftedoutofpoverty,theirlifechoicesimprove,includingthechoiceofwhethertomigrate,eithertoimprovetheirskillsortoseekgreatereconomicopportunitiesabroad.Theirdeparturethenopensworkopportunitiesforothersintheircountryoforigin,therebyacceleratingtheirdevelopmentpotential.Aslongastheirmigrationtakesplaceinawell-regulatedenvironment,it

benefitscountriesofdestinationaswell.Developmentprogressprovidesmoreopportunitiesathomeandmayintimereducetheimpetustoleave.Itmayalsoserveasanincentivetoreturnforthemanywhobythenhavelivedandworkedabroadandseeopportunitiestoapplytheirskillsbackhome.Somemaywishtoreturninretirement,particularlyiftheymaycarrywiththemtheaccruedbenefits–suchaspensionormedicalinsurance–thattheyhaveearnedabroad.Inshort,developmentfacilitatesmigrationbychoice,ratherthanbynecessity.Butdevelopmentisnotdesignedtocurtailmigration,norshoulditbe.Theglobalcompactthatmemberstateshaveagreedtoestablishinthecontextofthe2030Agendaismeanttofacilitatesafe,orderly,andregularmigration,nottostopit.Rather,migrationanddevelopmentmustbemanagedinwaysthatmaximisethebenefitsofboth,forthegreatergood.

Inthiscontext,theimpactofdevelopmentaidonmigrationistime-andcontext-specific.Whatmattersisthatmigrationbemanagedinsuchawayastomaximiseitsdevelopmentandotherpositiveeconomicimpacts,amongotherobjectives,somepersonaltothemigrantsthemselves.

TheGlobalCompactonMigrationWhilemaximisingthebenefitsofmigrationfordevelopmentisacentralissuefortheglobalcompact,thereismuchmorebehindthepressingneedforthisglobalagreementthanmigration’sundoubteddevelopmentpotential.Itwillhavetodealwiththechallengeoflargemovementsofpopulation,oftenmixedgroupsofrefugeesandmigrants.Itwillhavetoanticipatemorekeenlysomeofthelikelyadverseeffectsofclimatechange,acknowledgetheneedforgreatereffortstoupholdlabourstandards,andrecognisethattheneedsofhostcommunities,too,mustbeaddressedinmanagingtheintegrationoflong-termmigrants.

Theneedforaglobalframeworkforinternationalcooperationonhumanmobilityisself-evidentanditsestablishmentlongoverdue.Asuccessfulcompactwillprovideauniqueopportunitytochangethediscourseonmigration,fromaperception-basetoanevidence-base,mobilisingopen-mindedcitizenseverywheretowardsharnessingthebenefitsofhumanmobilityforthegreatergood.Andstill,theglobalcompactwillneedactionablecommitmentstohaveameaningfulimpactonthelivesofmigrantsandtheirnewandoldcommunities.

Whileitistoosoontosaywhattheglobalcompactwillcontain,asitwillbetheresultofmanymonthsofgovernmentalnegotiationsin2018,tobeformallyadoptedatanintergovernmentalconferenceinDecember2018,Idobelievetheglobalcompactshouldbebuiltuponthreecoreprinciples.


First,itshouldbepeople-centred,withhumanwell-beingparamount.Fortheglobalcompacttohavemeaning,itmustincludetheperspectiveofthemigrantsandofthecommunitiesinwhichtheylive.Migrationisforemostaboutpeople’slives.Itcanbringrenewedvitalitytohostcommunitiesonlyifwefosteratwo-wayexchangethatallowsbothmigrantsandhostcommunitiestothriveandbenefitcollectively.Atthesametime,wemusttakeseriouslyconcernsofhostcommunitiesabouttheimpactofmigrationandmigrantsparticularlywhentheseconcernsareill-foundedandmisguided.Theyarebestaddressedbyaresponsible,accuratenarrativeaboutmigrantsandmigration.

Second,thecompactshouldemphasisetheroleofinternationalcooperation,recognisingwell-managedmigrationasamatterofbothstatesovereigntyandinterdependenceamongstates.Statesmustrecognisethatinternationalcooperationinfacilitatingsafeandregularmigrationchannelsstrengthensstatesovereigntythroughtrustandcollaboration,asnationalmigrationpoliciescannotbeenforcedinavacuum.

Third,thecompactshouldbeforward-looking,abletorespondtotoday’schallenges,aswellasthoseoftomorrow.Addressingcurrentchallengesnecessitatesalonger-termandholisticperspectiveonmigration,sothatdecisionstodaywillnothavenegativerepercussions–intentionalorotherwise–inthefuture.Forexample,forstatestoaddressirregularmigrationandlimitnumbersofreturns,theymustprovidelegalpathwaysthatarepracticalandaccessible.Atthesametime,wemustrecognisethatwhileallhumanbeingshavearighttoleavetheircountry,thechoicetoenteranothercountryisnotunilateral,butratheronethatshouldmatchavailablelegalchannels.

Theglobalcompactforsafe,orderly,andregularmigrationisauniqueopportunitytoremovebarriershinderingthedevelopmentcontributionofmigrants.Statecooperationshouldbeatriplewin:forthestateoforigin,forthestateofdestination,andforallpeopleinvolvedtheprocess.

AbouttheauthorLouiseArbourisUNSpecialRepresentativeforInternationalMigration.Sheleadsthefollow-uptothemigration-relatedaspectsofthe19September2016High-levelSummitonAddressingLargeMovementsofRefugeesandMigrants.Ms.ArbourworkswithMemberStates,inpartnershipwithotherstakeholders,astheydevelopafirst-everGlobalCompactforSafe,OrderlyandRegularMigration.

Forherfullbio,seethearticleonourwebsite.

GLOBAL COMPACT FORSAFE, ORDERLY AND REGULAR MIGRATION

WHATIn the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, the members of the UN General Assembly committed themselves to develop a global compact for safe, orderly and regular migration. In parallel, the UN General Assembly also set in motion a global compact on refugees

WHENAt the UN Summit for Refugees and Migrants, on September 19, 2016 in New York

WHY“The global compact for migration will be the first, intergovernmentally negotiated agreement, prepared under the auspices of the United Nations, to cover all dimensions of international migration in a holistic and comprehensive manner”

HOW

Graphic Design: Yaseena Chiu- van’t Hoff, ECDPM

Source: http://refugeesmigrants.un.org/migration-compact

April to November 2017 Phase I: consultations

November 2017 to January 2018 Phase II: stocktaking

February to July 2018Phase Ill: intergovernmental negotiations

On September 23-24, 2018An Intergovernmental Conference is set to take place to adopt a global compact for safe, orderly and regular migration

The process to develop this global compact started in April 2017. The preparatory process is structured around three phases:

WHOHeads of State and Government of UN Member States. The US withdrew its participation in the process in December 2017


THE AU-EU SUMMIT, MIGRATION, MOBILITY AND YOUTHThe way migration and mobility will be managed politically and accommodated economically will be a defining factor for the future of Africa and of Europe. This article looks at the AU-EU Summit held in November 2017.

ByBirgitteMarkussen

ImportantreintegrationprojectsupportbyEUinBanjul.Theyoungformermigrantsarelearningtosetupsatellitereceiverstogetaformaljobandmakealiving.Photo:suppliedbyauthor.

"…migrationcanonlybemanagedeffectivelythroughcooperationandpartnership.Thereareforcesallaroundtheworldpushingforatotallydifferentapproach:anapproachbasedonconfrontationinsteadofcooperation;onbuildingwallsinsteadofbuildingpartnerships.Onclosuresandbansratherthandialogue.ThisisnottheEuropeanwayandIbelievethisisnottheAfricanway."(FedericaMogherini,EUHighRepresentative/VicePresidentoftheEuropeanCommission,VallettaSeniorOfficialsMeeting,2017)

Whenapproachingmigrationandmobilitythechallengeisbroadandcallsforcomprehensiveresponsesthatwillenablesavinglives,fightingcriminalnetworksaswellascreating18millionnewjobseveryyeartoabsorbnewlabourmarketentrantsinAfrica.Itisaboutcontinuingtostriketheright

balancebetweenlongandshorttermpoliciesandinstruments.Anditis,obviously,alsoabouttheimportanceofyouthwhendefiningthefuturemigrationandmobilitypoliciesofEuropeandAfrica.

EuropeanandAfricanleadersareveryconsciousthattheirresponsetothechallengesofmigrationandyouthunemploymentmaywelldefinetheirlegacyandthefutureoftheirowncountry.They,therefore,engagedcloselyintheAU-EUSummitinAbidjanandworkedhardtoironoutthedifferencesofapproachthatinevitablyexist.

#AUEU#AUEUyouth#BeTheFutureTodayTheAU-EUAbidjanPoliticalDeclarationshapesapoliticalagendacommittingtothejointlydefinedmainthemeoftheSummit:


FACTS ON MIGRATION AND MOBILITY

DEMOGRAPHIC DYNAMICS

This will become one of the most significant structural changes in the 21st century

The vast majority of migration and mobility takes place inside Africa

Money transfers

The number of new jobs Sub-Saharan Africa needs to generate every year up to 2035 to absorb new labour market entrants. Today only 3 million formal jobs are created annually

The predicted population of Africa by 2050. It will be made up predominantly of young people

This amount was equivalent to the total amount of development cooperation from the EU and Member States to Africa in 2015. This illustrates the huge economic importance to Africa of its migrants living in Europe

The money earned in Europe in 2015 by Africans and sent back to families on the African continent, the so-called remittances

The number of voluntary returns of stranded migrants in Libya to their countries of origin assisted by UN agencies, African countries of origin and EU

The number of possible additional returns by February 2018

The percentage of the total migration flow heading towards Europe

The percentage of African migrants and refugees moving inside Africa

MIGRATION AND MOBILITY

REMITTANCES

VOLUNTARY RETURNSOF MIGRANTS

13,000 15,000

2.4 billion

80%

18 million

€21 billion

20%

Graphic D

esign: Yaseena Chiu- van’t Hoff, ECD

PM

Sources: Joint Communication for a renewed impetus of Africa-EU Partnership (4 May 2017); Commission contribution to the EU Leaders' thematic debate on a way forward on the external and the internal dimension of migration policy (7 December 2017); UN World population prospects (2015); IMF Regional economic outlook (2015), OECD and the World Bank."


"InvestinginYouthforAcceleratedInclusiveGrowthandSustainableDevelopment".Asyouthrepresentsthemaingroupofindividualsmigrating,thisisaverypertinentagenda,notonlyforthefuture–butstartingrightnow.

ThreeoveralldeliverablesoftheAU-EUSummitarecrucialformigrationandmobilityandforourworkahead.

Firstly,theSummitDeclarationconsolidatesthefocusonyouthandreflectsthatabroad-basedandbalancedapproachtomigrationandmobilityistherightapproach–alsowhenworkingtowardstheUNGlobalCompactsonMigrationandRefugees.TheDeclarationobviouslypaysspecialattentiontotheinvolvementofyoungmigrantsinallourefforts.Itstressesthepoliticalcommitmenttoaddressrootcausesofirregularmigration.Theneedtopreventhazardousjourneysandsavelives.Itemphasisesthatmoreneedstobedonetofurtherdeveloppathwaysforregularmigration.Agreestogivepreferencetovoluntaryreturnandreaffirmsthatallreturnsmustbecarriedoutinfullrespectforhumanrightsandhumandignity.Finally,theDeclarationrestatesasharedcommitmenttoprovideassistancetopeoplefleeingconflict,includingInternallyDisplacedPeople(IDPs),andsupporttotheAfricanInstituteforRemittances.

Secondly,theDeclarationcommitstodeepeningthepartnershipanddialogueonmigrationandmobilitybydevelopingajointframeworkforastrengthenedcontinentaldialoguebetweentheEUandtheAU.Thisisimportantasitisforeseentocomplementtheexistingandmoreregionallyspecialiseddialogues,includingtheJointVallettaActionPlan,RabatandKhartoumProcesses,andtheAUHornofAfricaInitiativeonHumanTraffickingandSmugglingofMigrants.

Thirdly,theSummitprovidedaframeworkforgroundbreakingcooperationbetweenAU,UN,EU,theLibyangovernment,andcountriesoforiginandtransittotakethenecessarymeansandactionstoimprovetheconditionsformigrantsandrefugeesinLibya.Thecooperationisshowingimmediateresults,assistingthousandsofmigrantsoutofLibyaandbacktotheircountriesoforigin.AtaskforcehasbeenestablishedtooverseetheongoingrepatriationoutofLibya.ThereturnofhundredsofNigerianmigrantsalreadyinJanuarydemonstratethatthiscommitmentisnotmerewords.

VallettaandtheEUPartnershipFrameworkTheDeclarationinAbidjanbuiltontheapproachagreedattheEU-AfricaSummitonMigrationinVallettainNovember2015.Thisidentifiedfiveessentialpillarsforabalancedapproachtomigration:(1)Supporttodevelopmentbenefitsofmigrationandaddressingrootcausesofirregularmigrationandforceddisplacement,(2)Legalmigrationandmobility,(3)Protectionandasylum,(4)Preventionofandfightagainstirregularmigration,migrantsmugglingandhumantrafficking,and(5)Return,readmissionandreintegration.

TheEUPartnershipFrameworkapproachagreedin2016buildsonthesefivepillars,andisimplementedinclosepartnershipbetween

theEU,itsmemberstatesandspecificAfricanUnionmemberstates.InWestAfricaandtheSahel,workunderwaytargetsthecreationof114,000jobsandsupports10,000micro,smallandmediumenterprises.InNiger,thefightagainstsmugglingalongoneofthemainroutestowardsLibyahasbeensteppedupbythegovernment.Thefightincludesstrengtheningofthelegalframework,andlawenforcement.IntheHornofAfrica,EU-financedprojectsunderwaywillcreatemorethan44,000jobsacrossEthiopia,KenyaandSomalia,anddirectlyfinanceafurther30,000jobsinSouthSudan.

ThemainlessonlearnedfromworkingwiththeVallettaPoliticalDeclarationandActionPlan,aswellastheEUPartnershipFrameworkapproach,isthatmaintainingthebroad-basedapproachenvisagedunderthefiveVallettapillarsisfundamental–andthisincludesmakingfulluseoftheentirerangeofinstruments.Thecommonandcomprehensiveapproachhasalsounderlinedthatsuccessliesinmaintainingthemomentumofactiononallfronts.Furthermore,theincrementalchallengescallforacommonapproach,bypoolingofresourcesandcoordinatedworktowardsjointobjectives–withEUmemberstates,aswellaswithexternalpartnersincludingtheUN,theAUanditsmemberstates.Finally,experiencesshowtheimportanceofintegratingmigrationandmobilityissuesaspartoftheEUpoliciestowardsthirdcountries.Placingdiplomacyattheheartoftheeffortsintermsofpoliticalanalysisandbuildingplatformsfordialoguehelpstosolvesomeofthedifficultissuesthatneedcomplexsolutions.

ContinuingtogetthebalancerightItisimportanttosaythattherehavebeendifferences.ThefinalnegotiationsoftheVallettaSummittookalmost24hoursofcontinuoustalks,andthemigrationparagraphsoftheAbidjanDeclarationwereonlyfinalisedattheverylastminutesofthe

“FinalgoaheadfromkeymemberstatesattheclosingoftheAU-EUSummit”

Photo:suppliedbyauthor.


Federica Mogherini meets with AU-EU Youth Plug-In Initiative ahead of the Summit in Abidjan. Photo supplied by author.

closingceremony.Butmostimportantly,theapproachagreedinVallettaandAbidjanputusinapositiontobalancethedifferencesandtotackletheessentialpolicydiscussionsofhowbesttocontinuetostriketherightbalancebetweenshorttermimmediateresponsestocrisissituationsandlongerterminvestmentsinjobsandeconomicdevelopmentontheAfricancontinent.KnowingwhatweknowabouttheconditionsinmanyofthecountriesoforiginontheAfricancontinent,thesameindividualswhoareinvolvedincriminalactivitiesrelatedtomigrationandmobilitywouldinmostcasespreferajobintheformalsector,iftheyweregiventhechoice.Itisobviouslynotaneither/or,itisallaboutcontinuingtogetthisparticularbalancerightinourpolicyapproachesandconcreteinstruments.

Thefuturepolicyresponsestomigrationandmobilitywillcontinuouslyhavetopassthelitmustestofprovidingashorttermresponsetosavinglives,tacklingthefightagainstirregularandillegalnetworks,whileensuringthatthemigrationandmobilitywithinandbetweenEuropeandAfricamakethemostoftheeconomicandwiderpoliticalpotentialofanorderlymigrationpolicy.ThewaythesechallengeswillbemanagedpoliticallyandaccommodatedeconomicallywillhelpdefinethefutureofbothAfricaandofEurope.Anditwillimpactmorethananyoneontheyouthinbothcontinents,soitisessentialtheirvoiceisincludedinbothourupstreamdialoguesanddownstreaminitiatives.

ThestatementbytheEuropeanleadersontheoccasionoftheInternationalMigrantDaylastDecemberunderlinedthebroaderpoliticalandeconomicimportanceofmigrationandmobilityfor

Europeitselfoverthelastcenturies:"OnInternationalMigrantDaywerememberallthosewholiveoutsidetheircountryofbirthandareonthemove–eitherbychoiceorforcibly.Werememberthatourcontinent,Europe,isbuiltonmigration.Ourcommonhistoryismarkedbymillionsofpeoplefleeingfrompersecution,war,ordictatorship(…).Today,ourEuropeanUnionallowspeopleacrossthecontinenttofreelytravel,tostudyandworkinothercountries.ThishasmadeEuropeoneoftherichestplacesintheworld–intermsofculture,ofeconomy,ofopportunitiesandintermsofliberties."

AbouttheAuthorBirgitteMarkussen(@BNMarkussen)isDirectorandDeputyManagingDirectorforAfrica,EuropeanExternalActionService,Brussels.Ms.Markussenwasnegotiatorofthemigration,mobilityandyouthissuesduringtheAU-EUSummitinNovember2017,penholderonthecompactsundertheEUPartnershipFrameworkapproachsince2016,andcloselyinvolvedintheVallettaPoliticalDeclarationandActionPlanin2015.


This article looks at the dynamics and trends of forced displacement and mixed migration from a practitioner's’ point of view at the IGAD level. It highlights key focus areas and issues in the region.

