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Contents

Articles

Jupiter 1

Moons of Jupiter 23

Europa (moon) 34

References

Article Sources and Contributors 48

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 50

Article LicensesLicense 51

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Jupiter 1

Jupiter

Jupiter

This image was enhanced by the U.S. Geological Survey to bring out detail. It is based on a 1979 image from the Voyager 1spacecraft.

Designations

Pronunciation  /en-us-Jupiter.oggˈdʒuːpɪtər/ [1]

Adjective Jovian

Orbital characteristics[2]

 [3]

Epoch J2000

Aphelion 816520800 km (5.458104 AU)

Perihelion 740573600 km (4.950429 AU)

Semi-major axis 778547200 km (5.204267 AU)

Eccentricity 0.048775

Orbital period 4,331.572 days11.85920 yr10,475.8 Jupiter solar days[4]

Synodic period 398.88 days[5]

Average orbital speed 13.07 km/s[5]

Mean anomaly 18.818°

Inclination 1.305° to Ecliptic6.09° to Sun's equator0.32° to Invariable plane[6]

Longitude of ascending node 100.492°

Argument of perihelion 275.066°

Satellites 63

Physical characteristics

Equatorial radius 71,492 ± 4 km[7]

 [8]

11.209 Earths

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Jupiter 2

Polar radius 66,854 ± 10 km[7] [8]

10.517 Earths

Flattening 0.06487 ± 0.00015

Surface area 6.21796×1010 km²[8] [9]

121.9 Earths

Volume 1.43128×1015 km³[5] [8]

1321.3 Earths

Mass 1.8986×1027 kg[5]

317.8 Earths1/1047 Sun[10]

Mean density 1.326 g/cm³[5] [8]

Equatorial surface gravity 24.79 m/s²[5] [8]

2.528 g

Escape velocity

59.5 km/s[5]

 [8]

Sidereal rotation

period 9.925 h[11]

Equatorial rotation velocity 12.6 km/s45,300 km/h

Axial tilt 3.13°[5]

North pole right ascension 268.057°17 h 52 min 14 s[7]

North pole declination 64.496°[7]

Albedo 0.343 (bond)0.52 (geom.)[5]

Surface temp.

  1 bar level

  0.1 bar

min mean max

165 K[5]

112 K[5]

Apparent magnitude -1.6 to -2.94[5]

Angular diameter 29.8" — 50.1"[5]

Atmosphere[5]

Surface pressure 20 – 200 kPa[12] (cloud layer)

Scale height 27 km

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Jupiter 3

Composition

89.8±2.0%Hydrogen (H

2)

10.2±2.0%Helium

~0.3% Methane

~0.026% Ammonia

~0.003% Hydrogen deuteride (HD)

0.0006% Ethane

0.0004% water

Ices:

Ammonia

water

ammonium hydrosulfide(NH4SH)

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest planet within the Solar System.[1] It is a gas giant with a mass

slightly less than one-thousandth of the Sun but is two and a half times the mass of all the other planets in our Solar

System combined. Jupiter is classified as a gas giant along with Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Together, these four

planets are sometimes referred to as the Jovian planets.

The planet was known by astronomers of ancient times and was associated with the mythology and religious beliefs

of many cultures. The Romans named the planet after the Roman god Jupiter.[2] When viewed from Earth, Jupiter

can reach an apparent magnitude of −2.94, making it on average the third-brightest object in the night sky after the

Moon and Venus. (Mars can briefly match Jupiter's brightness at certain points in its orbit.)

Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium; it may also have a rocky core of 

heavier elements. Because of its rapid rotation, Jupiter's shape is that of an oblate spheroid (it possesses a slight but

noticeable bulge around the equator). The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different

latitudes, resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. A prominent result is the Great Red

Spot, a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope.

Surrounding the planet is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere. There are also at least 63

moons, including the four large moons called the Galilean moons that were first discovered by Galileo Galilei in

1610. Ganymede, the largest of these moons, has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury.

Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by robotic spacecraft, most notably during the early Pioneer and

Voyager flyby missions and later by the Galileo orbiter. The most recent probe to visit Jupiter was the Pluto-boundNew Horizons spacecraft in late February 2007. The probe used the gravity from Jupiter to increase its speed. Future

targets for exploration in the Jovian system include the possible ice-covered liquid ocean on the moon Europa.

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Jupiter 4

Structure

Jupiter is one of the four gas giants; that is, it is not primarily composed of solid matter. It is the largest planet in the

Solar System, having a diameter of 142,984 km at its equator. Jupiter's density, 1.326 g/cm³, is the second highest of 

the gas giant planets, but lower than any of the four terrestrial planets.

Composition

Jupiter's upper atmosphere is composed of about 88 – 92% hydrogen and 8 – 12% helium by percent volume or

fraction of gas molecules (see table to the right). Since a helium atom has about four times as much mass as a

hydrogen atom, the composition changes when described as the proportion of mass contributed by different atoms.

Thus the atmosphere is approximately 75% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with the remaining one percent of 

the mass consisting of other elements. The interior contains denser materials such that the distribution is roughly

71% hydrogen, 24% helium and 5% other elements by mass. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane,

water vapor, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds. There are also traces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide,

neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia. [3]

[4] Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been

found.[5]

The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are very close to the theoretical composition of the primordial

solar nebula. However, neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a

tenth as abundant as in the Sun.[6] Helium is also depleted, although only to about 80% of the Sun's helium

composition. This depletion may be a result of precipitation of these elements into the interior of the planet. [7]

Abundances of heavier inert gases in Jupiter's atmosphere are about two to three times that of the Sun.

Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other gas giants Uranus and

Neptune have relatively much less hydrogen and helium.[8] However, because of the lack of atmospheric entry

probes, high quality abundance numbers of the heavier elements are lacking for the outer planets beyond Jupiter.

Mass

Approximate size comparison of Earth and

Jupiter, including the Great Red Spot

Jupiter is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets in our Solar System

combined —this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies

above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center.

Although this planet dwarfs the Earth with a diameter 11 times as

great, it is considerably less dense. Jupiter's volume is equal to 1,321

Earths, yet the planet is only 318 times as massive.[5]  [9] Likewise,

Jupiter has a radius equal to 0.10 times the radius of the Sun,[10] but is

only 0.001 times the mass of the Sun.[11] A "Jupiter mass" (MJ

or

MJup

) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects,

particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. So, for example, the

extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69 MJ, while CoRoT-7

b has a mass of 0.015 MJ.[12]

Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had much more mass than it does at present, the planet would shrink. For

small changes in mass, the radius would not change appreciably, and above about four Jupiter masses the interior

would become so much more compressed under the increased gravitation force that the planet's volume would

decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as

a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasingmass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition is achieved as in high-mass brown dwarfs around 50 Jupiter

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Jupiter 5

masses.[13] This has led some astronomers to term it a "failed star", although it is unclear whether the processes

involved in the formation of planets like Jupiter are similar to the processes involved in the formation of multiple star

systems.

Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, the smallest red

dwarf is only about 30 percent larger in radius than Jupiter.[14] [15] Despite this, Jupiter still radiates more heat than it

receives from the Sun. The amount of heat produced inside the planet is nearly equal to the total solar radiation itreceives.[16] This additional heat radiation is generated by the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism through adiabatic

contraction. This process results in the planet shrinking by about 2 cm each year. [17] When it was first formed,

Jupiter was much hotter and was about twice its current diameter.[18]

Internal structure

This cut-away illustrates a model of the interior

of Jupiter, with a rocky core overlaid by a deep

layer of metallic hydrogen.

Jupiter is thought to consist of a dense core with a mixture of elements,

a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen with some helium, and

an outer layer predominantly of molecular hydrogen.[17] Beyond this

basic outline, there is still considerable uncertainty. The core is often

described as rocky, but its detailed composition is unknown, as are the

properties of materials at the temperatures and pressures of those

depths (see below). In 1997, the existence of the core was suggested by

gravitational measurements,[17] indicating a mass of from 12 to 45

times the Earth's mass or roughly 3% – 15% of the total mass of 

Jupiter.[16]  [19] The presence of a core during at least part of Jupiter's

history is suggested by models of planetary formation involving initial

formation of a rocky or icy core that is massive enough to collect its

bulk of hydrogen and helium from the protosolar nebula. Assuming it

did exist, it may have shrunk as convection currents of hot liquid

metallic hydrogen mixed with the molten core and carried its contents to higher levels in the planetary interior. A

core may now be entirely absent, as gravitational measurements are not yet precise enough to rule that possibility out

entirely.[17] [20]

The uncertainty of the models is tied to the error margin in hitherto measured parameters: one of the rotational

coefficients (J6) used to describe the planet's gravitational moment, Jupiter's equatorial radius, and its temperature at

1 bar pressure. The JUNO mission, scheduled for launch in 2011, is expected to narrow down the value of these

parameters, and thereby make progress on the problem of the core.[21]

The core region is surrounded by dense metallic hydrogen, which extends outward to about 78 percent of the radius

of the planet.[16] Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through this layer, depleting the

abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.[7] [22]

Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of liquid hydrogen and gaseous

hydrogen, with the gaseous portion extending downward from the cloud layer to a depth of about 1,000 km. [16]

Instead of a clear boundary or surface between these different phases of hydrogen, there is probably a smooth

gradation from gas to liquid as one descends.[23]  [24] This smooth transition happens whenever the temperature is

above the critical temperature, which for hydrogen is only 33 K[25] (see hydrogen).

The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily toward the core. At the phase transition region where

liquid hydrogen —heated beyond its critical point —becomes metallic, it is believed the temperature is 10,000 K and

the pressure is 200 GPa. The temperature at the core boundary is estimated to be 36,000 K and the interior pressure

is roughly 3,000 – 4,500 GPa.[16]

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Jupiter 6

Atmosphere

Jupiter has the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, spanning over 5000 km in altitude.[26]  [27] As

Jupiter has no surface, the base of its atmosphere is usually considered to be the point at which atmospheric pressure

is equal to 10 bars, or ten times surface pressure on Earth.[26]

Cloud layers

This looping animation shows the movement of Jupiter's

counter-rotating cloud bands. In this image, the planet's exterior is

mapped onto a cylindrical projection. Animation at larger widths:

720 pixels, 1799 pixels.

Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds composed of 

ammonia crystals and possibly ammonium

hydrosulfide. The clouds are located in the tropopause

and are arranged into bands of different latitudes,

known as tropical regions. These are sub-divided into

lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of 

these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and

turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 m/s (360 km/h) are

common in zonal jets.[28] The zones have been

observed to vary in width, color and intensity from year

to year, but they have remained sufficiently stable for astronomers to give them identifying designations.[9]

The cloud layer is only about 50 km deep, and consists of at least two decks of clouds: a thick lower deck and a thin

clearer region. There may also be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia layer, as evidenced by flashes

of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. (Water is a polar molecule that can carry a charge, so it is capable

of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning.)[16] These electrical discharges can be up to a

thousand times as powerful as lightning on the Earth.[29] The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat

rising from the interior.[30]

The orange and brown coloration in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change color

when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are

believed to be phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons.[16]  [31] These colorful compounds, known as

chromophores, mix with the warmer, lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form

crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view.[32]

Jupiter's low axial tilt means that the poles constantly receive less solar radiation than at the planet's equatorial

region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports more energy to the poles, however, balancing out the

temperatures at the cloud layer.[9]

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Jupiter 7

Great Red Spot and other storms

This dramatic view of Jupiter's Great Red Spot and its surroundings

was obtained by Voyager 1 on February 25, 1979, when the

spacecraft was 9.2 million km (5.7 million mi) from Jupiter. Cloud

details as small as 160 km (100 mi) across can be seen here. The

colorful, wavy cloud pattern to the left of the Red Spot is a region of 

extraordinarily complex and variable wave motion. To give a sense

of Jupiter's scale, the white oval storm directly below the Great Red

Spot is approximately the same diameter as Earth.

The best known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red

Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south

of the equator that is larger than Earth. It is known to

have been in existence since at least 1831,[33] and

possibly since 1665.[34] Mathematical models suggestthat the storm is stable and may be a permanent feature

of the planet.[35] The storm is large enough to be visible

through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12

cm or larger.[36]

The oval object rotates counterclockwise, with a period

of about six days.[37] The Great Red Spot's dimensions

are 24 – 40,000 km × 12 – 14,000 km. It is large enough

to contain two or three planets of Earth's diameter. [38]

The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 kmabove the surrounding cloudtops.[39]

Storms such as this are common within the turbulent

atmospheres of gas giants. Jupiter also has white ovals

and brown ovals, which are lesser unnamed storms.

White ovals tend to consist of relatively cool clouds

within the upper atmosphere. Brown ovals are warmer

and located within the "normal cloud layer". Such

storms can last as little as a few hours or stretch on for

centuries.

Time-lapse sequence from the approach of 

Voyager I to Jupiter, showing the motion of 

atmospheric bands, and circulation of the Great

Red Spot. Full size video here

Even before Voyager proved that the feature was a storm, there was

strong evidence that the spot could not be associated with any deeper

feature on the planet's surface, as the Spot rotates differentially with

respect to the rest of the atmosphere, sometimes faster and sometimes

more slowly. During its recorded history it has traveled several times

around the planet relative to any possible fixed rotational marker below

it.

In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that

is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was

created when several smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged toform a single feature —these three smaller white ovals were first

observed in 1938. The merged feature was named Oval BA, and has

been nicknamed Red Spot Junior. It has since increased in intensity

and changed color from white to red.[40] [41] [42]

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Jupiter 8

Planetary rings

The rings of Jupiter.

Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main

segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively

bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring.[43] These rings appear to

be made of dust, rather than ice as with Saturn's rings.[16] The main

ring is probably made of material ejected from the satellites Adrasteaand Metis. Material that would normally fall back to the moon is pulled

into Jupiter because of its strong gravitational influence. The orbit of 

the material veers towards Jupiter and new material is added by

additional impacts.[44] In a similar way, the moons Thebe and

Amalthea probably produce the two distinct components of the dusty

gossamer ring.[44] There is also evidence of a rocky ring strung along

Amalthea's orbit which may consist of collisional debris from that moon.[45]

MagnetosphereJupiter's broad magnetic field is 14 times as strong as the Earth's, ranging from 4.2 gauss (0.42 mT) at the equator to

10 – 14 gauss (1.0 – 1.4 mT) at the poles, making it the strongest in the Solar System (except for sunspots).[32] This

field is believed to be generated by eddy currents  — swirling movements of conducting materials —within the

metallic hydrogen core. The field traps a sheet of ionized particles from the solar wind, generating a highly energetic

magnetic field outside the planet  — the magnetosphere. Electrons from this plasma sheet ionize the torus-shaped

cloud of sulfur dioxide generated by the tectonic activity on the moon Io. Hydrogen particles from Jupiter's

atmosphere are also trapped in the magnetosphere. Electrons within the magnetosphere generate a strong radio

signature that produces bursts in the range of 0.6 – 30 MHz.[46]

At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow

shock. Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause, located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath, where

the planet's magnetic field becomes weak and disorganized. The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating

the magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four

largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere, which protects them from the solar wind.[16]

Aurora borealis on Jupiter. Three bright dots are created by magnetic

flux tubes that connect to the Jovian moons Io (on the left),

Ganymede (on the bottom) and Europa (also on the bottom). In

addition, the very bright almost circular region, called the main oval,

and the fainter polar aurora can be seen.

