“MOSQUE ARCHITECTURE” OR ARCHITECTURE OF MOSQUE: A …

Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(1) June 2016 | 1

JOURNAL OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTUREP-ISSN: 2086-2636 E-ISSN: 2356-4644Journal Home Page: http://ejournal.uin-malang.ac.id/index.php/JIA

“MOSQUE ARCHITECTURE” OR ARCHITECTURE OF MOSQUE: A NEWNOTIONS OF BENGAL DURING THE MUSLIM RULE

| Received December 4th 2015 | Accepted January 9th 2016 | Available online June 30th 2016 || DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.18860/jia.v4i1.3167 |

Sumaiya AhmedThe Department of Islamic Studies,Aligarh Muslim University (AMU),Aligarh, [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The mosque constitutes one of the most highly developed forms of religiousarchitecture. With the rapid expansion of the Muslim community throughconquests as well as missionary activities, it became necessary to set aside anenclosed area in cities or large towns for the purpose of established communalworship. Mosque architecture in the Muslim period exposes clearly its sacredidentity, even it is continuously remarked, but in secular architecture, the ideasare not spiritually motivated in a cosmic sense. Definitely a structural idea anduse of materials as well as its functional and aesthetic use play a role indetermining what is expressed by it. The development of understanding offunctional and aesthetic use of materials and technique with effective manner isdepending on assimilated technologies. Integrated process of standard materials,skilled labor, innovative idea and socioeconomic as well as geographical factorsmay regard to constructing any magnificent architecture. The present study isan attempt to analyse and develop the structure, structural decoration and useof materials and design of the mosques during the Muslim period in Bengal.

KEYWORDS:Architecture; Community; Mosque; Muslim; Muslim Period

INTRODUCTION

When the Muslims established their powerpermanently in this sub-continent, they alreadypossessed a highly developed architecture of theirown. There are certain elements which have becomeespecially associated with this architecture.Fundamentally speaking, they are arch and dome,minarets and mihrabs. These elements are commonthroughout the Muslim world. But, besides these thereare a number of local elements that get the upperhand in different regions and localities. Thesedifferences make for local styles. They bear thecharacter of the land upon which they flourish. TheMuslim architecture that developed in Bengal had anindividuality of its own, and it bears a definite stamp ofthis deltaic land. In contrast to the green and goldmosaics of Jerusalem and Damascus, or the superbcoloring of Persian title work, or the wonderfulfantasies of Spanish design, Bengal offer hermarvelous art designs in terracotta that take theirinspiration from the jungle scenes of this land [1].

The cataclysmic waves of Muslim invasion in thetwelfth and the thirteenth centuries reached Bengalwith a thrust that left an indelible imprint in the land ofthe Buddhists and the Hindus, the original inhabitantsof the region. In the land of stupas and templesMosque was certainly a noble and characteristicvariation in the field of building art. It is true that

whatever the Muslims went, they erected mosques tomeet the fundamental religious requirements, that is,congregational prayer five times a day. But in boldnessof design and grandeur of conception the splendidmosques built during the early phase of Muslim rule inBengal reflect the genius of Muslim architects andtheir adjustability to local architectural influence. It isobvious that when the Muslims came as invaders toIndia and finally Bengal they brought with themmasons and decorators who have long been trained inthe art of building in the style prevalent in their regions[2].

BACKGROUND

The mosque constitutes one of the most highlydeveloped forms of religious architecture. With therapid expansion of the Muslim community throughconquests as well as missionary activities, it becamenecessary to set aside an enclosed area in cities orlarge towns for the purpose of established communalworship. Mosque architecture in medieval timeexposes clearly its sacred identity, even it iscontinuously remarked, but in secular architecture, theideas are not spiritually motivated in a cosmic sense.Definitely a structural idea and use of materials as wellas its functional and aesthetic use play a role indetermining what is expressed by it. The developmentof understanding of functional and aesthetic use ofmaterials and technique with effective manner is

“Mosque Architecture” or Architecture of Mosque: a New Notions of Bengal During the Muslim Rule

2 | Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(1) June 2016

depending on assimilated technologies. Integratedprocess of standard materials, skilled labor, innovativeidea and socioeconomic as well as geographical factorsmay regard to constructing any magnificentarchitecture. The evolution of Indo-Muslimarchitecture in the twelfth and the thirteenth centuriesmay be described as a synthetic process: the impact ofIslam in India was overwhelming, but this does notnegatively influenced the Indian architectural skill onthe formation of a truly distinctive style of Islamicarchitecture in India. The Muslims brought with themtheir own architectural skill and traditions. They,however, found a completely different environment inIndia, to which their traditions of architecture had tobe accommodated. The architectural traditions in Indiaduring the medieval period where vertical andhorizontal, which was mastered to formulatestructural ideas by both the Hindu and the Muslims.The Mughal (The Mughal rule was a branch ofthe Timurid dynasty. From the early sixteenth centuryto the early eighteenth they built and ruled the MughalEmpire on the Indian subcontinent, mainlycorresponding to the modern countries of Bangladesh,India and Pakistan. Their power rapidly dwindledduring the eighteenth century and the last of theemperors was deposed in 1857, with the establishmentof the British Raj) followed the homogeneous stylewhich followed in the Sultan-i -Mosque. The buildingsof the Mughal period show the powerful influence ofthe Delhi (capital of India at present) style. In thecontext of the structure, Mughal mosques of Dhaka(capital of Bangladesh at present) are the existingexample of gradual transformation of the foreignelements to the taste of local concept and tradition.Abroad architectural ideas imported into India,particularly religious one, dominated by the mosques,from Persia and central Arabia. The impact of foreignconstruction and design technique, successive use ofmaterials and adaptability of ideas with domesticexisting theme is the main focal point of this article.Here Indian and traditional Muslim architectureexclusively interior and exterior structure of themosque will be studied. It is hoped that this study willtrigger more research on medieval mosques of Bengalin the future[3].

MUSLIM CAME IN BENGAL

Low–lying delta area in the north-west corner ofthe Indian subcontinent. The character of Bengal islargely determined by the Ganges and Brahmaputrarivers which divide into innumerable branches beforeentering the sea. Although the area is currently dividedbetween the two modern states of India andBangladesh it retains a certain homogeneity based onits language (Bengali) and culture [4].