FORCED DISPLACEMENT AND MIXED MIGRATION CHALLENGES IN THE IGAD REGION

Migrationhasbecomeadefiningnationalandregionalpoliticalissue,asittouchesonpowerfulunderlyingconcernsrelatingtohumanrights,internationaleconomics,labourdemands,security,governance,andaglobalisedbutincreasinglyunequalworld.TheIntergovernmentalAuthorityonDevelopment(IGAD)coversadiverseregionwithapopulationofover230million,comprisingareasofeconomicgrowthandinvestmentandareaspronetoviolentconflict,politicalinstability,andhumanitariancrises(IGADRegionalStrategy,2016).TheIGADregionisoneoftheworld’slargestrefugeeproducingandhostingareas,withupto11millionforcefullydisplacedpersons(RMMS,2017).

Mostofthedisplacementintheregionisprotracted,lasting10yearsonaverage,asforrefugeesfromEritrea,Somalia,andSouthSudan.Inlinewithtrendsinglobaldisplacement,forceddisplacementandmixedmigrationintheHornofAfricahasbecomemorecomplexoverthelastfiveyears.Ithasincreasedinvolumetoo,fuelledbypolitical,socio-economic,andenvironmentalfactors.

Whiledisplacementhasclearnegativeimpactsonthecountriesoforigin,italsohasspill-overeffectsthroughoutamuchlargerarea.Forexample,SomaliandSouthSudaneserefugeesarefoundthroughouttheIGADregion.Mostrefugeesinthe

HornofAfricaliveincampsthoughsomearehousedinsettlements,asinUganda.Thesecampsandsettlementstendtobeinunderdevelopedandmarginalisedareas,comparedtotherestofthehostcountry.Manyrefugeehostingcommunitiesalreadyfaceprecarioussocio-economicconditions,markedbyfoodinsecurity,limitedaccesstobasicservices,poorlivelihoodopportunities,anddegradednaturalresources.Protracteddisplacementofrefugeesfurtherexacerbatestheirsituation.Theresultcanbecompetitionforscarceresourcesandpressureontheenvironment,sometimesleadingtoconflictsandclashes(ForcedDisplacementandMixedMigration,2015,

ByCarolineNjukiandWoldamlakAbera

Displaced children in their make-shift shelter made of leaves, wooden poles and plastic sheeting. Photo: Rikka Tupaz/UN Migration Agency (IOM) Ethiopia, 2017


WorldBankandUNHCR).MigrationflowsintheIGADregionaremixed,thatis,theyincludepersonswithvariousdifferentprofilesandlevelsofvulnerabilities:migrantworkers(bothregularandirregular),refugees,smuggledmigrants,traffickedpersons,unaccompaniedchildren,environmentalmigrants,strandedmigrants,andvictimsofexploitationandabuse.Someuseirregularchannelstofleepoliticalunrest,persecution,andconflict,whileothersseektoescapesituationsofextremeresourcescarcity,includingdrought,cropfailure,foodinsecurity,andseverepoverty.Inthehostandtransitcountries,migrantshavelessprotectionthanothers.Theyarealsomoresubjecttoexploitation,andlesstolerated.

IGAD’sroleinaddressingforceddisplacementandmixedmigrationAsaregionalactor,IGADrecognisestheneedtorespondtoforceddisplacementandmixedmigrationflowsinawaythataddressesthestructuralcauses.Inpursuingaholisticapproach,itsupportsprogrammestobuildthecapacityofgovernancestructuresatthenational,sub-national,andlocallevelsforimproveddevelopment.Atthesametime,itworkstomitigatetheeconomic,social,andenvironmentalimpactsofmigrationonthehostcommunities.TheseeffortsareguidedbytheIGADMigrationActionPlan(MAP)2015-2020,developedtooperationalisetheoverarchingRegionalMigrationPolicyFramework(RMPF).

AddressingmixedmigrationIGADhasestablishedanumberofinitiativestoaddressmixedmigration.Itsaimistomaximiseprotectionandsavelives,whileworkingtowardssustainabilityandincreasedgovernmentownershipandcapacitytorespondtoneedsbyreinforcinggovernments’migrationmanagementcapacities.Forbetterregionalandnationalcoordination,ithasestablishedplatformsfordialogueandinformationsharing.In2008,IGADlaunchedaregionalconsultativeprocessonmigration,and

setuptheIGADRegionalMigrationCoordinationCommittee(RMCC).TheseprovideaframeworkfordiscussingandfollowinguponprogressinimplementingtheRMPFandMAP.

Throughnationalcoordinationmechanismsanda‘wholeofgovernmentapproach’tomigrationmanagement,IGADsupportsmemberstates,especiallyinstrengtheningcooperationandcoordinationonmigrationmanagementatthenationallevel.Since2014ithasestablishednationalcoordinationmechanisms(NCMs)forthis.CurrentlyEthiopia,Kenya,Uganda,andSouthSudanhavefullyoperationalNCMs,withtheremainingcountriesformalisingtheirownNCMs.IGADisalsointheprocessofnegotiatingafreemovementofpersonsregime.Thisprotocolwouldharmonisepoliciesandproceduresonfreemovementofpersons,regulations,andtherightsoftradeandlabourmigrantsacrosstheIGADregion,whilepromotingtranshumancemobility.Facilitatingmovementsistheobjectiveenvisaged.

DevelopmentresponsetodisplacementIGADhasadoptedadevelopmentresponsetoforceddisplacement.Thisisastrategicshiftfromapurelyhumanitarianapproachthatleavesoutthehostcommunitiestowardsacomprehensiveresponsetothesocial,economicanenvironmentalimplicationsofdisplacementforboththepersonsdisplacedandthehostcommunities.Realimprovementsforthoselivinginsituationsofprotracteddisplacementandfortheaffectedhostpopulationscanbeachievedonlybyaddressingissuesofhousing,livelihoodsandjobs,accesstoservices,inclusion,andgovernanceinwaysthatbenefitall.Thegoalistoensurethatdisplacedpeoplearemoreself-reliantratherthanneedingcontinuedhumanitarianaid.Developmentactorsintheregionhavebeencalledtoworkcomprehensivelyandscaleuptheireffortstocountertheimpactsofforceddisplacementonfragileandconflict-

affectedcountriesandregions.Inthisregard,IGADhasdevelopedtwomainresponses:theDevelopmentResponsetoDisplacementImpactsProject(DRDIP)andtheNairobiDeclarationonDurable

SolutionsforSomalirefugeesandreintegrationofreturneesinSomalia.DRDIPaimstoimproveaccesstobasicsocialservices,expandeconomicopportunities,andenhanceenvironmentalmanagementforcommunitieshostingrefugees.IGADwilluseknowledgeandinsightsgeneratedfromtheprojecttoshowcasegoodpracticesinintegratedservicedeliveryinrefugeehostingareas.Benefitsintermsofeconomicinclusionandsustainablemanagementoftheenvironmentwillalsobedocumentedandshared.Throughgenerationofevidencesupportinginnovativedevelopmentapproaches,DRDIPhopestobringaboutashiftinmind-setamongIGADmemberstatesandpartnersworkingondisplacement.ToeffectivelycoordinatethisresponseIGADhasestablishedtheRegionalSecretariatonForcedDisplacementandMixedMigration,basedinNairobiwiththesupportoftheWorldBank.

RegardingtheNairobiDeclaration,IGADconvenedaspecialsummitondurablesolutionsforSomalirefugeesandreintegrationofreturneesinSomalia.Atthatgathering,inMarch2017,memberstatesagreedonacomprehensiveregionalapproachtoaddresstheSomalirefugees’situation,whilemaintainingprotectionandpromotingself-relianceinthecountriesofasylum,consistentwithinternationalresponsibility-sharingasoutlinedintheNewYorkDeclaration’sComprehensiveRefugeeResponseFramework(CRRF).

TheNairobiDeclarationanditsprospectsintheIGADregionIGADappreciatesthatacoherentandcomprehensivesetofpoliciesisessentialtomovetowardssolutions.However,thesealonearenotsufficient.Commonobjectivesandgoalsarealsoneeded,


Beauty(left)andHopewhoparticipateinaYouthtoYoutheducationprogramme,Zambia.Photo:JessicaLea/DFIDUK

alongsideagreedactions,acleardeliveryframework,dedicatedresources,arobustmonitoringsystem,andatargetedcommunicationstrategy.Onlybypoolingresourcesandeffortsandtranslatingthemintoconcretejointactionswillitbepossibletomaketangibleprogressforrefugeesandhostcommunitiesontheground.

WiththeadoptionoftheNairobiDeclarationanditsaccompanyingactionplan,IGADmemberstatescommittedtorespondcollectivelytooneoftheworld’smostprolongeddisplacementcrises.Nowinitsthirddecade,thereareoveramillioninternallydisplacedpersons(IDPs)andnearly900,000refugeesintheregion.

Memberstateshavesetstrategicobjectives,outcomes,indicators,andmilestonesforimplementationoftheNairobiDeclaration.Theframeworkprovidesthemeanstotrackprogressindeliveryonthecommitmentsandtheresultsachieved.Inlinewiththis,countriesaredevelopingnationalactionplans(NAPs)definingpolicychanges,investments,andotheractionsrequiredtodeliveronthecommitmentsmade.ResourcemobilisationwillbeundertakenonarollingbasisusingbiannualmeetingsofIGADmemberstatesandkeydonorsandinternationalfinancialinstitutions.Thesegatheringswillalsoprovideopportunitiestotakestockofprogressmadeacrosstheregion.Tosupporttheprocessasetofregionalthematicmeetingswillbeconvenedonspecificissues,suchaseducationforrefugeesandhostcommunities,self-reliance,andthird-countryresettlement.Thesewillprovideopportunitiestoshareexperiencesandbestpracticesandaddressbottlenecksandchallenges.

TheComprehensiveRefugeeResponseFrameworkandtheNairobiDeclarationTheUNGeneralAssemblyhascalledforaglobalresponseandinternationalsupporttoensurethatforceddisplacementandmigrationchallengesareaddressed

inacoherent,comprehensive,andbalancedmannerbackedbyinternationalresponsibility-sharingtosupporthostingcountries.TheComprehensiveRefugeeResponseFramework(CRRF),ledbytheUNRefugeeAgency,providesanimperativetoovercometheoutdatedviewofrefugeesandmigrantsasburdensonsocieties.TheDeclarationurgesgovernmentstocomeupwithafreshandmorerealisticviewofrefugeesandmigrantsasactivecontributorstodevelopmentandwelfareinthesocietiesthathostthem.

CountriesintheIGADregionhaveexpressedaneedforincreasedresponsibility-sharingbytheinternationalcommunity,whilecommittingtoreformvariousaspectsofrefugeeprotection.KeyamongthesecommitmentswerethosemadeduringtheLeaders’Summit,heldduringthe71stUNGeneralAssemblyinSeptember2016.ItisinthiscontextthattheIGADsummitadoptedtheNairobiDeclaration,furtherreinforcingthecommitmentsmadebymemberstatesattheLeaders’Summit.TheNairobiDeclarationcanbeviewedastheregionalapplicationofCRRF,whichpursuesamulti-sectoralresponsetodisplacementthatconsidersthedevelopmentimpactsofdisplacementonhostcommunitiesandgovernments.FiveIGADmemberstates(Ethiopia,Kenya,Uganda,SomaliandDjibouti)havebecomeCRRFpilotcountries.TheNairobiDeclarationwillbepartandparcelofthisprocess.

NationalactionplansaretobepartoftheoverallCRRFimplementationstrategy.Eachcountrywillcomeupwithaconsolidatednationalplanofaction.DRDIPwillcomplementtheCRRFobjectivestoo,forexample,throughinitiativestoeasepressureonhostcountries.Thisapproachisagamechangerforthecommunitiesthathavelongreliedonhumanitariansupport.Itholdsrealpotentialtoleavethemmoreempoweredandwithagreatersenseofdignity.

Todeliveronthesecommitments,thereisgrowinginternationalrecognition

thatdevelopmentactorsmustengageearlierthantheyhavebeendoingandadoptalonger-termplanningapproachattheonsetofadisplacementcrisis.Furthermore,theyneedtoworkincollaborationwithdisplacement-affectedgovernmentsincludingthoseatthelocallevel,hostcommunities,andinternationalhumanitarianpartners.

References:• Intergovernmental Authority on

Development. 2016. IGAD Regional Strategy Volume 1: The framework.

• Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. 2016. Global Report on Internal Displacement 2016. Geneva: Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre.

• Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat. September, 2017. RMMS monthly summary for East Africa and Yemen.

• World Bank and UNHCR. 2015. Forced Displacement and Mixed Migration in the Horn of Africa.

• World Bank. 2017. “Forcibly Displaced: Toward a Development Approach Supporting Refugees, the Internally Displaced, and Their Hosts” (Overview).

AbouttheauthorsCarolineNjukiisSeniorProgrammeCoordinatorattheIGADRegionalSecretariatonForcedDisplacementandMixedMigration

WoldamlakAberaisForcedDisplacementOfficerattheIGADRegionalSecretariatonForcedDisplace-mentandMixedMigration


Most international migration in Africa is intracontinental, essentially occurring between proximate states in the same regional bloc. It is mixed, but semi-skilled and unskilled labour migration, and mobility involving informal cross-border traders and service providers merit special attention.

Dar es Salaam’s new bus transit system. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania's commerical hub, is considered one of the fastest growing urban centers in the region, with a population that has been growing rapidly at a rate of 6.5%, up from 2.5 million inhabitants in 2002 to 4.4 million in 2012. It is projected that the population could reach 10 million by 2027, thus attaining ‘mega city’ status. Photo: World Bank/flickr

REGIONAL GOVERNANCE REGIMES OFFER LABOUR MOBILITY AND DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS

ByChristopherChangweNshimbi

ThepushforcontinentalintegrationAfricanleadersseemdeterminedtorealisethelongstandinggoalofcontinentalsocio-economicintegration.Thisisinkeepingwiththeprovisionsofthe1991AbujaTreatyforEstablishingtheAfricanEconomicCommunity(AEC)by2028.Thattreatyactualisedthe1980LagosPlanofActionandtheFinalActofLagos,bothofwhichwereprecededbyadecades-longaspirationofAfrica’sfoundingfathersforcontinentalunity.Astepinthatdirectionistheprocessthathassofarseenoverfiveroundsofnegotiationbetweenstateparties,toestablishacontinentalfreetradearea(CFTA).Thenegotiations,whichbeganin2015,followadecisionadoptedbytheHeadsofStateandGovernmentoftheAfricanUnion(AU)in2012.ACFTAagreementcouldbesignedby2018.

Thisfirstphaseofnegotiationshascentredontariffliberalisation,tradeingoodsandservices,rulesoforigin,non-tariffbarriers,andquantitativerestrictionsontrade.Issueslikeintellectualpropertyrightsandcompetitionpolicywillbenegotiatedinthesecondphase,aftertheCFTAagreementissigned.NegotiationsonmobilityofwhattheAUtermsbusinesspersonsstartedinparallelwiththetradenegotiations,andwillbecompletedinthesecondphase.ThisrelegationofhumanmobilitytoaparallelorsecondphaseoftheCFTAnegotiationsistelling.Actually,itreflectsthesensitivityinAfricatotheissueofhumanmobilityandfreemovementofpersonsacrossthe“open”bordersofthecontinent’sstates.

Great Insights | Winter 2018 15 MechanicalshovelbeingassembledonsiteattheRossingUraniummine.Photo:WorldBank,Flickr

REGIONAL GOVERNANCE REGIMES OFFER LABOUR MOBILITY AND DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS

ThebasisofcontinentalintegrationSomeliteratureacknowledgestheporosityoftheartificialbordersthatserveasmarkersoftherespectiveterritoriesofthe55AUmembercountries.Yet,policymakersgenerallyseemoblivioustoorconvenientlyignorethefactthatmobilityissocharacteristicofAfricanpopulations,especiallyinborderareas.Motivationsformovementsvary,asdothekindsofpeoplemoving.Theymoveforwork,businessortrade,researchorstudy,kinship,andindeed,becausetheyareforcefullydisplacedbywarandconflictorbysociocultural,natural,andclimate-relatedfactors,amongotherreasons.

Strictenforcementofnation-stateborders,especiallyatofficialborderposts,raisesconcernsaboutfreemovementandinternationalmigration.Withregardtothelatter,acountryorregionisconsideredtobeprofreemovementifaforeignnationalrequiresnospecialpermit,orworkvisa,toenterandworkinitsterritory.Freemovementbestowsonimmigrantstherighttoresideandestablishinthehostcountry.

Thisdistinctionoftermshasimportantimplicationsforpolicy,especiallyinAfrica,wheremixedmigrationcoexistswithinformalcross‐bordermobilityandclaimsofasylum(NshimbiandFioramonti,2013).DiscussionsofAfricanhumanmobilityalltoooftenemphasisemigrationofAfricanstoothercontinents.Inreality,mostinternationalmigrationoccurswithinAfrica.MigrationbetweenproximatestatesbelongingtothesameRECisespeciallyprominent.Thus,moremigrationoccursbetweentheneighbouringcountriesofandwithintheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS)thantoEurope,forinstance.

Becauseofthis,thesinglingoutofbusinesspersons(andexclusionofallothercategoriesofmobilepersons)forfreemovementintheCFTAnegotiationsclearlyseemsdeliberate.ItisrevealingofthewayAUcountriessensitivelyapproachintracontinentalmobilityandtheirunderstandingofitsimplications.Concerns–particularlyinthefewmoreeconomicallydevelopedcountriestowardswhichmigrationisdirected–relatetoimmigrantsfloodingjobmarketsandstealingjobsfromcitizens(OuchoandCrush,2001).Otherissuesrelatetosecurity,informedbynarrownationalinterests(SegattiandLandau,2011).Humanmobilityisthenseenasathreattonationalstabilityandprosperity.

Migrationphobia:PolicyandlegislativeguaranteesYet,ifAfricaandtheRECsaretoadvanceonintegration,thesefearsmustbeallayed.Todothat,seriousconsiderationneedstobegiventotheroleoffreemovementinintegration.AfundamentalquestionconcerningeconomicintegrationinAfricaiswhetherthestatepartiesaspiretoprogressbeyonda

customsunion.Willtheyagreetoallowcapital,goods,services,andlabourtomovefreelyacrossborders(OuchoandCrush,2001),leadingtoacommonmarketandeconomicunion?DespitesomeAUmembers’reservations,theAbujaTreatytowhichall55AUmembersaresignatories,makesprovisionforfreemovement.Butapointthatisoftenmissedisthatfreemovementconnotesfreemovementofworkers,notpeopleingeneral(Nita2013).Understandingthiswillhelpallayfearsof“tidalwaves”and“floods”of“illegal”migrantserodingtheeconomic,sociocultural,andmoralfabricofimmigranthostcountries(Crushetal.,2005;Oucho,2007;Adepoju,2009;Nyamnjoh,2010;Adeniran,2014;Moyo,2017).