The magnetosphere of Jupiter is responsible for intense

episodes of radio emission from the planet's polar

regions. Volcanic activity on the Jovian moon Io (see

below) injects gas into Jupiter's magnetosphere,

producing a torus of particles about the planet. As Io

moves through this torus, the interaction generatesAlfvén waves that carry ionized matter into the polar

regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are

generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism, and

the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped

surface. When the Earth intersects this cone, the radio

emissions from Jupiter can exceed the solar radio

output.[47]

Orbit and rotation

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Jupiter 9

Jupiter is the only planet that has a center of mass with the Sun that lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by

only 7% of the Sun's radius.[48] The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km (about 5.2 times

the average distance from the Earth to the Sun, or 5.2 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is

two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a 5:2 orbital resonance between the two largest planets in the Solar

System.[49] The elliptical orbit of Jupiter is inclined 1.31° compared to the Earth. Because of an eccentricity of 

0.048, the distance from Jupiter and the Sun varies by 75 million km between perihelion and aphelion, or the nearest

and most distant points of the planet along the orbital path respectively.

The axial tilt of Jupiter is relatively small: only 3.13°. As a result this planet does not experience significant seasonal

changes, in contrast to Earth and Mars for example.[50]

Jupiter's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System's planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than

ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an Earth-based amateur telescope. This rotation

requires a centripetal acceleration at the equator of about 1.67 m/s², compared to the equatorial surface gravity of 

24.79 m/s²; thus the net acceleration felt at the equatorial surface is only about 23.12 m/s². The planet is shaped as an

oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles.

On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9275 km longer than the diameter measured through the poles.[24]

Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter'spolar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere; three systems are used as frames

of reference, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies from the latitudes

10° N to 10° S; its period is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50m 30.0s. System II applies at all latitudes north and south of 

these; its period is 9h 55m 40.6s. System III was first defined by radio astronomers, and corresponds to the rotation

of the planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation.[51]

Observation

Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon and Venus);[32] however at times

Mars appears brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visualmagnitude from as bright as −2.9 at opposition down to −1.6 during conjunction with the Sun. The angular diameter

of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 29.8 arc seconds.[5] Favorable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing

through perihelion, an event that occurs once per orbit. As Jupiter approaches perihelion in March 2011, there will be

a favorable opposition in September 2010.[52]

The retrograde motion of an outer planet is

caused by its relative location with respect to the

Earth.

Earth overtakes Jupiter every 398.9 days as it orbits the Sun, a duration

called the synodic period. As it does so, Jupiter appears to undergo

retrograde motion with respect to the background stars. That is, for a

period Jupiter seems to move backward in the night sky, performing a

looping motion.

Jupiter's 12-year orbital period corresponds to the dozen astrological

signs of the zodiac, and may have been the historical origin of the

signs.[9] That is, each time Jupiter reaches opposition it has advanced

eastward by about 30°, the width of a zodiac sign.

Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside the Earth's, the phase angle of 

Jupiter as viewed from the Earth never exceeds 11.5°, and is usually close to zero. That is, the planet always appears

nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to

Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained.[53]

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Jupiter 10

Research and exploration

The observation of Jupiter dates back to the Babylonian astronomers of the 2nd millennium BCE.[54] The Chinese

historian of astronomy, Xi Zezong, has claimed that Gan De, a Chinese astronomer, made the discovery of one of 

Jupiter's moons in 362 BCE with the unaided eye. If accurate, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two

millennia.[55] [56]

In the 5th century CE, the Indian astronomical text Surya Siddhanta estimates the angular diameter of Jupiter as 3.5arcminutes and its distance to Earth as 40,884,000 miles (8,176,800 yojana, with one yojana thought to be five miles

in this text). From these assumptions, the diameter of Jupiter is deduced to be 41,624 miles (8,324.8 yojana), which

is roughly half of the currently accepted value, 88,748 miles.

In the 8th century, the Islamic astronomer, Yaqūb ibn Tāriq, gave a closer estimate of Jupiter's diameter as 20,000

farsakhs, equivalent to 60,000 miles, according to Abu Rayhan Biruni's conversion of 1 farsakh to 3 miles. Yaqūb

also estimated Jupiter's diameter as 19.05 times the Earth radius, equivalent to Jupiter's radius being 9.53 times the

Earth's radius,[57] which comes close to the currently accepted value of 10.5 times the Earth's radius.[7] His original

work has not survived, but his results were later tabulated in Biruni's India (1030).[57] [58]

Ground-based telescope research

In 1610, Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter - Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto (now

known as the Galilean moons) - using a telescope; thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than

Earth's. Galileo's was also the first discovery of a celestial motion not apparently centered on the Earth. It was a

major point in favor of Copernicus' heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets; Galileo's outspoken support of 

the Copernican theory placed him under the threat of the Inquisition.[59]

During the 1660s, Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots and colorful bands on Jupiter and observed that the

planet appeared oblate; that is, flattened at the poles. He was also able to estimate the rotation period of the planet. [4]

In 1690 Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes differential rotation.[16]

False-color detail of Jupiter's atmosphere, imagedby Voyager 1, showing the Great Red Spot and a

passing white oval.

The Great Red Spot, a prominent oval-shaped feature in the southernhemisphere of Jupiter, may have been observed as early as 1664 by

Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Giovanni Cassini, although this is

disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest

known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831.[60]

The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions

between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878. It

was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start of the twentieth

century.[61]

Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motionsof the Jovian moons, allowing predictions of the times when the moons

would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, however, it was

observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from

the Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that sight is not

instantaneous (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected[4] ), and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate the

speed of light.[62]

In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36-inch (910 mm) refractor at Lick Observatory in

California. The discovery of this relatively small object, a testament to his keen eyesight, quickly made him famous.

The moon was later named Amalthea.[63] It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by visual

observation.[64] An additional eight satellites were subsequently discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe

in 1979.

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Jupiter 11

Infrared image of Jupiter taken by the ESO's Very

Large Telescope.

In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and

methane in the spectra of Jupiter.[65]

Three long-lived anticyclonic features termed white ovals were

observed in 1938. For several decades they remained as separate

features in the atmosphere, sometimes approaching each other but

never merging. Finally, two of the ovals merged in 1998, thenabsorbed the third in 2000, becoming Oval BA.[66]

In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin detected bursts of radio

signals coming from Jupiter at 22.2 MHz.[16] The period of these bursts

matched the rotation of the planet, and they were also able to use this

information to refine the rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter were

found to come in two forms: long bursts (or L-bursts) lasting up to

several seconds, and short bursts (or S-bursts) that had a duration of 

less than a hundredth of a second.[67]

Scientists discovered that there were three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter.• Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of meters) vary with the rotation of Jupiter, and are influenced

by interaction of Io with Jupiter's magnetic field.[68]

• Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimeters) was first observed by Frank Drake and

Hein Hvatum in 1959.[16] The origin of this signal was from a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter's equator. This

signal is caused by cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter's magnetic field.[69]

• Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[16]

Exploration with space probes

Since 1973 a number of automated spacecraft have visited Jupiter. Flights to other planets within the Solar System

are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v.

Reaching Jupiter from Earth requires a delta-v of 9.2 km/s,[70] which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to

reach low Earth orbit.[71] Fortunately, gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy

required to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration.[70]

Flyby missions

Flyby missions

Spacecraft Closest

approach

Distance

 Pioneer 10 December 3, 1973 130,000 km

 Pioneer 11 December 4, 1974 34,000 km

Voyager 1 March 5, 1979 349,000 km

Voyager 2 July 9, 1979 570,000 km

Ulysses February 1992 409,000 km

February 2004 240,000,000 km

Cassini December 30, 2000 10,000,000 km

 New Horizons February 28, 2007 2,304,535 km

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Jupiter 12

Voyager 1 took this photo of the planet Jupiter on

January 24, 1979 while still more than 25 million mi(40 million km) away.

Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft have performed planetary

flyby maneuvers that brought them within observation range of 

Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the first close-up images of 

Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered

that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than

expected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in thatenvironment. The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to

refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system. Occultations of the

radio signals by the planet resulted in better measurements of 

Jupiter's diameter and the amount of polar flattening.[9] [72]

Six years later, the Voyager  missions vastly improved the

understanding of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter's

rings. They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was

anticyclonic. Comparison of images showed that the Red Spot had

changed hue since the  Pioneer  missions, turning from orange to

dark brown. A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io'sorbital path, and volcanoes were found on the moon's surface,

some in the process of erupting. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes of lightning in the

night side atmosphere.[3] [9]

The next mission to encounter Jupiter, the Ulysses solar probe, performed a flyby maneuver to attain a polar orbit

around the Sun. During this pass the spacecraft conducted studies on Jupiter's magnetosphere. However, since

Ulysses has no cameras, no images were taken. A second flyby six years later was at a much greater distance.[73]

In 2000, the Cassini probe, en route to Saturn, flew by Jupiter and provided some of the highest-resolution images

ever made of the planet. On December 19, 2000, the spacecraft captured an image of the moon Himalia, but the

resolution was too low to show surface details.[74]

The New Horizons probe, en route to Pluto, flew by Jupiter for gravity assist. Its closest approach was on February

28, 2007.[75] The probe's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons

in detail, as well as making long-distance observations of the outer moons Himalia and Elara. [76] Imaging of the

Jovian system began September 4, 2006.[77] [78]

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Jupiter 13

Galileo mission

Jupiter as seen by the space probe Cassini.

So far the only spacecraft to orbit Jupiter is the Galileo orbiter, which

went into orbit around Jupiter on December 7, 1995. It orbited the

planet for over seven years, conducting multiple flybys of all the

Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the

impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 as it approached Jupiter in 1994,giving a unique vantage point for the event. However, while the

information gained about the Jovian system from Galileo was

extensive, its originally designed capacity was limited by the failed

deployment of its high-gain radio transmitting antenna.[79]

An atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995,

entering the planet's atmosphere on December 7. It parachuted through

150 km of the atmosphere, collected data for 57.6 minutes, and was

crushed by the pressure to which it was subjected by that time (about

22 times Earth normal, at a temperature of 153 °C).[80] It would have

melted thereafter, and possibly vaporized. The Galileo orbiter itself 

experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was

deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003 at a speed of 

over 50 km/s, to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and possibly

contaminating Europa —a moon which has been hypothesized to have the possibility of harboring life.[79]

Future probes and canceled missions

NASA is planning a mission to study Jupiter in detail from a polar orbit. Named  Juno, the spacecraft is planned to

launch by 2011.[81]

The Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) is a joint NASA/ESA proposal for exploration of Jupiter and its moons.In February 2009 it was announced that ESA/NASA had given this mission priority ahead of the Titan Saturn

System Mission.[82] [83] ESA's contribution will still face funding competition from other ESA projects.[84] Launch

date will be around 2020. EJSM consists of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter, and the ESA-led Jupiter

Ganymede Orbiter.[85]

Because of the possibility of subsurface liquid oceans on Jupiter's moons Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, there has

been great interest in studying the icy moons in detail. Funding difficulties have delayed progress. NASA's  JIMO

(  Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter ) was cancelled in 2005.[86] A European Jovian Europa Orbiter mission was also

studied.[87] These missions were superseded by the Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM).

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Jupiter 14

Moons

Jupiter has 63 named natural satellites. Of these, 47 are less than 10 kilometres in diameter and have only been

discovered since 1975. The four largest moons, known as the "Galilean moons", are Io, Europa, Ganymede and

Callisto.

Galilean moons

Jupiter's Galilean moons, in a composite image comparing their sizes and the size

of Jupiter. From top to bottom:

Callisto, Ganymede, Europa and Io.

The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede,

some of the largest satellites in the Solar

System, form a pattern known as a Laplace

resonance; for every four orbits that Io

makes around Jupiter, Europa makes exactly

two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly

one. This resonance causes the gravitational

effects of the three large moons to distort

their orbits into elliptical shapes, since each

moon receives an extra tug from its

neighbors at the same point in every orbit it

makes. The tidal force from Jupiter, on the

other hand, works to circularize their

orbits.[88]

The eccentricity of their orbits causes

regular flexing of the three moons' shapes,

with Jupiter's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical

shapes as they swing away. This tidal flexing heats the moons' interiors by friction. This is seen most dramatically in

the extraordinary volcanic activity of innermost Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces), and to a lesserdegree in the geological youth of Europa's surface (indicating recent resurfacing of the moon's exterior).

The Galilean moons, compared to Earth's Moon

Name IPA Diameter Mass Orbital radius Orbital

period

km % kg % km % days %

Io ˈaɪ.oʊ 3643 105 8.9×1022 120 421,700 110 1.77 7

Europa  jʊˈroʊpə 3122 90 4.8×1022 65 671,034 175 3.55 13

Ganymede ˈɡænimiːd 5262 150 14.8×1022 200 1,070,412 280 7.15 26

Callisto kəˈlɪstoʊ 4821 140 10.8×1022 150 1,882,709 490 16.69 61

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Jupiter 15

Classification of moons

Jupiter's moon Europa.

Before the discoveries of the Voyager missions, Jupiter's moons were arranged

neatly into four groups of four, based on commonality of their orbital elements.

Since then, the large number of new small outer moons has complicated this

picture. There are now thought to be six main groups, although some are more

distinct than others.

A basic sub-division is a grouping of the eight inner regular moons, which have

nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter's equator and are believed to have

formed with Jupiter. The remainder of the moons consist of an unknown

number of small irregular moons with elliptical and inclined orbits, which are

believed to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. Irregular

moons that belong to a group share similar orbital elements and thus may have a

common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.[89] [90]

Regular moons

Inner group The inner group of four small moons all have diameters of less than 200 km, orbit at radii less than 200,000 km, and have

orbital inclinations of less than half a degree.

Galilean moons[91] These four moons, discovered by Galileo Galilei and by Simon Marius in parallel, orbit between 400,000 and 2,000,000 km,

and include some of the largest moons in the Solar System.

Irregular moons

Themisto This is a single moon belonging to a group of its own, orbiting halfway between the Galilean moons and the Himalia group.

Himalia group A tightly clustered group of moons with orbits around 11,000,000 – 12,000,000 km from Jupiter.

Carpo Another isolated case; at the inner edge of the Ananke group, it orbits Jupiter in prograde direction.

Ananke group This retrograde orbit group has rather indistinct borders, averaging 21,276,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 

149 degrees.

Carme group A fairly distinct retrograde group that averages 23,404,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 165 degrees.

Pasiphaë group A dispersed and only vaguely distinct retrograde group that covers all the outermost moons.

