Molecular Identification of Fungi

Youssuf Gherbawy l Kerstin VoigtEditors

Molecular Identificationof Fungi

EditorsProf. Dr. Youssuf GherbawySouth Valley UniversityFaculty of ScienceDepartment of Botany83523 Qena, Egyptyoussuf_gherbawy@hotmail.com

Dr. Kerstin VoigtUniversity of JenaSchool of Biology and PharmacyInstitute of MicrobiologyNeugasse 2507743 Jena, Germanykerstin.voigt@uni-jena.de

ISBN 978-3-642-05041-1 e-ISBN 978-3-642-05042-8DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-05042-8Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York

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Preface

Fungi comprise a vast variety of microorganisms and are numerically among the

most abundant eukaryotes on Earth’s biosphere. They enjoy great popularity in

pharmaceutical, agricultural, and biotechnological applications. Recent advances

in the decipherment of whole fungal genomes promise a continuation and accelera-

tion of these trends. New techniques become available to facilitate the genetic

manipulation of an increasing number of fungal organisms to satisfy the demand of

industrial purposes. The increasing importance-driven search of novel detection

techniques and new fungal species initiated the idea for a book about the molecular

identification of fungi.

The kingdom of the fungi (Mycota) appears as the sister group of the multi-

cellular animals (Metazoa) as an independent, apparently monophyletic group

within the domain Eukarya, equal in rank to green plants (Viridiplantae) and

animals (Metazoa). Fungi are originally heterotrophic eukaryotic microorganisms

harboring chitin in their cell walls and lacking plastids in their cytoplasm.

Formerly, the oomycetes, slime moulds and plasmodiophorids were considered

as fungi based on their ability to produce fungus-like hyphae or resting spores.

Whereas the Oomycota are classified to the stramenopile algae (Chromista or

Heterokonta), and the plasmodial and cellular slime moulds (Mycetozoa) belong

to the Amoebozoa. The Plasmodiophoromycota are among the cercozoan Rhi-

zaria closely related to the foraminifers. A three-protein phylogeny of the fungi

and their allies confirms that the nucleariids, phagotrophic amoebae with filose

pseudopods in soil and freshwater, may represent descendants of a common

ancestor at the animal–fungal boundary (Fig. 1). The fungal kingdom encom-

passes the Asco-, Basidio-, Glomero-, Zygo- and Chytridiomycota. The former

four phyla are terrestrial fungi developing nonflagellated spores (aplanosporic),

whereas the Chytridiomycota represent aquatic and zoosporic (planosporic) fungi,

which split into three individual taxon groups, the aerobic Blastocladio- and

Chytridiomycota sensu stricto and the anaerobic Neocallimastigomycota. The

Zygomycota are among the most basal terrestrial fungi, which evolved in a

paraphyletic manner. Hence, the phylum was divided into different subphyla,

vii

the Mucoro-, Kickxello-, Zoopago- and Entomophthoromycotina, whose phylo-

genetic relationships are not fully understood yet. In the phylogenetic tree shown

in Fig. 1, the Entomophthoromycotina group together with the Ichthyosporea, a

relationship, is not well supported by clade stability proportions.

Fungi develop a wide diversity of morphological features, which are shared with

many fungi-like microorganisms (Fig. 2), among those the white rust and downy

mildew “fungi” (Fig. 2g) are obligate parasites of plants and develop fungus-like

hyphae with haustoria (ht) in asexual and thick-walled, ornamented oospores (os)

from fertilized oospheres after fusion of an oogonium (og) with an antheridium (at)

during sexual reproduction (Fig. 3).