The victory of Muhammad Bakht- yār Khaljī atNadiya in A.D. 1204 marks a new epoch in the historyand culture of Bengal. The history henceforth turns onto record the onward march of the Muslim arms fromWest Bengal to South and East until the entireGangeto –Brahmaputra delta was brought under their

complete sway. This region, which henceforth bore thename of Sultanate –i-Bangala or Subah-i-Bangala, was inthe past surcharged with Hindu-Buddhist spirit, butnow it felt the impact of Islam. The early Arab contactwith the Bengal coast has left no recognizable remainson the surface, except a faint memory in‘Buddermokan’ associated with the Muslims asrecorded by Harvey. The influence of Islam in thecultural field was gradual but definite, and as a resultof the clash of its ideals with those of the earlierforces, we find the people of this region coming withinthe fold of Islam in such a great number that the wholeatmosphere of this humid land today breathes in thespirit of the desert-born Islam. The Muslim had cometo Bengal with their developed civilization of Islam astheir heritage and they meant to settle down in thecountry in order to establish a new home forthemselves. The caries of this civilization, who mostlyTurks, had themselves were uprooted from theirhomeland in Central Asia and they came here assquatters to make a bid for a new career in their life.They introduced the new martial vigor and the greatheritage of the Islamic civilization that they brought intheir train, but how these new elements fitted into theever-recurring humid climate of Bengal, is a longhistory [5].

Figure 1. Map of India (Asia continent) indicate the position ofthe Bengal, after 1947, partition of India Bengal divided into two

parts: west Bengal (India) and Bangladesh (Independentcountry)[6]

Figure 2. Position of Bengal (Indian Subcontinent)[7]

An attempt is made here to understand thisphenomenon in the field of architecture, whichexpresses but one aspect of human life, but it is themost important in so far as it is a social product























Sumaiya Ahmed


demanding the coordinate effort of peoples divergentin beliefs, customs and manners, often at war with oneanother. The Human desire for durability and beautymakes them sink their enemies in order to produce abuilding which would serve their purpose. It is on thesebuildings that the human attempt at a commonendeavor is writ large and we get at the back of humanmind that goaded them to build such monuments. It isthrough them that we shall try to see how in thechanging styles of architecture the conqueringMuslims advanced to adjust their mind to theenvironment of Bengal [8].

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OFTHE MOSQUES

The Masjid is a microcosm that engulfs all theMuslims within the macrocosm of Muslim brotherhoodand a symbol of fraternal unity and solidaritythroughout the Muslim world. Masjid par excellence isnot merely a veritable exhibition of the monumentalart done in a most sacramental way, but also anemblem of religious fervor and sacerdotal obligationsof Muslim Ummah. It is, therefore, quite evident thatMasjid formed the genesis of Muslim architecture fromthe day the Holy Prophet Muhammadصلى الله عليه وسلم (PBUH) laidthe foundation of the first Mosque of Islam at Madinahand his favorite follower Hadrat Belal chanted the firstazan from the roof of that Mosque [9]. Since thenMua’zzins have been calling the Faithful to Mosques forcongregational prayers five times a day from the talltapering minarets throughout the Muslim world. As adistinctive type of Muslim religious building art,Mosque is a veritable symbol of Islam. Derived fromsajada,the Masjid or Mosque is obviously a place ofprostration and divine worship with utmost humilityand religious fervor. Unlike Stonehenge, Greek alters,Roman basilica, Fire-Temple, Jewish Tabernacle,Christian Church, Buddhist Temple, and Hindu Shrine,Mosque was not the product of a highly organizedliturgy and priesthood. Mosque never expoundsmythology or mysticism, but a moving and unaffectedpiety, a soul –searching spirit, enabling theworshippers to realize the transcendental qualities ofan omnipotent, Omniscient Allah. As Islam condemnsall self-centered individualistic types of prayer, theMosque has pre-eminently acquired breadth andspaciousness hitherto unknown in dark and mysteriouscells of many non-Muslim shrines [9].

MEANING OF THE MOSQUE

A Muslim place of prayer. The English word‘Mosque’ derives, via the French Mosque the old FrenchMousquaie, the old Italian Moschea and Moscheta andthe old Spanish Mezquita, from the Arabic wordMasjid, meaning a place of prostration before Allah.The word masjid (and its plural Masājid) appearstwenty seven times in the Qur’ān, fifteen times in thephrase al masjid al harām, the Holy Mosque, where itpre-symbol refers to the sanctuary surrounding theKa’ba in Mecca. The word Masjid, is used once in thephrase Al –Masjid al Aqsā ‘the furthest mosque. In

Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم (PBUH) lifetime this probablyreferred to a place of prayer in heaven, although latercommentators universally understood this phrase torefer generally to the sanctuary of Jerusalem andespecially to the Mosque erected at the south end ofthe Temple Mount. Other uses of the word Masjid inthe Qur’ān indicate that it could be applied to anyplace where Allah was worshipped, whether in Islamicor pre-Islamic times. The Qur’ān gives absolutely noindication of what, if any, from a Masjid should takeand perfectly valid worship may be performed afterablution virtually anywhere using only the mostminimal marking on the ground or a mat or rug whenMuslims gather in groups for communal worship, theyline up in rows facing the Qibla or direction of prayerand repeat a series of prayer leader, perform a seriesprostrations.Starting from these modest begins, overthe centuries Muslims have built praying places ofgreat power and beauty that count among the finestexamples of world architecture. This article will discussthe history and development of structures and theirconstituent elements as they evolved over thecenturies [10]. If architecture is an expression ofhuman will in brick and mortar to create somethingsublime something to express his distinctive genius onthe canvass of nature which is ever ready to merge himwithin her lap –it is necessary that the architecturalforms are studied and styles appreciated against thedemand of local conditions. The motives of man areunderstood only when he is appreciated in theparticular surroundings in which he is placed. TheBuildings are not end –products in a vacuum.They arecreated to meet certain conditions of life, and it is inthe fulfillment of these conditions that the highestachievement of man is realized [11].

METHODS

This study deals with the Mosques Architectureof Bengal built between the independent sultanate ofBengal and the end of Afghan rule, when Akbar(Mughal Ruler) conquered Bengal and it became asuba or mosques form a homogeneous group ofMuslim monuments in this area, in sharp contrast tothose of the Mughal period that followed: while thesultanate architecture of Bengal differs markedly fromthe Dehli, the buildings of Mughal period show thepowerful influence of Dehli style.

