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INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION

The manager performs various functions to achieve the goals of the organisation. In theprevious unit we have discussed the concepts and principles of directing. In directing thepeople, the management has to inspire and motivate people for accomplishingorganisational objectives. Motivation is the psychological force that motivates a person foraction and continuously inspire him in the course of action. In this unit we will explain whatis motivation and its important theories. You will find this unit interesting as it will help you inunderstanding the basic factors which motivate people.

MEANING OF MOTIVATION

The term ‘motivation’ is derived from the Latin word ‘mover’ which means to move andrepresent the force that moves people, and causes them to act. So, motivation can bedefined as a process of channelling a person’s inner drive so that he wants to accomplishthe goals of the organisation. Motivation is a behavioural concept by which we try tounderstand why people behave as they do. A human being is an organic and not amechanical system. He or she is a self-activated person. The force of motivation lies withinour mind. It is dynamic force, setting a person into motion or action.

In this context, we can discuss some of the definitions of motivation given by managementexperts. Robert Dubin has defined motivation as “The complex of forces starting andkeeping a person at work in an organisation” Moreover, Dalton E. Mc Farland said “Theconcept of motivation is mainly psychological. It relates to those forces operating within theindividual employee or subordinate which impel him to act or not to act in certain ways.” Onthe other hand, Koontz and O’ Donnell define motivation as “Motivation is a general termapplying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces”. Accordingto Edwin Flippo “Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do your willthrough the possibility of gain reward”

Out of the above discussion, it can be understood that motivation is highly individualistic. Itis the essence of human behaviour.Motivation consists of three parts.They are a) Motivesi.e. need ideas, emotions or organic state b) Motivating factors and c) Attainment ofobjectives. In an organisation motivation implies a planned management process, whichstimulates people to work to the best of their capabilities for the relation of the commongoals of the enterprise. The process of motivation can be -illustrated simply as follows

Importance of motivation

Motivation is an important function of management. All managers should induce theiremployees on the job to extract performance by motivating them. Below, we discuss someimportant aspects of motivation.

i) Utilisation of human resource : By motivation techniques, management can properly utiliseits human resources. This helps the managers to increase the productivity of employees. By

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virtue of motivation employees can understand organisational culture. Thereby, humanresources can be properly utilised.

ii) Use of material resources : By motivating employees of an organisation, the materialresources can also be used in a proper way which increases organisational efficiency.iii) Willingness for work : In an organisation, there may have some employees who arephysically and mentally capable to do work, but may not be willing to work. In such asituation, motivation can create willingness among the employees for work.

iv) Good labour relations : Motivation also helps an organisation in building up a good labourrelation. Thereby motivation become beneficial to management and employees. So,motivation can reduce different labour problems such as absenteeism, labour turnover,indiscipline, grievances etc.

v) Develops cooperation : Motivation can build up team spirit. Thereby, motivation makespossible to increase collective effort of employees to the organisation. So, motivation formsthe basis for cooperation to get the best achievement of organisation objectives.

vi) Improve skill and knowledge : Motivated employees always try to be as efficient aspossible and to improve their skill and knowledge. Because, motivated emplyees alwaysresolve to do their responsibilities in the best manner.

vii) Boosts Morale : Morale implies the attitude and feelings of employees about their workas well as situation of work. Motivation can improve the attitude and feelings of employeestowards works. So, motivation can also improve morale of employees.

viii) Facilitates change : Research based fact says that properly motivated employees aremore receptive to accept changes. So, motivation helps the employees to adjust withchanging environment.

ix) Sense of belongingness : A proper motivation system can improve the sense ofbelongingness among the employees. As a result, employees can feel that organisationbelongs to them. So, employees become more concerned about the well being of theorganisation.

x) Achieve organisational objectives : Motivation can be defined as core of management. Bymotivation managers directly encourage the employees towards the accomplishment oforganisational objectives.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Now, we are aware of the fact that motivating the employees is very important inorganisations. But motivating employees is a difficult task for the managers.Many researches have been carried out on motivation. All of them emphasise that due to

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complex nature of human being no generalisation is possible. On the other hand, alltheories are not universally applicable and these are affected by time, country, andcircumstances. Various theories of motivation can be classified as below -

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

A.H. Maslow has developed the Need Hierarchy Theory for understanding human needs.According to Maslow, human needs tend to follow a basic hierarchical pattern form the mostbasic needs to the highest level needs. Until the basic needs are fulfilled, person will not trymeet his higher level needs. The theory of Maslow is based on the needs of the people. Heproposed a hierarchy of five types of needs which are mentioned below-

i) Physiological needs :- These are the primary needs of human beings and relate to thesurvival of the body. These needs are more or less universal. These are called the needs oflowest level and they are to be satisfied first for existence and survival. Unless these needsare satisfied to the degree needed for the efficient operation of the body, the majority of aperson’s activities will be at this level and the other needs will provide him with littlemotivation. So, this is a powerful motivating force.

