Moral and Political

Significance

of Nature

in Ancient China

Sun Xiaochun

22nd International Congress of History of Science

Beijing, China

July 26, 2005

Questions

• How did the Chinese conceptualize nature?

• How did they use their conceptions and understandings of nature to think about ethics, government, and politics?

• How did such moral relevance affect the style of inquiries about nature?

Classical Period of Chinese Philosophy

500 BC -200 AD

One Hundred Schools

Social transformation: from Warring States to Unification

Han synthesis

Some philosophers of the period

Confucius (551- 479 B.C.); Kong Qiu 孔丘Lao Zi; Lao Dan 老聃Mo Zi (ca. 479-381 B.C.); Mo Di 墨翟Mencius (371-289 B.C.); Men Ke 孟轲Zhuang Zi ( 370-301B.C.) Zhuang Zhou 庄周Xun Zi (298 -238 B.C.) Xun Kuang 荀况Han Fei Zi (d. 233 B.C.) 韩非子Zhou Yan (350-270 B.C.) 邹衍Dong Zhongshu (179 -104 B.C.) 董仲舒

The six philosophical schools mentioned by Sima Qian

The naturalists: yin-yang; omens, seasonality

The Confucianists: social order

The Moists: frugality, universal love

The Logicians: dialecticians

The Legalists: award and punishment,

The Taoists: non-action

The “hundred philosophers” proposed diverse philosophical, social and political theories, very much in the intention of providing the rulers guiding principles for the governance of the state and for secure and harmonious society.

Some important sources

• Master Lu Buwei’s Spring and Autumn Annals from the 3rd century B.C.

• Huainan zi, by prince Liu An, an early Han effort of synthesis to blend many strands of natural philosophy. 2nd century B.C.

• Dong Zhongshu’s Abundant Dew on the Spring and Autumn Annals. 2nd Century B.C.

I. Chinese Conceptions of Nature

Chinese terms that could mean nature

• Tian 天 (Heaven)

• Tiandi 天地 (Heaven and Earth)

• Dakuai 大块 (great expanse)

• Wanwu 万物 (the myriad things)

• Zaohua 造化 (transformations)

• Wanxian 万象 (myriad phenomena and events)

Modern term: Ziran 自然 or Da Ziran 大自然

Tian—Nature as the whole of universe

• Tian the personal God? • God the personification of nature?子曰 : 天何言哉 ? 四时行焉 , 百物生焉 . 天

何言哉 ?Confucius: Does Heaven speak? The four

seasons have their courses in it. The myriad things are produced in it. Does Heaven speak?

Naturalistic conception of nature

Dong Zhongshu: What are the fundamental aspects of Heaven (Nature)? The answer is, there are ten aspects, and only ten. Heaven (sky) is one, earth is another; yin is one, yang is another; fire is one, metal is another, wood is another, water is another, earth is another, and finally, man is another. All together there are ten aspects. And these are all included in Heaven (Nature) Abundant Dew, ch. 24.

Man was seen as an integrated aspect of nature, not as a counterpart of nature.

The organic conception of nature

and correlative thinking

A basic feature of the Chinese organic world-view was that the body and state were miniatures of the cosmos. The human realms —the body and the state—were inextricably connected with the natural realm—the cosmos. There were microcosms and macrocosm.

The body and the cosmos

The human body has four limbs, each limb has three joints, three times four makes twelve. With twelve joints supporting each other the human body is constituted. Likewise, Heaven has four seasons, each season has three months, three times four makes twelve. With twelve months succeeding each other the year is completed. — Abundant Dew, ch. 24.

The state and the body

The cardiac system is the office of the monarch; consciousness issues from it. The pulmonary system is the office of the minister-mentors; oversight and supervision issue from it. The hepatic system is the office of the General; planning issues from it. The gall bladder system is the office of the rectifiers; decisions issue from it . . . [and so on for twelve internal systems. ] —Pure Questions of Inner Cannon, 8.1-8.2. Translation quoted from Lloyd &Sivin. 2002. The Way and the Word.

The three realms of heaven, state and the body were made to correspond with each other by the correlative thinking, using concepts of yin, yang and five phases.

The three realm not only correspond with each other in structures, but also resonate with each other.

• Let me show you the dao in the tuning of the zither. Place a zither in a hall and another in a room. The striking of the gong 宫 note of one zither causes the gong note of the other zither to vibrate. The striking of the jue 角 note of one zither causes the jue note of the other to vibrate. This is because the notes are of the same pitch.