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Jupiter 16

Interaction with the Solar System

Along with the Sun, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. The orbits of most of 

the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital plane than the Sun's equatorial plane (Mercury is the only planet

that is closer to the Sun's equator in orbital tilt), the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter,

and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner Solar System's history.[92]

This diagram shows the Trojan Asteroids in

Jupiter's orbit, as well as the main asteroid belt.

Along with its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerousasteroids that have settled into the regions of the Lagrangian points

preceding and following Jupiter in its orbit around the sun. These are

known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan

"camps" to commemorate the  Iliad . The first of these, 588 Achilles,

was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then more than two

thousand have been discovered.[93] The largest is 624 Hektor.

Most short-period comets belong to the Jupiter family —defined as

comets with semi-major axes smaller than Jupiter's. Jupiter family

comets are believed to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune. During close encounters with Jupiter their orbits are

perturbed into a smaller period and then circularized by regular

gravitational interaction with the Sun and Jupiter.[94]

Impacts

Hubble image taken on July 23 showing a

blemish of about 5,000 miles long left by the

2009 Jupiter impact.[95]

Jupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum cleaner,[96] because

of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System. It

receives the most frequent comet impacts of the Solar System's

planets.[97] It was thought that the planet served to partially shield the

inner system from cometary bombardment. However, recent computer

simulations suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the

number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its

gravity perturbs their orbits inward in roughly the same numbers that it

accretes or ejects them.[98] This topic remains controversial among

astronomers, as some believe it draws comets towards Earth from the

Kuiper Belt while others believe that Jupiter protects Earth from the

alleged Oort Cloud.[99]

A 1997 survey of historical astronomical drawings suggested that the astronomer Cassini may have recorded animpact scar in 1690. The survey determined eight other candidate observations had low or no possibilities of an

impact.[100] During the period July 16, 1994 to July 22, 1994, over 20 fragments from the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9

(SL9, formally designated D/1993 F2) collided with Jupiter's southern hemisphere, providing the first direct

observation of a collision between two Solar System objects. This impact provided useful data on the composition of 

Jupiter's atmosphere.[101] [102]

On July 19, 2009, an impact site was discovered at approximately 216 degrees longitude in System 2.[103] [104] This

impact left behind a black spot in Jupiter's atmosphere, similar in size to Oval BA. Infrared observation showed a

bright spot where the impact took place, meaning the impact warmed up the lower atmosphere in the area near

Jupiter's south pole.[105]

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Jupiter 17

Another impact event, smaller than the previous observed impacts, was detected on June 3, 2010 by Anthony

Wesley, an amateur astronomer in Australia and was later discovered to have been captured on video by another

amateur astronomer in the Philippines.[106]

Possibility of life

In 1953, the Miller-Urey experiment demonstrated that a combination of lightning and the chemical compounds thatexisted in the atmosphere of a primordial Earth could form organic compounds (including amino acids) that could

serve as the building blocks of life. The simulated atmosphere included water, methane, ammonia and molecular

hydrogen; all molecules still found in the atmosphere of Jupiter. However, the atmosphere of Jupiter has a strong

vertical air circulation, which would carry these compounds down into the lower regions. The higher temperatures

within the interior of the atmosphere breaks down these chemicals, which would hinder the formation of Earth-like

life.[107]

It is considered highly unlikely that there is any Earth-like life on Jupiter, as there is only a small amount of water in

the atmosphere and any possible solid surface deep within Jupiter would be under extraordinary pressures. However,

in 1976, before the Voyager missions, it was hypothesized that ammonia or water-based life could evolve in Jupiter's

upper atmosphere. This hypothesis is based on the ecology of terrestrial seas which have simple photosynthetic

plankton at the top level, fish at lower levels feeding on these creatures, and marine predators which hunt the

fish.[108] [109]

Ancient mythology

The planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can

occasionally be seen in the daytime when the sun is low.[110] To the Babylonians, this object represented their god

Marduk. They used the roughly 12-year orbit of this planet along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their

zodiac.[9] [111]

The Romans named it after  Jupiter  (Latin:   Iuppiter, Iūpiter ) (also called Jove), the principal god of Romanmythology, whose name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative form *dyeu ph

2ter , meaning "god-father."[2]

The astronomical symbol for the planet, , is a stylized representation of the god's lightning bolt. The original

Greek deity,  Zeus, adopted by Romans, supplies the root  zeno-, used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as

 zenographic.[112]

 Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form  jovial, employed by astrologers in the Middle

Ages, has come to mean "happy" or "merry," moods ascribed to Jupiter's astrological influence.[113]

The Chinese, Korean and Japanese referred to the planet as the wood star , Chinese: 木 星   ; pinyin: mùxīng, based on

the Chinese Five Elements.[114] The Greeks called it Φαέθων,  Phaethon, "blazing." In Vedic Astrology, Hindu

astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods, and often called it "Guru," whichliterally means the "Heavy One."[115] In the English language, Thursday is rendered as Thor's day, with Thor

associated with the planet Jupiter in Germanic mythology.[116]

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Jupiter 18

See also

• Extra Solar Planet (Many are larger than Jupiter.)

• Hot Jupiter

• Cold Jupiter

• Juno (spacecraft)

• Jupiter in fiction• Jovian-Plutonian gravitational effect

Further reading

• Bagenal, F.; Dowling, T. E.; McKinnon, W. B. (eds.) (2004). Jupiter: The planet, satellites, and magnetosphere.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521818087.

• Beebe, Reta (1996). Jupiter: The Giant Planet (Second ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

ISBN 1560986859.

External links• "Video from spaceship New Horizon's flyby of Jupiter" (http://www. dagbladet. no/tv/index.

html?clipid=17116). Dagoblet.no. Retrieved 2009-07-10.

• Hans Lohninger et al. (November 2, 2005). "Jupiter, As Seen By Voyager 1" (http://www.  vias. org/spacetrip/ 

 jupiter_1. html). A Trip into Space. Virtual Institute of Applied Science. Retrieved 2007-03-09.

• Dunn, Tony (2006). "The Jovian System" (http://orbitsimulator. com/gravity/articles/joviansystem. html).

Gravity Simulator . Retrieved 2007-03-09. —A simulation of the 62 Jovian moons.

• Seronik, G.; Ashford, A. R. "Chasing the Moons of Jupiter" (http://skytonight. com/observing/objects/planets/ 

3307071. html?page=1&c=y). Sky & Telescope. Retrieved 2007-03-09.

• Anonymous (May 2, 2007). "In Pictures: New views of Jupiter" (http://news. bbc.co. uk/2/hi/in_pictures/ 

6614557. stm). BBC News. Retrieved 2007-05-02.

• Cain, Fraser. "Jupiter" (http://www. astronomycast. com/astronomy/episode-56-jupiter/). Universe Today.

Retrieved 2008-04-01.

• "Fantastic Flyby of the New Horizons spacecraft (May 1, 2007.)" (http://science. nasa. gov/headlines/y2007/ 

01may_fantasticflyby. htm). NASA. Retrieved 2008-05-21.

• "Moons of Jupiter articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries" (http://www. psrd. hawaii. edu/Archive/ 

Archive-Jupiter. html). Planetary Science Research Discoveries. University of Hawaii, NASA.

• June 2010 impact video (http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=Us6EXc5Hyng)

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ISBN 0415056098.

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Moons of Jupiter 23

Moons of Jupiter

Jupiter and its four largest moons

Jupiter has 63 confirmed moons, giving it the largest

retinue of moons with "reasonably secure" orbits of any

planet in the Solar System.[1] The most massive of 

them, the four Galilean moons, were discovered in

1610 by Galileo Galilei and were the first objects found

to orbit a body that was neither Earth nor the Sun. From

the end of the 19th century, dozens of much smaller

Jovian moons have been discovered and have received

the names of lovers, conquests, or daughters of the

Roman god Jupiter, or his Greek predecessor, Zeus.

The Galilean moons are by far the largest objects in

orbit around Jupiter, with the remaining 59 moons and

the rings together comprising just 0.003 percent of the

total orbiting mass.

Eight of Jupiter's moons are regular satellites, with prograde and nearly circular orbits that are not greatly inclined

with respect to Jupiter's equatorial plane. The Galilean satellites are spheroidal in shape, and so would be considered

dwarf planets if they were in direct orbit about the Sun. The other four regular satellites are much smaller and closer

to Jupiter; these serve as sources of the dust that makes up Jupiter's rings.

Jupiter's other 60 moons are irregular satellites, whose prograde and retrograde orbits are much farther from Jupiter

and have high inclinations and eccentricities. These moons were likely captured by Jupiter from solar orbits. There

are 13 recently-discovered irregular satellites that have not yet been named, plus a 14th whose orbit has not yet been

established.

The relative masses of the Jovian moons. Those smaller than Europa are invisible

at this scale, and taken together would only just be visible at 50× magnification.

Characteristics

The moons' physical and orbital

characteristics vary widely. The four

Galileans are all over 3100 kilometres

(1900 mi) in diameter; the largest Galilean,

Ganymede, is the ninth largest object in the

Solar System, after the Sun and seven of the

planets (Ganymede being larger than

Mercury). All other Jovian moons are lessthan 250 kilometres (160 mi) in diameter,

with most barely exceeding 5 kilometres

(3.1 mi). Orbital shapes range from nearly

perfectly circular to highly eccentric and

inclined, and many revolve in the direction

opposite to Jupiter's spin (retrograde motion). Orbital periods range from seven hours (taking less time than Jupiter

does to spin around its axis), to some three thousand times more (almost three Earth years).

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Moons of Jupiter 24

Origin and evolution

Jupiter's regular satellites are believed to have formed from a circumplanetary disk, a ring of accreting gas and solid

debris analogous to a protoplanetary disk.[2] [3] They may be the remnants of a score of Galilean-mass satellites that

formed early in Jupiter's history.[2] [4]

Simulations suggest that, while the disk had a relatively low mass at any given moment, over time a substantial

fraction (several tens of a percent) of the mass of Jupiter captured from the Solar nebula was processed through it.However, the disk mass of only 2% that of Jupiter is required to explain the existing satellites.[2] Thus there may

have been several generations of Galilean-mass satellites in Jupiter's early history. Each generation of moons would

have spiraled into Jupiter, due to drag from the disk, with new moons then forming from the new debris captured

from the Solar nebula.[2] By the time the present (possibly fifth) generation formed, the disk had thinned out to the

point that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons' orbits.[4] The current Galilean moons were still affected,

falling into and being partially protected by an orbital resonance which still exists for Io, Europa, and Ganymede.

Ganymede's larger mass means that it would have migrated inward at a faster rate than Europa or Io.[2]

The outer, irregular moons are thought to have originated from passing asteroids while the protolunar disk was still

massive enough to absorb much of their momentum and thus capture them into orbit. Many broke up by the stresses

of capture, or afterward by collisions with other small bodies, producing the families we see today.[5]

Discovery

Jupiter and the Galilean moons through a telescope

The Galilean moons. From left to right, in order of increasing distance from Jupiter: Io,

Europa, Ganymede, Callisto.

The first claimed observation of one of 

Jupiter's moons is that of the Chinese

astronomer Gan De around 364 BC.[6]

However, the first certain observations

of Jupiter's satellites were those of 

Galileo Galilei in 1609.[7] By March

1610, he had sighted the four massive

Galilean moons with his 30x

magnification telescope:[8] Ganymede,

Callisto, Io, and Europa. No additional

satellites were discovered until E.E.

Barnard observed Amalthea in 1892.[9]

With the aid of telescopic

photography, further discoveries

followed quickly over the course of the

twentieth century. Himalia was

discovered in 1904,[10] Elara in

1905,[11] Pasiphaë in 1908,[12] Sinope

in 1914,[13] Lysithea and Carme in

1938,[14] Ananke in 1951,[15] and Leda

in 1974.[16] By the time Voyager space

probes reached Jupiter around 1979, 13

moons had been discovered, while Themisto was observed in 1975,[17] but due to insufficient initial observation

data, it was lost until 2000. The

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Moons of Jupiter 25

The Galilean moons and their orbits around

Jupiter

Voyager missions discovered an additional three inner moons in 1979:

Metis, Adrastea, and Thebe.[18]

For two decades no additional moons were discovered; but between

October 1999 and February 2003, researchers using sensitive

ground-based detectors found another 32 moons, most of which were

discovered by a team led by Scott S. Sheppard and David C. Jewitt.[19]

These are tiny moons, in long, eccentric, generally retrograde orbits,

and average of 3 km (1.9 mi) in diameter, with the largest being just

9 km (5.6 mi) across. All of these moons are thought to be captured

asteroidal or perhaps cometary bodies, possibly fragmented into

several pieces,[20] but very little is actually known about them. A

number of 14 additional moons were discovered since then, but not yet

confirmed, bringing the total number of observed moons of Jupiter at

63.[21] As of 2008, this is the most of any planet in the Solar System,

but additional undiscovered, tiny moons may exist.

Naming

The Galilean moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) were named by Simon Marius soon after their

discovery in 1610.[22] However, until the 20th century these fell out of favor, and instead they were referred to in the

astronomical literature simply as "Jupiter I", "Jupiter II", etc., or as "the first satellite of Jupiter", "Jupiter's second

satellite", and so on.[22] The names Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto became popular in the 20th century, while

the rest of the moons, usually numbered in Roman numerals V (5) through XII (12), remained unnamed. [23] By a

popular though unofficial convention, Jupiter V, discovered in 1892, was given the name  Amalthea, first used by the

French astronomer Camille Flammarion.[19]

The other moons, in the majority of astronomical literature, were simply labeled by their Roman numeral (i.e. JupiterIX) until the 1970s.[24] In 1975, the International Astronomical Union's (IAU) Task Group for Outer Solar System

Nomenclature granted names to satellites V – XIII,[25] and provided for a formal naming process for future satellites

to be discovered.[25] The practice was to name newly discovered moons of Jupiter after lovers and favorites of the

god Jupiter (Zeus), and since 2004, after their descendants also. [26] All of Jupiter's satellites from XXXIV (Euporie)

are named after daughters of Jupiter or Zeus.[26]

Some asteroids share the same names as moons of Jupiter: 9 Metis, 38 Leda, 52 Europa, 85 Io, 113 Amalthea, 239

Adrastea. Two more asteroids previously shared the names of Jovian moons until spelling differences were made

permanent by the IAU: Ganymede and asteroid 1036 Ganymed; and Callisto and asteroid 204 Kallisto.

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Moons of Jupiter 26

Groups

The orbits of Jupiter's irregular satellites, and how they cluster into groups: by

semi-major axis (the horizontal axis in Gm); by orbital inclination (the vertical

axis); and orbital eccentricity (the yellow lines). The relative sizes are indicated by

the circles.

Regular satellites

These are split into two groups:

• Inner satellites or Amaltheagroup —they orbit very close to

Jupiter: Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea,

and Thebe. The innermost two orbit in

less than a Jovian day, while the latter

two are respectively the fifth and

seventh largest moons in the Jovian

system. Observations suggest that at

least the largest member, Amalthea,

did not form on the present orbit, but

that it was formed farther from theplanet, or that it is a captured Solar

System body.[27] These moons, along

with a number of as-yet-unseen inner

moonlets, replenish and maintain

Jupiter's faint ring system. Metis and

Adrastea help to maintain Jupiter's

main ring, while Amalthea and Thebe

each maintain their own faint outer

rings.[28] [29]

• Main group or Galilean moons —the four massive satellites: Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa. With radii

that are larger than any of the dwarf planets, they are some of the largest objects in the Solar System outside

the Sun and the eight planets in terms of mass, and Ganymede exceeds the planet Mercury in diameter.