The physiological needs are - Food, shelter, clothing, water, air, sleep, sex etc.

ii) Safety or Security needs : These needs come next in the hierarchy. They areconcerned with physical and financial security. Man is always worried about security as lifeis full of uncertainty. So human beings always expect physical security, job security andsecurity of income at all times. In an organisation, management can motivate employees byproviding security against uncertainties in the form of secured jobs, insurance plans andpension plans.

Example of safety needs are Protection against deprivation, danger and threat on or off thejob e.g. unemployment, protection from physical harm, ill health, old age or any otherreason.

iii) Social needs : Man being a social animal is always interested to live in a society orgroup which loves him most. He wants to give or receive love. These are to be reflected byrecognition, conversation, socialabitity, exchange of feelings and grievances, acceptanceand friendship. When social needs become dominant, a person will strive for meaningfulrelations with others. If the opportunity for association with other people is reduced, menoften take vigorous action against the barriers to social intercourse.Examples of social needs are: affection, love, friendship, acceptance by the group,communication etc.

iv) Esteem or Ego needs : These needs relate to the prestige and respect of the individualand include such things as self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence,Knowledge and control. Satisfaction of these needs produces feelings of self-confidence,

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prestige, power and control.. The esteem needs can be classified mainly into two types,such as 1) Self -esteem needs 2) Public esteem needs. Self-esteem needs refer to anindividual’s feeling that he is doing something worth while, While the public esteem needsrefer the image in the eyes of the public like praise, admiration and public appreciation etc.

Examples of esteem needs are: Status, approval, appreciation, freedom from control,recognition, self- respect of others.

v) Self Actualisation need : It is also called self realisation needs. This refers to the needto realise specific goals. It is need “to become everything that one is capable of becoming”.According to Maslow “This need might be phrased as the desire to become more and morewhat one is to become everything that one is capable of becoming.” A musician must makemusic, a poet must write, a general must win battles, an artist must paint, a teacher mustteach if he is to be ultimately happy.

Examples of self actualisation need are : need for self-development, self-actualisation, self-advancement, desire to take on increased responsibilities etc.Maslow’s needs hierarchy is illustrated with the help of the following diagram.

Criticism

In their extensive review of research based on Maslow's theory, Wahba and Bridwell foundlittle evidence for the ranking of needs that Maslow described or for the existence of adefinite hierarchy at all.

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The order in which the hierarchy is arranged (with self-actualization described as thehighest need) has been criticized as being ethnocentric by Geert Hofstede. Maslow'shierarchy of needs fails to illustrate and expand upon the difference between the social andintellectual needs of those raised in individualistic societies and those raised in collectivistsocieties. The needs and drives of those in individualistic societies tend to be more self-centred than those in collectivist societies, focusing on improvement of the self, with self-actualization being the apex of self-improvement. In collectivist societies, the needs ofacceptance and community will outweigh the needs for freedom and individuality.

The term "Self-actualization" may not universally convey Maslow's observations; thismotivation refers to focusing on becoming the best person that one can possibly strive for inthe service of both the self and others. Maslow's term of self-actualization might not properlyportray the full extent of this level; quite often, when a person is at the level of self-actualization, much of what they accomplish in general may benefit others or, "the greaterself".

The position and value of sex on the pyramid has also been a source of criticism regardingMaslow's hierarchy. Maslow's hierarchy places sex in the physiological needs categoryalong with food and breathing; it lists sex solely from an individualistic perspective. Forexample, sex is placed with other physiological needs which must be satisfied before aperson considers "higher" levels of motivation. Some critics feel this placement of sexneglects the emotional, familial, and evolutionary implications of sex within the community,although others point out that this is true of all of the basic needs.

The higher-order (self-esteem and self-actualization) and lower-order (physiological, safety,and love) needs classification of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is not universal and may varyacross cultures due to individual differences and availability of resources in the region orgeopolitical entity/country.

