ModuleSPS621SHIDAEDU 4 Mubarak

8/12/2019 ModuleSPS621SHIDAEDU 4 Mubarak

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"Scientific Skills

Science is the systematic study of nature and its effect on

humans and the environment (Ooi Soi Tai et al., 2005).

Exposure to scientific skills is a core to the process of

teaching and learning science. Nowadays, science curriculum

focus on mastery of scientific skills and moral values in order

to develop individuals who are competitive, dynamic, robust

and resilient and able to master scientific knowledge and

technological competency as stated in National Science

Education Philosophy:

In consonance with the National Education

Philosophy, science education in Malaysia

nurtures a Science and Technology Culture by

focusing on the development of individuals who

are competitive, dynamic, robust, and resilient

and able to master scientific knowledge and

technological competency

In science curriculum, scientific skills encompass

science process skills and manipulative skills. There are

twelve science process skills and five manipulative skills that

science students need to master. Science process skills

enable students to formulate their questions and find out the

answers systematically. Manipulative skills in scientific

investigation are psychomotor skills that enable students to

stimulate their skills.


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#Scientific Skills

Theories and Perspectives

in Science Education

Numerous theories and perspectives concerning the teaching

and learning of science are addressed in this book. Here we

look at a few of the more prominent ones.

Active learning is a set of strategies that posits the

responsibility for learning with the student. Discovery learningand inquiry-based instruction are examples of active learning.

Discussion, debate, students questioning, think-pair-share,

quick-writes, polling, role playing, cooperative learning, group

projects, and student presentations are a few of the many

activities that are learner driven. It should be noted, however,

that even lecturer can be an active learning event if students

process and filter information as it is provided. Cornell notes

and diagramming are a couple of activities that can makelectures active learning events.


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$Scientific Skills

We can learn through any of our five senses, but the three

most valuable are vision, hearing, and touch. Theorists and

practitioners claim that learners have a preference for one

learning style over another. Visual learners learn best by

watching, auditory learners learn best by verbal instruction,

and kinesthetic learnerslearn best by manipulation. Because

of the demands of the profession, teachers often resort to the

instructional style that requires the least time and preparation:lecture and discussion. Although these may be valuable

approaches to teaching and learning, they fail to take

advantage of other learning modalities and disenfranchise

students whose primary modality is visual or kinesthetic. This

book emphasizes the use of all three modalities in teaching

and learning.


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%Scientific Skills

Intelligence is a property of the mind that includes many

related abilities, such as the capacities to reason, plan, solve

problems, comprehend language and ideas, learn new

concepts. And think abstractly. Historically, psychometricians

have measured intelligence with a single score (intelligence

quotient, IQ) on a standardized test, finding that such scores

are predictive of later intellectual achievement. Howard

Gardner and others assert that there are multipleintelligences, and that no single score can accurately reflect a

persons intelligence. More important, the theory of multiple

intelligences implies that people learn better through certain

modalities than others and that science teachers should

design curriculum to address as many modalities as possible.


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&Scientific Skills

John Flavell argues that learning is maximized when students

learn to think about their thinking and consciously employ

strategies to maximize their reasoning and problem solving

capabilities. Metacognitive thinkers know when and how they

learn best and employ strategies to overcome barriers to

learning. As students learn to regulate and monitor their

thought process and understanding, they learn to adapt tonew learning challenges. Expert problem solvers first seek to

develop an understanding of problems by thinking in terms of

core concepts and major principles. By contrast, novice

problem solvers have not learned this metacognitive strategy

and are more likely to approach problems simply by trying to

find the right formulas into which they can insert the right

numbers. A major goal of education is to prepare students to

be flexible for new problems and settings. The ability totransfer concepts from school to the work or home

environment is a hallmark of a metacognitive thinker.

Perhaps the most widely used classification of human thought

is Blooms Taxonomy. Benjamin Bloom and his team of

researchers wrote extensively on the subject, particularly on

the six basic levels of cognitive outcomes they identified:

knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,

and evaluation. Bloom taxonomy hierarchical, with

knowledge, comprehension, and application as fundamental

levels and analysis, synthesis, and evaluation as advanced.


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'Scientific Skills

When educators refer to higher-level reasoning, they are

generally referring to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. One

of the major themes of this book is to develop higher-order

thinking skills through the teaching of science.

Constructivism is a major learning theory, and is particularly

applicable to the teaching and learning of science. Piaget

suggested that through accommodation and assimilation,

individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.

Constructivism views learning as a process in which students

actively construct or build new ideas and concepts based on

prior knowledge and new information. The constructivist

teacher is a facilitator who encourages students to discover


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(Scientific Skills

principles and construct knowledge within a given framework

or structure.