Respectively the first, third, fourth, and sixth largest natural satellites in the Solar System, they contain almost

99.999% of the total mass in orbit around Jupiter. Jupiter is almost 5,000 times more massive than the Galilean

moons.[30] The inner moons also participate in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance. Models suggest that they formed by

slow accretion in the low-density Jovian subnebula —a disc of the gas and dust that existed around Jupiter after

its formation —which lasted up to 10 million years in the case of Callisto.[31]

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Moons of Jupiter 27

Irregular satellites

Jupiter's outer moons and their highly inclined orbits

The irregular satellites are substantially

smaller objects with more distant and

eccentric orbits. They form families with

shared similarities in orbit (semi-major axis,

inclination, eccentricity) and composition; itis believed that these are at least partially

collisional families that were created when

larger (but still small) parent bodies were

shattered by impacts from asteroids captured

by Jupiter's gravitational field. These

families bear the names of their largest

members. The identification of satellite

families is tentative, but the following are

typically listed:[21] [32] [33]

• Prograde satellites:

• Themisto[32] is the innermost irregular

moon and not part of a known

family.[21]

• The Himalia group is spread over barely 1.4 Gm in semi-major axis, 1.6° in inclination (27.5 ± 0.8°), and

eccentricities between 0.11 and 0.25. It has been suggested that the group could be a remnant of the break-up

of an asteroid from the main asteroid belt.[32]

• Carpo is the outermost prograde moon and not part of a known family.[21]

Retrograde satellites: inclinations (°) vs eccentricities, with Carme's (orange) andAnanke's (yellow) groups identified

• Retrograde satellites:• S/2003 J 12 is the innermost of the

retrograde moons, and is not part of a

known family.

• The Carme group is spread over only

1.2 Gm in semi-major axis, 1.6° in

inclination (165.7 ± 0.8°), and

eccentricities between 0.23 and 0.27.

It is very homogeneous in color (light

red) and is believed to have originated

from a D-type asteroid progenitor,

possibly a Jupiter trojan.[20]

• The Ananke group has a relatively wider spread than the previous groups, over 2.4 Gm in semi-major axis,

8.1° in inclination (between 145.7° and 154.8°), and eccentricities between 0.02 and 0.28. Most of the

members appear gray, and are believed to have formed from the breakup of a captured asteroid.[20]

• The Pasiphae group is quite dispersed, with a spread over 1.3 Gm, inclinations between 144.5° and 158.3°,

and their eccentricities between 0.25 and 0.43.[20] The colors also vary significantly, from red to grey, which

might be the result of multiple collisions. Sinope, sometimes included into Pasiphae group,[20] is red and given

the difference in inclination, it could have been captured independently;[32] Pasiphae and Sinope are also

trapped in secular resonances with Jupiter.[34]

• S/2003 J 2 is the outermost moon of Jupiter, and is not part of a known family.

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Moons of Jupiter 28

Table

The moons of Jupiter are listed below by orbital period. Moons massive enough for their surfaces to have collapsed

into a spheroid are highlighted in bold. These are the four Galilean moons, which are comparable in size to Earth's

Moon. The four inner moons are much smaller. The irregular captured moons are shaded light gray when prograde

and dark gray when retrograde.

Order[35]

Label[36]

Name Pronunciation

(key)

ImageDiameter

(km)[37]

Mass

( × 1016

kg)

Semi-major

axis

(km)[38]

Orbital period

(d)[38]

 [39]

Inclination

(°)[38]

Eccentricity[21]

Discovery

year[19]

Discoverer[19]

Group[40]

1 XVI Metis ˈmiːt ɨ s 60×40×34 ~3.6 127,690 +7h 4m 29s0.06°

[41] 0.000 02 1979 Synnott

(Voyager

1)

Inner

2 XV Adrastea ˌædrəˈstiːə 20×16×14 ~0.2 128,690 +7h 9m 30s0.03°

[41] 0.0015 1979 Jewitt

(Voyager

2)

Inner

3 V Amalthea ˌæməlˈθiːə 250×146×128 208 181,366 +11h 57m 23s0.374°

[41] 0.0032 1892 Barnard Inner

4 XIV Thebe ˈθiːbiː 116×98×84 ~43 221,889 +16h 11m 17s1.076°

[41] 0.0175 1979 Synnott

(Voyager

1)

Inner

5 I Io ˈaɪ.oʊ 3,660.0×3,637.4

×3,630.6

8,931,900 421,700 +1.769 137 7860.050°

[41] 0.0041 1610 Galileo

Galilei

Galilean

6 II Europa  jʊˈroʊpə 3,121.6 4,800,000 671,034 +3.551 181 0410.471°

[41] 0.0094 1610 Galileo

Galilei

Galilean

7 III Ganymede ˈɡæn ɨ miːd 5,262.4 14,819,000 1,070,412 +7.154 552 960.204°

[41] 0.0011 1610 Galileo

Galilei

Galilean

8 IV Callisto kəˈlɪstoʊ 4,820.6 10,759,000 1,882,709 +16.689 018 40.205°

[41] 0.0074 1610 Galileo

Galilei

Galilean

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Moons of Jupiter 29

9 XVIII Themisto θ ɨˈmɪstoʊ 8 0.069 7,393,216 +129.87 45.762° 0.2115

1975/2000

Kowal &

Roemer/ 

Sheppard

et al.

Themisto

10 XIII Leda ˈliːdə 16 0.6 11,187,781 +241.75 27.562° 0.1673 1974 Kowal Himalia

11 VI Himalia haɪˈmeɪliə 170 670 11,451,971 +250.37 30.486° 0.1513 1904 Perrine Himalia

12 X Lysithea laɪˈsɪθiːə 36 6.3 11,740,560 +259.89 27.006° 0.1322 1938 Nicholson Himalia

13 VII Elara ˈɛlərə 86 87 11,778,034 +261.14 29.691° 0.1948 1905 Perrine Himalia

14 — S/2000 J

11

4 0.009 0 12 570 424 +287.93 27.584° 0.2058 2001 Sheppard

et al.

Himalia

15 XLVI Carpo ˈkɑrpoʊ 3 0.004 5 17,144,873 +458.62 56.001° 0.2735 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Carpo

16 — S/2003 J

12

1 0.000 15 17,739,539 −482.69 142.680° 0.4449 2003 Sheppard

et al.

?

17 XXXIV Euporie juːˈpɔər ɨ .iː 2 0.001 5 19,088,434 −538.78 144.694° 0.0960 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke

18 — S/2003 J 3 2 0.001 5 19,621,780 −561.52 146.363° 0.2507 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke

19 — S/2003 J

18

2 0.001 5 19,812,577 −569.73 147.401° 0.1569 2003 Gladman

et al.

Ananke

20 XLII Thelxinoe θɛlkˈsɪnɵʊiː 2 0.001 5 20,453,753 −597.61 151.292° 0.2684 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke

21 XXXIII Euanthe juːˈænθiː 3 0.004 5 20,464,854 −598.09 143.409° 0.2000 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke

22 XLV Helike ˈhɛl ɨ kiː 4 0.009 0 20,540,266 −601.40 154.586° 0.1374 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke

23 XXXV Orthosie ɔrˈθɒs ɨ .iː 2 0.001 5 20,567,971 −602.62 142.366° 0.2433 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke

24 XXIV Iocaste ˌaɪ.ɵˈkæstiː 5 0.019 20,722,566 −609.43 147.248° 0.2874 2001 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke

25 — S/2003 J

16

2 0.001 5 20,743,779 −610.36 150.769° 0.3184 2003 Gladman

et al.

Ananke

26 XXVII Praxidike prækˈsɪd ɨ kiː 7 0.043 20,823,948 −613.90 144.205° 0.1840 2001 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke

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Moons of Jupiter 30

27 XXII Harpalyke hɑrˈpæl ɨ kiː 4 0.012 21,063,814 −624.54 147.223° 0.2440 2001 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke

28 XL Mneme ˈniːmiː 2 0.001 5 21,129,786 −627.48 149.732° 0.3169 2003 Gladman

et al.

Ananke

29 XXX Hermippe hərˈmɪpiː 4 0.009 0 21,182,086 −629.81 151.242° 0.2290 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke?

30 XXIX Thyone θaɪˈoʊniː 4 0.009 0 21,405,570 −639.80 147.276° 0.2525 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke

31 XII Ananke əˈnæŋkiː 28 3.0 21,454,952 −642.02 151.564° 0.3445 1951

Nicholson

Ananke

32 L Herse ˈhɜrsiː 2 0.001 5 22,134,306 −672.75 162.490° 0.2379 2003 Gladman

et al.

Carme

33 XXXI Aitne ˈaɪtniː 3 0.004 5 22,285,161 −679.64 165.562° 0.3927 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

34 XXXVII Kale ˈkeɪliː 2 0.001 5 22,409,207 −685.32 165.378° 0.2011 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

35 XX Taygete teiˈɪdʒɨ tiː 5 0.016 22,438,648 −686.67 164.890° 0.3678 2001 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

36 — S/2003 J

19

2 0.001 5 22,709,061 −699.12 164.727° 0.1961 2003 Gladman

et al.

Carme

37 XXI Chaldene kælˈdiːniː 4 0.007 5 22,713,444 −699.33 167.070° 0.2916 2001 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

38 — S/2003 J

15

2 0.001 5 22,720,999 −699.68 141.812° 0.0932 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Ananke?

39 — S/2003 J

10

2 0.001 5 22,730,813 −700.13 163.813° 0.3438 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Carme?

40 — S/2003 J

23

2 0.001 5 22,739,654 −700.54 148.849° 0.3930 2004 Sheppard

et al.

Pasiphaë

41 XXV Erinome ɨˈrɪnɵmiː 3 0.004 5 22,986,266 −711.96 163.737° 0.2552 2001 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

42 XLI Aoede eɪˈiːdiː 4 0.009 0 23,044,175 −714.66 160.482° 0.6011 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Pasiphaë

43 XLIV Kallichore kəˈlɪkɵriː 2 0.001 5 23,111,823 −717.81 164.605° 0.2041 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Carme?

44 XXIII Kalyke ˈkæl ɨ kiː 5 0.019 23,180,773 −721.02 165.505° 0.2139 2001 Sheppardet al.

Carme

45 XI Carme ˈkɑrmiː 46 13 23,197,992 −721.82 165.047° 0.2342 1938

Nicholson

Carme

46 XVII Callirrhoe kəˈlɪrɵʊiː 9 0.087 23,214,986 −722.62 139.849° 0.2582 2000 Gladman

et al.

Pasiphaë

47 XXXII Eurydome jʊˈrɪdəmiː 3 0.004 5 23,230,858 −723.36 149.324° 0.3769 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Pasiphaë?

48 XXXVIII Pasithee pəˈsɪθ ɨ .iː 2 0.001 5 23,307,318 −726.93 165.759° 0.3288 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

49 XLIX Kore ˈkɔəriː 2 0.001 5 23,345,093 −776.02 137.371° 0.1951 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Pasiphaë

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Moons of Jupiter 31

50 XLVIII Cyllene s ɨˈliːniː 2 0.001 5 23,396,269 −731.10 140.148° 0.4115 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Pasiphaë

51 XLVII Eukelade juːˈkɛlədiː 4 0.009 0 23,483,694 −735.20 163.996° 0.2828 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

52 — S/2003 J 4 2 0.001 5 23,570,790 −739.29 147.175° 0.3003 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Pasiphaë

53 VIII Pasiphaë pəˈsɪfeɪ.iː 60 30 23,609,042 −741.09 141.803° 0.3743 1908 Gladman

et al.

Pasiphaë

54 XXXIX Hegemone h ɨˈdʒɛməniː 3 0.004 5 23,702,511 −745.50 152.506° 0.4077 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Pasiphaë

55 XLIII Arche ˈɑrkiː 3 0.004 5 23,717,051 −746.19 164.587° 0.1492 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

56 XXVI Isonoe aɪˈsɒnɵʊiː 4 0.007 5 23,800,647 −750.13 165.127° 0.1775 2001 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

57 — S/2003 J 9 1 0.000 15 23,857,808 −752.84 164.980° 0.2761 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

58 — S/2003 J 5 4 0.009 0 23,973,926 −758.34 165.549° 0.3070 2003 Sheppard

et al.

Carme

59 IX Sinope s ɨˈnoʊpiː 38 7.5 24,057,865 −762.33 153.778° 0.2750 1914

Nicholson

Pasiphaë

60 XXXVI Sponde ˈspɒndiː 2 0.001 5 24,252,627 −771.60 154.372° 0.4431 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Pasiphaë

61 XXVIII Autonoe ɔːˈtɒnɵʊiː 4 0.009 0 24,264,445 −772.17 151.058° 0.3690 2002 Sheppard

et al.

Pasiphaë

62 XIX Megaclite ˌmɛɡəˈklaɪtiː 5 0.021 24,687,239 −792.44 150.398° 0.3077 2001 Sheppard

et al.

Pasiphaë

63 — S/2003 J 2 2 0.001 5 30,290,846 −981.55 153.521° 0.1882 2003 Sheppard

et al.

?

See also

• Galilean moons

• Jupiter's moons in fiction

External links• Jupiter Satellite Data [42]

• Jupiter, and The Giant Planet Satellite and Moon Page [43]

• Simulation showing the position of Jupiter's Moon [44]

• Animated tour of Jupiter's Moons [45], University of Glamorgan

• Jupiter's Moons [46] by NASA's Solar System Exploration [47]

• "43 more moons orbiting Jupiter [48]" article appeared in 2003 in the San Francisco Chronicle

• Articles on the Jupiter System [49] in Planetary Science Research Discoveries

• An animation of the Jovian system of moons [50]

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Moons of Jupiter 32

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doi:10.1126/science.210.4471.786. PMID 17739548.

[19] "Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature" (http://planetarynames.wr. usgs.gov/append7. html). Working Group for Planetary System

 Nomenclature (WGPSN) . U.S. Geological Survey. 2008-11-07. . Retrieved 2008-08-02.

[20] Sheppard, Scott S.; Jewitt, David C. (May 5, 2003). "An abundant population of small irregular satellites around Jupiter". Nature 423

(6937): 261 – 263. doi:10.1038/nature01584. PMID 12748634.

[21] Sheppard, Scott S.. "Jupiter's Known Satellites" (http://www.dtm.  ciw. edu/users/sheppard/satellites/jupsatdata. html). Departament of 

Terrestrial Magnetism at Carniege Institution for science. . Retrieved 2008-08-28.[22] Marazzini, C. (2005). "The names of the satellites of Jupiter: from Galileo to Simon Marius" (in Italian). Lettere Italiane 57 (3): 391 – 407.

ISSN 0024-1334.