In one study, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of a thirteen item scale showed there weretwo particularly important levels of needs in the US during the peacetime of 1993 to 1994:survival (physiological and safety) and psychological (love, self-esteem, and self-actualization). In 1991, a retrospective peacetime measure was established and collectedduring the Persian Gulf War and US citizens were asked to recall the importance of needsfrom the previous year. Once again, only two levels of needs were identified; therefore,people have the ability and competence to recall and estimate the importance of needs. Forcitizens in the Middle East (Egypt and Saudi Arabia), three levels of needs regardingimportance and satisfaction surfaced during the 1990 retrospective peacetime. These threelevels were completely different from those of the US citizens.

Changes regarding the importance and satisfaction of needs from the retrospectivepeacetime to the wartime due to stress varied significantly across cultures (the US vs. theMiddle East). For the US citizens, there was only one level of needs since all needs wereconsidered equally important. With regards to satisfaction of needs during the war, in theUS there were three levels: physiological needs, safety needs, and psychological needs(social, self-esteem, and self-actualization). During the war, the satisfaction of physiologicalneeds and safety needs were separated into two independent needs while duringpeacetime, they were combined as one. For the people of the Middle East, the satisfactionof needs changed from three levels to two during wartime.

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A 1981 study looked at how Maslow's hierarchy might vary across age groups.[ A surveyasked participants of varying ages to rate a set number of statements from most importantto least important. The researchers found that children had higher physical need scoresthan the other groups, the love need emerged from childhood to young adulthood, theesteem need was highest among the adolescent group, young adults had the highest self-actualization level, and while old age had the highest level of security, it was needed acrossall levels comparably. The authors argued that this suggested Maslow's hierarchy may belimited as a theory for developmental sequence since the sequence of the love need andthe self-esteem need should be reversed according to age.

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory :

During the late 1950’s Fredrick Herzberg, a US behavioural scientist (Psychologist) and hisassociates developed two factor theory of motivation. This theory is also known asMotivation Maintenance Theory and Motivation Hygiene Theory. According to this theory,work dissatisfaction and satisfaction arise from two different sets of factors. These aremotivational factors and Hygiene or maintenance factors. These are described below -

Motivational Factors :- These factors are mostly related to the job itself. The availability ofthese factors create a highly motivating situation. On the other hand, absence of thesefactors does not cause dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, there are mainly sixmotivational factors, such as Achievement, Recognition, Advancement, possibility of growthand responsibility. Motivational factors are the primary cause of job satisfaction. Theemployer can increase the performance of employees by providing these factors. Thesefactors differ from individual to individual.

Hygiene or Maintenance factors :- Hygiene factors are mostly related to environmentoutside the job. Though, the availability of hygiene factors do not significantly motivate theemployees, yet the absence of these factors cause serious dissatisfaction. These factorsare necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction among the employees.According to Herzberg, various hygiene factors are company policies, and administration,supervision, interpersonal relationships, salary, job security working conditions, job status,personal life etc.

Alderfer’s Existence- Relatedness Growth (ERG) Motivation Theory :-Clayton Alderfer condensed the Maslow’s five needs categories into three sets. Accordingto Alderfer there is a doubt about the existence of the five distinct needs of Maslow.Because, there is a overlapping between the security, social and physiological needsMoreover, the lines between esteem social and self-actualisation needs are not entirelyclear. According to Clayton Alderfer, three sets of human need are as follows

i) Existence Need :- These include all forms of material and physiological and safety needsie. Maslow’s first two level needs.ii) Relatedness Need : This includes all needs that involve relationships with other peoplewe care about. Relatedness needs cover Maslow’s social needs and esteem needs whichare derived from other people.iii) Growth Need :-Growth need is like Self - Actualisation need of Maslow. Growth needsinvolve persons making creative efforts to achieve full potential in the existence

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environment.