MUSLIM RULE IN BENGAL

Bengal, the land of gold and green, came underMuslim rule in 1204 when Muhammad Bakht- yār Khaljī,a general of Qutb ud Din Aibak, took over Nadiya, thecapital city of the Sen Dynasty in lower Bengal andestablish himself at Gaur or Lakhnauti (Gour), alsoknown as Lakhnauti, is a ruined city on the India-Bangladesh border, most of the former citadel islocated in present-day the Malda district of WestBengal, India, while a smaller part is locatedin Nawabganj District of Bangladesh) as the governorof the newly established Turkish Empire. The Muslim



rule so established was strengthened and extended bysubsequent rule either under the nominal subordinatesto the Dehli Sultanate(1206–1526 A.D.) or independentchieftains. We hear names of several generals andgovernors who rebelled against the Central authorityand declared independence. Among these the socalled Ilyas Shahis stand out prominently, whoseprogenitor, Shams u’d din Ilyâs, proclaimedindependent in 1345.Among his successors wereSikandar Shah and A ‘zam Shah Mahmud (1442-59). Thelatter is known for his building enterprises, forexample, he rebuilt the capital of Gaur and constructeda mosque at Sonargaon. Shah Husain (1493-1518) orSayyid u’s- Sâdât ‘Alâ u’d Din Abu’l Muzaffar ShahHusainSultan, to name him in full was, however, the greatestruler of Bengal after Ilyâs.After him the dynastysuffered decline because family feuds and conspiracieswere engineered among the various centres forpower.The situation deteriorated to the extent thatJalâl Khan and his son Sher Khan got prominence untilthe establishment of the Mughal Empire in 1526 whenHumâyun got temporary possession of Gaur.However,in 1539, he was ousted by Sher Shah, who became theindependent ruler of Bengal [12].

It has been claimed that the Muslim rulers andfollowing them, their nobles and elite erected severalmonumental buildings, both religious as well assecular, throughout the empire. The twin cities of Gaurand Pandua (Pandua also spelt Pandooah is a censustown in Hooghly district in the Indian state of WestBengal) often served as the capital in the sultanateperiod, while Vikramapur (Vikramapur(Munshiganj) the political and cultural centre ofancient Bengal survives only in the name of an area inthe Munshiganj district of Bangladesh. The remains ofthe city of Vikramapur, the capital of the ancientkingdoms of south-eastern Bengal, are lost and itslocation can only be guessed on the basis of availabledata) Sonargaon (Sonargaon also transcribedas Sunārgāon, meaning City of Gold) was a historicadministrative, commercial and maritime center inBengal. Situated in the center of the Ganges delta, itwas the seat of the medieval Muslim rulers andgovernors of eastern Bengal), Dhaka and Many othershad Monumental edifices like mosques, madrasas,tombs, caravanserais, fortifications, bridges andcauseways, built into them [13].

Bengal, a riparian country with immense alluvialsoil deposits, is a brick building region as stone andmarble quarries are totally absent, though a fewexamples of stone structures and stray stone elementsare observable. The Mughal mosques of Dhaka are allbuilt of brick. But the carved brick ornamentation ofthe pre-Mughal period was replaced by the flat surfacedecoration of plastering. The cornice tended to bemore horizontal than curvilinear as observable in pre-Mughal structures. The paneling on walls with nichesand rectangular frames now adorned the walls of theMughal mosques. The arch no longer retained two-centered, pointed, variety, but recourse to four-centered type, occasionally feature of imperial Mughalarchitecture as observed in the Tomb of Humayun at

Dehli and the Taj Mahal at Agra(famous city of India),and it was totally absent in Bengal [14].

One fascinating aspect of natural harmony canbe found in the traditional architecture of the Bengalimosque, which is seen as fitting within a naturalsetting rather than forcing itself on its surroundings.The monumental mosque architecture of the fabulouscapitals. Such as Gaur, Pandua, Dhaka, Murshidabad (isa city in Murshidabad district of WestBengal state in India) and Rajmahal (is a city anda notified area in Sahibganj district inthe Indian state of Jharkhand) – sends out a different,as this architecture represents royal patronage andmajestic taste. However, the overall nature of Islamicart and architecture in Bengali is not imposing rather, itbelongs to the natural background in its basiccharacter. In the vast rural mosques are used for dailyprayers that draw their architectural vocabularies fromlocal traditions on the natural settings. Typicalexamples are the Bengali village mosques that havethatched roofs and mud-walls, somewhat similar to theoriginal Masjid al- Nabaei (The Prophet’s mosque) oneof the earliest mosques in Madinah. Often naturalponds are attached to these Bengali Mosques. Theseserve as a place of Wudu (ablution). These simplerplaces of prayer also contributed to the ruralpopulation easily accepting Islam. The ruralarchitecture of the Muslim villagers reminds us thatthe focus of Islamic architecture is not to be solely onbuildings; rather, it should be about people theirenvironment and ecology [15].

SOME FEATURES OF MOSQUE ARCHITECTURE

The Bengali style of architecture broadly falls intotwo chronological phases, the pre-Mughal and theMughal [11]. The main distinguishing features of thebuildings of the two periods are as follows [16]:1. Most of the pre-Mughal buildings, except the

very few early ones, have the curvature of theparapet and the cornice, but this was notadopted in the buildings of the Mughal period inwhich the parapet and cornice are horizontal andstraight.

2. The arch in the pre-Mughal buildings is two-centered and pointed, emanating from heavypiers or pillars; whereas in the Mughal buildings itis four-centered

3. The dome in the buildings of the pre-Mughalperiod is usually semi-circular and without anyshoulder drum so that it lacks height andgrandeur. It also rests on pillars which divide theinterior of the buildings (mostly mosque) intoaisles and bays. Consequently the number ofdomes equals the number of aisles into bays, orrather the number of front –doors inthe side-door. The domes in the Mughal buildings, on theother hand, stand on the shoulders and hencethey attain a height and beauty, they also restnot on pillars but on transverse arches.Consequently the mosques of the Mughal periodare not of the multi-domed type of the previous

Sumaiya Ahmed


period, but are mostly either three-domed orsingle –domed.

4. Finally the walls of the pre-Mughal buildings arenot plastered, but are decorated generals withterracotta designs. The Mughal buildings, on theother hand, are plastered and the decorationsare also generally made of plaster work.