But,Africaindeedhasapositiononmigrationandtheroleofmigrationindevelopment.ThatpositioniscontainedinAfrica’slegalandpolicyframeworksandthoseoftheeightRECsrecognisedbytheAUaspillarsoftheAEC.Thus,theAbujaTreatycontainsaprovisionforfreecontinentalmovementofAfricans,tobelegallyenshrinedinanAfricanfreemovementprotocol:

[AU] Member States agree to adopt, individually, at bilateral or regional levels, the necessary measures, in order to achieve progressively the free movement of persons, and to ensure the enjoyment of the right of residence and the right of establishment by their nationals within the [African Economic] Community.

Forthispurpose,MemberStatesagreetoconcludeaProtocolontheFreeMovementofPersons,RightofResidenceandRightofEstablishment(AbujaTreaty,1991,Chapter6,Article43).

Elsewhereinthetreaty,memberstatesundertaketo

Adopt employment policies that shall allow the free movement of persons within the [African Economic] Community by strengthening and establishing labour exchanges aimed at facilitating the employment of available skilled manpower of one Member State in other Member States where there are shortages of skilled manpower (Abuja Treaty, 1991, Chapter 13, Article 71).

Together,thesearticlesunderlinethatprovisionsareinplaceforcontinentalandinterstatefreemovementandinternationalmigration.TheyalsotiemigrationtothedevelopmentandutilisationofAfrica’shumanresources,includingacrossAUmemberstates’borders.TwokeycontinentalinstrumentssubsequentlyformulatedbyAUstatesexpressthecontributionofmigrationtodevelopmentexplicitly:theAfricanCommonPositiononMigrationandDevelopment(ACPMD)(AU,2006)andtheRevisedMigrationPolicyFrameworkforAfricaandPlanofAction(2018-2027)(AU,


2017).Theserevealacompletelydifferentapproachtomigrationthanthefearfuloneexhibitedbysomememberstates.Intheseinstruments,Africanstatesencourageeachotherandplanto,amongotherthings,adoptprofreemovementemploymentpoliciesintheenvisagedAEC.Thus,Africathroughitsinstrumentsprovidesanenvironmentthatpotentiallyfacilitatesintracontinentallabourmobility,alongwiththeexchangeanddevelopmentofskilledhumanresources,andthecoordinationandintegrationoflabourmarkets.This,alongwithfacilitationofmovementfortrade,isessentialtodevelopment.

Besideslegislationandpolicies,theAU,throughtheAUCommissionandinternationalpartnersincludingtheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO),theInternationalOrganizationforMigration(IOM),andtheUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforAfrica(UNECA)isrunningafour-yearJointLabourMigrationGovernanceProgramme(JLMP).Thatprogrammeseekstopromoteregionalintegrationanddevelopment.

AmongtheRECs,someexpresslyencouragehumanmobility,whileothersgrapplewiththebasicideaandpracticeofintegration.Theformerhaveeitherdrawnuporareimplementingregionalprotocolsonfreemovementofpersonsandmigrationpolicies.Thelatterstruggleinestablishmentofregionalmigrationgovernanceregimes,forvariousreasons.Theserangefromsocio-economicandsecurity-relatedobjectionstomigration,todifficultiesinappreciatingthatregionalismisastate-ledprojectsupportiveofgrowthanddevelopment.

AtoneendofthisapparentregionalmigrationgovernanceregimespectrumisECOWAS(NshimibiandFioramonti,2013).ECOWAShasthemostcomprehensive,advanced,andwell-implementedhumanmobilitygovernanceregimeinAfrica.Earlyon,ECOWASsetfreeregionalmovementasatarget.Thisisreflectedinthe1975ECOWASTreatyandtheprotocolrelatingtofreemovementofpersons,anditsfoursupplementaryprotocols.Theprotocolguaranteestherightofentry,residence,andestablishmentforcitizensofECOWASmemberstates(ECOWASCommission,1993:ECOWASRevisedTreaty,Article3.2.d.iii).WhentheECOWASTreatywasrevisedin1979,theregionmaintainedthegoaloffreemovement.Intherevisedtreaty,itundertakestoremoveallrestrictionsonfreemovementandreiteratesthecommitmenttoestablishtherightofentry,residence,andestablishment.Basedonthetreaty,ECOWASauthoritieshaveadoptedamigrationpolicyandtwoothermeasurestofacilitatemovementacrossmemberstates’borders.TheseareauniformECOWASpassportanda

standardisedECOWAStravelcertificate.Thepassport,whichisalreadyinuse,wouldeventuallyreplacethenationalpassportsofrespectivememberstatesby2010.ECOWAShasabolishedvisasforcitizensofmemberstates.

AttheotherendofthespectrumareregionssuchastheArabMaghrebUnion(AMU).Here,regionalismhasnottakenroot,beingderailedbydeeppoliticaldifferencesbetweenthestateparties.ThecontentionspecificallyrevolvesaroundtheWesternSahara,andwhethertheterritoryshouldparticipateintheAMUasasovereignindependentstate.ThishasbrokeneffortstoestablishtheareaasafunctioningREC.

Inbetween,areregionssuchastheSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity(SADC),anotherAU-recognisedREC.Thoughfullyfunctionalandprogressing(havingachievedfreetradeareastatusin2008,forinstance),SADCmemberstateshaveshiedawayfromformalisingaregionalmigrationgovernancemechanismforover20years.Thisisduepartlytosystematicoppositionbythecountriesthatarethemostpreferreddestinationsofmigrantsintheregion(NshimbiandFioramonti2013).SuchanattitudeattheregionallevelcontradictsandfrustratestheAU’suseoftheRECsaspillarsorbuildingblocksoftheAEC,anditsbroadergoalofAfricanunityanddevelopment.

However,somecountriesinSouthernAfrica,aswellasWestandEasternAfrica,arerunningavoluntarylabourmigrationinitiative:theIntra-AfricanTalentMobilityPartnershipProgramme(TMP).ItaimstocreateSchengen-typemechanismsforskilledlabourmigrationandskillsdevelopmentintheseregions.Thisprogramme,alongwiththeAU-ledJLMP,demonstratestheimportanceAfricaattachestolabourmobilityanditspotentialcontributiontodevelopment.

EfficientregularmigrationandlabourmobilityframeworkscouldfosterdevelopmentinAfrica.Givingprofessionalsthefreedomtomovefromlaboursurplustolabourscarceareas,forinstance,wouldhelpbalancerequirementsinsendingandreceivingcountriesacrossAfricaandtheRECs(NshimbiandFioramonti,2016).Areasofscarcitywouldadditionallybenefitfromskillstransfer.

ThepracticeofintegrationDespitethesensitivity,theage-oldmobilityofvariouskindsofpeopleforvariousreasonsacrossAfricawillcontinue.RecenthistoryshowsthatstringentimmigrationmeasureswillfailtocurbmigrationinAfrica.Acaseinpointisthedeportationofforeignworkers,especiallyduringeconomicdownturnsinhost


Photo:ChristianWeidinger/Flickr

countries.ThisevenhappensbetweenmembersofthesameREC,signifyingadisregardfororbacktrackingonestablishedregionalmigrationgovernanceregimes.Nigeria,forinstance,oncerevokedarticles4and7oftheECOWASprotocolonfreemovementofpersonswhenitseconomyexperiencedadownturn.Itdeportedsomeonemillionskilledandunskilledlabourmigrantsithadattractedduringtheoil-fuelledeconomicboom.Similarly,Ghanaonceexpelled500,000Nigeriansduetoeconomicturmoil.OthercountriesintheECOWASregionhaveoccasionallydeportedthousandsofmigrantstoo.

IntheSADCregion,countrieshaveexercisedmassivedeportationsofothermemberstates’citizens.SouthAfrica,forinstance,haddeportedover1.5millionmigrantsby2007;themajoritywerecitizensofSADCmemberstatesMozambiqueandZimbabwe(CrushandDodson,2007;NshimbiandFioramonti,2013).However,SouthAfricahasofferedamnestiesaswell,especiallytoundocumentedimmigrants,themajoritysemi-skilledandunskilled.

Africa’sintegrationdreamandhumanemobilityInconclusion,threeobservationssummarisethecurrentsituationregardinghumanmobilityinAfrica.First,effortisneededtostemsecurityapproachestomigration,expressedinsomecountriesinattemptstoenforceormovetowardsstricterbordercontrol.InevitablysuchapproacheswillbefrustratedbytheporousartificialbordersthatseparatetheAU’s55memberstates.Secondly,thereexistpoliciesandpracticesofrestrictedentrydesignedtofilteroutpeoplewithnoskillsinfavourofskilledprofessionals.Thesetoo,however,areunderminedbyborderporosity,alongwiththedemandforcheaplabourandinformallytradedgoodsandservicesinmoreadvancedeconomieswithinRECsandacrossAfrica.Thirdly,adhocinterventions,suchastheoccasionalamnestiesgrantedto,especially,undocumentedandsemi-skilledandunskilledlabourmigrants,thoughwelcome,aredilutedbyregularmassivedeportationsconductedbythesamestateauthorities.ThesefanhostilitiestowardsforeignAfricannationalsatlocalandcommunitylevel.

Boththedeportationsandnegativeattitudestowardsforeignnationalsareanantithesistoregionalandcontinentalintegration.Thedeportationsarecostly,especiallyconsideringthatmostdeporteeseventuallyreturntothecountriestheyweredeportedfrom.Theresourcesdeployedforsuchoperationscouldachievemoreandbetteroutcomesifchannelledtoareaswheretheneedisgreater.

HostilitiestowardsforeignAfricannationalsunderminethenobleidealsofAfrica’sfoundingfathersandgenerationsofPan-Africanistsdeterminedtopromotecooperation,cohesion,andunityamongthepeoplesofAfrica,asenshrinedintheConstitutiveActoftheAUaswellastherespectivetreatiesoftheeightRECsthataretoestablishtheAEC.

Thus,thekeytoeffectiveresponsesandtorealisingtheexistingcontinentalandregionalhumanmobilityinstrumentsliesprimarilyinchangingpolicymakers’attitudesandallayingtheirfearsofmigration.

References:• Adeniran, Adebusuyi Isaac. 2014. Migration and Regional Integration in

West Africa. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US.

• Adepoju, Aderanti. 2009. “Migration Management in West Africa within the Context of ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement of Persons and the Common Approach on Migration: Challenges and Prospects.” In Regional Challenges of West African Migration: African and European Perspectives, edited by M. Tremolieres, OECD, 17–47. Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

• African Union. 1991. Abuja Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (AEC).

- 2006. African Common Position on Migration and Development. Executive Council, Ninth Ordinary Session, Banjul, The Gambia 25 – 29 June 2006. - 2017. Revised Migration Policy Framework for Africa and Plan of Action (2018-2027). African Union: African Union. https://au.int/ sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/32718-wd- english_revised_au_migration_policy_framework_for_africa.pdf.

• Crush, Jonathan, and Belinda Dodson. 2007. “Another Lost Decade: The Failures of South Africa’s Post-Apartheid Migration Policy.” Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie 98 (4).

• Crush, Jonathan, Vincent Williams, and Sally Peberdy. 2005. “Migration in Southern Africa.” In Policy Analysis and Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration. Global Commission on International Migration.

• ECOWAS Commission. 1993. ECOWAS Revised Treaty. http://www.ecowas.int/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Revised-treaty.pdf.

For the full list of references see the article on our website

AbouttheauthorChristopherChangweNshimbiisDeputyDirectorandDepartmentofScienceandTechnology/NationalResearchFoundation(DST/NRF)ResearchFellow,CentrefortheStudyofGovernanceInnovation,UniversityofPretoria.


IronoreloadedtrainsattheSaldanhaterminal,SouthAfrica.Photo:Jbdodane/Flickr

FROM AFRICA TO COUNTRY MINING VISIONS

The EU should work to unlock its potential for sustainable development. Migration is becoming central in EU development policy. A host of measures have been announced and instruments set up to use devel-opment funds to address migration’s ‘root causes’. These bring the risk of an EU development coopera-tion increasingly driven by short-term and EU-centric political needs. What we need, instead, is an EU migration policy aligned with the historic commitments of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

ByEllySchlein

MIGRATION IS NOT AN EMERGENCY

EUdevelopmentcooperationhijacked?MigrationhasbecomeacentralpartoftheEU’sdevelopmentandforeignpolicy,withmultiplemeasuresannouncedatthehighestlevel.In2015,anewEuropeanAgendaonMigrationwaslaunched.Thefollowingyear,theEUadoptedthenewPartnershipFrameworktospeedupimplementationoftheVallettaActionPlan,whichsetseveraldomainsofcooperationbetweentheEUandAfricanpartners.Fromtheoutset,itwasclearthattheseagreementsfocuseddisproportionatelyonpreventingandfightingirregularmigrationthroughbordercontrol,returnsandreadmissioncompacts.TheCommunicationonEstablishingaNewPartnershipclearlyunderlineshowconditionalityshouldbeintegratedintoEUdevelopmentpolicies,rewardingorpunishingcountriesinlinewiththeircooperationinmanagingmigratoryflows.

Toaddresstheso-called‘rootcausesofmigration’,tousethejargoninvogue,thedevelopment-migrationnexushasevolvedtoembraceadangerousparadigm,whichcouldleadtothediversionofdevelopmentaidtothemanagementofmigratoryflows.Iconsideranytyingofdevelopmentcooperationtomigrationcontroltobedisturbing.EUdevelopmentcooperation,asstatedinArt.208oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion,shouldaddresslong-termglobalissues,particularlypovertyeradicationandsustainableeconomicgrowth.Itshouldnotserveshort-sightedandEU-drivenpoliticalneeds,suchaspreventingmigrantsfromreachingEuropeanshores.Moreover,researchhasshownthattheassumptionthatmoredevelopmentaidwillreduceimmigrationisflawed.

Students in Primary Seven at Zanaki Primary School in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, during an English language class.Photo: Sarah Farhat / World Bank


Arethenewfundinginstrumentsgenuinedevelopmenttools?Totacklethe‘migratoryemergencysituation’,theEUfundinglandscapehasundergoneamajortransformation.Newfinancialinstrumentshavebeenestablished,mostnotablytheEUemergencytrustfundforstabilityandaddressingtherootcausesofirregularmigrationanddisplacedpersonsinAfrica.Framedasanemergencyinstrumentandcovering26Africancountries,ithasnowbecomethemainfinancialinstrumentforEUpoliticalengagementwithAfricanpartnersinthefieldofmigration,withmostofitsresourcesdrawnfromtheEuropeanDevelopmentFund.

Despitethetrustfund’spotentials(moreflexibilityandpoliticalvisibility,alongwiththepossibilityofpoolinghugevolumesofaidfromdifferentsources),thisinstrumentliesoutsidetheEUbudget,givingtheEuropeanParliamentaverylimitedroleofscrutiny.Moreover,asthemoneypooledalsocomesfromnon-aidbudgetswhichdonothavetocomplywithDACrules,thereisarealriskofdevelopmentfundsbeingdivertedtosecuritisationandbordermanagementactivitiesaimedsolelyatcurbingmigratoryflows.

AscrutinyworkinggrouphasbeensetupwithintheEuropeanParliament’sCommitteeonDevelopment(DEVE),toestablishamoreinstitutionalisedcontextforoversightofthenewmigration-relatedinstrumentsaffectingdevelopmentaidpoliciesandfinancing.Inparticular,itisofutmostimportancetoensurethatnewfundingchoicesarecompatiblewithEUlegalbasesandprinciples,andthatfundsallocatedfromdevelopmentpolicybudgetaryinstrumentsfulfilODAcriteria,withoutdeviatingfromdevelopmentobjectives.Amongtheissuesraised,IconsiderparticularlyworrisomethelimitedengagementofAfricancountriesandcivilsocietyinthedesignofthetrustfundandtheselectionofprojects.

AnEUmigrationpolicyinlinewiththe2030AgendaSeriousdoubtscanthereforeberaisedontheEU’sstrategytoaddressmigration,whichhasevolvedfastinthelastfewyears.Indeed,itseemsdrivenbyasecuritisationapproach,instarkcontrasttothecommitmentsmadeinthe2030Agenda.Ratherthanpursuingsustainabledevelopmentthroughfacilitationoforderly,safeandresponsiblemigrationpolicy,sustainabledevelopmentseemstobeusedasleverageforstemmingmigration.Thepoliticisationofaidandthecalltomakedevelopmentaidconditionalonthirdcountries’commitmentsonmigrationisparticularlytroubling.Wearesettingupadoutdesregime,whichcouldcosttheEUitscredibilityasaglobalactor.

Moreover,bybendingourexternalpoliciestoconditionalityonbordermanagement,weriskunderminingrelationshipswithAfricanpartners.ThisapproachcouldweakentheEU’ssoft

power.Ineconomicterms,thesecuritisation-drivenobsessionofEUgovernmentswithstemmingmigratoryflowstowardsEuropecoulddramaticallyimpactAfricaneconomiesinthemediumandlongterm,astheyalsorelyonintra-regionalfreemovement.Afterall,migratorymovementsfromAfricatoEuroperepresentonlyaminorpartoftheoverallflowswithinAfrica.

Withoutglobalcredibilityandstrongintercontinentalpartnerships,migrationfromAfricawouldconstituteamuchgreaterlonger-termchallenge.Therecanbenoquickfixes.AnyEUstrategyshouldbeproperlyelaboratedinrealcooperationwithallrelevantpartners.Similarly,projectsfundedthroughODAshouldrespondtopartnercountries’developmentneeds,notdonors’politicalobjectives.Consideringdevelopmentasashort-termsolutiontothechallengeofmigrationisfundamentallyflawed.Itriskssubordinatingourdevelopmentpolicytoshort-termandsecurity-drivenobjectives.MigrationisanopportunityforbothEuropeandAfrica,tobedealtwithincooperationandonthebasisoftrueequality.Onamoregeneralnote,weshoulddelinkEUdevelopmentcooperationfromstabilityandsecurityprogrammes,whichmightservedevelopmentbutdonotrepresentappropriateuseofODA.

Thepolitically-drivenestablishmentofnewfundinginstruments,allowingforapartialrelabelling,reorganisationandreprioritisationofEUaidbudgetstowardsmigrationcontrol,raisesimportantquestionsabouttheprinciplesofeffectivenessandownershipunderlyingEUdevelopmentcooperation.Itisimportanttokeeptrackofthegeographicalallocationofaid,whichmustcontinuetobeguidedbydevelopmentneedsandnotfocussolelyoncountriesinvestedbymigrationflows.Wemustnotpassthebilltothepoorestintheworld.