In ERG theory, the Maslow’s theory is also revised in the following three ways :-

i) According to Alderfer the three need categories form hierarchy in the sense of decreasingconceitedness. Because, we move from a focus on existence to relatedness to growthneeds, the ways we can satisfy those needs become increasingly abstract.ii) He recognised that rise in the level of satisfaction of our existence and relatedness needsmay result in decrease in their importance to us.If we can successfully satisfy our growth needs, then these will become more important.Hence, as we are able to be productive and creative, we look to higher goals and we areagain dissatisfied.iii) According to Alderfer, we try to satisfy our most concrete needs and we tend to move onto more abstract needs. Likewise, Maslow, Alderfer also argued that as one need issatisfied we proceed to the next higher need, Further he argued that along with satisfactionprogression, we can experience frustration. So if we are unable to satisfy needs to a givenlevel of abstractness, then we drop back and focus on more concrete needs. Hence, if weare unable to satisfy our growth needs, we again focus on relatedness needs, Thus we cango in cycles, focusing on one need, then another and then back again

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory :-This theory was introduced by Victor Vroom in 1964. According to this theory motivation is aproduct of the anticipated worth to a person of an action and the perceived probability that aperson’s goals would be achieved.

This theory is based on three concepts, such as Valence, Expectancy and Instrumentality.According to Vroom, motivation is a force which is equivalent to the product of valence,expectancy and instrumentality. Below, we briefly describe these three concepts.

i) Valence :- It implies the preference that people have for a particular outcome or incentiveor reward. Valence is the importance or value that an individual places on the potentialoutcome, which is achieved on the job. Valence becomes positive for a person, if he prefersattaining the outcome to not attaining it. If the person prefers not attaining outcome toattaining outcome, then his valence will be negative, In cases, where he is indifferencetowards the outcome his valence will be zero.

ii) Expectancy :- Expectancy is the effort performance probability. Expectancy is the extentto which a person feels that his effort will lead to first level outcome in achieving the goals ofthe organisation. Expectancy is such type of probability that a specific action will lead to theoutcome. It can also be defined as a perception in the mind of an individual that a particularaction or behaviour will lead him to a certain outcome. The value of expectancy, is rangingbetween 0 and 1, because, it is an association between effort and performance. If theprobability of achieving an outcome is zero, then the person will not try at all. If theprobability of outcome is higher, the person will agree to put more effort to achieve thedesired outcome.

iii) Instrumentality : It implies to the degree to which a first level outcome will lead to adesired second level outcome. This is a relationship between the first level outcome andsecond level outcome. People will be motivated towards work if they expect enhanced effort

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to lead to reward and value the rewards resulting from their efforts.So, according to this theory motivation can be expressed in the form of an equation as givenbelow.Motivation = V x Ex I. Where, V = Value, E = expectancy and I = Instrumentality.

Equity theory

Equity Theory is derived from social exchange theory. It explains motivation in theworkplace as a cognitive process of evaluation, whereby the employee seeks to achievea balance between inputs or efforts in the workplace and the outcomes or rewardsreceived or anticipated.

In particular, Equity Theory research has tested employee sentiments regarding equitablecompensation. Employee inputs take the form of work volume and quality, performance,knowledge, skills, attributes and behaviors. The company-generated outcomes includerewards such as compensation, praise and advancement opportunities. The employeecompares his inputs relative to outcomes; and, then, extrapolating to the social context,the employee compares his input/outcome ratio with the perceived ratios of others. If theemployee perceives an inequity, the theory posits that the employee will adjust hisbehavior to bring things into balance.

Equity Theory has proven relevance in situations where an employee is under-compensated. If an employee perceives that he is undercompensated, he can adjust hisbehavior to achieve equilibrium in several different ways:

reduce input to a level he believes better matches his level of compensation change or adjust the comparative standard to which he is comparing his situation cognitively adjust his perception of his inputs or the outcomes received withdraw address the situation with his employer by asking for a raise

If the employee is able to achieve a ratio of inputs to outputs that he perceives to beequitable, then the employee will be satisfied. The employee's evaluation of input-to-output ratios and subsequent striving to achieve equilibrium is an ongoing process.

While it has been established that Equity Theory provides insight into scenarios of under-compensation, the theory has generally failed to demonstrate its usefulness inunderstanding scenarios of overcompensation. In this way, it could be said Equity Theoryis more useful in describing factors that contribute to a lack of motivation rather thanincreasing motivation in the workplace. Concepts of organizational justice later expandedupon the fundamentals of Equity Theory and pointed to the importance of fairnessperceptions in the workplace.

There are three fairness perceptions applied to organizational settings:

1. Distributive justice, or the perception of equality of an individual's outcomes2. Procedural justice, or the fairness of the procedures used to determine one's

outcomes3. Interactional justice, or the perception that one has been treated fairly with dignity

and respect

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4. Informational Justice, or the perception that one has been given all the informationhe/she needs in order to best perform their jobs.