The distribution of fungi among the various ecological niches of the biosphere

seems to be infinite. Estimates suggest a total of 1.5 million fungal species, only less

than a half has been merely described yet. This implies a backlog demand, which

comes along with a rising importance of novel techniques for a rapid and

Fig. 1 The evolution of the fungi and allied fungi-like microorganisms based on a concatenated

neighbor-joining analysis using mean character differences as distance measure on 1,262 aligned

amino acid characters comprising translation elongation factor 1 alpha, actin, and beta-tubulin

(500, 323 and 439 characters, respectively) from 80 taxa. The prokaryotic elongation factor Tu,

MreB (TM1544), and FtsZ (both homologous to actin and tubulin, respectively) from Thermotogamaritima were used as out group taxon representing the bacterial domain

viii Preface

Fig. 2 The morphological diversity of fungi and fungi-like microorganisms. (a–f ): basidiomy-

cetes (Agaricomycotina; Photos: M. Kirchmair); (g) oomycetes (Peronosporales; Photo: O.

Spring); (h–j): multicellular conidia from imperfect stages of ascomycetes (Pezizomycotina);

(k–s): zygomycetes (Mucoromycotina; Photos: K. Hoffmann, scanning electron microphoto-

graphs o& q: M. Eckart & K. Hoffmann): (k, l, p, r, s) – different types of multispored sporangia,

(m, n, o): different types of uni‐fewspored sporangiola; (t–x): reproductive structures (zoospor-

angia) from anaerobic chytridiomycetes (Neocallimastigomycota; Photos: K. Fliegerova);

(y, z): plasmodiophorids (Plasmodiophoromycota; Photos: S. Neuhauser & M. Kirchmair).

Preface ix

unambiguous detection and identification of fungi to explore the fungal diversity as

a coherent whole. Molecular techniques, particularly the technology of the poly-

merase chain reaction, have revolutionized the molecular biology and the molecular

diagnosis of fungi. The incorporation of molecular techniques into what has been

traditionally considered as morphology-based taxonomy of fungi helps us in the

differentiation of fungal species and varieties. Databases of genomes and genetic

markers used as sources for molecular barcodes are being created and the fungal

world is in progress to be unveiled with the help of bioinformatics tools. Genome

projects provide evidence for ancient insertion elements, proviral or prophage

remnants, and many other patches of unusual composition. Consequently, it

becomes increasingly important to pinpoint genes, which characterize fungal

organisms at different taxonomic levels without the necessity of previous cultiva-

tion. Unfortunately, the initiative of an excessive use of molecular barcoding has

been hampered by a lack of sufficient and novel synapomorphic nucleotide

Fig. 2 (continued) (a) – basidiocarp of Schizophyllum commune, (b) – basidiocarp of Daedaleaquercina, (c) – hymenophor from basidiocarp ofDaedalea quercina, (d) – basidiocarp of Trametessp., (e) – mycelium of Antrodia sp spreading over a trunk of a tree, (f ) – dry rot caused by Serpulalacrymans on timber, (g) –symptomatology from Plasmopara viticola, the causal agent of grape-vine downy mildew, (h) – Pestalotiopsis clavispora (Photo: C. Kesselboth), (i) – Bipolaris cf.

sorokiniana (Photo: G. Newcombe), ( j) – Fusarium sp. (Photo: C. Kesselboth), (k) – Mucorindicus, (l) – Helicostylum elegans, (m) – Thamnidium elegans, (n) – Dichotomocladium sp., (o)

– Dichotomocladium robustum, (p) – Absidia psychrophilia, (q) – zygospores from Lentamycesparricida, (r) –Mucor rouxii, (s) –Absidia cylindrospora, (t) –Caecomyces sp. isolated from sheep

(lugol staining), (u) – Caecomyces sp. isolated from sheep, (v) – Neocallimastix frontalis (bisben-zimide staining of nuclei), (w) – Anaeromyces mucronatus isolated from cow (bisbenzimide

staining of nuclei), (x) – Neocallimastix frontalis isolated from cow (lugol staining); (y) – thick

walled resting spores from Sorosphaera veronicae, (z) – sporosori from Sorosphaera veronicae

<

Fig. 3 Cross-section of a leaf

infected with Pustulatragopogonis(Peronosporales, Oomycota)

causing white rust on

sunflower. The

microphotograph shows

structures, which are typical

for the sexual reproduction of

oomycetes: ht – haustorium,

ld – lipid droplet inside an

oospore, os – oospore, og –

oogonium, at – antheridium

fused to an oogonium (Photo:

A. Heller)

x Preface

characters and signature sequences. Moreover, high intraspecific variability of

conventional molecular characters makes it difficult to identify species borders.