[23] Nicholson, Seth Barnes (April 1939). "The Satellites of Jupiter" (http://adsabs. harvard. edu//full/seri/PASP.   /0051//0000093. 000.

html). Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 51 (300): 85 – 94. doi:10.1086/125010. .

[24] Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia; Haramundanis, Katherine (1970). Introduction to Astronomy . Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

ISBN 0-134-78107-4.

[25] Marsden, Brian G. (3 October 1975). "Satellites of Jupiter" (http://cfa-www.harvard.  edu/iauc/02800/02846. html#Item6). International

 Astronomical Union Circulars  2846. . Retrieved 2008-08-28.

[26] Satellites of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus (http://193.49.4.189/SATELLITES_OF_PLANETS.  248.  0. html). International Astronomical

Union. (Report). Retrieved on 2008-08-28.

[27] Anderson, J.D.; Johnson, T.V.; Shubert, G.; et al. (2005). "Amalthea’s Density Is Less Than That of Water" (http://adsabs.  harvard. edu/ 

abs/2005Sci. . . 308.  1291A). Science 308 (5726): 1291 – 1293. doi:10.1126/science.1110422. PMID 15919987. .

[28] Burns, J.A.; Simonelli, D. P.; Showalter, M.R. et al. (2004). "Jupiter’s Ring-Moon System". in Bagenal, F.; Dowling, T.E.; McKinnon,

W.B.. Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere. Cambridge University Press.

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Moons of Jupiter 33

[29] Burns, J. A.; Showalter, M. R.; Hamilton, D. P.; et al. (1999). "The Formation of Jupiter's Faint Rings". Science 284 (5417): 1146 – 1150.

doi:10.1126/science.284.5417.1146. PMID 10325220.

[30] Jupiter Mass of 1.8986 × 1027 kg / Mass of Galilean moons (http://ssd.  jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par) 3.93 × 1023 kg = 4,828

[31] Canup, Robin M.; Ward, William R. (2002). "Formation of the Galilean Satellites: Conditions of Accretion" (http://www. boulder. swri.

edu/~robin/cw02final. pdf) (pdf). The Astronomical Journal 124: 3404 – 3423. doi:10.1086/344684. .

[32] Grav, Tommy; Holman, Matthew J.; Gladman, Brett J.; Aksnes, Kaare (2003). "Photometric survey of the irregular satellites". Icarus 166

(1): 33 – 45. doi:arXiv:astro-ph/0301016v1 (inactive 2010-03-17).

[33] Sheppard, Scott S.; Jewitt, David C.; Porco, Carolyn (2004). "Jupiter's outer satellites and Trojans" (http://www.  ifa. hawaii. edu/~jewitt/ papers/JUPITER/JSP. 2003.  pdf). in Fran Bagenal, Timothy E. Dowling, William B. McKinnon (pdf). Jupiter. The planet, satellites and 

magnetosphere. 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 263 – 280. ISBN 0-521-81808-7. .

[34] Nesvorný, David; Beaugé, Cristian; Dones, Luke (2004). "Collisional Origin of Families of Irregular Satellites" (http://www. boulder. swri.

edu/~davidn/papers/irrbig. pdf) (PDF). The Astronomical Journal 127: 1768 – 1783. doi:10.1086/382099. .

[35] Order refers to the position among other moons with respect to their average distance from Jupiter.

[36] Label refers to the Roman numeral attributed to each moon in order of their discovery.

[37] Diameters with multiple entries such as "60×40×34" reflect that the body is not a perfect spheroid and that each of its dimensions have been

measured well enough.

[38] "Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service" (http://cfa-www. harvard.edu/iau/NatSats/NaturalSatellites. html). IAU: Minor Planet Center. .

Retrieved 2008-09-03. "Note: some semi-major axis were computed using the µ value, while the eccentricities were taken using the inclination

to the local Laplace plane"

[39] Periods with negative values are retrograde.[40] "?" refers to group assignments that are not considered sure yet.

[41] Siedelmann P.K.; Abalakin V.K.; Bursa, M.; Davies, M.E.; de Bergh, C.; Lieske, J.H.; Obrest, J.; Simon, J.L.; Standish, E.M.; Stooke, P. ;

Thomas, P.C. (2000) The Planets and Satellites 2000 (http://www.hnsky.org/iau-iag. htm). IAU/IAG Working Group on Cartographic

Coordinates and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites. (Report). Retrieved on 2008-08-31.

[42] http://www. dtm.  ciw. edu/users/sheppard/satellites/jupsatdata.html

[43] http://www. dtm.  ciw. edu/users/sheppard/satellites

[44] http://www. orinetz. com/planet/tourprog/jupitermoons. html

[45] http://alienworlds. glam. ac. uk/jovianMoons.html

[46] http://solarsystem. nasa. gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jupiter&Display=Moons

[47] http://solarsystem. nasa. gov

[48] http://www. sfgate. com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2003/05/15/MN286597. DTL&type=science

[49] http://www. psrd. hawaii. edu/Archive/Archive-Jupiter.html

[50] http://www. orbitsimulator. com/gravity/articles/joviansystem. html

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Europa (moon) 34

Europa (moon)

Europa

Europa's trailing hemisphere, as seen by the Galileo spacecraft. The prominent crater in the lower right is Pwyll. Darker regions areareas where Europa's primarily water ice surface has a higher mineral content.

Discovery

Discovered by Galilei, GalileoMarius, Simon

Discovery date January 7, 1610[1]

Designations

Alternate name(s) Jupiter II

Adjective Europan

Orbital characteristics[2]

Epoch January 8, 2004

Periapsis 664 862 km[3]

Apoapsis 676 938 km[3]

Mean orbit radius 670 900 km[4]

Eccentricity 0.009[4]

Orbital period 3.551 181 d[4]

Average orbital speed 13.740 km/s[4]

Inclination 0.470° (to Jupiter's equator)[4]

Satellite of  Jupiter

Physical characteristics

Mean radius 1569 km (0.245 Earths)[4]

Surface area 3.09 × 107 km2 (0.061 Earths)[5]

Volume 1.593 × 1010 km3 (0.015 Earths)[5]

Mass 4.80 × 1022 kg (0.008 Earths)[4]

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Europa (moon) 35

Mean density 3.01 g/cm3[4]

Equatorial surface gravity 1.314 m/s2 (0.134 g)[3]

Escape velocity 2.025 km/s[3]

Rotation period Synchronous[6]

Axial tilt 0.1°[7]

Albedo 0.67 ± 0.03[8]

Surface temp.

  Surface min mean max

~50K[9]

102 K 125 K

Apparent magnitude 5.29 (opposition)[8]

Atmosphere

Surface pressure 0.1 µPa (10-12 bar)[10]

Europa (pronounced /jʊˈroʊpə / (  listen);[1] or as Greek  Ευρώπη) is the sixth moon of the planet Jupiter, and the

smallest of its four Galilean satellites. Europa was discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei (and possibly independently

by Simon Marius), and named after a mythical Phoenician noblewoman, Europa, who was courted by Zeus and

became the queen of Crete.

Roughly the size of Earth's Moon, Europa is primarily made of silicate rock and likely has an iron core. It has a

tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen. Its surface is composed of ice and is one of the smoothest in the

Solar System. This surface is striated by cracks and streaks, while craters are relatively infrequent. The apparentyouth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists beneath it, which could

conceivably serve as an abode for extraterrestrial life.[2] This hypothesis proposes that heat energy from tidal flexing

causes the ocean to remain liquid and drives geological activity similar to plate tectonics.[3]

Although only fly-by missions have visited the moon, the intriguing characteristics of Europa have led to several

ambitious exploration proposals. The Galileo mission provided the bulk of current data on Europa. A new mission to

Jupiter's icy moons, the Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM), is proposed for a launch in 2020. [4] Conjecture on

extraterrestrial life has ensured a high profile for the moon and has led to steady lobbying for future missions.[5] [6]

Discovery and namingEuropa, along with Jupiter's three other largest satellites, Io, Ganymede, and Callisto, was discovered by Galileo

Galilei in January 1610. The first reported observation of Io was made by Galileo Galilei on January 7, 1610 using a

20x-power, refracting telescope at the University of Padua. However, in that observation, Galileo could not separate

Io and Europa due to the low power of his telescope, so the two were recorded as a single point of light. Io and

Europa were seen for the first time as separate bodies during Galileo's observations of the Jupiter system the

following day, January 8, 1610 (used as the discovery date for Europa by the IAU).[1]

Like all the Galilean satellites, Europa is named after a lover of Zeus, the Greek counterpart of Jupiter, in this case

Europa, daughter of the king of Tyre. The naming scheme was suggested by Simon Marius, who apparently

discovered the four satellites independently, though Galileo alleged that Marius had plagiarized him. Marius

attributed the proposal to Johannes Kepler.[7] [8]

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Europa (moon) 36

The names fell out of favor for a considerable time and were not revived in general use until the mid-20th century. [9]

In much of the earlier astronomical literature, Europa is simply referred to by its Roman numeral designation as

Jupiter II (a system introduced by Galileo) or as the "second satellite of Jupiter". In 1892, the discovery of 

Amalthea, whose orbit lay closer to Jupiter than those of the Galilean moons, pushed Europa to the third position.

The Voyager  probes discovered three more inner satellites in 1979, so Europa is now considered Jupiter's sixth

satellite, though it is still sometimes referred to as Jupiter II.[9]

Orbit and rotation

Animation showing Io's Laplace resonance with

Europa and Ganymede

Europa orbits Jupiter in just over three and a half days, with an

orbital radius of about 670,900 km. With an eccentricity of only

0.009, the orbit itself is nearly circular, and the orbital inclination

relative to the Jovian equatorial plane is small, at 0.470°.[10] Like

its fellow Galilean satellites, Europa is tidally locked to Jupiter,

with one hemisphere of the satellite constantly facing the planet.

Europa's prime meridian intersects the north and south poles, and

the equator at the sub-Jovian point.[11] Research suggests the tidal

locking may not be full, as a non-synchronous rotation has been

proposed: Europa spins faster than it orbits, or at least did so in the

past. This suggests an asymmetry in internal mass distribution and

that a layer of subsurface liquid separates the icy crust from the

rocky interior.[12]

The slight eccentricity of Europa's orbit, maintained by the gravitational disturbances from the other Galileans,

causes Europa's sub-Jovian point to oscillate about a mean position. As Europa comes slightly nearer to Jupiter, the

planet's gravitational attraction increases, causing the moon to elongate towards it. As Europa moves slightly away

from Jupiter, the planet's gravitational force decreases, causing the moon to relax back into a more spherical shape.The orbital eccentricity of Europa is continuously pumped by its mean-motion resonance with Io.[13] Thus, the tidal

flexing kneads Europa's interior and gives the moon a source of heat, allowing its ocean to stay liquid and driving

subsurface geological processes.[3] [13] The ultimate source of this energy is Jupiter's rotation, which is tapped by Io

through the tides it raises on Jupiter and is transferred to Europa and Ganymede by the orbital resonance.[14] [13]

Physical characteristics

Model of Europa's interior showing a solid ice

crust over a layer of liquid water or soft ice, a

silicate mantle and a metallic core.

Europa is slightly smaller than Earth's Moon. At just over

3100 kilometres (1900 mi) in diameter, it is the sixth-largest moon and

fifteenth largest object in the Solar System. Though by a wide marginthe least massive of the Galilean satellites, it is nonetheless more

massive than all known moons in the Solar System smaller than itself 

combined.[15] Its bulk density suggests that it is similar in composition

to the terrestrial planets, being primarily composed of silicate rock.[16]

Internal structure

It is believed that Europa has an outer layer of water around 100 km

(62 mi) thick; some as frozen-ice upper crust, some as liquid ocean

underneath the ice. Recent magnetic field data from the Galileo orbiter

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Europa (moon) 37

showed that Europa has an induced magnetic field through interaction with Jupiter's, which suggests the presence of 

a subsurface conductive layer. The layer is likely a salty liquid water ocean. The crust is estimated to have undergone

a shift of 80°, nearly flipping over (see true polar wander), which would be unlikely if the ice were solidly attached

to the mantle.[17] Europa probably contains a metallic iron core.[18]

Surface features

Mosaic of Galileo images showing features indicative of internal

geologic activity: lineae, lenticulae (domes, pits) and Conamara Chaos.

Europa is one of the smoothest objects in the Solar

System.[19] The prominent markings crisscrossing

the moon seem to be mainly albedo features, which

emphasize low topography. There are few craters on

Europa because its surface is tectonically active and

young.[20]  [21] Europa's icy crust gives it an albedo

(light reflectivity) of 0.64, one of the highest of all

moons.[21]  [10] This would seem to indicate a young

and active surface; based on estimates of the

frequency of cometary bombardment that Europaprobably endures, the surface is about 20 to 180

million years old.[22] There is currently no full

scientific consensus among the sometimes

contradictory explanations for the surface features of 

Europa.[23]

The radiation level at the surface of Europa is

equivalent to a dose of about 540 rem (5400 mSv)

per day,[24] an amount of radiation that would cause illness in human beings.[25]

Lineae

Approximately natural color image of Europa by the Galileo spacecraft,showing lineae

Europa's most striking surface features are a series of 

dark streaks crisscrossing the entire globe, called

lineae (English: lines). Close examination shows that

the edges of Europa's crust on either side of the

cracks have moved relative to each other. The larger

bands are more than 20 km (12 mi) across, often with

dark, diffuse outer edges, regular striations, and a

central band of lighter material.[26]

The most likely hypothesis states that these lineae

may have been produced by a series of eruptions of 

warm ice as the Europan crust spread open to expose

warmer layers beneath.[27] The effect would have been similar to that seen in the Earth's oceanic ridges. These

various fractures are thought to have been caused in large part by the tidal stresses exerted by Jupiter. Since Europa

is tidally locked to Jupiter, and therefore always maintains the same approximate orientation towards the planet, the

stress patterns should form a distinctive and predictable pattern. However, only the youngest of Europa's fractures

conform to the predicted pattern; other fractures appear to occur at increasingly different orientations the older they

are. This could be explained if Europa's surface rotates slightly faster than its interior, an effect which is possible due

to the subsurface ocean mechanically decoupling the moon's surface from its rocky mantle and the effects of Jupiter's

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Europa (moon) 38

gravity tugging on the moon's outer ice crust.[28] Comparisons of Voyager and Galileo spacecraft photos serve to put

an upper limit on this hypothetical slippage. The full revolution of the outer rigid shell relative to the interior of 

Europa occurs over a minimum of 12,000 years.[29]

Other geological features

Enhanced-color view of part of Conamara Chaos, showing ice rafts up

to 10 km (6 mi) across. White areas are ejecta rays from the crater

Pwyll.

Craggy, 250 m high peaks and smooth plates are jumbled together in aclose-up of Conamara Chaos.