PRE –MUGHAL PERIOD

The predominant form of Islamic architecture inBengal is the mosque. In pre-Mughal Bengal theMosque was virtually the only form of Islamic building,although after the sixteenth century a wide variety ofIslamic building types such as the caravanserai andmadrassa were introduced characteristic features ofBengali mosques of all periods are multiple mihrabs,engaged corner towers and curved cornices. Althoughmultiple mihrabs sometimes occur in North India,Bengal is the only place where they are a constantfeature in mosques. The number of mihrabs isdetermined by the number of entrances in the eastwall. Engaged corner towers are a constant feature ofBengali architecture and may derive from pre-Islamictemples. Curved cornices are probably derived fromthe curved roofs of bamboo huts, it is possible thatthey may have a practical function for draining wateraway from the base of the domes. During the pre-Mughal sultanate three types mosque were built,rectangular, square nine –domed and square singledomed. During the pre-Mughal sultanate three typesof mosques were built, rectangular, square nine-domed and square single domed.A Mosque built on arectangular plan are divided into aisles and bays,according to the number of domes on the roof. At theeast end of each aisle is a doorway and at the west enda mihrab. There are also openings on the south andnorth sides of the mosque corresponding to thenumber of bays. The nine –domed mosques are similarto those found elsewhere in the Islamic world, butthey differ in having three mihrabs at the west-end.The most popular form of mosque in pre-MughalBengal was the single –domed chamber [17]. So, herediscussed some great Muslim dynasty during the pre-Mughal period in Bengal.

MAMLUK PERIOD (1227–1281)

The early period of the Muslim rule in Bengal,which is associated with the sultanate of Lakhnauti,was the time of the provincial governors who generallybore the title of Malik. They ruled more or less in sub-ordination to Dehli authority and existed entirely ontheir untiring zeal for war against the neighbouringrivals Hindu rajas.They had to assert their own right inthe contending ideals of the time. The seed of theMuslim rule that they had sown, hard to grow, lest itlost its strength and got overpowered by themushroom growth of the petty Hindu Kingdoms. Anew idealism was to be born out of the clash ofinterests, in which the right of the new invaders was tofind due recognition. The necessities of their life were

to be fulfilled at the expense of others. The way oftheir living should find scope in the tin buildings. It isbut natural that this ideal is reflected in thecontemporary architecture. In their general patternthe buildings proclaim the Muslim source of inspirationan indebtedness to the common tradition which bythen had already developed in Delhi. Thus, thebuildings are an epitome of the then architecturalachievements of the Bengalis placed at the service ofthe Muslim conquerors. This early phase ofconstruction from the beginning of the Muslim rule ofthe foundation of the Independent Sultanate in Bengal(from 1204-1338) is studied under the Mamluk style[11].

This is the formative period of the Bengaliarchitecture in which the beginnings of new taste aredimly visualized. Owing to later restoration many ofthe original features have undergone changes, butenough remains to show the typical brick style and thebrick and stone style of Bengal. The multi –domedmosques are quite popular, but we do not find herethe corner towers, not the curved roof. On the otherhand the front row of arches spring directly from hugepiers –an appearance which strikes ill to the eye. Butthe terracotta ornamentation finds its due place at themihrab [11].

EARLY ILYAS SHAHI PERIOD(1352-1414)

The break-up the Muslim empire in about themiddle of the fourteenth century A.D. led to theestablishment of regional kingdoms, but the buildingprogramme of the Tughlaqs (The Tughlaqdynasty (Persian: also referred to as Tughluq ,(سلسلہ تغلقor Tughluk dynasty, was a Muslim dynastyof Turkic origin which ruled over the Delhi sultanate inmedieval India. Its reign started in 1320 in Delhi whenGhazi Malik assumed the throne under the titleof Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq. The dynasty ended in1413)continued unabated during the reign of FirozShah Tughlaq (A.D.1351-1388. It was after invasion ofTimur in A.D.1398 that the capital city of Delhi layexhausted and denuded of its treasures. The buildersnaturally dispersed into the newly-risen kingdoms, andit is only in the fifteenth century A.D. that the Tughlaqinfluence is mainly left in the provincial architecture.Bengal started the independent career with the revoltof the Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah at Sonargaon, in A.D.1338, but it was left to the Shamsuddin Ilyas shah, anew arrival probably from the Panjab, to establish therule of his own dynasty in this deltaic land, with capitalat Hazrat Pandua (The word Hazrat is used in order todistinguish this town from Chhota Pandua in Hooghlydistrict in West Bengal, India in present day), theFirozabad of the Muslim historians. Ilyas Shah unitedthe three regions- Lakhnauti, Satgaon and Sonargaon –under his authority and bore the significant title ofShah-i- Bangala. Henceforward the nomenclaturechanged from the Sultanate of Lakhnauti to that ofBangala. The Ilyas Shahi buildings make a bold attemptto evolve a grand style befitting the dignity of the newstate [11].



So, this period is known mainly from the greatAdina Mosque at Hazrat Pandua, though other smallerbuildings are known from the other places. The Adinais a new experiment in Bengal as far as its general planand design is concerned. It called forth the best ofmasons, stone workers and materials that were thenavailable. It is a bold creation unique in its kind, andthough displaying many details of the Bengalielements, it can hardly be regarded as a next stage inthe development of the Bengali style [11].

REPRESENT THE EKLAKHI STYLE BETWEEN THE EARLY ANDLATTER ILYAS SHAHI PERIOD

The independent kingdom in Bengal created arivalry between the newcomers, who hadaccompanied Ilyas Shah and founded the MuslimSultanate of Bengal and local supporters of Ilyas, whohas dreamt of a regeneration of their cherished aimsand ideals. The political opportunities favoured the riseof a Hindu chief Raja Ganesh (1415-33 A.D.), whomanipulated the circumstances to win over the thronefor his own converted son Jadu-Jalaluddin(d. 1431)andthus establish the rule of his dynasty. Ganesha infuseda strong local current into the spirit of the time, but hecould not change the course in favour of the Hindurule. He met with a strong opposition in thepersonality of Hazrat Nur Qutb ‘Alam, the great saintof Hazrat Pandua, who stood fast to the claim of Islamand ultimately won over the son of the Hindu Raja.Jalaluddin became a disciple of the saint and made ahappy comprise between the two contending parties.The result was the dawn of a new age, in whichMuslims and Hindus alike co-operated to evolve acommon cultural heritage in Bengal. Now where else isthe spirt of the time better reflected than in thebuildings erected at this time. The social emotions thatwere stirred in this period could alone conceive of abuilding of the type of Eklakhi Style at Hazrat Pandua[11].

The Eklakhi represents the true brick style ofBengal, with massive walls, octagonal corner towers,curved parapet, and terracotta ornamentation, thewall surface variegated with offsets and recesses, andabove all the numerous lines of mouldings. The glazedtiles are for the first time used in this building [11].

LATTER ILYAS SHAHI PERIOD(1435-1487)

Nasiruddin Mahmud I ushered in “ the mostflourishing period of Lakhnauti, its most flourishingperiod of Lakhnauti, its Augustan age, in which periodwere constructed the best and the finest remains nowexisting.” With his enthronement the House of RajaGanesha came to an end, and the old dynasty of IlyasShah was restored amidst the plaudits of the people.The restoration not only revived the feelings of loyaltyto the dynasty, but also inspired the rulers to thefulfillment of those aims and ideals that had just takenshape during the reign of the local converted dynasty.There was no reaction in this period of the Ilyas Shahis.All their benevolent works indicate a culmination ofthose currents of social life that were set rolling with

the foundation of the independent Sultanate in Bengal[11].