• Things of the same kind cluster and sounds of the same note harmonize. This is the principle of nature.

—Zhuang zi, ch. 31

Dong Zhongshu applied this “principle of nature” to the realms of heaven and man: The qi of both yin and yang can surely be increased or decreased by qi of the same kind. Heaven has yin and yang; man also has yin and yang. If the yin increases in Heave and Earth, then it also increases in man; if the yin increases in man, then likewise it also increases in Heaven and Earth. The principle is the same.

The organic conception of nature put all aspects of cosmos into a correlative and resonant matrix. “Nothing was un-caused, but nothing was caused mechanically.” (Needham)

Qi 气 The concept of qi may be best conceptualized

using Einstein’s matter-energy equation:E=MC2

It is the material and energetic basis of things and their transformations.

Qi was the concept used by the Chinese to unite all aspects of nature into an organic unity.

Dao as the ultimate origin of the universe

Dao is abstract and metaphysical. It is non-being, existing before being. It is principle, independent and eternal, governing all changes in the universe. It is infinite, moving in endless cycles.

Nature and the whole universe were creation of Dao.

In Huainan Zi one finds description of the creation of Dao:

The Dao began in the Nebulous Void. The Nebulous Void produced space-time; space- time produced the primordial qi. ( 道始于虚廓 , 虚廓生宇宙 , 宇宙生气 .)

Dao—ways of nature

• Tian dao 天道• Tian xin 天性 natural qualities

• Tian fa 天法 laws of Heaven

• Tian ming 天命 mandate of Heaven

• Tian shu 天数 numbers

• Tian ze 天则 regularities

• Tian du 天度 measures

• Tian chang 天常 normal states

II. The Moral Authority of Nature

• The moral authority of nature was best captured by Lao Zi in these words: “Men model on Earth; Earth models on Heaven; Heaven models on Dao; and Dao models on itself.”

• Three aspects of the Dao of nature constituted the major part of nature’s authority:

The seasonality of nature

The inescapability of the Ways of nature

The circularity of changes in nature

Based on the moral authority of nature the Chinese thinkers had built up a comprehensive system of moral philosophy. They tried to base their moral philosophy and social and political practice more or less on their natural philosophy.

Nature and ethics

Dong Zhongshu elaborated a system of comprehensive correlations between Heaven and Man, thus providing the basis on which human ethics was grounded.

• The main line of argument of Dong

Zhongshu is this:

Heaven and Man were in principle the same. Men was produced by Heaven.

Heaven was benevolent, thus men should follow the example of Heaven to be benevolent.

The relations between the ruler and his subjects, between father and son, and between husband and wife were to him the three pillars ( 三纲 ) of human relations.

Nature, governance and politics

• The legitimacy of the rulership

Dynastic succession based on the conquest cycle of the Five Powers

Dynasty Flourishing Power Symbolic Color

Yellow Emperor 黄帝 Earth Yellow

Xia (c. 2070-1600BC) Wood Green

Shang(c.1600-1046BC) Metal White

Zhou (1046-220BC) Fire Red

Qin (221-206 BC) Water Black

Han(206BC-AD220) Earth Yellow

Dynastic succession based on the generation cycle of the Five Powers

Power Dynasty Dynasty Dynasty

Wood Taihao 太颢 Di Ku Zhou

Water

Gonggong Di Zhi Qin

Fire Yan Di Di Yao Han

Earth Huang Di Di Shun Xin (New)

Metal Shaohao Xia

Water Zhuanxu Shang

The cyclic change of the dominant powers of

the cosmos was introduced to describe and explain the succession of dynasties. This brought the dimension of history into the general cosmology. History had its present political significance. Using this theory, Liu Xin was able to provide Wang Mang with a justification for forcing the abdication of the Han dynasty.

Seasonality of governance

• A later Qing representation of the legend the Xi and He brothers receiving commission from the emperor Yao to observe stars and make calendar.

Seasonality and governance

• 《吕氏春秋十二纪》 孟春之月：日在营室，昏参中，旦尾中。

其日甲乙，其帝太皥，其神句芒，其虫鳞，其音角，律中太蔟，其数八，其味酸，其臭羶，其祀户，祭先脾。

Ceremonies to perform; Actions that should be taken and not be taken; If in this first month of spring the ordinances of summer

are put into effect, then winds and rains will not be seasonable….If the ordinances of autumn are put into effect, then the people will suffer a plague….