Other features present on Europa are circular andelliptical lenticulae (Latin for "freckles"). Many are

domes, some are pits and some are smooth, dark

spots. Others have a jumbled or rough texture. The

dome tops look like pieces of the older plains around

them, suggesting that the domes formed when the

plains were pushed up from below.[30]

One hypothesis states that these lenticulae were

formed by diapirs of warm ice rising up through the

colder ice of the outer crust, much like magma

chambers in the Earth's crust.[30] The smooth, darkspots could be formed by meltwater released when

the warm ice breaks through the surface. The rough,

  jumbled lenticulae (called regions of "chaos"; for

example, Conamara Chaos) would then be formed

from many small fragments of crust embedded in

hummocky, dark material, appearing like icebergs in

a frozen sea.[31]

An alternative hypothesis suggest that lenticulae are

actually small areas of chaos and that the claimedpits, spots and domes are artefacts resulting from

over-interpretation of early, low-resolution Galileo

images. The implication is that the ice is too thin to support the convective diapir model of feature formation. [32] [33]

Subsurface ocean

Most planetary scientists believe that a layer of liquid water exists beneath Europa's surface, kept warm by tidally

generated heat.[34] The heating by radioactive decay, which is almost the same as in Earth (per kg of rock), cannot

provide necessary heating in Europa because the volume-to-surface ratio is much lower due to the moon's smaller

size. Europa's surface temperature averages about 110 K (−160 °C; −260 °F) at the equator and only 50 K (−220 °C;

−370 °F) at the poles, keeping Europa's icy crust as hard as granite. [9] The first hints of a subsurface ocean came

from theoretical considerations of tidal heating (a consequence of Europa's slightly eccentric orbit and orbital

resonance with the other Galilean moons). Galileo imaging team members argue for the existence of a subsurface

ocean from analysis of Voyager and Galileo images.[34] The most dramatic example is "chaos terrain", a common

feature on Europa's surface that some interpret as a region where the subsurface ocean has melted through the icy

crust. This interpretation is extremely controversial. Most geologists who have studied Europa favor what is

commonly called the "thick ice" model, in which the ocean has rarely, if ever, directly interacted with the present

surface.[35] The different models for the estimation of the ice shell thickness give values between a few kilometers

and tens of kilometers.[36]

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Europa (moon) 39

Two possible models of Europa

The best evidence for the thick ice model is a study

of Europa's large craters. The largest impact

structures are surrounded by concentric rings and

appear to be filled with relatively flat, fresh ice;

based on this and on the calculated amount of heat

generated by Europan tides, it is predicted that theouter crust of solid ice is approximately 10 – 30 km

(6 – 19 mi) thick, including a ductile "warm ice" layer,

which could mean that the liquid ocean underneath

may be about 100 km (60 mi) deep.[22] This leads to

a volume of Europa's oceans of 3 × 1018 m3, slightly

more than two times the volume of Earth's oceans.

The thin ice model suggests that Europa's ice shell

may be only a few kilometers thick. However, most

planetary scientists conclude that this model

considers only those topmost layers of Europa's crust

which behave elastically when affected by Jupiter's

tides. One example is flexure analysis, in which the

moon's crust is modeled as a plane or sphere

weighted and flexed by a heavy load. Models such as

this suggest the outer elastic portion of the ice crust

could be as thin as 200 metres (660 ft). If the ice

shell of Europa is really only a few kilometers thick,

this "thin ice" model would mean that regular contact

of the liquid interior with the surface could occur through open ridges, causing the formation of areas of chaotic

terrain.[36]

In late 2008, it was suggested Jupiter may keep Europa's oceans warm by generating large planetary tidal waves on

the moon because of its small but non-zero obliquity. This previously unconsidered kind of tidal force generates

so-called Rossby waves that travel quite slowly, at just a few kilometers per day, but can generate significant kinetic

energy. For the current axial tilt estimate of 0.1 degree, the resonance from Rossby waves would store 7.3 × 1017 J of 

kinetic energy, which is two hundred times larger than that of the flow excited by the dominant tidal forces. [37] [38]

Dissipation of this energy could be the principal heat source of Europa's ocean.

The Galileo orbiter found that Europa has a weak magnetic moment, which is induced by the varying part of the

Jovian magnetic field. The field strength at the magnetic equator (about 120 nT) created by this magnetic moment is

about one-sixth the strength of Ganymede's field and six times the value of Callisto's.[39] The existence of theinduced moment requires a layer of a highly electrically conductive material in the moon's interior. The most

plausible candidate for this role is a large subsurface ocean of liquid saltwater.[18] Spectrographic evidence suggests

that the dark, reddish streaks and features on Europa's surface may be rich in salts such as magnesium sulfate,

deposited by evaporating water that emerged from within.[40] Sulfuric acid hydrate is another possible explanation

for the contaminant observed spectroscopically.[41] In either case, since these materials are colorless or white when

pure, some other material must also be present to account for the reddish color, and sulfur compounds are

suspected.[42]

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Europa (moon) 40

Atmosphere

Magnetic field around Europa. The red line

shows a trajectory of the Galileo spacecraftduring a typical flyby (E4 or E14).

Observations with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph of the

Hubble Space Telescope, first described in 1995, revealed that Europa

has a tenuous atmosphere composed mostly of molecular oxygen

(O2).[43] [44] The surface pressure of Europa's atmosphere is 0.1 μPa, or

10−12 times that of the Earth.[10] In 1997, the Galileo spacecraftconfirmed the presence of a tenuous ionosphere (an upper-atmospheric

layer of charged particles) around Europa created by solar radiation

and energetic particles from Jupiter's magnetosphere,[45] [46] providing

evidence of an atmosphere.

Unlike the oxygen in Earth's atmosphere, Europa's is not of biological

origin. The surface-bounded atmosphere forms through radiolysis, the

dissociation of molecules through radiation[47] . Solar ultraviolet

radiation and charged particles (ions and electrons) from the Jovian

magnetospheric environment collide with Europa's icy surface,splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen constituents. These chemical

components are then adsorbed and "sputtered" into the atmosphere.

The same radiation also creates collisional ejections of these products from the surface, and the balance of these two

processes forms an atmosphere.[48] Molecular oxygen is the densest component of the atmosphere because it has a

long lifetime; after returning to the surface, it does not stick (freeze) like a water or hydrogen peroxide molecule but

rather desorbs from the surface and starts another ballistic arc. Molecular hydrogen never reaches the surface, as it is

light enough to escape Europa's surface gravity.[49] [50]

Observations of the surface have revealed that some of the molecular oxygen produced by radiolysis is not ejected

from the surface. Because the surface may interact with the subsurface ocean (considering the geological discussion

above), this molecular oxygen may make its way to the ocean, where it could aid in biological processes. [51] Oneestimate suggests that, given the turnover rate inferred from the apparent ~0.5 Gyr maximum age of Europa's surface

ice, subduction of radiolytically generated oxidizing species might well lead to oceanic free oxygen concentrations

that are comparable to those in terrestrial deep oceans.[52]

The molecular hydrogen that escapes Europa's gravity, along with atomic and molecular oxygen, forms a torus (ring)

of gas in the vicinity of Europa's orbit around Jupiter. This "neutral cloud" has been detected by both the Cassini and

Galileo spacecraft, and has a greater content (number of atoms and molecules) than the neutral cloud surrounding

Jupiter's inner moon Io. Models predict that almost every atom or molecule in Europa's torus is eventually ionized,

thus providing a source to Jupiter's magnetospheric plasma. [53]

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Europa (moon) 41

Potential for extraterrestrial life

A black smoker in the Atlantic Ocean. Driven by

geothermal energy, this and other types of 

hydrothermal vents create chemical disequilibria

that can provide energy sources for life.

This giant tube worm colony dwells beside a

Pacific Ocean vent. While the worms require

oxygen (hence their blood-red color), some

microbes in the vent communities (e.g.,

methanogens) do not.

Europa's unlit interior is now considered to be the most likely location

for extant extraterrestrial life in the Solar System.[54] Life could exist

in its under-ice ocean, perhaps subsisting in an environment similar to

Earth's deep-ocean hydrothermal vents or the Antarctic Lake

Vostok.[55] Life in such an ocean could possibly be similar tomicrobial life on Earth in the deep ocean.[56]  [57] So far, there is no

evidence that life exists on Europa, but the likely presence of liquid

water has spurred calls to send a probe there.[58]

Until the 1970s, life, at least as the concept is generally understood,

was believed to be entirely dependent on energy from the Sun. Plants

on Earth's surface capture energy from sunlight to photosynthesize

sugars from carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen in the process,

and are then eaten by oxygen-respiring animals, passing their energy

up the food chain. Even life in the deep ocean far below the photiczone was believed to obtain its nourishment either from the organic

detritus raining down from the surface, or by eating animals that in turn

depend on that stream of nutrients.[59] A world's ability to support life

was thus thought to depend on its access to sunlight. However, in 1977,

during an exploratory dive to the Galapagos Rift in the deep-sea

exploration submersible  Alvin, scientists discovered colonies of giant

tube worms, clams, crustaceans, mussels, and other assorted creatures

clustered around undersea volcanic features known as black

smokers.[59] These creatures thrive despite having no access to

sunlight, and it was soon discovered that they comprise an entirelyindependent food chain. Instead of plants, the basis for this food chain

was a form of bacterium that derived its energy from oxidization of 

reactive chemicals, such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, that bubbled

up from the Earth's interior. This chemosynthesis revolutionized the

study of biology by revealing that life need not be sun-dependent; it

only requires water and an energy gradient in order to exist. It opened

up a new avenue in astrobiology by massively expanding the number

of possible extraterrestrial habitats.

While the tube worms and other multicellular eukaryotic organismsaround these hydrothermal vents respire oxygen and thus are indirectly dependent on photosynthesis, anaerobic

chemosynthetic bacteria and archaea that inhabit these ecosystems provide a possible model for life in Europa's

ocean.[52] The energy provided by tidal flexing drives active geological processes within Europa's interior, just as

they do to a far more obvious degree on its sister moon Io. While Europa, like the Earth, may possess an internal

energy source from radioactive decay, the energy generated by tidal flexing would be several orders of magnitude

greater than any radiological source.[60] However, such an energy source could never support an ecosystem as large

and diverse as the photosynthesis-based ecosystem on Earth's surface.[61] Life on Europa could exist clustered

around hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor, or below the ocean floor, where endoliths are known to habitate on

Earth. Alternatively, it could exist clinging to the lower surface of the moon's ice layer, much like algae and bacteria

in Earth's polar regions, or float freely in Europa's ocean.[62] However, if Europa's ocean were too cold, biologicalprocesses similar to those known on Earth could not take place. Similarly, if it were too salty, only extreme

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Europa (moon) 42

halophiles could survive in its environment.[62]

In September 2009, planetary scientist Richard Greenberg calculated that cosmic rays impacting on Europa's surface

convert the ice into oxidizers, which could then be absorbed into the ocean below as water wells up to fill cracks. Via

this process, Greenberg estimates that Europa's ocean could eventually achieve an oxygen concentration greater than

that of Earth's oceans within just a few million years. This would enable Europa to support not merely anaerobic

microbial life but potentially larger, aerobic organisms such as fish.[63]

In 2006, Robert T. Pappalardo, an assistant professor in the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the

University of Colorado in Boulder said,

“We’ve spent quite a bit of time and effort trying to understand if Mars was once a habitable environment. Europa today, probably, is a

habitable environment. We need to confirm this … but Europa, potentially, has all the ingredients for life … and not just four billion years

ago … but today.[64] ”

Exploration

Most human knowledge of Europa has been derived from a series of flybys since the 1970s. The sister crafts Pioneer 

10 and Pioneer 11 were the first to visit Jupiter, in 1973 and 1974, respectively; the first photos of Jupiter's largest

moons produced by the  Pioneers were fuzzy and dim.[19] The Voyager flybys followed in 1979, while the Galileo

mission orbited Jupiter for eight years beginning in 1995 and provided the most detailed examination of the Galilean

moons that is expected until the end of the 2020s.

Various proposals have been made for future missions. The aims of these missions have ranged from examining

Europa's chemical composition to searching for extraterrestrial life in its subsurface ocean.[56]  [65] Any mission to

Europa would need to be protected from the high radiation levels sustained by Jupiter.[5] Europa receives about 540

rem of radiation per day.[66]

Spacecraft proposals and cancellationsPlans to send a probe to study Europa for signs of liquid water and possible life have been plagued by false starts and

budget cuts.[67] Proposed for a launch in 2020, the Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) is a joint NASA/ESA

proposal for exploration of Jupiter's moons. In February 2009 it was announced that ESA/NASA had given this

mission priority ahead of the Titan Saturn System Mission.[68] ESA's contribution will still face funding competition

from other ESA projects.[69] EJSM consists of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter, the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede

Orbiter, and possibly a JAXA-led Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter. Russia has expressed interest in sending a lander

to Europa as part of an international flotilla.

Prior to EJSM, the plan for the extremely ambitious Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter was cancelled in 2005.[5] [67] Before

that, the Europa Orbiter received a go-ahead in 1999 but was canceled in 2002. Another possible mission, known as

the   Ice Clipper mission, would have used an impactor similar to the   Deep Impact mission —it would make a

controlled crash into the surface of Europa, generating a plume of debris which would then be collected by a small

spacecraft flying through the plume.[70] [71]

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Europa (moon) 43

Artist's concept of the cryobot and hydrobot

More ambitious ideas have been put forward including an impactor in

combination with a thermal drill to search for biosignatures that might

be frozen in the shallow subsurface[72] [73] . Another proposal calls for

a large nuclear-powered "melt probe" (cryobot) which would melt

through the ice until it hit the ocean below.[5] [74] Once it reached the

water, it would deploy an autonomous underwater vehicle (hydrobot)which would gather information and send it back to Earth. [75] Both the

cryobot and the hydrobot would have to undergo some form of extreme

sterilization to prevent detection of Earth organisms instead of native

life and to prevent contamination of the subsurface ocean.[76] This

proposed mission has not yet reached a serious planning stage.[77]

See also

• Colonization of Europa

• Jupiter's moons in fiction• List of craters on Europa

• List of geological features on Europa

• List of lineae on Europa

• Moons of Jupiter

• Snowball Earth hypothesis

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Further reading

• Bagenal, Fran; Dowling, Timothy Edward; and McKinnon, William B. (2004). Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and 

 Magnetosphere. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521818087.

• Rothery, David A. (1999). Satellites of the Outer Planets: Worlds in Their Own Right . Oxford University Press

US. ISBN 0-19-512555-X.

• Harland, David M. (2000). Jupiter Odyssey: The Story of NASA's Galileo Mission . Springer. ISBN 1852333014.

• Greenberg, Richard (2005). EUROPA The Ocean Moon. Springer. ISBN 3540224505.

External links

•  Europa, a Continuing Story of Discovery at NASA/JPL (http://www.  jpl. nasa. gov/galileo/europa/)

• Europa Profile (http://solarsystem. nasa. gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jup_Europa) at NASA's Solar

System Exploration site (http://solarsystem. nasa.gov)

• Europa page (http://www.nineplanets. org/europa.  html) at The Nine8 Planets

• Europa page (http://www.solarviews.com/eng/europa. htm) at Views of the Solar System

• The Calendars of Jupiter (http://www. martiana. org/mars/jupiter/jupifrm.  htm)

• Are our nearest living neighbours on one of Jupiter's Moons? (http://www. d.lane.  btinternet. co. uk/Essay.htm)

• Preventing Forward Contamination of Europa (http://www.nap. edu/openbook.php?record_id=9895&

page=R1) - SSB Study of Planetary[1] Protection policies for Europa.