However, DNA sequences and other genetic markers provide large amounts of data

which are cultivation-independent and do not depend on physiological inconsis-

tencies. Genetic markers constantly reflect the identification treasure hidden in the

genetic information and allow to control the degree of resolution by choosing the

appropriate genes.

In this book, we highlight the advances of the past decade, both in methodology

and in the understanding of genomic organization and approach problems of the

identification and differentiation of fungi using molecular markers and compare

those with classical procedures traditionally used for species designation. The

limitations in the availability of type material, reference strains, and reference

nucleotide sequences set boundaries in the molecular identification. For example,

the image displaying multicellular, melanin-pigmented conidia (size: 90 mm)

from strain CID1670 (Fig. 2i), which was kindly provided by George Newcombe

(University of Idaho, Center for Research on Invasive Species and Small Popula-

tions, Moscow, ID, USA), may serve as an appropriate cautionary note for readers

of this book. The strain was recovered as an endophytic ascomycete from the asterid

perennial herb Centaurea stoebe (spotted knapweed). The fungus could be attrib-

uted by conventional ITS barcoding to the pleosporalean genus Drechslera and in anarrower sense to Bipolaris sorokiniana. Since species of Bipolaris had never beenreported from any species of Centaurea in earlier reports, neither its effects on its

host nor the final taxonomic delimitation are known. Nucleotide sequences of

additional genes and a more in-depth phylogenetic study may even suggest that

this strain was a new species. Therefore, it would make sense to distinguish between

refined identification of fungi uncommonly found in exceptional biotopes in order

to explore new species, e.g., as endophytes, and high-throughput molecular identi-

fication of well-studied fungi in order to serve the needs of industrial application.

The role of fungi as pathogens of evolutionarily naive plants including a

hypothesis about the plant invasion-mediated progression of novel phytopathogens

will be discussed in the first chapter. The second and third chapter concerns with the

diagnostics and the challenge to identify “fungus-like” plant pathogens from the

oomycetes and the plasmodiophorids, respectively. The fourth chapter leads over

the applications of molecular markers and DNA sequences in the identification of

fungal pathogens in grain legumes and cereals followed by various aspects of

qualitative and quantitative detection of Fusarium spp. and Macrophomina pha-seolina, pathogenic on maize and other corn crops or economic plants. During the

course of the book, the detection of ochratoxigenic fungi, mainly aspergilli and

penicilli, and other postharvest pathogens like Mucor and Rhizopus is elucidated.The molecular identification of wood rotting and endophytic fungi as well as

anaerobic rumen fungi finish the first part on plant pathological and environmental

biological aspects. The second part deals with human pathological and clinical

aspects. The introduction gives a contribution about new approaches in fungal DNA

preparation from whole blood following multiplex PCR detection. Novel techni-

ques in the depletion of the background host DNA in favour of enrichment of the

Preface xi

fungal contaminant DNA following different modifications of PCR approaches

represent powerful tools in the detection of a wide variety of human pathogenic

fungi causing sepsis and other life-threatening diseases that result from excessive

host responses to fungal infections. The survey continues with conventional strate-

gies for the molecular detection ofMalassezia, dermatophytes, opportunistic fungi,

and causative agents of deep mycoses as well as paracoccidioidomycosis and

Ochroconis gallopava infection via a novel tool, the loop-mediated isothermal

amplification method (LAMP). The book closes with reviews about prospects and

perspectives of molecular markers for the identification of Absidia-like fungi and

other zygomycetes.

The editors thank all contributors for their valuable reviews and comments,

which were crucial for the accomplishment of this book. Furthermore, we express

our gratitude to all authors who contributed figures and images for the cover and

miscellaneous parts adding a great deal to the illustration of this book. The cover of

the book was kindly supported by “leography.com.”