This period is a fully developed architectural styleof Bengal. The defects of the Eklakhi and the Adina arehere removed. This is the period when the Bengaliarchitecture reached its classical phase. Theadjustment of the buildings of the classical phase. Theadjustment of the buildings to the surroundings, thewell-balanced plan and adequate ornamentation –allproduced an effect that is really charming [11].

HUSAIN SHAHI PERIOD (1494-1538)

The Latter Ilyas Shahi dynasties were upstarts,among whom Saifuddin Firoz was a man of genius andpersonality. His death in A.D. 1490 has again beenopportunity to the self-seekers to make a bold bid forthe throne. The fortunate ones succeeded to occupy itone another, but their ill-famous deeds drove thepeople to rebellion. The people won over the supportof Sayyid Husain, the shrewd wazir of the last rulerShamsuddin Muzaffar (Sidi Badr Diwana). When hisfate was decided, Sayyid Husain was proclaimed kingin A.D. 1493 amid people’s rejoicing. He founded theHusain Shahi dynasty, under whose rule Bengalexpended in her political boundary and prospered intrade and commerce [11].

Then, the Husain Shahi rulers introduced an eraof peace and prosperity, the building activity in Bengalreceived a further stimulus. The large number ofmosques was built all over the place. At this time wefind both brick style and brick and stone style followedside by side. The decorations reached greater height,even to the extent profusely, and some of the domes,as the two Golden Mosques at Gaur, were gilded [11].

MUGHAL PERIOD (SUBAH-I-BANGALAH PROVINCE OFMUGHAL EMPIRE 1556-1717)

Bengal is studded with mosques, particularly ofthe Mughal period. Any foreign visitor would bepleased at the sight of the skyline presented by Bengalfor innumerable mosques ranging over a thousand insmall localities as well as important civic but alsotestify to the deep religious favor of the Muslims.Architecturally speaking, these splendid buildings areunique examples of provincial version of the imperialMughal architecture, though certainly they were notmere blind copies. Under Mughal dispensation buildingstyle underwent drastic change compared to the pre-Mughal brick and terracotta architecture. Mughalmosques had to suit themselves to new forms andtechniques. A glimpse of the Muslim architecture ofBengal can obtain from some of the existing Mosquesphases [14].

AGE OF AKBAR

Until 1575 Bengal was under the control ofvarious Afghans houses. Then Akbar’s troops broughtinto the Mughal Empire. Subsequently, several revoltsagainst Akbar’s authority were staged by renegadenobles of the Mughal camp. Ironically, during this

Sumaiya Ahmed


chaotic period, a Mughal style of architecture had amarked regional character. It was founded on a well –established Islamic style in Bengal illustrated by severalmonuments constructed on the eve of Mughalauthority there. Among these are the double aisle six-domed Mosque of Kusumba built in 1558-59 and thesquare plan single domed tomb of Pir Bahram inBurdwan dated 1562-63. The former is stone, while thelatter is brick –constructed, and both like most pre-Mughal architecture of Islamic Bengal has a prominentcurved cornice. Their plan and elevation even theornamental brick –reflect forms that were at the timeseveral centuries old. From this foundation, theMughal style of Bengal evolves [18].

AGE OF SHAH JAHAN

The lasting impact of Mughal architecture wasfelt later in Bengal. Little had been built here inJahangir’s reign. Even at the beginning of Shah Jahan’sreign, the pan-Indian Mughal aesthetic had not yetpenetrated Bengal. For in the first year of Shah Jahan’sreign 1628-29, the Khondakar Tola Mosque at sherpurwas completed. A buildings clearly inspired by thenearby Kherua mosque of 1582 indicating a reliance onlocal building traditions. This single aisled brick –constructed mosque was provided by Sadr Jahan. Alocal religious official. Shortly after this. However,building styles began to reflect those at Mughalcenters throughout India. Several monuments of thisperiod remain in Dhaka, an important mercantilecenter and military outpost. AncIdgah of 1640-41 and aserial known as the Bara Katra, dated between 1643-1646, were provided by Abd al-Qasim, theadministration there. Little remains today of his oncesplendid series. Its multi – storied entrance gate,however. Still stands and its similar to Aczam Khan’sserai entrance in Ahmadabad built less than a decadeearlier. The cIdgah was modeled closely on saif Khan’sPatna cIdgah of 1628. The mosque inside Dhaka’sLalbagh fort dated 1649, is typical of Shah Jahan periodarchitecture in Bengal. For example, the facetedrecessed arches of the central entrance are also seenon the nearby Bara Katra and the contemporarymosques of Rajmahal. Its cusped arched and rows ofrecessed niches give this single – aisle three bayedmosque a more refined quality than those incontemporary Rajmahal. In spite of its fluted domes aneighteenth century restoration, it remains the bestexample of the fully mature Mughal Mosque type ofthis period in Bengal [19]. The Mughals introduced anumber of important architectural features in Bengal.These came gradually, meanwhile the earlier style andfeatures persisted for sometimes longer. A notableexample of this continued local style is the Qutb ShāhīMosque at Hadrat Pandua, built in 1582 by Mak hdūmShaikh, a descendant of Sheikh Nūr Qutb al-‘Ālam, inwhose honour the mosque is so called. It is built ofbricks with roughly cut stone facing on the walls, andfollows the usual oblong plan, measuring externally 82feet 6 inches by 37 feet 8 inches and having cornertowers crowed with cupolas. The interior is divided

into 2 aisles and five bays by a row of four stone pillarsthat originally supported 10 domes, now all fallen.Corresponding with the aisles and bass respectively,there are two arched doors each on the northern andthe southern side, and five arched doors in the easternwall in line with five mihrabs in the western wall. Theparapet and cornier are curved. The façade is plainexcept for the bands of mouldings on the walls andthe offers a towers. Here discussed some importantmosques during the Muslim period: Some GrandMosques in Bengal during the Muslim period (PreMughal- Mughal Period): Adina Mosque (1373 A.D.) InFourteenth century:

Figure-3. Adina Mosque [20]

Figure 4. Adina Mosque Inside [21]

Figure 5. Mihrab (prayer niche) at Adina Mosque [22]