• Images of Europa at JPL's Planetary Photojournal (http://photojournal.  jpl. nasa. gov/target/Europa)

• Movie of Europa's rotation (http://sos. noaa. gov/videos/Europa.mov) from the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration

• Europa map with feature names (http://photojournal.jpl. nasa. gov/catalog/PIA03526) from Planetary

Photojournal (http://photojournal.jpl.nasa. gov/)

• Europa map with feature names (http://planetarynames.wr.usgs. gov/images/europa_comp. pdf) from USGS

Jupiter system page (http://planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/jsp/SystemSearch2.  jsp?System=Jupiter)

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Article Sources and Contributors 48

Article Sources and ContributorsJupiter  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=366716242 Contributors: -- April, -Kerplunk-, 06monkey, 100110100, 129.128.164.xxx, 129.128.90.xxx, 17Drew, 21655, 24fan24,84user, A bit iffy, A. Parrot, A455bcd9, AAA!, Aaaxlp, Abby, Abdul Muhib, Abdullais4u, Abu-Fool Danyal ibn Amir al-Makhiri, Academic Challenger, Aces lead, Acom, Acroterion, Adashiel,Addshore, Adrian.benko, Aerobird, Aeusoes1, Ageekgal, Agent003, Ahoerstemeier, Aillema, Aitias, Ajaxkroon, Ajczdabomb, Akirn, Aksi great, Alan Peakall, Albatross2147, Alcmaeonid, Ale

 jrb, Ale221, Alec Connors, Alecdude, Aleenf1, Alexander110, AlexiusHoratius, Alfvaen, Algebraist, Ali, Alias Flood, AliasHandler, Allstarecho, AmiDaniel, Amillar, Amorymeltzer, Anaraug,Anchoress, AndonicO, Andre Engels, Andrewpmk, AndySmith84, Anetode, Angel123123, Angela, Angilbas, Angrome9, Antandrus, Antifamilymang, Anville, Apocalypse2011, Ar-wiki,Aramjm, Arctic.gnome, Arfur20, ArielGold, Arjun01, Armchairslugger, ArnoldReinhold, Arod14, Art LaPella, ArthurWeasley, Ascend, Asdarknessfadesaway, Ashmoo, Aster2, Astrobhadauria,

Astrobiologist, Athenean, Aths, Attilios, AustinTarzia, Autocracy, Avillia, Awadewit, Awolf002, AxelBoldt, Ayrton Prost, AzaToth, Azure Haights, B9 hummingbird hovering, BGManofID,Bacteria, Bad Astronomer, Badanedwa, BalazsH, Banus, Barks0, BatteryIncluded, Beland, Benandersen, Benbest, Bender235, Benjaburns, Benwildeboer, Bhadani, Bianca w123, Big Smooth,Big iron, Bigdan201, BiggKwell, Bigscarymike, Bill37212, BillC, BillCook, BillDeanCarter, Billinghurst, Bkell, Bladesonic, Bletch, Blitz123, Bloodshedder, BlueEarth, Bluemask, Bluemoose,BlytheG, Bmdavll, Bob A, Bob rulz, Bobblewik, Bobisbob, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Borb, BorgQueen, Bornintheguz, Bradeos Graphon, Brainmuncher, Branddobbe, Brandon,Breakdancingninja, BrendanRyan, Breno, Brentt, Brian0918, Brianga, Bricktop, Brighterorange, Brion VIBBER, Brisvegas, Bryan Derksen, Bryanadamtan, Bubba73, Burntsauce, Bwilliams,C.m.jones, C0nanPayne, CDN99, CWY2190, CWii, Cajolingwilhelm, Calex1, Calilasseia, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Canley, Caponer, Captmondo, CarbonUnit2,Castagna, Caster23, CattleGirl, Causa sui, Cavac, Caylan12-06, Cbddoughboy, Celarnor, Cenarium, Centrx, Chal7ds, Charlie Huggard, Charvest, Charvez12, Chemicalrubber, Chesnok, Chiao,ChicXulub, Chr334, Chris 73, Chris Gottschalk, Chris the speller, ChrisO, ChrisWallis, Chrisjj, ChristTrekker, Christopher Parham, Ciacchi, Civil Engineer III, Ckatz, Cleared as filed,Cobaltbluetony, Cohesion, Colipon, Colonies Chris, Cometstyles, Commander, CommonsDelinker, Conalmal, Confiteordeo, Confront, Conner40, ConradPino, Consumed Crustacean, Conversionscript, Cool moe dee 345, Corvus cornix, CosineKitty, CowAteMe, Cp111, Crabula, Craig Pemberton, Craiglynn666, Craigsjones, Crazynas, Cremepuff222, Css, Ctbolt, Ctifumdope, Ctu2485,Cuddlyopedia, Curps, Cyclopaedia, Cyde, Cyktsui, D, D. Recorder, DDima, DJBullfish, DJFrankie2468, DVD R W, Dan100, Dangerousnerd, Danie2dixon, Daniel Case, Daniel Olsen,Daniel5127, DanielCD, Danlikebooks, DannyZ, Danski14, Dante Alighieri, Dark Wolf101, Dark-hooded smoker, Darkside5001, Darthnat, Datakid1100, Davewild, Davidhorman, Dchall1, Ddxc,Deanos, Deathgiggity, DeepSkyFrontier, Deeptrivia, Deflective, Deglr6328, Delirium, Demomoer, Demonminde, Deon, DerHexer, Dermot92, Derrickjohnson2, Deuar, Devil Master, Dextrose,Dhartung, Differo, DigitalAttorney, Digitalme, Dina, Dino, Dinosaursrule42, Diogenes00, Discospinster, Djinn112, Djwebb1969, Dlohcierekim, DocWatson42, Dogzrule101, Doktor,Donthackppl, Doradus, Dr. Eggman3, Dr. Submillimeter, DrSamba, Dragons flight, Draicone, Dralwik, Dreish, Drini, Drongou, Drseal, Dsmith7707, Dtbrock, Duncan.france, Dureo, Dwheeler,Dwmr, DÅ‚ugosz, ERcheck, ESkog, Eaomatrix, EarthPerson, Eclecticology, Ed Poor, Ed g2s, Edcolins, Edgar181, Editore99, Edivorce, Edsanville, Egil, Ehousehay, Eiaschool, Eisnel, Eitherway, El C, El Shaday, Elb2000, Element16, Elenseel, Eliz81, Emc2, EncycloPetey, Endroit, EnglishEfternamn, Eob, Epbr123, Ephant, Erasmosis, Ericcool99, Ericl, Erimus, EscapingLife,Eshafto, Espi, Ettrig, Evan Robidoux, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Exarion, Excirial, Expatkiwi, Eyreland, Ezer22, F Notebook, Fabricationary, Factmon, FaerieInGrey, FayssalF, Fbs. 13,FelineAvenger, Femto, Ferkelparade, Fifo, Finlay McWalter, Fireice, Flowerpotman, Flydpnkrtn, Flyguy649, Fojxl, Fonzy, FrancoGG, Francs2000, Freakofnurture, Fredo1983, Freewayguy,

FreplySpang, FrummerThanThou, Fsotrain09, FtLulz, GDallimore, GDonato, GHe, GT, GVP Webmaster, Gaff, Galloglass, Galoubet, Gangsterls, Gavino, Gayle crockett, Gdo01, Gene Nygaard,Gene.arboit, GeneralPatton, GiLLyDaGuN, Gimmetrow, Gjd001, Glen, Glenn, Glenn Browne, Gman124, Gogo Dodo, Gortu, Gospodar svemira, Gracenotes, Graeme Bartlett, Graham87,GregAsche, GregMinton, GregorB, Gregorof, Gscshoyru, Gspinoza, Gublefink, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Guy14, Gwernol, Gyrobo, Gzkn, Hadal, Hairy Dude, Hajor, Hamiltonstone, Hardee67,Harishsubramanian, Harmil, Harp, Harryboyles, Harvestdancer, Hasek is the best, Haukurth, Haverton, Hawkania, Hdt83, Headbomb, Heimstern, HenryLi, HereToHelp, Heremod, HernanQB,Herojoe1000, Hibernian, Hike395, Hinomaru kun, HisHighness420, Hit bull, win steak, Homo logos, Homrsmpsnrulz, Hopquick, HorsePunchKid, Hosterweis, Hrothgar15, Hu, Hurricane Devon,Hurricane111, Hut 8.5, Huw Powell, I am the antichrist, I do not exist, I need a stupid username, I'm a sockpuppet, Iago Dali, IanOsgood, Iapetus, Icairns, Ice Cold Beer, Iceberg3k, Icek, Ikiroid,Il consiglieri, Iluvcapra, Iminnocent0, Imnotminkus, Inge-Lyubov, Inkington, Interchange88, Into The Fray, InvisibleK, Involutaryhaxor, Irishguy, IsaacMcHelicopter, Isidoros47, Ixfd64,JCDenton2052, JForget, JINN66, JSpung, Jackj08, Jackyfung7, Jacob102193, Jadtnr1, Jagged 85, Jakeis1, Jakmak123, JamesHoadley, JamesR, Jas pierce, Jason Potter, Jaxl, Jc1346729, Jcamts,Jcrocker, Jdavidb, Jdmmxbth, Jeandré du Toit, Jedikaiti, Jeepday, Jeffq, Jerryb1961, Jerzy, Jespinos, Jess Mars, Jessemerriman, Jessesaurus, Jim Douglas, Jim62sch, Jim77742, Jimp, JinJian,Jirachi, Jj137, Jjeffrey, Jlaramee, JoJan, Joanjoc, Jochem Atteveld, Jodamiller, Joehall45, John, John254, Johnleemk, Jolb, Jon513, Jons63, Jordanjhd, Jorgezoltan, Jose77, Joseph Solis inAustralia, Journalist, Joyous!, Jrod2, JulieADriver, Jumbuck, Junglecat, Junox, Jupiter Rapist, Justin Hirsh, Jyril, K1Bond007, KNHaw, KPH2293, Kaini, Kairos, Kakofonous, Kalathalan,Kalisitahi, Kandrey89, Karl-Henner, Karmafist, KatyNicholslikesnosehair, Katydidit, Kazrak, Kedeja, Keegan, Keilana, Kelevra88, Ken Gallager, Keystone32, Kfc1864, Kfitzner, Khaosworks,Kheider, King Lopez, King of Hearts, Kingturtle, Kintetsubuffalo, Kirrages, Kitch, Kjoonlee, Kkkdddiii, KnightRider, Knowledge Seeker, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knucmo2, KokkaShinto, Korath,KrakatoaKatie, Kristaga, Kross, Kukanotas, Kukini, Kurtus77, Kuru, Kusunose, Kwamikagami, Kwekubo, Kwsn, Kymacpherson, LFaraone, Laddog, Lagalag, Lagus970, Lars LindbergChristensen, Lars Washington, Larsie, Lavenderbunny, Law Lord, Le Anh-Huy, Leandrod, Lee M, LeeG, Leon math, Lesonyrra, LeyteWolfer, Liftarn, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Lights,Ligulem, Lilac Soul, Linday51, Linnell, Lizrael, Logical2u, LonelyMarble, Lonewolf1654, Looxix, Lopp777, Loren.wilton, Lradrama, Lukelpv5853, Luna Santin, Lunokhod, Lupin, MCMasterChef, MER-C, MONGO, MPerel, Mackojee, Magnus Manske, Majorly, Malcohol, MarcusPan, Maridius, Mariordo, Mark Foskey, Markeer, Marnanel, Marskell, Martin.Budden,MartinDK, Martinwilke1980, Masoninman, MasterSci, Matdrodes, Materialscientist, Mateuszica, Matt.lohkamp, Mattl2001, Mattrave, Mav, Mbc362, Mech Aaron, Med, Meelar, Megalodon99,

Mgiganteus1, Miagirljmw14, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Michaelbusch, Midoriko, MightyWarrior, MiguelMunoz, Mikaly, Mike Peel, Mike Rosoft, Mike s, Mikebuer, Mikker, Milchild05,Milkyeyes, Minesweeper, Mini-Geek, Misbah Ismailjee, MisfitToys, Mjpieters, Mkolp58, Mkweise, Mlm42, Mo0, Moe Epsilon, Moppt, Moverton, Mpatel, Mrwuggs, Ms2ger, Mschel, Mtnerd,Mtsmallwood, MuDavid, Muijz, Mulder1982, Murgh, Murlough23, Musical Linguist, Must eat worms, Myden, Mystaker1, N-true, N328KF, NHJG, NHRHS2010, NLightmare, Nabla, Naddy,Nagolkid2, Nakon, Narssarssuaq, NateLevine, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., NatureA16, NawlinWiki, Nayvik, Nbound, Ned Scott, Neil916, Neitherday, Nephelin, Nerablade, Nerd123456789,Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Nickman339, Nickshanks, Nicodème, Nigholith, Nihiltres, Nik42, Nikson-t, Ninjers, Nk.sheridan, Nlsanand, Noah Salzman, Noctibus, Noobeditor, Notamisfit,Notovny, Novacatz, NuncAutNunquam, Nunna003, Nyttend, Oceanh, Oda Mari, Oddgunner, OfficeGirl, Old Moonraker, Oleg Alexandrov, Omega34, Omicronpersei8, Once in a Blue Moon,Opabinia regalis, Opelio, Orangutan, Oreo man, Ouishoebean, Oxymoron83, Oysterguitarist, P-griffin150, P.B. Pilhet, PTSE, Paddywikman, Pahoeho, Paine Ellsworth, Pallasathena, Panoptical,Paraphelion, Parsecboy, Patrick, Patteroast, Pb30, Pegasus1138, Pentawing, Persian Poet Gal, Pete g1, Peter, Peter Isotalo, Peteweez, Petri Krohn, Pharos, Philip Trueman, Phoxtrot, PhySusie,Pi@k, Picaroon, Pie4all88, Piepoop, Pilotguy, Pink fuzzy slippers, Pinpoint23, Pious7, Pizza Puzzle, Pjacobi, Pnkrockr, PoccilScript, Poeloq, Poisonink, Pokemega32, Pol098, Politepunk,Polonium, Ponder, Poodudeman, Poolkris, Poopmaster01, Poopmaster03, Poor Yorick, Postmortemjapan, PresN, Primetime, Prof info, Proxima Centauri, Puckly, Punkprincess082307, Pyrospirit,Python eggs, Qaletaqa, Quackdave, Quadell, Quintote, Quistnix, Qwe, Qwertyuiop click, Qwfp, Qwm, Qxz, R.H.H.L.B., R98563256, RG2, RJHall, RR1991, Radon210, Raeky, Rami R,RandomCritic, RandomP, Ravenicus451, Rbinet, Rdsmith4, RedWolf, Remember, Reptile5000, RetiredUser2, Rettetast, Reverendgraham, RexNL, Reywas92, Rgoodermote, Ricegator, RichFarmbrough, Rich257, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Richard L. Peterson, RichardF, Rick Block, Rideauposse, Rightfully in First Place, Rjm656s, Rjwilmsi, Rklawton, Rmky87, Rnbc,Roadrunner, Robert Happelberg, Robert.Allen, RobertG, Robost, RobyWayne, Romanm, Rorschach, Roy Al Blue, RoySmith, Rreagan007, Rursus, Ruslik0, Ruthfulbarbarity, Rvwedd, Rwboa22,Ryan Cable, Ryan-McCulloch, Ryulong, S035593, SAMAS, SEJohnston, SJP, SMC, SOLOMON92, ST47, SYLFan74, Sagredo, SallyForth123, Sam Korn, Samnuva, Sampaultan, Samuel Sol,Samuelsen, Samw, SandyGeorgia, Sango123, Sardanaphalus, Sarfa, Saros136, Sarphram, Sarranduin, Savage84, Sbharris, ScaldingHotSoup, Scarian, Sceptre, Schneelocke, SchuminWeb,Scientizzle, Scipius, Sciurinæ, Scott14, Scott55555, Sd31415, Sean D Martin, SeanMack, Search4Lancer, Seb az86556, Secret agent with brown hat, Secretmessages, Selfishjeans, Sengkang,Serendipodous, Sertafied, Sgeureka, Shanes, SheffieldSteel, Shijualex, Shoessss, Shrinkbcoz, ShutterBugTrekker, Sillybilly, SimonP, Sis143, Sjakkalle, Skizzik, Skoch3, Slavering.dog,Slavkovranes29, Smalljim, Smartech, Smerlinare, SmilesALot, Smilesfozwood, Smoke., SnappingTurtle, Snorks1234, Snowolf, Solipsist, Solver, Something14, Songtag, Sonic3KMaster,