ThebiggestgapintheEU’smigrationagendaisthelackofanysafeandlegalchannel.Weneedlong-termsolutionsbasedonpolicycoherencefordevelopmentandalignmentofEUpoliciestothegoalsofthe2030Agenda.Themigrationchallengerequiresforward-lookingsolutionsthatserverecipients’needs,withoutside-lininggenuinedevelopmentaimsandtheprincipleoffreedomofmovementoutsideofourborders.

Abouttheauthor:EllySchleinisamemberoftheEuropeanParliament(GroupoftheProgressiveAllianceofSocialistsandDemocrats)andtheEP’sCommitteeonDevelopment(DEVE)


A DIALOGUE OF THE DEAF?

Corruption plays a prominent role in shaping migration decisions and experiences along the Central Mediterranean route. It is also a highly gendered phenomenon, as men are more likely to pay with money and women with their bodies.

ByVittorioBruniandOrtrunMerkle

PeopleworkoncomputersattheBusyInternetcomputercenterinAccraPhoto:JonathanErnst/WorldBank

GENDERED EFFECTS OF CORRUPTION ON THE CENTRAL MEDITERRANEAN ROUTE

ThejourneyfromLibyatoItaly,theso-calledCentralMediterraneanroute,hasachievedinfamyfortheviolenceanddireconditionsmigrantsfaceeveryday.Yet,littleisknownabouttheprominentroleofcorruption,i.e.theabuseofpowerforillicitgain,inshapingthemigrationdecisionsandexperiencesofmenandwomenalongthisroute.

Drawingonsemi-structuredinterviewswithmigrantsandexperts,westudiedcorruptionexperiencesofNigerianmigrantstravellingtoItalythroughNigerandLibya.Ourresearchfoundthatcorruptionisaconstantthroughoutthejourneyforall,butthese

experiencesarehighlygenderedaswell.Mentypicallyfacedemandsformoneyandgoods,whilewomenoftenhavetopaywithsexualacts(“sextortion”).Thishasbeenconfirmedthroughoutatallstagesofmigration,fromthecountryoforigintothedestinationcountry.

ShapingthemigrationpathWhilevariousfactorsplayaroleinshapingthemigrationpath,recentresearchshowsthesubstantialeffect,directandindirect,ofcorruptionondecisionstomigrate(Merkleetal.,2017a).Thisisespeciallytrueincountrieswherecorruptionispervasive,

suchasNigeria.Ourintervieweesidentifiedcorruptionineducation,lawenforcementandhealthcareasparticularlyinfluentialintheirmigrationdecisions.

Thewomeninourstudyspokeofexperiencingcorruptioninschools,whererequestsformoneyandsexualfavoursinreturnforgradesweredailyfare.Thisleftthemwithoutaneducationandinsearchofopportunitieselsewhere.Manyintervieweessaidthatcorruptionwithinthepoliceandjudiciaryhad,directlyorindirectly,influencedtheirdecisiontomigrate,byincreasinginequalities,tensionsandfrustrations.As

FemalerefugeesinMalta.Photo:AditusFoundationMalta/Flickr


GENDERED EFFECTS OF CORRUPTION ON THE CENTRAL MEDITERRANEAN ROUTE

onemigrantreported, "They [the police] should be the ones protecting people but they are the ones that kill people. They are the ones thatkill." Arbitraryarrestsandviolence,coupledwithhighratesofcorruption,gavemanynootherchoicethantoleaveNigeria.Corruptionwithinthehealthcaresystemreducesaccesstomedicalattentionforthepoorest,butitalsohasanunexpecteddirectimpactonmigrationpaths.Hospitalstaffoftendemandbribesforissuingabirthcertificate,leavingthoseunabletopaywithoutidentificationdocuments.Regularmigrationpathsareclosedtopeoplewithoutdocuments.Thisforcesthemtomigrateirregularlyordependonsmugglersandcriminalorganisationsforforgeddocuments.

CrossingthedesertThevisa-freeregimeoftheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS)allowsmostmigrantstotravelregularlyfromNigeriatoAgadezinNigertostartthejourneyacrosstheSaharatoLibya.Crossingthedesertistreacherous.Thetrip,lastingfourtofivedays,isalmostalwaysfacilitatedbysmugglers.As22-year-oldLimatoldus,“Withoutwater,withoutfood,youarejustunderthesunforthreedays.Thatishowitisinthedesert.[…]Someonecanjustdieandtheyjustleaveyouthere.Afteryouaredeadthejourneycontinues.NobodyisgoingtotakeadeadbodytoEurope.”Thispartofthejourneyisalsowherecorruptionbecomescentralinensuringsurvival.

ThestripofdesertdividingNigerandLibyaiscoveredwithcheckpointsmannedbygovernmentofficialsandmilitiagroupsdemandingbribestoletmigrantspass.Gianu,a20-year-oldman,toldusofhisexperiencesinthedesert, “At any blockade by the military you have to pay. They ask you for money before you can cross. Then if you do not have the money, if you are a lady they will

demand sex, if you are a guy they beat you. […] One of my girls [...] paid about 50 Libyan dinars [around US$ 36 or € 31] at a soldier blockade, but they still asked her for sex. We spent almost an hour waiting for the girl to come back. We do not know how many boys slept with her there, just that we waited for her to come back to continue our journey.”

Ourstudyfoundtwoconsistentpatterns:forone,menpayforcorruptionwithgoodsandmoneyandwomenwiththeirbodiesSecondly,menwhodonotcomplywithdemandsforbribesareseverelybeaten,whilewomenwhodonotcomplyfacesexualviolenceandabuse.Beyondthedramatic,long-termphysicalandpsychologicaleffects,corruptionduringthedesertcrossingdepletesmigrants’financialresourcesaswell.Thus,a‘cumulativeeffectofcorruption’setsin,makingmigrantsevenmorevulnerabletofutureviolenceandsexualabuse.

FromLibyatoItalyUpontheirarrivalinLibyamostmigrantsarecapturedandbroughttodetentioncentres.Thesearewellknownasinhumanprisonswheremigrantsofallagesareexploitedandabused(OHCHR,2016).Yet,theirexperiencesarefundamentallydifferent.Wheremenaretypicallytortured,forcedintoforcedlabourandheldforransom,womenareconcussedintoprostitutionandsexualslavery.

GianutoldusabouthistimeinLibya:“They flogged us every day. [...] After beating us they locked us in and asked us to call our families. But I did not really have anyone to call because I lost my contacts on the way.” Thisisanotherexampleofwhatwecallthe“cumulativeeffectofcorruption”.Payingmultiplebribesdrainstravellers’resources,leavingnomoneyforthenextdemand.Migrantsarethusevenmoreexposedtothenextthreatofviolenceandsexualabuse.

Sub-SaharanAfricanasylum-seekerssleeponthedeckofanItalianCoastGuardshipafterbeingrescuedinanightoperationintheMediterraneanSeasome50nauticalmilesoffthecoastofLibya.Photocopyright:UNHCR


The systematic and engrained corruption in Northern Niger and Libya leaves migrants extremely vulnerable. Due to the vast array of state and non-state actors involved, no cooperation on migration management is possible without addressing anti-corruption and rule of law issues. Any reforms should also include more women in key positions within the police and among border authorities.

AmajorproblemidentifiedbyallmigrantsinLibyaistheimpossibilityofdistinguishingstateofficialsfromarmedgroups.Multiplegovernmentforcesandmilitiasareactivealongtheroute.Thesystemofcorruptionandabuseallofthesegroupsperpetuateishighlyorganisedandsociallyentrenched.Migrantshavenowheretoturn.Eveniftheyescapethoseholdingthemcaptive,entitiestaskedtoprotectmigrants,suchasthepoliceandotherstateofficials,frequentlyarecomplicitinmigrantexploitation.Multiplemigrantsinterviewedforthisstudysaidthatafterescaping,orbeingreleased,theywerecapturedbyanotheruniformedgroup.

OurstudyfoundthatmigrantsinLibyaoftenhadlittlechoiceovertheirdestinyafterbeingcaptured.TheyweretransportedfromoneprisontothenextandoftenputonaboattoItalybythesamenetworksthathadcapturedthem.Twenty-year-oldEmmasaidthatshemanagedtocollectenoughmoneytobuyherfreedom,butwasblockedfromreturninghometoNigeria:“I told him [the smuggler] that I wanted go back to Nigeria, but he said that he would only get me to Italy." Withoutanywheretoturn,sheendeduponaboatontheMediterranean.MigrantscapturedinLibyausuallyhaveonlytwooptions:stayintheabusivesystemofforcedlabour,ransomseekingandprostitutioninLibyaorgetonaboattoItaly.

What’snext?ItisessentialthatauthoritiesinEuropebetterunderstandthecorruptionexperiencedbymigrantsduringtheirjourney.Theyalsoneedtobecomemoresensitivetocorruption’sgenderedformsandeffects.

‘Sextortion’,inparticular,haslong-termpsychologicalandhealtheffects,suchastrauma,pregnancyandsexuallytransmitteddiseases.Itisalsoconnectedwithextremestigmaandshame.Aidmeasuresduringtransitandindestinationcountriesmust

givespecialconsiderationtothedifferentformsofviolenceexperiencedbywomenandmen.Psychologicaltraumaassociatedwith(sexual)violencecanoftennotbeunderstoodandthereforetreatedwithoutadeeperunderstandingoftheindividualexperiencesandtheculturalbackgroundofthemigrant.Moreethnographicresearchisrequiredinthisareaandshouldbeincludedintrainingfortherapistsanddoctors.

Corruptionandviolenceinvolvingstateauthorities(orthoseappearingtobestateauthorities)createsadeep-seatedmistrustofstateofficials,especiallythoseinuniform.Thisoftenblocksmigrantsfromseekinghelporreportingcontinuedthreatsandabusefromsmugglersandtraffickersintransitcountries,andatthedestination.Moretrainingofpublicofficialsandlawenforcementindestinationcountriescouldhelpthemunderstandtheseexperiencesbetterandreactappropriately.Althoughgovernancereformsinthe

transitcountriesaredesirableinthelongterm,migrants’currentsituationinthesecountriesisdire,andnoquickimprovementislikely.Asourresearchfoundirregularmigrantsareespeciallyvulnerabletocorruptionandsexualviolenceandabuse,swiftestablishmentofmorelegalmigrationchannels,especiallyforwomenandchildren,wouldbeainterimhumanitarianmeasure.

References

• Merkle, O., Reinold, J., & Siegel, M. (2017a). A Study on the Link between Corruption and the Causes of Migration and Forced Displacement. Maastricht: GIZ Anti-Corruption and Integrity Programme.

• Merkle, O., Reinold, J., & Siegel, M. (2017b). A Gender Perspective on Corruption Encountered During Forced and Irregular Migration. Maastricht: GIZ Anti-Corruption and Integrity Programme.

• UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (2016). “Detained and Dehumanized” Report on Human Rights Abuses against Migrants in Libya.

Abouttheauthors:VittorioBruniisaconsultantatUNU-MERITandtheMaastrichtGraduateSchoolofGovernance.

OrtrunMerkleisaPhDfellowatUNU–MERITandtheMaastrichtGraduateSchoolofGovernance.


MIGRATION POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT: THE DILEMMA OF AGADEZ

Migration policies can only contribute to the stability and development of transit regions if they are founded on an understanding of the links between migration, economic development, governance and security.

ByFransjeMolenaar

TheregionofAgadezinNigerhasbecomeafocalpointofEuropeanmigrationpolicies.LocatedonthemainroutethatconnectsWestAfricaandtheSaheltomoreaffluentcountries,suchasAlgeriaandLibya,Agadezisavibrantepicentreofintra-Africanmigration.Anestimated30percentofmigrantstravellingthisrouteeventuallyenduponaboattoEurope.GiventhelackofaunifiedgovernmentinLibya,collaborationtostopboatdeparturesfromtheLibyancoasthavebeenlargelyineffective.EUpolicymakersrecentlyturnedtoAgadeztohelpstemthemigrationflow.PolicieshavemainlytakentheformoftechnicalassistanceforformulatingNigerienmigrationactionplans,alongsideprovisionofpolicetrainingtocounterhumansmuggling.Bothhaveresultedinawaveofarrestsofsmugglersandconfiscationoftheirvehicles.

FormaldatafromtheInternationalOrganizationforMigration(IOM)DisplacementTrackingMatrix(DTM)nowshowa75percentdeclineinnorthboundmigrationflowsonmonitoredroutesfor2017comparedto2016.ThebuscompaniestransportingmigrantsbetweenNiameyandAgadezconfirmalargedropinpassengers.Manysmugglersnowcircumventtheestablishedroutestoavoidarrest.

Thosemigrantswhostillundertakethejourneyfacepricesuptofivetimeshigherthanayearago.However,humanrightsabuseshavebecomemorefrequentintheAgadezghettoswheremigrantsstayandwheretheyhavenowgoneunderground.Moreareabandonedinthedeserttoo,assmugglershaveresortedtorouteslesstravelled.Moreover,

IOMNigerthree-day'FestivalonSafeandInformedMigration'inAgadez,Niger.Photo:AmandaNero/IOM(2016)


giventhemigrationindustry’seconomicimportancetotheregion,theEU-supportedpolicieshavehaddetrimentalconsequencesfortheAgadezpopulation.

ThedownsideofcounteringirregularmigrationManyofAgadez’simportanteconomicsectorshavefallenintodeclineoverthepastdecade.Tourismhassufferedmultipleblows:unrestduetotheTuaregrebellions,theextremistthreatandthelabellingofAgadezasa‘redzone’.Uraniumminingwashitbyadropinworlduraniumprices.Tomakemattersworse,thegovernmentrecentlyclosedinformalgoldminingsites,aftersellingconcessionstobigforeigncompaniesandtoaddressthesecuritythreatposedbyarmedSudaneseandChadiangoldminers.Agriculturalearningsfluctuate,butbynomeanscantheyconstituteareliableincomesourceduetorecurringperiodsofdrought.Historically,themigrationindustryhasprovidedaneconomicbuffer.Agadezresidentshavesupplementedtheirincomebyprovidingtravellersgoodsandservices,suchasfood,water,callshopsanderrandboys.Indeed,inourresearch,onethirdofrespondentsnotedthattheyhadearnedsomeformofincomefromthemigrationindustry.

Thecurrentmigrationpoliciesoverlookthevitaleconomicimportanceofthemigrationindustrytotheregion.Theyhavebeenimplementedwithoutprovidinganysignificanteconomicalternatives.TheEuropeanUnionEmergencyTrustFundforAfrica(EUTF)doesreservealargesumforlong-termsocio-economicdevelopment,forexample,throughagriculturalprojects.Yet,todate,nosuchprojectshavebeenimplemented,leavingtheAgadezpopulationworseoffthanbeforethemigrationpolicieswereinplace.Twothirdsoftherespondents

inourresearchsaidthattheAgadezcommunitydidnotbenefitatallfromthemeasuresbeingtakentomitigatemigration.However,asimilarproportionobservedthattheAgadezcommunitydidbenefitalotfrommigration.Thequestionthenarisesofhowsustainablethesepoliciescanbe,iftheyundermineanimportanteconomicsectorintheregion,withoutputtinganyrealalternativesinplace.

Furthermore,theEU-supportedmigrationpoliciescouldhaveseriousconsequencesforthelegitimacyofregionalsecurityauthorities.OurresearchindicatedthattrustinAgadezstateauthoritieswasalreadylow.Officialswerenotgenerallyseenashelpfulintimesofneed,especiallycomparedtomoretraditionalauthorities,suchascommunityelders,chiefsandimams.TheauthoritiesthemselvesnotethattheEU-supportedmigrationpolicies,whicharecoordinatedwithNiameyratherthantheregion,havepittedthemtoagreaterextentagainsttheirlocalpopulations:“TheyaskuswhyweworkfortheEUratherthanforthem,thepeoplewhogotuselected.”

Amidstsuchconcerns,thereisnonethelesslittleevidenceofanynationalorinternationaleffortstostrengthenthelocalauthorities’legitimacy.Giventhehistoryofarmedrebellionintheregion,combinedwiththefactthatAgadez’scurrentstabilityrelieslargelyonappeasementofethniceliteswithstrongtiestothetransnationalsmugglingindustry,sucheffortsarecrucialinvestmentstomaintaintheregion’sstability.

Migration’simpactsonstabilityandlocaldevelopmentFromtheabove,itfollowsthatthedrivetostopmigrationhasresultedinimplementationofpoliciesthatarenotcontext-

Figure1:MapofNigerSource: A line in the Sand: Roadmap for sustainable migration management in Agadez,Clingendael


Demonstration:StillstrugglingforalegalrighttostayfortheLampedusaRefugeesPhoto:RasandeTyskar/Flickr

andconflict-sensitiveandmaythereforeunderminelocalstabilityanddevelopment.ArelatedproblemisthatduetotheEU-dominatedfocusonstoppingmigration,thereductionofmigrantnumbershasbecomethesoleindicatorofpolicyeffectiveness.Thisunilateralfocusbypassesmanyofthelargerchallengesthatmigrationposesforregionalstabilityandlocaldevelopment.

Forexample,increasingmigrationhasstrainedlocalinfrastructure.Agadezauthoritieshaverespondedbyimposingvisitors’taxesonmigrantstransitingtheircommunities.Theseresources,combinedwiththelargercustomerbaseforgoodsandservices,havehelpedtheregiondevelophealthclinicsandotherlocalservicesandinfrastructure.Nonetheless,migratoryflowshaveoverburdenedthewatersupply,theelectricitynetworkandgarbagecollectionservices.ThesekindsofstrainsimpactthedailylivesofAgadezresidents,sometimescreatingtensionsthatrequiremonitoringandtailoredinterventions.

Inaddition,itmustberecognisedthatthemigrationindustrythatexistedbeforetheEU-supportedinterventionswasnotentirelybenign.ManymigrantsdidnotsurvivetheharshjourneythroughthedesertorweredeliveredintothehandsofLibyansmugglers,whotakehumanexploitationandmistreatmenttonewlevels.Smugglinghasempoweredlawlessgangs.ThesehaveincreasinglycomeintoconflictwiththeAgadezpopulation,attimestargetingmembersofparticularethnicgroups.

Regulationofmigrationandcreationofsafe,legalpathwaystoalternate,chieflyAfricandestinationsareimportanttoolsforaddressingsuchconcerns.Unfortunately,thedominantparadigmofcriminalisingirregularmigrationwithoutputtingalternativesinplacehasfuelledtheshadysideofthemigrationindustry.Thismakesitmuchhardertomonitorwhatishappening,andexposesmigrantstoevenworsehumanrightsabuses.