Sumaiya Ahmed



AGE OF SHAH JAHAN






Sumaiya Ahmed



AGE OF SHAH JAHAN








The Adina Mosque at Pandua near Gaur in Bengalexemplifies a more distinctive local style, combingfeatures from both east and west. One of the largestmosques in India (155× 87m.), it consists of a series ofhypostyle halls arranged around a courtyard. Thecourtyard façade is a screen of 88 arches supported onpiers and surmounted by a parapet. In the centre ofthe Prayer hall, a massive iwan like barrel vaulted hallleads from the court to the mihrab and minbar. Nowroofless and shattered. The vault was framed by a highscreen, undoubtedly modeled on the Iranian Pishtaq.Stone spolia from temples were used for the lowerparts of the building, but brick was used above theimposts for the arches and the 370 brick domes. Threebays to the north of the mihrab is a raised platformthat was originally screened and surmounted by aparapet. In the center of the prayer hall, a massiveiwan-like barrel –vaulted hall leads from the court tothe mihrab and minbar. Now roofless and shattered,the vault were farmed by a high screen, undoubtedlymodeled on the Iranian. Stone spolia from templeswere used for the lower parts of the building, but brickwas used above the imposts for the arches and the 370brick domes. Three bays to the north of the mihrab is araised platform that was originally screened andsurmounted by 18 domes higher than those over theother bays of the prayer-halls. This type of platform isfound in several large mosques of the sultanate periodand probably served as an elevated Maqsura. Althoughthe size and plan of the Adina Mosque are atypical ofother Bengali mosques, which are much more modestin scale, its multiple mihrabs are typical of mosques inthe region. Such as the mosque of Zafar khan Ghazi inTribeni (1298) which was five. The grandiose quality ofthe Adina Mosque and the similarities to buildings inIslamic lands further west can be explained by theambitions of the patron, who in the foundationinscription, called himself “the most perfect of thesultans of Arabia and Persia” [23]. But now it is in ruinsfollowed by the earthquakes in 19th and 20th centuries[24].

SATH–GUMBAD MOSQUE IN BAGERHAT (BANGLADESH)INMID-15TH CENTURY (1442- 1459)

Figure 6. Sath–Gumbad Mosque [25]

Figure 7. Sath–Gumbad Mosque Inside [26]

The red brick mosque of sixty domes built by alocal ruler Khan-I- Jahān Ali, is a massive structure ofconsiderable dimension. The Liwân measures 160ft.from north to south and 108 ft. from east to west. Thefaçade on the east has eleven slightly recessed, two-centred arched openings or doorways, while eachcorner has been strengthened with batter towerssurmounted with dome lets. The central opening isslightly higher than the others. Above, a cornice runsall through the length of the front-end, while thecentral arch has a triangular pediment. Internally, thechamber is divided into eleven aisles from north tosouth, and seven from east to west, while the westernwall has been provided the mihrabs in the shape oftwo-centred, engrailed arched recesses. The domedroof is raised on slender octagonal pillars of stone.Seven central bays have pyramidal domes, but theothers are surmounted by hemispherical domes. Thesquare shaped aisles have been divided at the top intooctagons by means of pendentives erected withcorbelled brick work. The mihrabs are conceived of agate –like framework having decorative floral patternsin low relief [27]. It is now a pilgrimage site wherepeople pay homage to the man who dedicated hislifetime to build the city and its monuments. The Pir AliTomb (of Pir Ali, a close associate of Khan Jahan) is anannex building of this mausoleum and is of identicallayout. A mosque called the Dargha Mosque isattached to the mausoleum [28].

MOSQUE OF BINAT BIBI (1454 A.D.)

Figure 8. Mosque of Binat Bibi [29]



















Sumaiya Ahmed


Figure 9. Binat Bibi Inside [29]

That the modern city of Dhaka, was a flourishingcenter of trade and commerce as well as religious andcultural activities before the arrival of the Mughals isevident from a number of old and dilapidatedmonuments. In pre -Mughal Dhaka, a thicklypopulated Muslim Community, humming with variousvocations emerged in the eastern part of the city calledNarandia or the present Narinda, by the side of the oldDhulai canal, which is now filled up to make a modernroad. In all probability a prosperous township cameinto being in this area during the reign of Sultan IlyasShah in the fifteenth century as demonstrated by theerection of a beautiful Mosque which was evidentlythe centre of Muslim community life. From thearchitectural standpoint, it was originally a neat squaresingle-domed type of buildings as observable in Gaud.Though completely orientated in recent times, its pre-Mughal features are quite perceptible. The Mosquemeasures 12 feet square internally and is entered bythree arched doors from the east, the north and thesouth. The square chamber is crowned by a singlehemispherical dome. It was originally –un- plastered asmost pre Mughal monuments are. The mostdistinguishing features of the Mosque are curvedcornier and battlements which are still visible in theQibla side. It is the earliest serving Muslim religiousbuilding in Dhaka, which has undergone alterations bythe addition of a domed prayer room to the south andnew verandah on the east and the south [14]. At thepresent time, Part of the mosque is being demolishedas part of a renovation plan which includes building a70-foot (21 m) high minaret, and the extension of thecurrent building from three stories to seven [30].

BABA ADAMSHAHID MOSQUE, RAMPAL(1483 A.D)

Named after the celebrated Saint of the area,Bâbâ Âdam Shahid, the Mosque was built by MalikKâfur during a time of Fateh Shah, the last Ilyas Shahiruler. The mosque, rather the Liwân, is built on anoblong piece of land measuring 434ft. Long and 36ft.Broad, with usual octagonal corner turrets. Thefaçade on the east has three, two-centered archedopenings within a slightly projecting frame work.Above, the cornice is convex in shape. The prayerchamber is surmounted with three hemisphericaldomes, while in the west wall are created three

mihrabs is the shape of engrailed, two centred arched-niches richly decorated [31]. There is a grave of a saintof Muslim named "Baba Adam" just beside themosque. It’s heard from the people that, during theruling period of Ballal Sen, "Baba Adam" came to thatplace to spread the religion Islam. But "Baba Adam"was killed by the order of "Ballal Sen", and he wasburied here later on [32].