When workplace processes are perceived as fair, the benefits to an organization can behigh. In such environments, employees are more likely to comply with policies even iftheir personal outcome is less than optimal. When workplace policies are perceived asunfair, risks for retaliation and related behaviors such as sabotage and workplaceviolence can increase.

Leventhal (1980) described six criteria for creating fair procedures in an organization. Heproposed that procedures and policies should be:

1. consistently applied to everyone in the organization2. free from bias3. accurate4. correctable5. representative of all concerns6. based on prevailing ethics

Contemporary Theories of MotivationMcClelland’s Theory of Needs

− Proposes three major relevant motives or needs

− Need for achievement: the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to standards, tostrive to succeed

− Need for power: The need to make others behave in a way they otherwise wouldnot

− Need for Affiliation: The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

− High need to achieve tend perform best when they perceive their probability ofsuccess as being .5 (50-50 chance of success). They dislike gambling when theyhave a high probability of failure because success is due more to luck than ability.Prefer job situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and intermediate levelof risk. It does not necessarily lend itself to being a good manager, especially inlarge organizations.

− Those with a high need for power tend to be more concerned with gaining prestigeand influence over others that with effective performance

− Those with high need for affiliation prefer cooperative situations rather thancompetitive ones.

− Best managers appear to be high in the need for power and low in their need foraffiliation.

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Goal-setting theory developed by Edwin Locke and his colleagues− Theory simply states that difficult, specific goals lead to higher performance than

easy goals, vague goals, or no goals do− Difficult goals enhance performance by directing attention and action, mobilizing

effort, increasing persistence, and motivating the search for effectiveperformance strategies

− Very specific and difficult to achieve goals produce a higher level of output thana generalized goal of “do your best”

− Based on four assumptions− Human behavior occurs in response to goals and intentions which take many

forms− Because goals are responsible for performance, higher and harder goals will

result in higher performance than easier goals− Clear and measurable goals result in higher performance than ambiguous goals− Neither extrinsic nor intrinsic incentives will have any effect on behavior unless

they result in the setting of goals that are ambitious and specific− Cognitive approach in that it assumes that an individual’s purposes direct their

actions− Theory has received considerable empirical support and its simplicity makes it

attractive− Potential problem is that the theory has not been tested in complex task settings

�Reinforcement theory based on B. F. Skinner’s (1953) work on operant conditioning− Operant conditioning is based on classic stimulus-response research. People repeat

or drop behaviors depending on the consequences.

− Reinforcement is an event that follows a behavior and changes the probability thatthe behavior will occur. Can be positive or negative

− Behavioral modification refers to techniques that apply the techniques of operantconditioning to modify human behavior− This can be accomplished through a 5-step process known as organizational

behavior (OB) modification, which is discussed in more detail below− Theory is at odds with goal-setting theory− It is a behavioral approach, which argues that reinforcement conditions behavior.

View behavior as a result of environmental conditions. Cognitive events are of littleconcern

�Equity theory− Based on the recognition that employees tend to make comparisons− Employees tend to compare their own job inputs and outcomes with those of others

and those inequities can influence the degree of effort that employees expend.− The theory states that employees weigh what they put into a job situation (input)

against what they get from it (outcome) and their compare this ration with theinput-output ratio of relevant others. A state of equity exists when their ratio isequal to others. If the ratio is unequal, the employees tend to view themselves asunder or over rewarded. When inequities exist, employees attempt to correct them.

− Referent categories: other individuals with similar jobs in the same organization aswell as friends, neighbors, and professional associates; system considersorganizational pay policies and procedures and the administration of this system;self category includes income-outcome ratios unique to individuals

− When a state of inequity exists, individuals will:

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− Distort either their own or others inputs or outcomes− Behave in a manner that induces others to change their inputs or outcomes− Behave in a manner that causes them to change inputs/outcomes− Choose different referent comparisons− Quit their job

− It supports the following propositions:− Given payment by time, over rewarded employees will produce more than

equitably paid employees− Given payment by quantity of production, over rewarded employees will produce

fewer but higher quality units than equitably paid employees− Given payment by time, under rewarded employees will produce less or a poorer

quality of output− Given payment by quantity of production, under rewarded employees will

produce a large number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paidemployees

− Issues such as how individuals decide referent categories and define inputs andoutcomes are still unclear.