Theirregularmigrationindustrycreatesobstructionstogoodgovernancetoo.Criminaltransnationalsmugglingringsoftenexistbythegracesoflocalandnationalpoliticalauthorities–whoinreturnbenefitdirectlyorindirectlyfromthesmugglingactivities.InNiger,forexample,clearfinanciallinksarevisiblebetweensmugglingkingpinsandthepresident,suchasthroughcampaigncontributions.Atamorelocallevel,securityforceshavebenefitedfinanciallyfromtaxationofirregularmigration,demandingpaymentsatroadblocksalongthemainmigrationroutes.Thecurrentinvestmentsinpolicetrainingseemtohaveexacerbatedthisproblem,asthepriceofbribeshasriseninstepwiththepolicecrackdownonhumansmugglers.AmajorconcernamongAgadezauthoritiesisthat

policecorruptionhasrisen,furtherunderminingthelocalpopulation’strustinlawenforcement.

Aconflict-sensitiveapproachtomigrationmanagementThecaseofAgadezpresentsseveralimportantlessonsforthedevelopmentofmigrationpoliciesthattargettransitandorigincountries.

First,itisimportanttoadoptaholisticapproachtowardsmigrationandtoconsiderthecontextinwhichthesepoliciesareimplemented.ForAgadez,theEU-supportedpoliciesareunsustainableinthelongrun,formultiplereasons:theirfailuretoaddresspolicecorruption,lowstatelegitimacy,thelargerbackdropofeconomicdeclineandthefactthatregionalstabilitydependsonelites’complicityinthecross-bordersmugglingtrade.Whileshort-termsecuritisedfixesmayseemconvenient,tobesustainable,migrationpoliciesmustbedrivenbyaholisticandlong-termagendathatworkstowardsinclusiveregionaldevelopmentandstability.Attheveryleast,localpopulationsshouldbebetteroffbecauseoftheirgovernment’scollaborationwiththeEUmigrationagenda.

Second,fortheretobeanyhopeoflong-termsustainability,theEUmigrationagendahastomovebeyondthegoalofbringingmigrationdowntozerotoday.Migrationmanagementhastobefoundedonananalysisofthepositiveandnegativeconsequencesofmigrationfororiginandtransitregions,andpoliciesmustbedesignedtofostertheformerwhileaddressingthelatter.ThismeanszoominginonlocationswherethemigrationindustryshowssignsofbecomingparticularlycriminalandabusiveandusingEU‘sticksandcarrots’topressforchange.Inthissense,thefailuretoconnectpolicetraininginAgadeztoalargerprocessofsecuritysectorreformaimedataddressingpolicecorruptionandinsecurityintheregionisamissedopportunity.Sustainablemigrationmanagementalsorequiresinvestinginmigration’sfurtherregularisationandnormalisation,focusingonplaceswhereintra-Africanmigrationhasclearbenefitsforhost,transitandorigincountries.Forthisaparadigmshiftisneeded.Migrationcannolongerbeseenasanabsolutenegativephenomenonbutshouldbevaluedforitsmeritsaswell.

Abouttheauthor:FransjeMolenaarisaResearchFellowattheConflictResearchUnit(CRU),ClingendaelInstitute.


TheEuropeanagendaAttheRamadaPlazahotelinTunis,thedescentintolawlessnessinneighbouringLibyaisdiscussedoverpressedwhitetablecloths,underbrasschandeliers,inacavernousbanquethall.Aftertheinternationalcommunity’sevacuationfromTripoliin2014muchofthebusinessofgovernmentswitchedtovenueslikethisinthecapitalofTunisia.Embassiesandinternationalaidagencieshavearrivedlikeluxurysquatters,butthefailureoftheirLibya-relatedconferencestodelivermeaningfulprogressinthecountryitselfhasbredcynicismamongorganisersanddelegates.Afteronerecentevent,aninternationalagencyofficialsharedapictureofahumanrightstrainingsessionforbored-lookingcommandersofLibya’snotoriousmigrantdetentioncentres.Itwascaptioned:“Doyouthinkthey’relistening?”MustafaAl-Baroni,themayorofZintan,amountaincityinwesternLibyawhosefighterswereinfluentialintopplingGadhafi,wonderswhethertheconferencesarereallythebestuseofEUmoney:“ThismoneycouldbeusedonprojectsinLibya...IheardtheEUgaveLibyamillionsbutIdon’tseeit.”

FocusshiftstocentralMediterraneanTraditionally,EUforeignpolicyhasbeenhardtodiscern.ButthearrivaloflargenumbersofrefugeesandmigrantsonEuropeanshoreshas

broughtrareclaritytoEUinstitutions.TurkeywashandedbillionsindevelopmentaidaswellaspoliticalconcessionstohalttheflowsintoGreeceinMarch2016.Thisdeal,ineffect,exportedtheEU’sexternalbordertotheprotectionofTurkey,acountryslidingtowardsautocracy,witharegimeaccusedofwidespreadhumanrightsabuses.SincethentheEUfocushasshiftedtothecentralMediterranean.

“Tensofthousandsofmigrants[are]inLibyatoday,lookingforwaystoentertheEU,withthenumberofarrivalsincreasingeveryday”,warnedaJune2016communiquéfromtheEuropeanCommission.

Therehasbeenare-gearingofallEUinstitutionstothesinglepurposeofreducinginwardmigrationunderitsAgendaonMigration.FromtheHornofAfricatoNigeriaandnorththroughNigertoLibya,countrieswillingtocontainmigrationflowsandtakebacktheirownmigrantsreceivesecuritysectorsupportanddevelopmentaidfromtheEU,regardlessofwhethertheyhadpreviouslybeeninternationalpariahs,suchasSudanorEritrea.

GiuliaLagana,EUmigrationandasylumanalystattheOpenSocietyEuropeanPolicyInstitute,saystheimpactisfeltin“relationswithcountriesinAfricaandelsewhere,wheredevelopmenttargets,democracyandhumanrights,andevensecurityinfragileareasarebeingsidelinedinthesearchforquickfixestostemarrivalsorstepupmigrantreturns”.

Libya finds itself at the nexus of strident efforts by the EU to put a short-term brake on inward migration. A veil of humanitarian language conceals deals that sacrifice basic human rights and regional stability. The consequences include trapped refugees and migrants and a weakened system of international law.

ByDanielHowden

MigrantboatwreckintheboatgraveyardofLampedusa.

Photo:GUE/NGLFlickr

EUROPEAN PRIORITIES,LIBYAN REALITIES


ThecrossroadsofalltheseeffortsisLibya.Thedeparturepointfor95percentofrefugeesandmigrantsonthecentralMediterranean,itisacountryinturmoilandwithoutlegitimatenationalinstitutions.

WhilereturningrefugeesandmigrantstoTurkeyhasbeenchallengedunsuccessfullyinGreece’shighestcourt,returnstoLibyaareaclearviolationoftheprincipleofnon-refoulement,underwhichnopersoncanbereturnedtoacountrywheretheyareatriskofpersecutionThecountryhasthreemaincentresofpowerandcountlessarmedgroups.TheUNandtheEUchosetorecognisetheGovernmentofNationalAccord(GNA),whichhaslittlesupportineasternorsouthernLibyaandreliesonloosely-alignedmilitiaseveninthecapital,Tripoli.Itsprimeminister,Fayezal-Serraj,governsfromanavalbaseforfearofbeingattackedinthecityitself.

SomeprioritiesaremoreequalthanothersThreemainprioritiesemergedfortheEUinLibyain2017:areductioninseacrossings,improvementofconditionsformigrantsinLibya,anddevelopmentthatprovidesalternativestosmuggling.Officiallytheseprioritiesareequal,butasoneEUdiplomatsaid,lipserviceispaidtostabilisingLibya,but“migrationisthebiggestconcernofallforEUpoliticians”.

AtthecentreoftheEU’sinsistencethatitwantstodomorethanjusttrapmigrantsinLibyaisthe$3.5billionEmergencyTrustFundforAfrica,whichincludes$108millionannouncedinApril2017forlocaldevelopmentprojectsinLibyaandimprovedprotectionforrefugeesandmigrants.Sixmonthsonfromitsannouncement,notasingledevelopmentprojecthasbeguninthecountry.

TheEUandUNoperateviaremotecontrolfromTunis.Forsecurityreasons,UNagenciesareallowedarotationofbetweenthreeandfiveinternationalstaffonthegroundinLibyaeachweek.Localstaff,whoarereliedonformostofthework,faceroutinethreatsandintimidationfromarmedgroups.Withnothingyettoshowforitsdevelopmentpriority,theEUhasattemptedtoshowprogressonimprovingconditionsformigrantsstuckinLibyandetention.Thelion’sshareofthemoneyallocatedforthateffort,some$57million,isgoingtotheInternationalOrganizationforMigration(IOM),torunitsAssistedVoluntaryReturnandRepatriationprogramme.MeanwhiletherealityofconditionsinsideLibya’smigrantgulagsishorrificwithabusesrangingfromrapeandtorturetoforcedlabour.TheUN’srefugeeandmigrationagencieshavelimitedaccesstodetentioncentresandmustapplyinwritingbeforevisiting–theycannotconductspotinspections.

ThemigrantprisonsareunderthenotionalcontrolofLibya’sdepartmenttocounterillegalmigration(DCIM).Inmatesareroutinelyrentedouttolocalemployers,withDCIMofficialsorlocal

militiaprofiting.Detaineesarealsoboughtandsoldbymilitias,whichextortransompaymentsfromtheirfamilies.ThearrivalofinternationalfundingintotheprisonsystemhascreatedadditionalincentivesforarmedgroupstoseizecontrolofDCIMcentresinpursuitofmoneyandlegitimacy.MohamedSifawhasabetterideathanmostwhatgoesoninsidethedetentioncentres.Forthepast13yearshehasbeenavolunteerwiththeLibyanRedCrescentinZawiya,aportcitywestofTripoli.Thishasbeenoneofthekeydeparturepointsforsmugglingnetworks.Hesaysthattheal-NasrprisoninZawiya,runbyamilitialinkedtosmugglingnetworksbutrecognisedbytheDCIMsince2016,makesinmatessurviveononemealaday.ThenearbySurmanprisonwasclosedinAugustafterhumantraffickersrepeatedlyenteredandseizedinmates,Sifawsaid.

Forthepastthreeyears,collectingcorpsesofmigrantsdrownedatseaandwashedupalongtheshorelinehasbeenpartofSifaw’sweeklyroutine.The32-year-oldengineerhasrecovered385bodiesfromthebeachinZawiya.SinceAugust,however,notasinglebodyhascomeashore.Localsspeakofa“strictnewforce”bringingbackmigrantsfromtheboats.

ItalyandtheparallelprocessHelen’sfirstsightoftheMediterraneancameafterweeksofclandestinetravel.FromherhomeinEritreaintheHornofAfrica,shejourneyedtoarefugeecampinEthiopia,acrossthevastnessofSudanandthedesertsofsouthernLibya.Itcostthe23-year-old’sfamily$6,000:$4,000paidtoanetworkofEritreanandSudanesesmugglersandanother$2,000fortheLibyanswhosuppliedtherubberboatshewasmeanttoclimbintoonenightinMaywithanother70womenandchildren.Theboatdidnotmakeitoffthebeach.Atruckloadofarmedmentookhergroupintocustodyanddeliveredthemtowhatappearedtobeaprisonnearby.Atthegatessomeofthewomenweretoldtheywerebeingsetfreewhileothers,includingHelen,wereusheredintothecrowdedfacility.Shewouldlaterdiscoverhercompanionswerenotfreed.Theyweresold.

Inthemonthsthatfollowedbothsetsofwomenweretradedamongarmedgroupswhodemandedransomsfromtheirfamiliesinfranticphonecalls,whileinebriatedguardstookturnsrapingsomeofthewomen.Ifthewomenresisted,theirchildrenweretakenawayuntiltheycooperated.ByAugustenoughmoneyhadbeenpaidandmostofthewomenwerereturnedtothecustodyofEritreansmugglerswhotookthemtoa“connectionhouse”inBaniWalid,oneofthehubsinLibya’shumantraffictrade.AfteranightmaretourofthemiserableoptionsformigrantsinLibya–fromofficialdetentioncentrestowarehousedungeonsandconnectionhouses–Helenwasnoclosertoescape.Newforcesonthecoasthadbeguntostopallmigrantboatsfromleaving.


WhiletheEUconductedpolicyonagrandscale,withnavalmissions,summits,anddevelopmentaid,acovert,parallelprocesstostopthemigrantboatsleavingforEuropegotunderway,ledbyItaly.

InJune,agroupofeldersintheLibyancoastalcityofSabratha,oneofthemaindeparturepointsformigrants,wascalledtoameetingwithrepresentativesoftheItaliangovernment.Accordingtooneofthosepresent,theywereaskedtopassamessagetothemainsmugglers:“Tellthemthegoldenageisover.”Thosewhoheededthewarningwouldbeallowedtokeeptheillicitfortunestheyhadmade,theItalianstoldtheelders,andwouldbegiventhechancetolaundertheirreputationswithseeminglylegitimaterolesinLibya’ssecurityservicesandavoidpotentialprosecutionbytheInternationalCriminalCourt.

InearlyJuly,MarioMorcone,thechiefofstaffofItaly’sInteriorMinisterMarcoMinniti,metwithofficialsfromtheUNrefugeeagency(UNHCR)inRome.Accordingtosomeonepresentatthemeeting,Morconetoldthegroupthedramaticdropinseacrossingswouldcontinue,creditingsuccessfultalkswithLibyanmunicipalitiesandpromisesofdevelopmentaid.

OnthegroundinLibya,the“municipalstrategy”involvedahandfulofLibya’ssmugglingkingpinswidelyknowntoEurope’sintelligenceagencies.Oneis28-year-oldAbdurahmanal-Milad,theheadofthecoastguardinZawiya,cousinoftheKhushlafbrothers,MohamedandIbrahim,whocontrolthemainZawiyamilitias,therefinery,andtheport.HetookovertheZawiyacoastguardfromanotherofficerwhowastransferredtoTripoliafterdeaththreats.IntheneighbouringportcityofSabratha,AhmedDabbashiisthesmugglingkingpin.AUNpanelofexpertsnamedhimoneoftwo“mainfacilitators”ofmigrantsmugglingandhumantraffickingontheLibyancoast.HeandhisfamilyarewellknowntoItalianauthorities.

TheAnasal-Dabbashibrigadewashiredin2015toprovideexternalsecurityattheMellitahoilandgascompound,whichisco-ownedbytheItalianoilcompanyENIandtheLibyanNationalOilCorporation.ItusedtheincomefromMellitahtoestablishitselfastheleadingmilitaryforceintheportcity.AfterentreatiesfromtheItalianshisbrigadetookpossessionofanabandonedprison3kilometresfromMellitahandhassinceoperatedthefacilityasamigrantdetentioncentre.ItwaslaterhandedtohimofficiallybytheGNA.

ThemayorofSabratha,Husseinal-Thawadi,saidthemurkydealsweremonthsinthemaking.“ItwasamutualagreementbetweenItaly,theEU,Serraj,andthesmugglersthemselves.”ThemayorsaidhemetwithItalianofficialstwiceinAugust,onceinTripoliandonceinRome,andsaid$20millionwaspromisedtofunddevelopmentprojectsinthecitiesaffectedbysmuggling.Thawadi

deniesknowledgeofanypaymentstothemilitiasorsmugglersbyeithertheGNAortheItaliangovernment.Italy’sforeignministryinsiststhecountrydoesnotdodealswithtraffickers.“TheforeignministryfirmlydeniesthatthereisanagreementbetweenLibyantraffickersandtheItaliangovernment”,aspokespersonsaid.

ArefAliNayed,whowaspartofoneofthefirstofseveralill-fatedeffortstogoverntheformerdictatorship,iscriticalofItaly’sdealings.HearguesthatEUandItalianactionsonmigrationaremakingadurablepeacehardertoachieve.Europe’srushtorecognisetheSerrajadministration,hesaid,saddledLibyawithagovernmentof“questionablelegitimacy”inordertocombatmigrationflows.“Whatwe’reseeingisashiftingofEurope’sproblemstobecomeLibya’sproblems”,hesaid.“Europecandoitnowbecausewe’reweak,butitriskscreatingrealbitterness”,saidNayed,whountilrecentlywasLibya’sambassadortotheUnitedArabEmirates.FarfromquestioningItaly’smethods,EUofficialshaveassigned$55millionfromtheEmergencyTrustFundforAfricatoItaly’sinteriorministrytomanageLibya’sborders.InaspeechtotheEuropeanParliament,thepresidentoftheEuropeanCommission,Jean-ClaudeJuncker,salutedItaly’s“tirelessandnoble”efforts.

Meanwhile,therehasbeennonoticeableincreaseinthenumberofpeopleheldinofficialdetentioncentresinLibya.AseniorUNofficialsaidthatmanyrefugeesandmigrantswerebeingsenttoillegalwarehousesrunbysmugglers.HespecificallycitedZawiya,whereinternationalagencieshavenoaccess.“Thequestionis,wherearethepeople?”hesaid.

MarwaMohamed,aLibyanresearcherwithAmnestyInternationalsaidtheywereinmakeshiftdungeonswithoutanykindofoversight.“Byfocusingsolelyondetentioncentreswe’remissingthepoint”,shesaid.“Peoplearetrappedinacountrywherethereisnoprotectionandnowayout.”

This is a shorter version of a longer article published on Refugees Deeply: http://issues.newsdeeply.com/central-mediterranean-european-priorities-libyan-realities

ThisarticlewasdevelopedwiththesupportofJournalismfund.eu

Abouttheauthor:DanielHowdenisasenioreditoratRefugeesDeeply.AcontributortoTheEconomistandTheGuardian,hewaspreviouslytheAfricacorrespondentanddeputyforeigneditoratTheIndependent


HELPING REFUGEES BECOME SELF-RELIANT: THE UGANDAN MODEL

SarahNyakekisoneofthetraineesfromNorwegianRefugeeCouncil'sVocationalskillstrainingcentreinRhinocamp.ShecrossedtheborderintoUgandacomingfromMalakalintheUpperNilestateofSouthSudan.Sheisamotherofthreechildren.“Ilookforwardtoafruitfulbusiness,”shesays.Date:May,2017Photo:NRC/NashonTado

Uganda's refugee policies should serve as a model, but challenges remain in helping refugees become self-reliant. The case of Uganda invites us to recognise that solutions to displacement are all about policies – those of host countries and those of the international community regarding responsibility sharing.

ByMuhumedHusseinandLeeamAzoulay

UgandahoststhelargestnumberofrefugeesinAfrica,with1.35milliondisplacedpersonsresidinginsettlementsandcities.RefugeeshavecometoUgandafromtheDemocraticRepublicofCongo,Burundi,RwandaandSomalia–butespeciallyfromSouthSudan.BetweenJuly2016,whenanewroundoffightingbrokeoutintheSouthSudanesecapital,andOctober2017,Ugandareceivedanunprecedented790,000newarrivalsfromitsnorthernneighbour.In2016,Ugandawelcomed

morerefugeesthanthetotalnumberofrefugeesandmigrantscrossingtheMediterraneanintoEurope.