Figure 10. Bâbâ ÂdamShahid Mosque [33]

Figure 11. Bâbâ ÂdamShahid Mosque Inside [33]

CHHOTA SONA MOSQUE, FIRUZPUR, GAUR(1493 AND1526)

Figure 12. Chhota Sona Mosque [34]

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Sumaiya Ahmed













Figure 13. Chhota Sona Mosque Inside [35]

One of the most celebrated mosques in Bengal,the chhota Sona mosque (the little gold mosque) was,according to the epigraph fixed over the façade of thecentral compartment, built by Wali Muhammad, son ofAli, during the rule of ‘Ala ud Din Husain Shah (1493-1519). Unfortunately, the portion of the inscribed stonecarrying the date has been chipped off. The date,therefore, cannot be discerned, the other biggerversion, the great gold mosque, was built later by thesame patron at Ram Kali, West Bengal. It had a gildedsurface on the dome, also sparingly ornamented withgreen blue, white, yellow, and oranges tiles. As usual,the mosque is marked with the Liwan which is anoblong measuring 82ft. From south to north and 52 ft.from east to west. It is strengthened with cornerturrets provided on each corner. The eastern facadewith stone revetment has rich floral as well asepigraphical carving. Here, the entire space has beendivided into several oblong panels to have this floralcarving , invariably, the oblong panel ha sa full blownlotus carved very boldly, while the central doorframehas been given more rich treatment, the east side hasfive openings in the shape of multi-foiled, two –centred, engrailed, arched door frames are arranged aseries of friezes and panels of different sizes anddesigns, mainly string courses and dentils arrangedright up to the parapet, which itself consists of a seriesof decorative mouldings that also run consecutively onthe corner turrets and on other sides of the building.The chamber is crowned with three chauchâla vaults inthe centre and four hemispherical domes flankingthem. on the north and south sides were twodoorways each, while on the west exteriors is a framedprojection, marking the back of the mihrab with twoturrets flanking the projection, and going in the shapeof cupolas, the prayer chamber measures 741ft. and 9in. from south to north and 40ft. 6 in. ft. 4om east towest internally and has been divided into three aislesand five bays by stone pillars, the central compartmentis bigger than those flanking it, It is roofed by threevaulted domes. The entire surface both interior as wellas exterior is decorated, though not very effectively,with floral designs in low relief [27]. The glamour of theChhoto Sona Masjid is not there as it was originally,particularly because of the stripping of the decorative

mihrabs and the mosque courtyard, but the remainsare nevertheless one of the most attractivemonuments of Guar-Lakhnaut [36].

CHURIHATTA MOSQUE(1649 A.D.)

Figure 14.The Churihatta Mosque [37]

Figure 15. Churihatta Mosque Inside [37]

The Churihatta quarter of the city near the chaukis situated Churihatta mosque, which is characterizedby bungalow type of roof, so much spoken of in theBaharistan-i-Ghabi. The mosque was built by a Mughalofficer, Muhammad Beg in 1649, when Prince ShahShuja was the viceroy of Bengal. The mosque’srectangular in plan with towers at the four corners.The eastern side has three doorways, each of whichopens through two successive arches. The façade ismarked with numerous square and rectangular panelsand the cornice, which is straight, is faced with blindmerlons. The interior hall is covered with anintersecting vaulted roof, the line of intersections iscurved and so is the central ridge. But this vaulted roofis a development from the north Indian pyramidaltype. It has no long drawn eves as found in the Bengalitype. The mosque is now renovated [27].

MOSQUE OF KARTALAB KHAN (MURSHID KULL) A.D. 1700-04

Kartalab Khan was appointed Diwan or Revenueadministrator of Bengal by Emperor Aurangzeb duringthe vice-royalty of Azimus-Shah. His original name wasMuhammad Hadi but he earned the title of kartalabkhan from Emperor Aurangzeb for his efficiency inrevenue Administration. After coming to Bengal, he























Sumaiya Ahmed


erected a mosque at Dacca, known after his name. TheMosque is undoubtedly one of the most impressiveMughal structures of Dacca, having been built on ahigh platform called tahkana. There are vaulted roomsunderneath, which are now being used as shops.Unlike the tree –domed mosques of Khan MuhammadMirdha, it is roofed over by five domes resting onoctagonal drums. The most curious architecturalfeature of the Mosque is the do-chala or two –segmented hut-shaped structure, adjoining themosque on the worthy, which is used as theirresidence of the Iman. There was a stepped well orbuilt about the same time in the courtyard of themosque [38].

Figure 16. Mosque of Kartalab Khan [39]

KATRA MOSQUE (1723-1724)

Figure 17. Katra Mosque [33]

Figure 18. Elevated View of Katra Mosque alias Katra Masjid [40]

Figure 19. Katra Mosque Inside [29]

The most significant architectural project in thenew headquarters was a Jami Mosque, dated 1724-25,and called the Katra Mosque today. While themosque’s plan and an overall elevation adhere toestablished Mughal standards other aspects of themosque link it and its patron, Murshid Quli Khan tolong-standing traditions of Bengal. The numerousniches of the Jami mosque’s façade and the weightyquality suggested by the proportionally small entrancearches do not recall contemporary Mughalconstruction, but are reminiscent of ornamentation ofpre-Mughal architecture in Bengal. This break with theMughal ornamental style corresponds with theautonomy of its patron, despite his nominal allegianceto the center. There is one other parallel to thatsuggests a link between Bengal. Bengal practice andthe new leader Murshid Quli khan. Like Sikandar Shah,the most not the ruler of fourteenth century Bengal,who was buried under the entrance to his AdinaMosque in Pandua, Murshid Quli Khanarranged to beburied under his own Mosque’s entrance. In essence,Murshid Quli Khan increasingly free of Mughalauthority, expressed a regional rather than pan-Mughal affiliation by associating himself with theindependent rulers of pre-Mughal Bengal. Surroundingthe Mosque on all four sides is domed cloisteredchambers that served as a splendid madrasa staffedwith 2,000 reciters of the Qu’rān. Murshid Quli Khan’szeal in propagating the faith is well known fromhistorical chronicles, not altogether surprising since hewas a convert to Islam. The construction of thismadrasa cum-mosque, larger than any Mughal mosquebuilt in Bengal, endows the city, hither to holding littlereligious significance, with a dominant sacredimportance – possibly an attempt to rival thetraditional centers of piety in Bengal, Gaur and Pandua[41]. At present it is maintained and protected bythe Archaeological Survey of India andthe Government of West Bengal [42].

Hence, these grand Mosques provide us goldenarchitectural design ideas which we can incorporatewith the modern design and construction techniqueand glorify our past heritage [43].