Twenty-eight lunar lodges

The importance of seasonality

Each of the twelve almanacs records the principles that leads to order or anarchy, survival or destruction, longevity or premature death, good fortune or calamity. Each ascertains indications in Heaven above, confirming signs on Earth below, and what to look for among men, in the middle. When this has been accomplished, people will not be ignorant of right and wrong, nor of the permissible and impermissible.

Uses of abnormal natural phenomena

To restrain the power of the emperor: self-examination and self-constraining.

The Emperor’s response to eclipses

• Solar eclipse seen as a warning from the heaven. Rituals of remediation were performed.

• To cancel morning court assembly and celebration banquet.

• To issue imperial edict to urge officials to self-examination.

• To leave the main hall of the palace and to make introspection,.

• To reduce the number of courses of the imperial dinner.

On the level of ministers and officials, this “omen” discourse was often used in criticizing certain policies as advocated by political opponents, and in inducing policy change and reshuffling of political power.

A typical example can be found in Song dynasty.

III. The Chinese style of inquiry about nature

What sciences were paid most attention?

What kind of questions were accepted as legitimate questions?

What kinds of observations and measurements?

What constituted right questions and explanations?

Calendar and harmonics

Nature was thought of as a great organism, with a total life rhythm generated out of the harmony of all parts, including man. The purpose of calendar was to harmonize all the little pulses of natural phenomena, as well as social phenomena.

Harmonizing the universe: calendrical cycles

Basic cycles: day, month, year

Zhang 章 Rule Cycle: 19 years=235 months=6939 ¾ days; the smallest interval in which winter solstice and new moon will repeat on the same day.

Bu 蔀 Obscuration Cycle: 19×4 =76 years; will repeat at the same time on the same day.

Jiazi 甲子 Sexagenary Cycle

Ji 纪 Era Cycle: 20 bu = 1520 years. A bu contains 27759 =60×492+39 days, successive bu will not commence on the same days of the sixty-day cycle. 20 bu is the smallest multiple.

Yuan 元 Epoch Cycle: 3 ji = 4560 years. To provide a multiple of 60 years.

Sexagenary Cycle

The confidence in men’s ability to study

nature.

High as heaven, distant as stars, if we investigate, we may readily determine the solstice of a thousand years ago.

Measurement of the height of the sky;

The determination of the winter solstice by observing the vibration of cosmic qi.

Central Palace in the Chinese Sky

• 中宫天极星 , 其一明者 , 太一常居也。旁三星三公，或曰子属。后句四星，末大星正妃，余三星后宫之属也。环之匡卫十二星， 藩臣。皆曰紫宫。

• — 《史记天官书》 • The brightest star of the Celestial Pole

is the permanent abode of the Great Unity. The three stars next to it are the Three Lords [the ruler’s paramount advisors], although some identify them as Princes. Curving behind it are four stars. The large star in the rear is the Empress. The other three belong to the imperial harem (concubines). The twelve stars that surround all of these, framing and defending them, are vassals. All of these make up the Purple Palace.

• — Book of Celestial Offices

The autumn sky: scene of harvest

• Constellations: Tiancang: Celestial BarnTianjun: Celestial Grain StoreTianlin: Celestial GranaryTianyu: Ricks of grain in the fieldTianhun: CesspoolFuzhi: Reaping sickleChuhao: Fodder

Picture of farmer’s life in the sky

• A picture of farmers separating chaff from grain by means of a winnowing basket.

• Chaff 糠 and Winnowing Baskets 箕 can be found among the constellations.

The notion of the central power

• 斗为帝车 , 运于中央 , 临制四乡。分阴阳，建四时，均五行，移节度，定诸纪，皆系于斗。 —《史记天官书》

• The Northern Dipper is the chariot of the emperor. It controls the four quarters by moving round the center. It separates yin and yang; establishes the four seasons; distributes the Five Phases, regulates the celestial movement, and determines the calendrical epochs. All these depend on the Northern Dipper.

Cosmos and Man

Catalogue of acupuncture points

Space and time

In the Chinese conception of nature, since everything is associated with men and men’s perceptions, there was no absolute space and time. Space and time were parts of the same thing. Also, space and time were relative. There were stories about one year in heaven was equivalent to ten years on the earth.

Conclusion

Shift of perspective.

A way to ask alternative questions in the study of history of science.

In the trend of science and globalization, a look at the cultural diversity may provide wisdom for the mankind to face and move into future.