January 2010 Youssuf GherbawyKerstin Voigt

xii Preface

Contents

Part I Plant Pathological and Environmental Biological Aspects

1 Fungal Pathogens of Plants in the Homogocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

George Newcombe and Frank M. Dugan

2 Molecular Techniques for Classification and Diagnosis of Plant

Pathogenic Oomycota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Otmar Spring and Marco Thines

3 Plasmodiophorids: The Challenge to Understand Soil-Borne,

Obligate Biotrophs with a Multiphasic Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Sigrid Neuhauser, Simon Bulman, and Martin Kirchmair

4 Applications of Molecular Markers and DNA Sequences

in Identifying Fungal Pathogens of Cool Season

Grain Legumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Evans N. Njambere, Renuka N. Attanayake, and Weidong Chen

5 Quantitative Detection of Fungi by Molecular Methods:

A Case Study on Fusarium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Kurt Brunner and Robert L. Mach

6 DNA-Based Tools for the Detection of Fusarium spp.Pathogenic on Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Ivan Visentin, Danila Valentino, Francesca Cardinale,

and Giacomo Tamietti

7 Molecular Detection and Identification of Fusarium oxysporum . . . . . 131

Ratul Saikia and Narendra Kadoo

xiii

8 Molecular Chemotyping of Fusarium graminearum,F. culmorum, and F. cerealis Isolates From Finland

and Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Tapani Yli-Mattila and Tatiana Gagkaeva

9 Molecular Characterization and Diagnosis of Macrophominaphaseolina: A Charcoal Rot Fungus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Bandamaravuri Kishore Babu, Ratul Saikia, and Dilip K Arora

10 Molecular Diagnosis of Ochratoxigenic Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Daniele Sartori, Marta Hiromi Taniwaki, Beatriz Iamanaka,

and Maria Helena Pelegrinelli Fungaro

11 Molecular Barcoding of Microscopic Fungi with Emphasis

on the Mucoralean Genera Mucor and Rhizopus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Youssuf Gherbawy, Claudia Kesselboth, Hesham Elhariry,

and Kerstin Hoffmann

12 Advances in Detection and Identification of Wood Rotting

Fungi in Timber and Standing Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Giovanni Nicolotti, Paolo Gonthier, and Fabio Guglielmo

13 Molecular Diversity and Identification of Endophytic Fungi . . . . . . . 277

Liang-Dong Guo

14 Molecular Identification of Anaerobic Rumen Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Martin Eckart, Katerina Fliegerova, Kerstin Hoffmann,

and Kerstin Voigt

Part II Human Pathological and Clinical Aspects

15 New Approaches in Fungal DNA Preparation from Whole

Blood and Subsequent Pathogen Detection Via Multiplex PCR . . . . 317

Roland P. H. Schmitz, Raimund Eck, and Marc Lehmann

16 Classification of Yeasts of the Genus Malassezia by Sequencing

of the ITS and D1/D2 Regions of DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Lidia Perez-Perez, Manuel Pereiro, and Jaime Toribio

17 DNA-Based Detection of Human Pathogenic Fungi:

Dermatophytes, Opportunists, and Causative Agents

of Deep Mycoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

Lorenza Putignani, Silvia D’Arezzo, Maria Grazia Paglia,

and Paolo Visca

xiv Contents

18 Applications of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplificaton

Methods (LAMP) for Identification and Diagnosis of Mycotic

Diseases: Paracoccidioidomycosis and Ochroconisgallopava infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

Ayako Sano and Eiko Nakagawa Itano

19 Identification of the Genus Absidia (Mucorales, Zygomycetes):

A Comprehensive Taxonomic Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

Kerstin Hoffmann

20 Molecular Characters of Zygomycetous Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

Xiao-yong Liu and Kerstin Voigt

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

Contents xv

Contributors

Dilip K. Arora National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganisms

(ICAR), Mau, Uttar Pradesh 275101, India, aroradilip@yahoo.co.in

Renuka N. Attanayake Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State

University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA

Kurt Brunner Institute of Chemical Engineering, Research Area Gene Technology

and Applied Biochemistry, Gene Technology Group, Vienna University of

Technology, Getreidemarkt 9, A-1060 Vienna

Simon Bulman Plant & Food Research, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch,

New Zealand; Bio-Protection Research Centre, Lincoln University, P.O. Box 84,

7647 Canterbury, New Zealand

Francesca Cardinale DiVaPRA – Plant Pathology, University of Turin, I-10095

Grugliasco, Turin, Italy

Weidong Chen Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University,

Pullman, WA 99164, USA; USDA ARS Grain Legume Genetics and Physio-

logy Research Unit, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA,

w-chen@wsu.edu

Silvia D’Arezzo National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani”

I.R.C.C.S., Via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy

Frank M. Dugan USDA-ARS, Washington State University, Pullman, WA

99163-6402, USA

Raimund Eck SIRS-Lab GmbH, Winzerlaer Str. 2, 07745 Jena, Germany

xvii

Martin Eckart Institute of Microbiology, School of Biology and Pharmacy,

University of Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743 Jena, Germany, martin.eckart@uni-jena.de

Hesham Elhariry Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Science, Taif

University, P.O. Box 888 Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Katerina Fliegerova Department of Biological Basis of Food Quality and Safety,

Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, v.v.i.,

Vıdenska 1083, 14220 Prague 4, Czech Republic, fliegerova@iapg.cas.cz

Tatiana Gagkaeva Laboratory of Mycology and Phytopathology, All-Russian

Institute of Plant Protection (VIZR), 196608 St. Petersburg-Pushkin, Russia,

t.gagkaeva@yahoo.com

Youssuf Gherbawy Botany Department, Faculty of Science, South Valley

University, 83523 Qena, Egypt

Paolo Gonthier Di.Va.P.R.A., Department of Exploitation and Protection of the

Agricultural and Forestry Resources, Plant Pathology, University of Torino, via

L. da Vinci 44, I-10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy

Maria Grazia Paglia National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallan-

zani” I.R.C.C.S., Via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy

Fabio Guglielmo Di.Va.P.R.A., Department of Exploitation and Protection of

the Agricultural and Forestry Resources, Plant Pathology, University of Torino,

via L. da Vinci 44, I-10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy

Liang-Dong Guo Systematic Mycology & Lichenology Laboratory, Institute of

Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China, guold@sun.

im.ac.cn

Kerstin Hoffmann Institute of Microbiology, School of Biology and Pharmacy,

University of Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743 Jena, Germany, Hoffmann.Kerstin@

uni-jena.de

Beatriz Iamanaka Departamento de Biologia Geral, Centro de Ciencias Biologi-

cas, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Caixa Postal 6001, CEP 86051-970

Londrina-Parana, Brazil

Eiko Nakagawa Itano Department of Pathological Science, CCB, State Uni-

versity of Londrina, P.O. Box 6001, 86051-970 Londrina, Parana, Brazil,

itanoeiko@hotmail.com

xviii Contributors

Narendra Kadoo PMB Group, Biochemical Sciences Division, National Chemical

Laboratory, Pune 411008, Maharashtra, India, ny.kadoo@ncl.res.in

Claudia Kesselboth Botany Department, Faculty of Science, South Valley

University, 83523 Qena, Egypt

Martin Kirchmair Institute of Microbiology, Leopold Franzens – University

Innsbruck, Technikerstr. 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria, Martin.Kirchmair@uibk.ac.at

Bandamaravuri Kishore Babu National Bureau of Agriculturally Important

Microorganisms (ICAR), Mau, Uttar Pradesh 275101, India, aroradilip@yahoo.