Sophixer, Sopoforic, Sp3000, Spacepotato, Sparta300xps, Spasemunki, Spellcast, Spellmaster, Spiff, Splash, SpookyMulder, Spride, SpuriousQ, Squidlegs number one, Srleffler, Sruav,Stardust8212, Starkiller88, Steel, Stephen e nelson, Stephenb, Stone, Str1977, StuartH, Subsume, Sunderland06, Supabanakid, Superericmoore, Supersaiyanplough, Supersexyspacemonkey, Surajvas, Suruena, SwahilidR, Swift as an Eagle, SyntaxError55, TJRC, TR 667, Tachyon01, Tamfang, Tanaats, Tango, Tanweer Morshed, Tapir Terrific, Tariqabjotu, Tawker, TeaDrinker,Teacher123, Tedernst, Tedstryk, Template namespace initialisation script, Temple, Tenjhotenge, Terfili, Tesscass, TexasAndroid, ThAtSo, The Anome, The Flying Spaghetti Monster, The Manin Question, The Peacemaker, The Placebo Effect, The Singing Badger, The Wookieepedian, The wub, TheDoober, ThePointblank, Thesquire, Thetruth77, Thingg, Thinking of England,Thispagedoesown, Thomasph, Thumbtacks, TigerShark, Tim Starling, Tim!, Timc, Timir2, Timwi, TiroDeAethra, Titoxd, TobyRush, Toddles29, Tom, Tom.freeman, TomJMcDonald,TomTheHand, Tony Sidaway, Tony1, Transcendence, Traroth, Tredanse, Treybien, Triwbe, Trueemo, Trusilver, Tstrobaugh, Ttime27, Ttpedia, Tv316, Twang, Twohlrab3, Tylerdfreeze11,U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Ufviper, Ugo, Ultratomio, Uncle G, Uppland, Urbane Legend, Urhixidur, Uriyan, Urzeitlich, Uscchic735, UserDoe, Utcursch, V1adis1av, VSimonian, Vald, Vandago,Vandalismhater789, Varha, Variable, Vayne, Vedranf, Veenluk, Venu62, Verne Equinox, Vespristiano, Viktor-viking, Violentbob, Violetriga, Viskonsas, Voyagerfan5761, Vsmith, Vsst, VystrixNexoth, W3stfa11, Wafulz, Waggers, Waldir, War guy234, Watch37264, Wavelength, Wayward, Wdflake, Wedge1, WelshMatt, WeniWidiWiki, Weregerbil, Whalequeen, White Cat, WhiteCat,Wiki alf, Wikibob, Wikidog783, Wikipedia brown, Will.i.am, William Avery, William M. Connolley, WilliamKF, Wimt, Wince01, Windward1, Wisq, Wknight94, Wmahan, Wolfkeeper,WolfmanSF, Wombatcat, Wongizzle06, Woodstock aeb, Woohookitty, Worldtraveller, Wtfunkymonkey, Wtmitchell, XJamRastafire, Xaosflux, Xev lexx, Xiahou, Xkcd, Xn4, Xplayabyname,Xyragx, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yasth, Yomama 007, Yoshi thomas, You blocked me, Yuckfoo, Yug, Yulu, Zappernapper, Zeimusu, Zelmerszoetrop, Zephiris, Zimriel, Zombiepirate 13, Zonk43,ZorkFox, Zsinj, Zureks, 2391 anonymous edits

Moons of Jupiter  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=366992898 Contributors: 4twenty42o, Acather96, Adrian.benko, Alansohn, Anclation, Arnos78, Arvindn, Aster2,Blackout650, BlueMoonlet, Blurpeace, Bongwarrior, Bradjamesbrown, Bryan Derksen, Caoanroad4800, Catgut, Circeus, Ckatz, Clorox, Closedmouth, Craig Pemberton, Crohnie, Curps, Cyde,DCPR, Darkesight, David Kernow, David Newton, Dcljr, Debresser, Deuar, Dinomite, Doniago, Eiorgiomugini, Enceladusgeysers, Epbr123, Erebus Morgaine, ErikWeisz, Eurocommuter,Faradayplank, Ferengi, Fieldday-sunday, Finell, Firsfron, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, FractalFusion, Geschichte, Graeme Bartlett, Grahamec, Guyzero, Gwib, Hammerquill, Hamtechperson,

HannahCRichards, Harald Khan, Hermitage17, Hibernian, Hike395, Icairns, Ilyushka88, Immunize, It Is Me Here, J.delanoy, JForget, JHJ, JMK, Jackyfung7, Jahoulihan, JamesFox, JodyB,Joseph Solis in Australia, Jrockley, Judgesurreal777, JupiterXx, JustAGal, Jyril, KPH2293, Katydidit, Kbdank71, Keith Edkins, Kheider, Kieff, Kwamikagami, Larry V, Lawls434, Li-sung,LiDaobing, Lights, Luna Santin, MPF, Madhero88, Marek69, Melvinjimenez23, Menchi, MiShogun, Mike s, Minesweeper, Mosesofmason, Murgh, Murlough23, Murtasa, NawlinWiki, Nergaal,Nickshanks, Nihiltres, Nikolainz, NuclearWarfare, Numbo3, Nuno Tavares, OOODDD, OllieFury, OpenTheWindows, Oxymoron83, Parvons, Patteroast, Petri Krohn, Philip Trueman,

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Article Sources and Contributors 49

Pinethicket, Poolkris, Puckly, Python eggs, RandomCritic, RandorXeus, Recognizance, Remember, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Ricky81682, Rjwilmsi, Robg37, Roca604, Roentgenium111,Ruslik0, SQGibbon, Sardanaphalus, Sax Russell, Serendipodous, Smadness, Smartech, Something14, SpookyMulder, SteinbDJ, Stoner4life, Sturmde, Sushant gupta, Sverdrup, Synchronism,Technocratic, Tediouspedant, Tempshill, Terfili, The Singing Badger, The Thing That Should Not Be, Theelf29, Thingg, Thisman420, Thue, Tide rolls, Trusilver, Urbanclearway, Urhixidur,Vt-aoe, WaysToEscape, West-J, WinstonSmith, Wronkiew, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yooden, Zzyzx11, Zzzzzzzzzzz, 245 anonymous edits

Europa (moon)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=366827918 Contributors: 129.128.164.xxx, 5theye, A purple wikiuser, A3RO, ABCD, Aces lead, Acom, Addshore,Adonley, Aformalevent, Aggiefan13, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alastairward, Alex.g, Alex43223, AlexiusHoratius, Allenisfunny, Alpho, Amilnerwhite, Anclation, Andre Engels, Andy Marchbanks,Angmering, Antandrus, Antipastor, Aque0us, Arakunem, Arb, Archanamiya, Archon Divinus, Arichnad, Arjun01, Arsia Mons, Ataleh, AtikuX, Atlant, AuburnPilot, Audrey 25, Axel Rose 666,Babylone, Backpackadam, Ben-Zin, Bender235, Benplowman, BillCook, Bkonrad, Blackvault, Bo, Bongwarrior, Boud, Brad Rousse, Brandmeister, Bricktop, Bryan Derksen, Bscottbrown,Bucketsofg, Bud sparhawk, Bumhoolery, CHJL, Caknuck, Calabraxthis, Calaschysm, Callipides, Calmer Waters, Capricorn42, Carnildo, Carolina wren, Caseycalvert14, Casliber, Chaossyndrome, Charvest, Chinasaur, Chmee2, Chris G, Christian List, Chuuumus, Ciroa, Colinsweet, Collins.mc, Connormah, Conversion script, Craig Baker, Csigabi, Curps, Curtis Clark, Cyde, D6,

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8/9/2019 Moons of Jupiter - Europa

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 50

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Jupiter symbol.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter_symbol.svg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Lexicon

File:Jupiter.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA

File:Jupiter-Earth-Spot comparison.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter-Earth-Spot_comparison.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Brian0918 aten.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Herbee at en.wikipedia.

File:Jupiter interior.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter_interior.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/R.J. Hall

File:PIA02863 - Jupiter surface motion animation th umbnail 300px 10fps.ogv  Source:

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PIA02863_-_Jupiter_surface_motion_animation_thumbnail_300px_10fps.ogv  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona

File:Great Red Spot From Voyager 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_Red_Spot_From_Voyager_1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA

File:Jupiter from Voyager 1 PIA02855 thumbnail 300px max quality.ogv  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter_from_Voyager_1_PIA02855_thumbnail_300px_max_quality.ogv  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA

File:PIA01627 Ringe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PIA01627_Ringe.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL/Cornell University

File:Jupiter.Aurora.HST.UV.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter.Aurora.HST.UV.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Anime Addict AA, Bapho,ComputerHotline, Friendlystar, Kurgus, Newone, RupertMillard, Ruslik0, Túrelio, Überraschungsbilder, 6 anonymous edits

File:Retrogadation1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Retrogadation1.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: W!B:

File:Jupiter from Voyager 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter_from_Voyager_1.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA, Caltech/JPL

File:Jupiter MAD.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter_MAD.jpg  License: unknown Contributors: ESO/F. Marchis, M. Wong, E. Marchetti, P. Amico, S. Tordo

File:Jupiter gany.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter_gany.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Bricktop, Gentgeen, Ruslik0, Tlusťa

File:PIA04866 modest.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PIA04866_modest.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute

File:Jupiter.moons2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter.moons2.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Bricktop, ComputerHotline, Smartech, Urhixidur

File:Europa-moon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Europa-moon.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbenbenn, Li-sung, Sobi3ch, 2 anonymous edits

File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Mdf aten.wikipedia

File:Hs-2009-23-crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hs-2009-23-crop.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Credit: NASA, ESA, and H. Hammel (SpaceScience Institute, Boulder, Colo.), and the Jupiter Impact Team

Image:Jupiter family.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter_family.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Red devil 666, Ruslik0, 2 anonymous edits

Image:Masses of Jovian moons.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Masses_of_Jovian_moons.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Kwamikagami

Image:Jupiter-moons.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter-moons.jpg  License: Attribution Contributors: Jan Sandberg

Image:Galilean satellites.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Galilean_satellites.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Image courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech.

Image:Galileans.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Galileans.PNG  License: GNU General Public License Contributors: Original uploader was Clorox at en.wikipedia

Image:TheIrregulars JUPITER.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TheIrregulars_JUPITER.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors:User:Eurocommuter

Image:Jupiter moons anim.gif   Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter_moons_anim.gif  License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Kieff at en.wikipedia.Later version(s) were uploaded by Richardevan at en.wikipedia.

Image:Jupiter sats i vs e.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter_sats_i_vs_e.png  License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Urhixidur at en.wikipedia

Image:Metis.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Metis.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL

Image:Adrastea.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adrastea.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/Cornell UniversityImage:Amalthea PIA02532.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amalthea_PIA02532.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbenbenn, Li-sung

Image:Thebe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thebe.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL

Image:Io highest resolution true color.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Io_highest_resolution_true_color.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bricktop, Jed,Kriplozoik, Maedin, Pfctdayelise, Uwe W., WikipediaMaster

Image:Europa-moon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Europa-moon.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbenbenn, Li-sung, Sobi3ch, 2 anonymous edits

Image:Ganymede g1 true.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ganymede_g1_true.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Bryan Derksen, GeneralPatton,Sreejithk2000, SteveSims, Template namespace initialisation script, WolfmanSF, 1 anonymous edits

Image:Callisto.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Callisto.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Bricktop, Conscious, Dbenbenn, Kristaga, Li-sung

Image:Leda2(moon).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leda2(moon).jpg  License: unknown Contributors: This image is not a Voyager 1 or Voyager 2 image sincethey were not launched until 1977 and the Voyagers were prone to tracking errors blurring long exposures.

Image:Himalia from New Horizons.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Himalia_from_New_Horizons.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Rubble pile

Image:Elara2-LB1-mag17.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elara2-LB1-mag17.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Kevin Heider @LightBuckets

File:Speaker Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous edits

File:Galilean moon Laplace resonance animation.gif   Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Galilean_moon_Laplace_resonance_animation.gif  License: Public Domain

 Contributors: User:SplarkaImage:PIA01130 Interior of Europa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PIA01130_Interior_of_Europa.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Bricktop, Edward

Image:PIA01092 - Evidence of Internal Activity on Europa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PIA01092_-_Evidence_of_Internal_Activity_on_Europa.jpg License:Public Domain Contributors: NASA / JPL / Arizona State University

Image:europa g1 true.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Europa_g1_true.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Bricktop, Dbenbenn, Smartech

Image:Europa Chaos.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Europa_Chaos.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA / JPL / University of Arizona

Image:Europa chaotic terrain.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Europa_chaotic_terrain.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA / JPL

Image:EuropaInterior1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EuropaInterior1.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Latitude0116 aten.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by RP88 at en.wikipedia. (Original text : JPL)

Image:Europa field.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Europa_field.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Ruslik0 aten.wikipedia

Image:Nur04506.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nur04506.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: P. Rona

Image:Nur04505.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nur04505.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Achim Raschka, Eugene van der Pijll, Liné1, Mithril,Royalbroil, Telim tor, TomCatX, 1 anonymous edits

Image:Cryobot.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cryobot.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA

8/9/2019 Moons of Jupiter - Europa

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