InajointstatementreleasedinMarch2017,theGovernmentofUgandaandUNHCRsaidthesituationwasreachinga“breakingpoint”.Sixty-onepercentofSouthSudaneserefugeesarechildrenundertheageof18.Womenandchildrenmakeup82percentofUganda’stotalrefugeepopulation.

TheresponseoftheUgandanpeopleandgovernmenthasbeenremarkable.Settlementaftersettlementhasbeenopened,reachedrapidlyfullcapacityandclosedtonewarrivals.Newsettlementsopenedsoonafterthat.Untilmid-2017,itwasnotunusualfor14,000peopletocrossthebordereveryweek.YetinEuropethiscrisishasbeenunderreported.Humanitarianagencieshavetriedtoscaleupassistance-withlimitedresources-toprovidewater,sanitation,foodandemergencyshelter


forthegrowingpopulation,particularlyintheremoteWestNileregion.

Ugandaisexceptionalnotonlyinitscommitmenttoanopendoorpolicyforrefugees,butalsoinhavingsomeofthemostprogressiverefugeepoliciesintheregion,ifnottheworld.RefugeesinUgandacanchoosewheretosettle,theyhaveconsiderablefreedomofmovementandtheyhavetherighttowork,aswellasaccesstopublicservices.Thegovernmentaimstoprovidelandforsettlement-basedrefugeefamilies,sotheycansetupahomeandcultivatecrops.UnlikesomeofitsEastAfricanneighbours,Ugandadoesnothaveanencampmentpolicy.RefugeesinUgandan‘settlements’live,receivegovernment-runservicesandtradesidebysidewiththeUgandancommunitiesthathostthem.Cultural,linguisticandethnictiesbetweenUgandansandtheSouthSudanesehavestrengthenedhostcommunities’sympathyfortheirneighbours’plight,andrefugeeshavebeenlargelywellreceived.Uganda’srefugeestrategyispartandparcelofitsNationalDevelopmentPlan(NDPII),whichalsoprovidesincentivesforareashostingrefugees.

Itisnowonder,then,thatUgandawasselectedasthefirstcountrytopilottheComprehensiveRefugeeResponseFramework(CRRF)aspartofaglobalprocesstodefinehowtheinternationalcommunityshouldchangeitsapproachtorefugeeresponse.TheCRRFwaslaunchedinSeptember2016withtheNewYorkDeclarationonRefugeesandMigrants.Refugeeself-relianceisacoreelementoftheCRRF,asinUganda’sownrefugeestrategy.Theaimistoseerefugees,especiallythoseinsituationsofprotracteddisplacement,movetowardseconomicself-sufficiencyandawayfromaiddependence.

StressandchallengesAndyet,thesituationofrefugeesinUgandacannotbedescribedasrosy.

Therefugeeinfluxhasstrainednaturalresourcesandservicesforrefugeesandhostcommunitiesalike,particularlyinWestNile.Already,thereisadwindlingavailabilityofland,pressureonwaterresources,environmentaldegradationandoverstretchededucationalsystems.Thisstrainonscarceresourcesmaywelltranslateintoincreasedtensionsbetweenrefugeepopulationsandtheirhostcommunities,andthreatentheirpeacefulco-existence.Despitethegovernment’sbestefforts,landforsubsistencefarmingisavailableforonly55%ofsettlement-basedrefugeehouseholds.Eventhosewhohavebeenabletosettleonaplotofland–whetherbecauseitwasallocatedtothemorbecausetheymanagedtoleaseit–continuetofacestumblingblocks.Theyoftenlackthedocumentstheyneedtosecuretheirtenure,plotmeasurementsandboundariestendtobesketchyandlandtransactionsoftengounregulated.Astimegoesby,thesekindsofproblemswillonlyexacerbatethechallengesrefugeesfaceinUganda.

Anotherchallengeisthatself-relianceisdifficulttorealiseinpractice.Self-reliancerequiresbotharobustrightsandrule-of-lawenvironmentandadynamiceconomicclimate.Thelegalrighttoworkisonething,buttheabilitytofindandholdajobissomethingelseentirely.ThisisdoublytrueinUganda,oneofthe30leastdevelopedcountriesintheworld.Uganda’sannualGDPpercapitawasjustUS$615in2016.Despitethedifficulties,encouragingself-relianceamongrefugeesremainscritical,asawaytoboosttheireconomiccontributionsandparticipation,andbecausetheskillstheycultivatewillcontinuetoservethemifandwhentheyreturntotheircountryoforigin.Losttimeisamajoravoidabletragedyfacingrefugees.Thisispartofwhatneedstochangeinrefugeeresponses.Usinganapproachsometimescalled‘earlysolutionsplanning’,humanitariananddevelopmentactorsshould

beconsideringattheoutsetofanemergencyhowtodesignprogrammestohelprefugeesachievelastingsolutionstotheirdisplacement.

Reachingforself-relianceAcentralelementincontributingtoself-relianceand‘earlysolutions’isprogrammessupportingaccesstolivelihoodsandeducation.AsNGOsweneedtobemuchmoresophisticatedinourprovisionoflivelihoodandvocationalskillstraining.Weneedtoofferdiversifiedskillstraining,basedonthegapsandneedsinlocalmarketsratherthanthemenuoftrainingoptionswehavebeenprovidingfordecades.Refugees’capacitiesshouldbenurturedbyofferingeconomicopportunities,creatingnewlinkages,buildingskillsinnon-traditionallivelihoods,providingaccesstomicrocreditandfinancialservicesandstrengtheningengagementwithandinvestmentsinhostmarkets,alongsidebusinessincubationandimprovedinternetaccess.

Increasingaccesstoeducationatalllevelsiskey.Todaytheaveragestudent-teacherratiois120:1,and46percentofSouthSudanesechildrenarenotinschool.Thisisunacceptable.Teenagersneedsupportandacceleratedlearningprogrammestocatchupontheschooltheymissedduetotheirdisplacement.Educationisalife-savingformofaidinmultipleways.Foronething,hygieneandsanitationlessonstaughtinschoolssavelivesbyhaltingthespreadofdisease.Tertiaryandadulteducationhastobecoveredaswell,especiallygiventhelargeproportionofilliterateadultsamongSouthSudaneserefugees.Illiteracymakesitharderforrefugeestointegrateandbecomefinanciallyindependent.

Apreconditiontoeconomicinclusionistheabilitytoberecognisedasarefugeeandtoobtainlegaldocumentation.WhileSouthSudanesereceiveprimafacierefugeestatusinUganda,several


otherrefugeegroupsdonot,includingthosefromRwanda,Burundi,SomaliaandEritrea.Urbanrefugeesfaceparticularchallengesinaccessingtherefugeestatusdeterminationprocess.Theirlackofstatuscanleadtoinvolvementinunregulatedbusinessactivitiesthatmanytimesendinexploitation.Urbanrefugeesalsolackaccesstoservices.

Butevenmorethanpracticalchanges,itiscriticaltochangemind-sets–amongrefugees,amonghostcommunitiesandwithintheinternationalcommunity.Itisnothelpfultotalkaboutrefugeesasa‘burden’,asrefugeeshaveamplecapacitiesandmotivationtobettertheirownlives.Inaninfluential2014reportandsubsequentbook,researcherAlexanderBettsandcolleaguesexamined‘refugeeeconomies’andshowedthatrefugeesinUgandaoftenmakepositivecontributionstothehoststateeconomy.Refugeesareeconomicallydiverse,theyhaveorcancreatetransnationalnetworks,andtheyoftenarenotdependentonhumanitarianassistance.WhilethehugeinfluxofSouthSudaneserefugeescomplicatesthispictureinUganda,theanalysisisstillhighlyrelevant.

SharingresponsibilityforrefugeesWhatistheinternationalcommunity

doingforthe1.35millionrefugeesinUganda?Farlessthanitsfairshare.WhenUNmemberstatesbeganin2016discussingtheGlobalCompactonRefugees(anagreementthatiscomingupforstates’negotiationin2018),theirintentionwastobetterdefinewhatitmeanstoshareresponsibilityforrefugees.Broadly,sharingresponsibilitymeanseitherincreasedrefugeeresettlementsormoremassivefinancialsupportforcountrieshostingrefugees.However,withtheturn-aroundintheinternationalrhetoriconrefugeessincetheBrexitvoteandtheelectionofDonaldTrump,countrieslikeUganda,whichhostlargenumbersofrefugees,havebeenallbutabandoned.

InJune2017,Ugandaconvenedthe‘SolidaritySummitonRefugees’torequestinternationalsupportforarefugeeresponsethatgoesbeyondhumanitarianfunding,tobetterlinkhumanitarianandlonger-termdevelopmentefforts.AlthoughtheSummitsuccessfullyhighlightedtheplightofrefugeesinUganda,itfellfarshortofmeetingitsUS$2billionfinancialtarget.Donorshavesomewhatincreasedfundingforlonger-termprogrammes,butresourcesarestillinadequateinscaleandduration.

Therearenewopportunitiestobeseized.TheEuropeanCommission’sproposaltoresettle50,000Africanrefugeesisawelcomeone.CRRFimplementationinUgandaprovidesasignificantopportunitytobringrepresentativesofthegovernment,donors,humanitariananddevelopmentorganisations,theprivatesectorandotheractorstothetabletodiscuss,planandjointlyimplementprogrammingthatmovesawayfromanemergencyresponseapproachtowardsanapproachthatemphasiseslong-termdevelopmentgoalsthatbenefitrefugeesandUgandansalike.Thisvisioncanonlyberealisedwithsufficientresourcestosupportit.

Finally,itisimportanttorememberthatthereismorethatUgandaanditsalliescando,politicallyspeaking.ThenumberofSouthSudaneseinUgandaisexpectedtocontinuetorise,andrefugeesareunlikelytoreturnhomeuntilapoliticalsolutionisfoundtotheSouthSudancrisis.Theconditionsandvulnerabilityofrefugeesareultimatelyaresultofthefailureoftheinternationalcommunitytoactjointlytopreservepeaceandsecurityandpreventpeoplefrombecomingdisplacedinthefirstplace.UgandaanditsneighboursintheInter-GovernmentalAuthorityonDevelopment,IGAD–theregionalbodytaskedwithbrokeringpeaceinSouthSudan–aswellasthewholeinternationalcommunitymuststepuptheireffortstobringthecrisistoaresolution.

Abouttheauthors:MuhumedHusseinandLeeamAzoulayareUgandaCountryDirectorandEast-AfricaAdvocacyandPolicyAdviserfortheNorwegianRefugeeCouncil

MaryKidenfledfromYeiinSouthSudanlastOctober,togetherwithherbrotherandsisters.NowtheyarelivingintheBidibidirefugeesettlementinUganda."ItisgoodtobeinUganda.Theyallocatedusapieceofland,wehavefreeaccesstomedicalservicesandwefeelsafe.PeoplewerekilledinSouthSudan.Itmademeafraid.Herewenolongerneedtolistentothesoundoftheguns";shesays.January,2017Photo:NRC/TirilSkarstein


BUILDING RESILIENCE, CREATING NEW OPPORTUNITIES IN THE EU NEIGHBOURHOOD

As part of the EU response to migration, the European Investment Bank (EIB) is stepping up its investment support, including a new Economic Resilience Initiative (ERI) to enhance growthprospects and create opportunities in neighbouring countries.

ByDarioScannapieco

EIBistheEU’skeyinstrumentfordevelopmentbanking.Photo:copyrightEIB


Therefugeecrisisandmigrationareamongthegreatestchallengesofourtime.TheEIBisparticularlywellplacedtoimplementlong-termdevelopmentsolutionsthattackleboththeeffectsofmigrationanditsrootcauses.Wehelpthecountrieswheremigrationstarts,butalsoassistthetransitnationsandthosewheremigrantssettle.

TheSyrianrefugeecrisisisastarkexampleofhowashockemanatingfromforcedmigrationcanhaveadestabilisingeffect,notonlyintheimmediatevicinity,butalsoacrossEurope.Thescaleandseverityofmigrationsincethiscrisisbegandemonstratestheneedtomovebeyondhumanitariansupport,toimprovecountries’abilitiestoadapttonewpopulationsandtoaddresssomeofthecausesofmigration.EIBfinancingandsupportimprovesprospectsforeveryone,notjustmigrants.

PreparednessiscriticalformigrationWhenwellmanaged,migrationcanbenefitbothcountriesoforiginandcountriesofdestination.Forexample,itcanincreasethelaboursupplyandboostremittancessentbacktothehomecountries.However,aninfluxofmigrantscanhavenegativeimpacts,atleastintheshortterm,ifforexample,receivingcountries’schools,hospitals,orlabourmarketscannotcope,oriffallingwagesforlocallow-skilledworkerskindlessocialtension.Preparednessiscriticaltocopeeffectivelywithshocks,suchastheSyrianrefugeecrisis.Tobebetterpreparedwhenshocksdooccurandtomitigatetheirimpact,itisimportanttostrengthenvitalsocialandeconomicinfrastructureandsupportprivatesector-ledgrowthandjobcreation.Sustainableemploymentopportunities,particularlyforyoungpeopleandwomen,arecrucialtoimprovelivingstandards,maintainstability,andpreservesocialcohesion.Economicgrowthdirectlyaddressesoneoftheprimarydriversofmigration:thesearchforeconomicopportunitiesnotavailableinthecountriesoforigin.

ThisiswheretheEIB’snewEconomicResilienceInitiative(ERI)playsarole:helpingtoreducethevulnerabilityofeconomiestocrisesandenhancingtheircapacitytoabsorbandovercomeshocks.TheERIaimstopromoteeconomicgrowthandprivate-sectordevelopment,generatingjobsthatprovideprospectsforabetterfuture.TheERIwasintroducedattherequestofEUmemberstatestoassisttheSouthernNeighbourhoodandWesternBalkans.ItisacomprehensivesupportpackagenotonlyfordealingwiththeaftermathoftheSyrianrefugeecrisis,butalsotopreparebetterforothershocks,suchaseconomicdownturn,politicalcrisis,drought,flooding,orearthquake.

TheEIB,astheEUbank,followsthepoliciesoutlinedbytheEuropeanUnion,suchastheEuropeanAgendaonMigrationandthenewEuropeanConsensusonDevelopment.Insupport

ofthesepolicies,theEIB’sgoalistoimproveinfrastructurewhilemakingcountriesbetterpreparedandmoreresilienttoshocks.AspartofajointEUapproach,weaimtoprovidenewopportunitiesfordevelopmentthatwillbuildandsustainourpartnercountries,justlikewedoincountriesacrosstheUnion.

AfinancingagentfordevelopmentDecadesofexperienceinfinancinginvestmentacrosstheworldhavegiventheEIBasolidunderstandingoftheneedsofspecificregionsandtheactionsrequiredtoaddressinvestmentchallenges.Wehavedevelopedanefficientandeffectivesetofproductsforclientsandpolicymakers.Wecanapply,forexample,therisk-sharingknowhowgainedundertheInvestmentPlanforEuropetoprojectsoutsidetheEU.Similarly,wecanusetheinsightswehavegatheredonimpactfinancinginAfricatostrengthenoperationsintheEUNeighbourhood.OneoftheEIB’smandatesistoactasafinancingagenttosupportthemediumandlong-termdevelopmentofregionsintheEUNeighbourhoodandtoaddressothereconomicandgrowthchallengesinthesecountries.

Overthelastfewyears,theEIBaspartofthegroupofmultilateraldevelopmentbankshassuggestedviewingdevelopmentmorebroadly,expandingbeyondtraditionalaidtothepublicsector.Thisimpliesshiftingthedebatefrom“billionstotrillions”.Recognitionoftheprivatesector’skeyroleimpliesshiftingfromgrantstoloansandguarantees.ThisisanotherareawhereEIBcanmakeabigdifference.

Weareinjectingnewrigourandeffectivenessintothewayweoperateandthewayweworkwithpartners.WearestrivingtodeploythefullrangeofEUtools,expertise,andresources,withastrongfocusonimpactandefficiency.Indoingso,weareincreasingEurope’sabilitytodeployfinancialinstrumentscapableofincreasingprivateinvestment.ThisisessentialtoachievetheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).ButitisalsoimportantformeetingtheobjectivesofkeyEUpolicyframeworks.suchastheEuropeanConsensusonDevelopmentandEuropeaneconomicdiplomacystrategy.

AcomprehensiveEIBresponseInAfrica,theEIB’sACPMigrationPackageoffershigh-impactfinancingtohelppoorercommunitiesadvancemorerapidlyanddealwitharangeofchallenges,withmigrationamongthem.Economicandsocialimpactisachievedthroughinvestmentsliketheconstructionof1,000newsolar-poweredcommunicationtowersthatprovidemobileInternetaccessto4millionpeopleinruralAfrica.TheEIBisincreasingthecapacityoftheACPImpactFinancingEnvelopeandturningitintoarevolvingfund,with€300milliondedicatedtodealingwithmigrationdirectlybysupportingprivate-sectorinitiatives.TheEIBwillalsomake€500millionavailableundertheACPInvestmentFacilitytotargetpublicsectorprojectswithamigrationfocus.


BypartneringwiththeEuropeanCommissionandmemberstatesontargetedinitiativeslikethis,theEIBprovidesacomprehensivetoolkittosupportpublicandprivatecounterparts,utilisinggrantsandinterestsubsidies,high-impactrisk-sharinginstruments,andtechnicalassistance.

SupportingeconomicresilienceintheEUNeighbourhoodTheERIaimstorapidlymobiliseadditionalEIBfinancinginsupportofgrowth,vitalinfrastructure,andsocialcohesionintheSouthernNeighbourhoodandWesternBalkansregions.UndertheERI,theEBIisincreasingfinancinginthesetworegionsby€6billionduringthe2016-2020period,mobilisingadditionalinvestmentof €15billion.TheERIEIBfinancingcomesontopofthe€7.5billionalreadyplanned.

TheERImaximisesdevelopmentimpactbymobilisingadditionalfundsfromdonorsandtheprivatesector,nexttoanEIBowncontribution.Tounderlineitscommitment,theEIBisleadingthewaywithasubstantialowncontributionof€90millionfortechnicalassistanceandatargetedcontributionofover€100millioninimpactinvestments,aswellasinstaffing,includinganexpansionofitslocalpresence.Recently,Poland,Italy,Slovakia,Slovenia,andLuxembourgbecamethefirstEUmemberstatestopledgecontributionsfortheERItrustfundsetupbytheEIBworth€98million.Thenextroundofdonorcontributionsisunderwayandothersareexpectedtofollow.Naturally,greateravailabilityofgrantresourcesalsoincreasesthescaleandscopeofouractivities.