The important of helping students connect with prior

knowledge and experiences as new information is presented

so they can dispense with their misconceptions and build a

correct understanding. Seymour Papert, a student of Piaget,

asserted that learning occurs particularly well when people

are engaged in constructing a product. Paperts approach,

known as constructivism, is facilitated by model building,

robotics, video editing, and similar construction projects.


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)Scientific Skills

An expert scientist is not necessarily an effective teacher. An

expert science teacher, however, knows the difficulties

students face and the misconceptions they develop and

knows how to tap prior knowledge while presenting new ideas

so students can build new, correct understandings. Schulman

refers to such expertise as pedagogical content knowledge

(PCK) and says that excellent teachers have both expert

content knowledge and expert PCK. In How People Learn,Bransford, Brown, and Cocking state, Expert teachers have a

firm understanding of their respective disciplines, knowledge

of the conceptual barriers that students face in learning about

the discipline, and knowledge of effective strategies for

working with students. Teachers knowledge of their

disciplines provides a cognitive roadmap to guide their

assignments to students, to gauge student progress, and to

support the questions students ask. Expert teachers areaware of common misconceptions and help students resolve

them.


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*Scientific Skills

Science Process Skills

Science processes are means to obtain and

investigate scientific knowledge. Everyone needs

science process skills to approach learning and the

solving of problems scientifically. Although students

need to remember theories and facts, they also need to

experience, practice and appreciate science process skills

because these skills cannot be acquired through reading. In

other words, learning new science process skills requiredpracticing the same skills at different abstract levels using

different stimuli. According to Robert Gagne learning science

process skills is not easy because students require time to

acquire basic process skills before they are able to integrate

several basic skills into a combined skill, such as the

controlling of variables. Adam Hill (2010), stated that basic

science process skills refer to the six actions and five actions

of integrated skills as follows:


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"+Scientific Skills

Observation is the basis of all process skills. The results ofobservation are scientific facts which can be used to carry out

other basic science process such as classifying, measuring,

making inferences, predicting, communicating and using

space time relationships. Besides that, observing also helps

to use all kinds of integrated science process skills.

Observation of real phenomena begins the inquiry

process and continues throughout all its phases. Effectiveobservation involves using all the senses together such as

seeing, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting in order to

gather as much information as possible about the object that

is being observed. In making observations, the learner

gathers evidence and ideas about phenomena and begins to

identify similarities and differences. Observation does not

require wide experience and means that children can also

make good observations.

Example of observation:

! Describing a pencil as yellow

! Describing the magnetic pull on certain substances

Using the five senses to identify the

characteristics, changes, similarities

and differences in objects.


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Types of observation

Indicators for observing

Use various senses effectively

Identify relevant particulars of the object and its surroundings

Pay more attention to relevant details out of a host of information

Identify similarities and differences

Identify unusual or unique characteristics

Aware of change in environment

Note the order of happenings that take place

Use instruments to aid senses in making a detailed study

Observation

Qualitative

Sense used todescribe objects

generally.Example: Red

colour, sphericalshape

Quantitative

Measurementmade with the

aid ofinstruments.

Example: 1.5cm

long, 2 timeslonger

Change

Physical orchemical change

described.Example: Colourof water changed

to red, size of

sweet becomesmaller


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"#Scientific Skills

Students in the early grades are expected to be able to sort

objects or phenomena into groups based on their

observations. Grouping objects or events is a way of imposing

order based on similarities, differences, and interrelationships.

This is an important step towards a better understanding of

the different objects and events in the world. There are

several different methods of classification. Perhaps the

simplest method is serial ordering. Objects are placed into

rank order based on some property. For example, students

can be serial ordered according to height.

Besides that, classification involves arranging objects

logically into categories that are specific. For example, living

things are divided into two big categories; animals and plants.

Each category is then divided into smaller sections according

to more specific characteristics.

There are two important factors in classification which

are:

i. Classification is based on characteristics that can be

observed.

ii. The use of dichotomy when separating objects into

categories.

Group objects or events

according to similarities or

differences


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"$Scientific Skills

Example of classifying:

" Classification of animals can be based on the number of

legs of the animals." Placing all rocks having certain grain size or hardness

into one group.

Indicators for classifying

! Identify similarities and differences! Group objects based on common characteristics.! Explain method of classification in simple terms.! Other criteria may be used to group objects.! Objects may be grouped in various ways.

Measuring is making quantitative observation by comparing

the objects measured against one another or against standard

unit of measurement. The basis of measuring is the repetitionof a unit. The ability to make estimate is important in order to

master the skill of measuring.