co.in; present address: Environmental Microbiology Lab, Department of Envi-

ronmental Engineering, Chosun University, Gwang ju-501759, South Korea,

kishore_bandam@yahoo.co.in

Marc Lehmann SIRS-Lab GmbH, Winzerlaer Str. 2, 07745 Jena, Germany

Xiao-yong Liu Key Laboratory of Systematic Mycology and Lichenology, Insti-

tute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 1 Beichen West Road,

Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, P. R. China, liuxiaoyong@im.ac.cn

Robert L. Mach Institute of Chemical Engineering, Research Area Gene Tech-

nology and Applied Biochemistry, Gene Technology Group, Vienna University of

Technology, Getreidemarkt 9, A-1060 Vienna, Austria, rmach@mail.zserv.tuwien.

ac.at

Sigrid Neuhauser Institute of Microbiology, Leopold Franzens – University

Innsbruck, Technikerstr. 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria

George Newcombe Department of Forest Resources, and Center for Research on

Invasive Species and Small Populations, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844-

1133, USA, georgen@uidaho.edu

Giovanni Nicolotti Di.Va.P.R.A., Department of Exploitation and Protection of

the Agricultural and Forestry Resources, Plant Pathology, University of Torino, via

L. da Vinci 44, I-10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy, giovanni.nicolotti@unito.it

Evans N. Njambere Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University,

Pullman, WA 99164, USA

Maria Helena Pelegrinelli Fungaro Departamento de Biologia Geral, Centro de

Ciencias Biologicas, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Caixa Postal 6001, CEP

86051-970, Londrina-Parana, Brazil, fungaro@uel.br

Contributors xix

Manuel Pereiro Department of Dermatology, Laboratory of Mycology, Faculty of

Medicine, University Hospital Complex of Santiago de Compostela, C/San Francisco

S/N, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Lidia Perez-Perez Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Complex of

Vigo, C/Porrino 5, 36209 Vigo, Spain, lidiacomba@yahoo.es

Lorenza Putignani Microbiology Unit, Children’s Hospital, Healthcare and

Research Institute Bambino Gesu, Piazza Sant’Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy

Ratul Saikia Biotechnology Division, North-East Institute of Science &

Technology, Jorhat 785006, Assam, India, rsaikia19@yahoo.com

Ayako Sano Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, 1-8-1,

Inohana, Chuo-ku, 260-8673 Chiba, Japan, aya1@faculty.chiba-u.jp

Daniele Sartori Centro de Ciencias Biologicas, Departamento de Biologia

Geral, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Caixa Postal 6001, CEP 86051-970,

Londrina-Parana, Brazil

Roland P.H. Schmitz SIRS-Lab GmbH, Winzerlaer Str. 2, 07745 Jena, Germany,

schmitz@sirs-lab.com

Otmar Spring Institute of Botany, University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart,

Germany, spring@uni-hohenheim.de

Giacomo Tamietti DiVaPRA – Plant Pathology, University of Turin, I-10095

Grugliasco, Turin, Italy, giacomo.tamietti@unito.it

Marta Hiromi Taniwaki Departamento de Biologia Geral, Centro de Ciencias

Biologicas, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Caixa Postal 6001, CEP 86051-

970, Londrina-Parana, Brazil

Marco Thines Institute of Botany, University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart,

Germany

Jaime Toribio Department of Dermatology, Laboratory of Mycology, Faculty

of Medicine, University Hospital Complex of Santiago de Compostela, C/San

Francisco S/N, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Danila Valentino DiVaPRA – Plant Pathology, University of Turin, I-10095

Grugliasco, Turin, Italy

xx Contributors

Paolo Visca National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani”

I.R.C.C.S., Via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy; Department of Biology, Univer-

sity of Roma Tre, Viale Marconi 446, 00146 Rome, Italy, visca@uniroma3.it

Ivan Visentin DiVaPRA – Plant Pathology, University of Turin, I-10095

Grugliasco, Turin, Italy

Kerstin Voigt Institute of Microbiology, School of Biology and Pharmacy,

University of Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743 Jena, Germany, kerstin.voigt@uni-jena.de

Tapani Yli-Mattila Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Molecular Biology,

Department of Biology, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland, tymat@

utu.fi

Contributors xxi