OneyearintoERIimplementation,13projectshavebeenapproved,representingfinancingofmorethan€1billion.Lendingthroughpartnerbanksaloneissettobenefitmorethan600smallerbusinessesandmidcaps,helpingtosustainmorethan40,000jobs.Otheroperationsincludewater,sewerage,transport,andenergyinfrastructure,aswellashealthandindustryprojects.ThesespanfromJordan,Lebanon,Egypt,Morocco,Tunisia,andPalestine[this

designationshallnotbeconstruedasrecognitionofaStateofPalestineandiswithoutprejudicetotheindividualpositionsofthememberstatesonthisissue]toSerbia,Montenegro,andBosniaandHerzegovina.

Amongtheoperationsbeingappraisedarevitalinfrastructuresupportefforts,suchasinJordan,whereaprojectwillhelpprovide

householdsrunningwaterthreedaysperweek,insteadofthecurrenteighthourseverytwoweeks.Othersareanequitysupportprogrammeforstart-upsandhigh-growthinnovativefirms,regionalmicrofinanceintheSouthernMediterraneancountries,andupgradinghealthcareservicesandrehabilitatingurbaninfrastructuresimpactedbytheconsequencesoftherefugeecrisisintheWesternBalkans.Otherproductstofosterprivatesectordevelopmentandmobiliseadditionalfundsarebeingdeveloped.

MoreeffortsneededMoreneedstobedonetoaddressrootcausesofmigrationandachievetheSDGs.Thepopulationinpartnercountriesneedseconomicopportunities,cleanwater,betterhealthservices,andfunctioninginfrastructure,alongsideimprovedframeworkconditionsforeconomicactivities.TheEIBisthereforeindiscussionswithEUmemberstatesanddevelopmentinstitutionsonhowtofurtherimprovethedeliveryandbundleactivitiestoboostimpact.ProductiveinvestmentsandprivatesectormobilisationareatthecoreoftheEUbank’smission.Togetherwithourpartners,wemakeinnovativesolutionsworktoaddressglobalchallenges.

Abouttheauthor:DarioScannapiecoisVice-PresidentattheEuropeanInvestmentBank,responsibleforoperationsinItaly,Malta,andtheWesternBalkans,aswellasfortheEconomicResilienceInitiative.HeisalsoChairmanoftheEuropeanInvestmentFund.www.eib.org

ERIwillhelpunlockopportunitiesintheSouthernNeighbourhood,particularlyforyoungpeopleandwomen.Photo:EIB


Arrival Sheffield Station, Photo by Dr Sam Scott, Geography, University of Gloucestershire.

THE EU’S MIGRATION AGENDA:WHAT ABOUT LEGAL MIGRATION PATHWAYS?

Legal migration is often noted as one of the ways to counter smuggling and irregular migration. With the European Commission’s recent political roadmap for a sustainable migration policy pathways for legal economic migration seem to emerge from oblivion. The article highlights a number of issues with regards to the EU’s legal migration agenda.

ByAnnaKnollandNoemiCascone


InnovationinaglobalcontextLegalchannelsrecognisedaswaytoreduceirregularmigrationOnpaper,theEUhasrecognisedthattheabsenceoflegalchannelsformigrationcontributestoamarketforirregularmigration.Yet,thecoordinationofcreatingpathwaysforlegaleconomicmigrationtotheEUhavenottakenaprominentplaceintheEU’sresponsetothemigrationsituationtodate-despiteseveralagreementsinthepasttodoso(e.g.theJointVallettaActionPlanbetweenAfricaandEurope).InDecember2017,theEuropeanCommissionputforwardaproposalforapoliticalroadmapwhichforeseestheadoptionofacomprehensiveandsustainablemigrationandasylumpolicybyJune2018(EuropeanCommission,2017a).ItidentifiesopeningfurtherlegalavenuestoEuropeasoneimportantobjectivetocounterirregularmigration(EuropeanCommission,2017b).

PoliticalRoadmapforasustainablemigrationpolicyBeyondtheEU’sresettlementschemeforrefugees,theEUroadmapenvisagesthreelegalpathways:attractingtalent,anewBlueCardandEUcoordinatedpilotprojectswithspecificpartnercountries.Forthelatter,theCommissionnotesthatitisreadytosupportfinanciallyandcoordinatepilotprojectsforlegalmigrationtoEUmemberstateswhowouldagreetoreceiveeconomicmigrantsfrompartnercountries.Inaddition,theEUCommissionsuggestseachEUmemberstatetoappointSherpastoworkonallaspectsoftheEUmigrationagenda.

Legalchannels,forwhom?ThenewECroadmapforacomprehensivemigrationpackageputsastrongerfocusonskilledmigrantsyetdoesnotstipulatewhichskill-levelofmigrantswouldbeincludedintheenvisagedpilotschemeswithpartnercountries(EuropeanCommission,2017b).Wouldthesepilotprojectsexpandthescopeandbeopentolower-skilledeconomicmigrantsorwouldtheybeyetanotherschemetargetingtheupperendoftheskillsspectrum?

Thisisacrucialquestioniftheaiminpartistohelpaddressthemarketforirregularmigration,smugglingandtooffercrediblealternativestoaconsiderablepartoftoday’sirregularmigrantstowardsEurope.ThegroupofirregularmigrantsmovingduetohardshipsintotheEUbutnotqualifyingforrefugeestatus(typicallyreferredtoas‘economicmigrants’)haverelativelyloweducationlevelssincetheyoftencomefromcountrieswithloweraveragelevelsofeducationandarewillingtomoveirregularlyforlowerskilledjobsintheinformalsector(Aggarwaletal.,2016).Forthisgroup,theEU’sresponsehastodatebeentouseEUdevelopmenttoolswithafocusonprovidingalternativesto(irregular)migrationandtofacilitatereturnandreintegration.

AnumberofarticlesinthiseditionhavenotedthattheEUandpartnercountriesshouldgobeyondthisandtakemoreconcretestepsinfollowinguponcommitmentsmadeonlegalmigration

forallskill-levelsembeddedinalonger-termEUexternalmigrationstrategy.ThisideaseemspoliticallyunpopularformanyEUmemberstates.ThepoliticsaroundmigrationandmobilitywillbeoneofthekeychallengesinthecomingyearsfortheEU.

LegalMigrationasleverageinMigrationpartnerships?Pooledeffortsintheareaoflegalmigrationavenuesandaccesstolabourmarketshavealsobeensaidtobeagoodbargainingchipandprovidepositiveincentivesformutuallybeneficialandresilientmigrationpartnerships(incl.returnandreadmission).ForexamplebothintheVallettaActionPlanaswellasinthefourthprogressreportonthePartnershipFrameworkonMigration(EuropeanCommission,2017c),visafacilitationandlegalmigrationareconsideredasleverstonegotiatewithcountriesoforiginonissuesofreturnandreadmission.Similarly,thelegalmigrationpilotprojectsproposedintheroadmaparemeanttoencouragememberstatestoreceivemigrantsfrom“selectedpartnercountrieswhichhaveshownpoliticalengagementtoworkinpartnershipwiththeEUonmigration”(EuropeanCommission,2017b).

Tobepalatabletopartners,suchofferswouldneedtobesubstantial.EU’spartnersmaybelessinterestedinsmalleroffersandschemesofacoupleof100people.Theywouldalsoneedtotargetskill-levelsandexperiencethatmatchtheoffersandrequirementsofEuropeanlabourmarkets(Weinar,2017).Inthecontextofanageingsociety,certainsectorscontinuetoneedlow-tomediumskilledworkers(cleaning,catering,agriculture,construction)(Ghimis,2016;Triandafyllidou&Marchetti,2014;EuropeanParliament,2015).Yet,giventhatthejobprospectsforlow-skilledworkersinEuropehavebecomemorevolatileandmayfurtherdecreaseinthewakeofautomatizationandtechnologicalchange,partnershipsonlabourmobilitywithorigincountriesofirregularmigrationwouldneedtogohandinhandwitheducationandhumancapitalstrategiesinpartnercountries-notonlytomatchdemandsbutalsotocounterpossible‘braindrain’.ItcouldbebuiltintoEU’slonger-termgeographicstrategicpartnershipsanditsdevelopmentpolicies.ButitmaynotbeanapproachthatcanbepursuedforallcountriesfromwhereirregularmigrantstoEuropemayoriginate.Moreover,ifmobilitychannelsareusedasasaleverforenforcingreturn,thehumanrightsofthoseonthemoveshouldbeakeyconsideration-anaspectthatisparticularlysalientinacontextinwhichcurrentreadmissionandreturnpracticeshaveraisedconcerns(UN,2017).

SimplifyingexistinglegalmechanismsEvenwhenoptionsforlegalmigrationexist,cumbersomeproceduresorcomplicatedadministrativehurdlescaneffectivelyhindertheutilisationofsuchopportunities.Prospectivemigrantsmayreverttoirregularshortcutsasaresult.Astrongmessagefromnon-EUnationalswantingtomigrateoralreadyresidingintheEUintherecentECpublicconsultationonitsmigration


policyhasbeenthatcurrentconditionstoenter,liveandworkinEUcountriesareanobstaclewhenmigratingtotheEU.MakingprogressonstreamliningandsimplifyingproceduresmaybealesscontroversialelementoftheEU’smigrationpolicythanisexpandingchannelsandshouldbeaddressedinthewayforward.

Focusonre-balancingnarrativesthroughaddressingconcernsofgroupsthatmissoutAnotherrolefortheEUistohelpnormalisethenarrativearoundmigrationandtohighlightalsoitspositivesidesthroughprovidinggoodexamplesandstoriesofwell-managedmigration.Changingnarrativescanonlybesuccessfulifconditionsarefavourableforthemtobetakenup.Thisiswhythefocusshouldnotonlybeonmigrantsbutalsooneconomicconcernsofhostcommunities.Numerousstudieshavebeencarriedoutontheeffectsof(authorised)migrationondevelopmentformigrantsandhostcountries(Ruhs,Vargas-Silva,2015;OECD,2014).Whilefindingssuggestseveralpositiveimpacts,resultsdivergeandstudiesshowthatmigrationtendtoimpactnativeworkersunequally,withlower-skilledworkersinsomeoccasionsfacingincreasedcompetitionfromacheaperandmoreflexiblelabourforce.Creatingfertilegroundsfordifferentnarrativesmayalsomeanidentifyingwinnersandlosersofimmigration,providingassistancetothelatterandEUsupporttomemberstatestobetterabsorbpotentialshocks.TheprincipletotargethostcommunitiesandarrivingmigrantsjointlyiswellenshrinedintheEU’sexternaldevelopmentcooperationbutcouldbeastrongerguidancealsowithinEurope.Measurestargetingdisadvantagedgroupscanhelpnativeworkersdevelopskillsinareaswheremigrantsmayhavealowercomparativeadvantage(e.g.stronglanguageandcommunicationskills)(Somerville&Sumption,2009).

Balancebetweenrightsandadmission?Progressstillneedstobemadeinfindingagoodbalancebetweenmigrants’rightsthatfacilitateintegrationandmigrants’contributionsandtheurgeofEUmemberstatestoreduceperceived‘pullfactors’throughrestrictingrights.SupportingtheadequateimplementationofexistingEuropeanDirectivesbyEUmemberstatesintheareaofmigrants’rightsispartofthis.EUmemberstatessuchasBelgiumfailtofullyimplementacommonsetofrightsfornon-EUworkersintheareaofworkingconditions,pensions,socialsecurityandaccesstopublicservices(agreedthroughtheSinglePermitDirective2011/98/EU).Moreover,inthelastyearsthetrendhasbeentolimitmigrants’rightsintheEU(i.e.severalEUmemberstateshaverestrictedtherightsofrefugeestofamilyreunification,againstthebackdropoflargerinflows).Whiletheremaybeatrade-offinhigh-incomecountriesbetweentheopennesstoadmittingmigrantworkersandtherightsgrantedafteradmission(Ruhs,2013),restrictivepoliciesareunlikelytoreducepushfactorsofmigrationflowsandcanhavenegativeimpactsonintegrationoutcomesandonfacilitatingdevelopmentcontributionsofmigrantsincountriesoforigin(CouncilofEurope,2016).

SupportapositivemigrationagendaexternallyAlsoexternally,theEU,throughitsdevelopmentcooperation,tradeandinvestmentpolicies,cansupportapositivemigrationagendathathelpsfacilitateconnectivityandsupportmobilitychannelssothatshorter-distanceforlabourmigrationcantakeplaceinsafermannerwithouttheneedtorelyonirregularmeansprovidedbysmugglers.Thisdoesnotonlyincludethecreationofbetterlivingconditions(i.e.throughthe‘rootcauses’agenda)butconsideringmigrationandmobilityasintegralpartofdevelopmentprocessesandintegratingrelevantdimensionsintodevelopmentplanningandprogramming.Innovativeschemes,suchasthe‘NoLeanSeason’projectofinBangladesh,whichsupportmobilityoffarmersintheleanseasontoimprovefoodsecurityandlivelihoods(EvidenceAction,2018)orareinforcedsupporttobilateralandregionalmobilityagendasabroadcouldbepartofit.TheEUiscurrentlydevelopingguidelinesforintegratingmigrationintoseveralthematicdevelopmentcooperationareas.Thefullimplementationofsucheffortscouldhelptoensurethatpositivemigrationaspectscanbebetteridentified.ThespectrumforactiononlegalmigrationwithinEurope,withpartnersandabroad,iswideandmanypoliticalinterestsneedtobenavigatedandweighedinthecomingyears.Yet,makingprogressonthelegalmigrationagendawouldmeaningfullysubstantiatetheEU’sambitiontoplayaconstructiverolegloballyandinthecontextofthetheUNGlobalMigrationCompactnegotiationsin2018.operateisnotyetwelldefined,andalotoflearningneedstohappen.

References:• Aggarwal, V., La China, F., Vaculova. L. 2016 Irregular Migration,

Refugees and Informal Labour Markets in the EU: The rise of European Sweatshops? European Institute for Asian Studies

• Council of Europe. 2016. Time for Europe to get migrant integration right. Issue Paper. Commissioner for Human Rights

• European Commission. 2017a. Migration: A Roadmap. The Commission’s Contribution to the Leaders’ Agenda

For a full list of references see the article on our website.

AbouttheauthorsAnnaKnollisHeadofMigrationProgramme,ECDPM.

NoemiCasconeisPolicyOfferMigrationProgramme,ECDPM.


SHIFT THE PARADIGM, FROM CHARITY TO CRYPTO SPACE

Thisfailureisduetoalackofpoliticalwillanddysfunctionalmultilateralpeace-buildingstructures(IstherestillaUNSecurityCouncil?).Thesystemisunabletoadvancebeyondthepostwarcharitynarrativedrivenbyabipolarworld,inthecontinuationofneocolonialistrelationshipsthatholdcountriesandcommunitieshostage,andintheperseveranceofunfairtradepoliciesandextractionofresources.

Aridiculouslysmallamountoftaxpayerandprivatedonormoney(currentlysomeUS$25billionperannum)isnottheanswertotheemergencyneedsofthemorethanhundredmillionpeopleincrisisatanygivenmoment.EvenUS$200billioninoverseasdevelopmentassistanceperyearcouldnotfixtheworld,orachievetheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.Sosomethinghastobedonetoavoidtheworst;otherapproachesneedtocomeintoplay.

Humanitarianaidhasnotmanagedtolinkwithwhatisconsidereddevelopmentaid,anddevelopmentaidhaslargelyfailedtoenablepeopleandcommunitiestobecomeindependent,resilientandresponsiblefortheirownlives.Aidhasbecomelargelydisconnectedfromtherealitiesofeconomyandsocialcohesiontoo,asitisdeliveredthroughdisjointedsilos.Ithasoftenexacerbateddependencyandgreed.Whatlargercommunityorregionhasevermovedawayfrompoverty

The aid system is not only broke, it’s breaking apart. It is now little more than a humanitarian relief industry. The aid system has failed in its stated goals to save lives and provide basic assistance with dignity to those in crisis at the scale needed.

ByKilianKleinschmidt

RohinyarefugeesinBurmaPhoto:UnitedtoendGenocide/Flickr


anddesperationthankstoaid?Partialexceptionsonlyemphasisetherule,andtheinabilitytoscaleupgainstomeetthewiderchallenge.Wherepovertyhasbeenreduced,theexplanationcanusuallybefoundinleadershipcoupledwithbettergovernanceandinvestmentinservices,infrastructureandjobs. Ittookmorethan1.5millionpeoplemakingtheirwaytoEuropetofinallysparkarealdiscussiononwhatisgoingonintheworld.Thereisadawningrealisationofwhataidcannotdoandwhatitmeansforhundredsofmillionsofpeopletobeonthemoveandforbillionstobepoor.Whilenationalistandxenophobicthinkingisontherise,massmigrationhasprovidedtheshocktherapythatwealthyandsluggishEuropeneedstobegintorethinkitselfandreflectonhowtofixglobalchallenges.Theeventsofthepastthreeyearshaveexposedanutterfailuretoreceivenewcomerswithdecencyanddeliveracommonpolicyonasylumandimmigration.Europehasfailedtodeliveronthesimplestbasicsofassistanceandprotection.Itsattempttopassonandblockouttheproblemofbordersisboundtofail,andtheresultingdeficitoftrustamongourneighbourswillhauntusforgenerations.

Weareblockedbyourobsessionforcategorisinghumansandadjudicatingwhohastherighttodowhat:22millionrefugees,45millioninternallydisplacedpeoplehaveacquiredsomewhatofamoralrighttomove.Theyhaveaconventionwhich,thoughlargelydisregarded,isstillinplace.Insecurity,badandterriblegovernance,increasinglyuninhabitableandoverpopulatedenvironments,exploitation,noaccesstobasicservicesandnohopeofchangearenotconsideredreasonenoughforustogrant‘permission’fortheotherstomoveon.ThecontinuingeffortsundertheUNCompactsonMigrationandRefugeeswillunfortunatelyfurtherthedivide,asthechancewasmissedtoaddress“desperatemigration”initsentirelyanddealwith

peopleonthemoveinaholisticmannerforonce.

TherighttostayThisisacalltoshifttheparadigmfromacurrentlogicofreturntoalogicofsocialandeconomicintegration,regardlessofthecircumstancesofdisplacement.Toovercomethereluctanceofreceivingpopulationsresentfulofcompetitionforscarceresources,demographicchangescanbeusedasthetriggerforinvestmentininfrastructureandservices.