Sumaiya Ahmed










Sumaiya Ahmed












CONCLUDING REMARKS

Architecture is the mother of all arts, as itencompasses the science and art of designing andbuilding, painting and sculpture and the decorativearts, In fact the art of buildings expressed the deep –seated aspirations of a nation and also the mostpositive expression of the elective character of itsculture. In the words of William Hicking Prescott, “thesurest test of the civilization of a people at least, as sureas any afforded by mechanical art is to be found in theirarchitecture, which presents. So noble a field for thedisplay of the grand and the beautiful and which at thesame time, is so, intimately connected with the essentialcomforts of life”. The Architectural heritage of acountry is moulded not only by the geographical andstrati- graphical conditions and the shifting tendenciesof political and social history, but also the inherentreligious impact, spontaneous artistic tradition,profound extraneous influence and aestheticconsciousness of the builders. Therefore, anycomprehensive study of a country’s architecturalheritage is pre-conditioned by its physical setting,historical background, social, cultural backdrop andthe last but not the least aesthetic and utilitarianpurposes. This is true in the case of Bengal. Bengal haslong been considered as a ‘crucible of culture and forbeing situated in the south –eastern tip of thesubcontinent it attracted a host of people the Arabs,the Persians, the Turks and the Afghans. They leftbehind distinctive traits of their history and culturewhich ultimately led to the formation of a dynamic andmagnificent heritage in the form of mosques [44].

The Bengali Muslims developed a distinctlyregional style of architecture that had popular appeal.By infusing their own methods and teachings ofconstruction new life was given to forms that alreadyexisted and were well known in Bengal and inneighboring areas. Throughout the Islamic period thistradition continued, assimilating the changes broughtabout by Muslim rulers in their construction. TheMuslims took an existing form, adapted it to theirneeds, enriched it, and shared it with the culturewhence it came [45].

REFERENCES

[1] A. H. Dani, Muslim Architecture in Bengal, Dacca(Bangladesh). Pakistan: Asiatic Society ofPakistan, 1961.

[2] D. S. M. Hasan, Dacca the City Of Mosques,Dacca (Bangladesh). bangladesh: IslamicFoundation Bangladesh, 1981.

[3] A. T. M. Shamsuzzoha and H. Islam,“Structure, Decoration and Materials: MughalMosques of Medieval Dhaka,” J. BangladeshAssoc. Young Res., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 93–107, 2011.

[4] A. Petersen, Dictionary of Islamic Architecture.London and New York: Routledge, 1996.

[5] A. H. Dani, Muslim Architecture in Bengal,Dacca. Pakistan: Asiatic Society of Pakistan,1961.

[6] “No Title.” [Online]. Available:www.shrimpnews.com. [Accessed: 05-Nov-2015].

[7] “Geocurrents,” 2015. [Online]. Available:http://www.geocurrents.info/. [Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

[8] Ahmad Hasan Dani, Muslim Architecture inBengal, Dacca. Pakistan: Asiatic Society ofPakistan, 1961.

[9] Dacca the City Of Mosques. op. cit., p. i.

[10] J. D. M. (ed), “Encyclopedia Of The Quran,”Encycl. Quran, vol. vol -3, pp. 426–428., 2003.

[11] Muslim Architecture in Bengal. op. cit, P.9.

[12] A. N. Khan, Islamic Architecture in South Asia:Pakistan –India –Bangladesh. New York: OxfordUniversity press, 2003.

[13] A. N. Khan, Islamic Architecture in South Asia:Pakistan –India –Bangladesh,. New York:Oxford University press, 2003.

[14] Dacca The City Of Mosques. Cit, Op.

[15] S. E. H. (ed) Ishrat Alam, A Varied Facets OfHistory: Essay In Honor Of Aniruddha Ray. Dehli:Primus Books, 2011.

[16] Muhammad Mohar Ali, History Of The MuslimsOf Bengal. Riyadh: Imam Muhammad Ibn Sa‘ūdIslamic University, 1985.

[17] Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. op. cit.

[18] A. Ansari, A complete Book on MughalArchitecture History. New Dehli: Cyber TechPublications, 2010.

[19] A complete Book on Mughal ArchitectureHistory. New Dehli: Cyber Tech Publications,2010.

[20] “No Title.” [Online]. Available:http://www.westbengaltourism.gov.in/.[Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

[21] “Columbia University,” 2015. [Online].Available: http://www.columbia.edu/.[Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

[22] “Himal,” 2015. [Online]. Available:http://old.himalmag.com/. [Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

Sumaiya Ahmed


[23] J. M. B. and S. S. Blair(ed), The GraveEncyclopedia Of Islamic Art And Architecture.New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.

[24] “Famous Mosques in India.” [Online].Available:http://www.indiamapped.com/mosques-in-india/. [Accessed: 05-Feb-2016].

[25] “Wikipedia.” [Online]. Available:en.wikipedia.org. [Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

[26] “World for Travel.” [Online]. Available:http://www.worldfortravel.com/. [Accessed:27-Nov-2015].

[27] Architecture In South Asia. op. cit.

[28] Wikipedia, “Mosque City of Bagerhat,” 2016.[Online]. Available:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_City_of_Bagerhat. [Accessed: 05-Feb-2016].

[29] “Panoramio.” [Online]. Available:http://www.panoramio.com/. [Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

[30] Wikipedia, “Binat Bibi Mosque,” 2016.[Online]. Available:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binat_Bibi_Mosque. [Accessed: 05-Feb-2016].

[31] Islamic Architecture In South Asia. op. cit.

[32] “Munshiganj: Baba Adam Mosque,” LonelyTraveler, 2010. [Online]. Available:http://icwow.blogspot.co.id/2010/06/munshiganj-baba-adam-mosque.html. [Accessed: 05-Feb-2016].

[33] “No Title.” [Online]. Available:www.flickr.com. [Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

[34] “Picturestats.” [Online]. Available:https://picturestats.wordpress.com/.[Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

[35] “The History Hub.” [Online]. Available:http://www.thehistoryhub.com/. [Accessed:27-Nov-2015].

[36] Wikipedia, “Choto Sona Mosque,” 2016.[Online]. Available:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choto_Sona_Mosque. [Accessed: 05-Feb-2015].

[37] “No Title.” [Online]. Available:commons.wikimedia.org. [Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

[38] Dacca the City of Mosques. op. cit.

[39] “Offroad to Bangladesh.” [Online]. Available:http://offroadbangladesh.com/. [Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

[40] “Flickriver.” [Online]. Available:http://www.flickriver.com/. [Accessed: 27-Nov-2015].

[41] C. T. Catherine B. Asher, India before Europe.UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

[42] Wikipedia, “Katra Masjid,” 2016. [Online].Available:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katra_Masjid.[Accessed: 05-Feb-2015].

[43] S. Hasan and T. Corresponding, “TheContextual Issues in the Islamic Architectureof Bengal Mosques,” vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 41–48,2013.

[44] S. M. Hasan, Glimpses of Muslim Art andArchitecture. Dacca (Bangladesh): IslamicFoundation, 1983.

[45] P. Hasan, Sultanate Mosques and Continuity inBengal Architecture. .

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