Weareblockedbythemantrathatdisplacedpeopleormigrants,especiallyrefugees,shouldbegoingbacktotheplacetheyweredisplacedfrom:theideaofthevoluntaryreturn‘home’.Theconvictionthatthe“preferreddurablesolutionisvoluntaryreturn”andonlyifalloptionsareexhaustedshouldlocalintegrationbepursuedispreventingreceivingcommunitiesfromundertakingtherightmeasurestoprovideservices,buildinfrastructureandensureeconomicandsocialintegration.Theideathatreturnisthebestsolutionisbasedonthepost-WWIIhumanrightsarchitecture,predicatedontheurgetoreduceincidenceofethniccleansingandothercrimesagainsthumanitythroughmultilateralaction.ItwasalsodrivenbytheEast-Westdivide.WhilethissignificantandlaudableeffortwasinitiallydrivenbythedreamofbuildingpeacefollowingthehorrorsofWWII,ithasledtothecurrentstateofaffairs,whichleavesmillionsinlimbofordecadeswhilepursuingtheideologicalgoalofrecoveryoflostrights.

Lookingathistory,therehavealwaysbeenpopulationmovements,mostofthemhostileordrivenbyviolence.Citiesdevelopedaspeoplesoughtprotectionandopportunitiesnearacastle,amosque,atempleorachurch.Citieshavealwaysbeensanctuaries,anexpressionofmulticulturalismandtheresultofmigration.Beforetheconcept

ofreturnemergedastheultimategoal,newcomerswere,withdifficulties,acceptedandbecamesettlersintheirnewenvironments.Bynomeansshouldweacceptthetragedyofforceddisplacement,norcanwesparetheperpetrators,butwemustplacetheinterestsofthosemostconcernedcentralinouraction.SpecialdevelopmentzonesandurbandevelopmentImagineifBangladeshwereenabledtodevelopnewspecialdevelopmentzones(SDZs),combiningsettlement,workandmulti-stakeholdergovernancestructures.Iftheseprovidedproperhousing,servicesandemploymentforitsownpopulationinneed,thentheintegrationofuptoonemillionRohingyawouldnotbeanissue.Theywouldblendintosuchascheme.ItishighlyunlikelythattheywilleverreturntoMyanmar.Aretheybetteroffinrefugeecampsfordecades,oraspartofanewdriveforeconomicprosperity?Whichfatewouldstrengthentheirpositiontorecovertheirrightsanddignity?

Asareminder,risingsealevelswillforcemillionsofBangladeshistorelocateawayfromthecoastline.Thiswillnothappenwithoutriskofdestabilisation.Considerablecapitalinvestmentwillberequiredfortheneededdevelopmentbutcouldbesecuredincombinationwithinvestmentguarantees.Newcitydevelopmentthroughouttheworld,fromChinatoLatinAmerica,hashadfewdifficultiesinattractingtherequiredresources.Islamicfinancingsourcesisonerealisticoptionforbuildinganddevelopingnewspacesfor20to30millionpeopleinBangladesh.Awinforeveryone!

HadGermanyrelauncheditssocialandaffordablehousingdevelopmentatscale,investedinbettercarefortheelderlyandaddresseditsmassivepovertyissues,absorptionofevenmorenewcomerswouldhavebeeneasier.Theeconomy


wouldbestrongeraswell.Greeceisstrugglingtocopewith65,000refugees,asitsowneconomyissuffering.Itssmallandmediumenterprises(SMEs)can’thireandcan’texpand,asthereisnoliquidityinthemarket.Refugeeshavebecomescapegoatsforsystemicfailure.Thissamecountryin2003legaliseditsmorethan800,000undocumentedAlbanianmigrants,asitwasstronganddependentontheirlabour.Financingtoolsareavailable,butfundingforthemunicipalitiestakingthebruntofthesedemographicchangesneedstobeenhanced.

TheEuropeanUnion,thedevelopmentbanksbutalsopensionfundsandothershavearoletoplay.Theyshouldbemovingtoprovidethefinancingandriskinsuranceneeded,attherightscaletoleverageinvestmentforSDZdevelopmentandsupportofmunicipalities.

SmallandmediumenterprisesSMEsarethebackboneofaneconomy.Theyemploy60to80percentofallprivatesectorlabourandgenerate60to70percentofGDP.SMEsarethuskeyforfinancialinclusion,developmentandjobcreation,aswellasforthefastintegrationofmigrantsandrefugeesintohostcommunities.

HealthySMEsoperatewithgrossmarginsof25to45percentandcanthereforeaffordcreditfinancing.Yet,SMEstendtobefinanciallyunderserved.Theygenerallyholdlittleinterestforsystemicbanks,whicharereluctanttofinanceworkingcapitalrequirements.ThisisnotbecausetheSMEscannotaffordordonotneedsuchcredit(evidencedbytheirgrossmargins)butforefficiencyreasons.Becausethetransactionsaresmallthemanagementandoverheadburdenisrelativelylarge.Theythereforedeliverasmallermarginforthebanksthanserviceslikederivativetradingand

infrastructureinvestmentbanking.CreatingfinancingfacilitiesandeasyaccesstofinanceforSMEswouldcontributetosocietybycreatingliveli-hoodsaswellastremendouslyfacilitateabsorptionandintegrationofnewcomers

TheroleoftechanddigitalisationThehypesurroundingtechnologicaldevelopmentsfortrackingrefugeemovementsandprovidingassistancehasnowshiftedtoafarmoreinterestingdiscussiononhowdigitalandblockchainsolutionscanhelppopulationsonthemoveleapfrogtraditionalsystems.

Digitalbankingandmobilefinanceapplicationsallowanyonetoaccessandtransfermoneyregardlessofsocialandeconomicstatus.Loanscanbeprovidedbasedsimplyonidentity.Digitalservicescanreachhithertoinaccessiblesegmentsoftheworld’spopulation.Combiningthesewithcloudfacilitiescompletelydisconnectedfromnationstates–suchasBITNATION,whichseekstocreateaDecentralizedAutonomousOrganization(DAO)allowingforself-governanceinthe‘cryptospace’–couldbringUtopiacloser.Regardlessoflocationandstatussuddenlyeveryonecanaccessidentitydocuments,obtainlegalsupport,conducttransactionsandotherkeyservices.

Withallitspitfallsanddangers,globalconnectivity,networksanddigitalisationprovidearealchanceforaradicalshiftandmoreequalsharingofglobalresources.Inthisinterconnectedworldthenationstatebecomessecondary,localcommunitiesandmunicipalitiesregaintheirprimacy,individualscanmakechoicestoanextentneverbeforepossible.Whereyoulivebecomesincreasinglyirrelevantaslongasyouhaveconnectivity.Thatcurrentprivilegeofthesmartandwealthywillgraduallyshifttoabroaderpopulationandultimatelyenhancetheabilityoftheglobe’sthreebillionpoortoaccessservicesandresourcesdifferently.Paradigmsmustshift.Thestoryofdisplacementmustberewritten!

Abouttheauthor:KilianKleinschmidtFounder-CEOofIPA|switxboardGmbHGlobalNetworkingandHumanitarianExpertise

BitnationWebsite


Debatesonmigrationareseldomgroundedintherealcomplexitiesthatshapethephenomenon.Evenconceptually,usefultypologiesanddistinctionsarehardtofind.Rarelyarethemotivationsthatunderliemobilityclear-cut.Analystsgenerallydistinguishtwomaincategories:displacementasaresultofanimmediatehazardordangerandmobilitytopursuelivelihoodstrategies.Evenhere,however,oversimplificationisalltooeasy.Forinstance,whilesudden-onseteventsmayforcerelativelyshort-distancemovements(Drabo&Mbaye,2011),theseareoftenaprecursortosubsequentlongertermandmorevoluntarymovements.Ontheflipside,slower-onsetevents,likeenvironmentaldegradationandsocialandpoliticalunrest,canencourageruralfarmhouseholdstopursueneweconomicstrategiesoutsideofagriculture.Thesemanytimesinvolve

migration.Overall,migrationandmobilitytendtobetheresultofmultiplefactors.Itisthiscomplexitythatmakesdefinition,classification,andgeneralisationextremelydifficult.Lackofdataisanotherproblem,especiallyregardinginternalmigration(Vargas-Lundius,forthcoming).Mobilitywithinnationalbordersismuchmoreprevalentthaninternationalmigration.Generallythismeansmigratingfromaruralareatoalargertownorcity.Peoplearedrawntocitylifebyeconomic,social,andenvironmentalfactors.Primaryamongthesearethenon-agriculturalopportunitiescreatedbyincreasinglydiversifiednationaleconomies,improvedconnectivityandinformationflows,andtheriseofintermediatetownsthatserveassteppingstones(Suttie&Vargas-Lundius,2016;IFAD&FAO,2008;Ratha,2013;Hussein&Suttie,2016).Conflictandfragilitycan

LEVERAGING MIGRATION FOR PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2030 AGENDAMigration and mobility provide a real opportunity to unlock progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). For this, policies and investments need to be adapted to the realities of populations that are on the move.

ByDavidSuttieandRosemaryVargas-Lundius

DisplacedDarfurisFarminRainySeasonPhoto:UNPhoto/AlbertGonzalezFarran


playaroleinmobilitytoo.Ifinstitutions,policies,investmentframeworks,andnormsgiverisetoeconomicprocessesthatareneitherinclusivenorsustainable,theoutcomemaybecivilstrife,socialandpoliticalinstability,andconflictsovernaturalresources(insomeplacesexacerbatedbyclimatechange).Theseallcanprovideatriggerforpopulationmovements.PushandpullfactorsintersectinmobilitydecisionsSomeofthesedynamicsare“pull”factors,astheyprovideapotentialpathforaccessingbetterandmorediversifiedlivelihoodopportunities.Othersare“push”factors,suchaswhenlackofviablelivingconditionsinanareadrivespeopletomove.Yet,inreality,different"push"and"pull"factorsoftenoverlapininfluencingpeople'smobilitydecisions.

Giventhiscomplexity,attemptstoframedebatesonmigrationintermsofanyimperativeto"addressrootcauses"isunlikelyberealisticorproductive.Particularly,theassumptionthatmigrationcanbestemmedbyeconomicdevelopmentisgenerallynotborneoutbyreality(Labordeetal.,2017).Evidencesuggestsinfactthatdevelopmentmayincreasemigration,atleastintheshortterm(DeHaas,2011).Thisisnotentirelyunsurprisingconsideringthehumanandfinancialresourcesneededtomigrate.Thepoverty-reductionimpactofmobilityiswelldocumented,andoftenespeciallyevidentinconnectionwithinternalmovements(Ferré,2011;Oucho,OuchoandOchieng,2014;McKayandDeshingkar,2014;Vargas-LundiusandSuttie,2016;Vargas-Lundius,forthcoming).

EmbracingmobilityforinclusivedevelopmentAmoreconstructiveapproachispossible.First,however,wehavetoabandonthefaultyassumptionthatsedentarylivelihoodsarethenorm--especiallyinruralareas.Mobilityhaslongbeenakeylivelihoodstrategy,anditwillcontinuetobeso(Krätli&Swift,2014;Catley,Lind&Scoones,2014).Moreover,undertherightconditions,mobilitycouldstrengthenadvancementtowardstheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).Forexample,itcouldprovidegreateraccesstoemployment,markets,andeducation.Second,supportisneededforlivelihoodstrategiesthatinvolvemobility–thegoalbeingtoimprovemigration’ssocialandeconomicreturnstothecommunitiesoforiginanddestination,andtothemigrantsthemselves.

Westillhaveverylittleunderstandingoftheneedsandrealitiesofmigrantworkersandthechallengestheyface.Whatwedohaveisanabundanceofpoorlyinformedandpolarisedpoliticaldebates,whichnotinfrequentlyendinproposalsthatultimatelyunderminetheopportunitiesandgenerallivingconditionsofmobileworkers.Barrierstomobilityareerected,forinstance,intheformofpoliciesthatdiscriminateagainstmigrants’accesstosocialservices,employment,andhousing.

Itisimportanttonotethatsuchbarriershaveanespeciallystarkimpactonwomen.Notleast,barredaccesstosocialservicesandinfrastructureaffectwomendisproportionatelybecauseoftheirdutiesinthehousehold.Genderdiscriminationinthelabourmarketisalsopersistent(Chant,2013).GivingmigrantsavoiceandbuildingpoliciestosupporttheirchoicesDevelopmentagencies,supportedbygovernments,haveaconstructiveroletoplayinfacilitatingmigrantorganisation.Collectively,migrantscouldhaveastrongervoiceandabilitytorepresenttheirinterestsinpoliticalfora.Withtherighttrainingandorganisations,mobileworkerscoulddevelopthecapacitytoarticulatetheirneedsandtolinkupwithinstitutionalstructuresthatallowtheirpoliticalvoicetobeheard.Supportedbycivilsociety,theycouldadvocateforpoliciesthatopendoorstoopportunitiesor,atleast,removerulesandregulationsthatdiscriminateagainsttheirinterests(Suttie,forthcoming).

Countrycasestudiesshowthatwherehumancapitaldevelopmentandmobilityintersect,enhancednationalproductivityandwell-beingcanresult(Vargas-Lundius,forthcoming).

MobileservicesformobilepeopleWhenitcomestoservingmigrants,advisoryandsupportservicesadaptedtocontextsofmobilityofferparticularscope,thoughthishasbeenunderusedthusfar.Toshareknowledgeandinformation,mobilepeopleneedaccesstoinformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs).ICT-relatedapplicationsandtools–includingmobilephones,socialmedia,e-learningplatforms,webportals,andcommunityradio–couldprovideagrowingspectrumofservicestomigrants(Suttie,forthcoming).Already,mobilemoneytransfertoolsareincreasingefficiencyandreducingthecostsassociatedwithremittancetransfers(IFAD,2017).Suchtechnologiescouldalsoplayaroleinfacilitatinginvestmentinbothruralandurbanareas.Thiscouldhelpstimulateeconomicactivityoutsidethebigcities,inturnhelpingruralhouseholdsovercomethefinancialconstraintsassociatedwiththeseasonalityofruralandespeciallyagriculturalincomes.

Mobiletechnologyhasdevelopedrapidlyinrecentyears.Subscriptionratesindevelopingcountriesincreasedfrom22per100inhabitantsin2005to91.8per100inhabitantsin2015(Saravanan&Suchiradipta,2015).Crucially,mobiletechnologybreaksdownbarriers,offeringacompellingplatformforexpandedservicestopeopleonthemoveatarelativelylowcost.Tofurtherexpandtheseservices’reachandinteractivity,awareness-raisingprogrammesareneeded.Theyalsoneed

Great Insights | Winter 2018 | 43

to be adapted to the requirements of mobile populations – especially those coming from remote rural areas. For this, public and private actors will need to be brought on board and partnerships developed between service providers, migrant organisations, and telecommunication companies (Suttie, forthcoming).

Targeted support for young migrantsFocusing on the needs of heterogeneous sub-groups is important to ensure inclusive outcomes. Evidence shows that youths are more likely to migrate than older adults (UN-Habitat, 2010; World Bank, 2006). This fact becomes particularly relevant in light of the expanding shares of people under the age of 25 in many regions, such as sub-Saharan Africa and, to a lesser extent, South Asia (Filmer & Fox, 2014; cited in World Bank & IFAD, 2017: pp. 5-6). Migrant youths therefore need to be included in relevant dialogues and institutions, and training and service provision needs to be linked to the aspirations of the modern youth. This could be done in various ways, for example, through engagement with entrepreneurship-related forums, secondary and higher education events, and mentorship programmes.

Adapting approaches to the gendered realities of mobilityWomen too are becoming ever more prevalent among those migrating (Tacoli & Mabala, 2010). Nonetheless, access to services and training is generally skewed towards men (Colverson, 2015; Petrics et al, 2015). Flexible ICT-based modalities of service delivery can help respond to this reality. To serve women effectively, services have to be sensitive to the different workloads of household members, including the extent that some are engaged in different forms of mobility. In addition to women who themselves migrate, rural women whose husbands migrate need targeted support, as they have an added workload to manage (FAO, IFAD & ILO, 2010).

Changing mind-sets for a brighter futureOverall, there is a strong need for policies, institutions, and investments that respond to and enable people's mobility – rather than erect barriers. Certainly there is scope for policies aiming to enhance communities’ resilience and foster inclusive and shared prosperity. Furthermore, efforts are doubtless needed to reduce social instability and the drivers of the conflicts that fuel displacement. At the same time, however, mobility needs to be recognised as a legitimate household strategy. With the support of governments, development agencies, and civil society, as well as private actors, migration and mobility can be leveraged for progress towards the ambitions of the 2030 Agenda.

ReferencesReferences•• CatleyA,JLindandIScoones.2013.PastoralismanddevelopmentCatleyA,JLindandIScoones.2013.Pastoralismanddevelopment

inAfrica:Dynamicchangeonthemargins.Abingdon-on-Thames,inAfrica:Dynamicchangeonthemargins.Abingdon-on-Thames,UK,Routledge.UK,Routledge.

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Forafulllistofreferencesseethearticleonourwebsite.Forafulllistofreferencesseethearticleonourwebsite.

About the authorsDavid Suttie works for the Global Engagement, Knowledge and Strategy Division of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).

Rosemary Vargas-Lundius holds a doctorate in development economics from Lund University, Sweden, and has carried out research on rural poverty and unemployment, gender, and migration.

For their full bios see the article on our website.

Go to: www.ecdpm.org/migration.

Migration is one powerful way out of poverty and has great potential for sustainable

development. Flows of remittances exceed development aid, playing an important

role in poverty reduction, relief and development. The opening of labour markets for

international migrants can bring considerable economic gains for both sending and

recipient countries as well as migrants themselves.

Yet migration and mobility – especially in the form of displacement or in the context of

conflict and crisis – can put great pressure on governance systems and host communities.

Today, there are more than 65 million forcibly displaced people worldwide of which one

third are refugees. Developing regions host 84% of the world’s refugees. 10.3 million

people were newly displaced by conflict or persecution in 2016. Conflict, violence and

disasters also caused 31.1 million new displacements in 2016. (some interesting statistics

on the rise of refugees - conflict + environmental + economic migrants). This has made of

migration a top priority on the international agenda.

In this dossier, we look at how policymakers and other relevant actors are addressing

migration and mobility issues. We try to contribute to a more nuanced understanding

of the complex phenomenon, acknowledging that Africa and Europe have different

narratives, approaches and perceptions of migration – and the important links it shares

with development processes.

Migration and international cooperation

Go to: www.ecdpm.org/migration

Documents

Moving backward, moving forward? - ReliefWeb · 2018-02-05 · financial inclusion and protection of remittance recipients, including through advice, goal setting, strategies to build