Students begin to grasp the idea of measuring by

comparing. This skill of comparing advances with the use of

numbers when they learn to measure accurately. Science

experiments offer good opportunity for children to measure

Making quantitative observations by

comparing against certain standards.


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"%Scientific Skills

and use numbers such as measured the weight, height, area,

volume and time. This science process skill is later used to

find out the speed of object, temperature change, rate ofgrowth and others. Not only that, students usually showed

interest in carrying out measuring instruments such as

thermometer, balance and stopwatch.

Example of measuring and using numbers:

# Using a meter stick to measure the length of a table in

centimetres.# Estimate the length of your body parts and put them in

order from the shortest to the longest.

Indicators for measuring and using numbers

"Number of items in different group may be countedand compared

"Patterns may be recognised in table of numbers"

Use scale and explain ratio"Compare objects using numbers"Record readings accurately"Record unit correctly"Choose and use standard unit"Compare time, distance, area and volume of

different units"Ensure accuracy of certain measurements


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"&Scientific Skills

Making inferences means interpreting or explaining what isobserved. Good inference are based on the observation or in

other hands, inference can be defined as an initial conclusion

made on the basis of observation. Any inference that is

related to the observation logically is reasonable and can be

accepted and the conclusion can only obtain based on the

result of the experiment.

Besides that, inferences can be defined as anexplanation for an observation that we have made and it is

based on past experiences and prior knowledge. Inferences

are often changing when new observations are made. As

stated before, observations are information that gathered

directly through our five senses and inferences help to explain

those observations.

Example of making inferences:

Observation:The school fire alarm is going off

Possible inferences:

"The school is on fire

"We are having a fire drill

"A student pulled the fire alarm

An initial conclusion which can be

tested for its truth.


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"'Scientific Skills

These are all logical explanations for why the fire alarm is

going off.

Indicators for Making Inferences

Use information obtained from observation to make aninitial conclusion which is reasonable

Make various interpretations from one observationRecognise the limitations of inferencesTest the accuracy of inferences by making additional

observationsUse inferences as tools to determine additional

observations

Predictions are central to the process of testing whether or not

a hypothesis is on the right track. This process takes away the

need for guessing. Prediction is based on evidence from past

knowledge and/or experience, and upon immediate evidencegained through observation.

A prediction goes beyond available evidence to suggest

what will happen in the future. The greater the use of

evidence to link the original ideas to future behaviours, the

more useful and testable the prediction. Previous data are

required in order to make exact predictions. Predictions are

Anticipating future events based on

observation and inference


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"(Scientific Skills

not just wild guesses because guessing is often based on

little or no evidence.

Examples of predicting:

" I see it is raining and the sun is coming out. There could be

a rainbow.

" When I flip the switch the lamp will light.

" If I release both balls at the same time, they will hit the

ground at the same time.

Indicators for predicting

$Use previous or current evidence to state what wouldprobably happen.

$Differentiate prediction from guesswork$Determine probable result of an action$Use pattern explicitly as evidence for projection$Validate any statement of what will happen or be

discovered based on proof and past experience

$Be cautions when making presumptions about a designwhich exceeds existing evidence


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"*Scientific Skills

Example of communicating:

" Describing the change in height of a plant over time in

writing or through a graph.

" Draw and colour the exterior of the fruit.

Indicators for Communication

" Speak, listen or write to explain ideas or meaning tofriends.

" Record information from studies." Draw and makes notes.

" Use symbols and explain what they mean." State questions clearly." Use reference material." Write reports of experiments so that others can repeat

the experiments.

The relationship between space and time in the occurrence of

certain events is more important compared to other events.

Space and time are two very basic concepts in science. Its

involves describing and comparing the objects in terms of

size, position, direction of movement and change in pattern

over a period of time. This skill also involves the ability to

Identify shape and movement

according to time


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#+Scientific Skills

discern and describe directions, spatial arrangements, motion

and speed, symmetry, and rate of change.

Students can relate events and experience by paying

attention to the sequence and position in which the event

takes place. In addition, imaging and thinking about

movement through space and time is a skill which must be

developed through training. The suitable topics related to

space-time relationships include topics such as shape,

symmetry, reflection, shearing and rotation specifically learnt

in Mathematics; and more complex science topics such aslight and shadow, relative movement and position, speed and

acceleration.

Example of using space-time relationship:

Measure the time taken by two objects to travel a fixed

distance.

Draw a cube so that the drawing produced looks three-

dimensional.

Indicators for Using Space-Time Relationship

# Describe location with reference to time.# Describe change of direction with reference to time.# Describe change in shape with reference to time.# Describe change in size with reference to time.# Arrange events chronologically.# Ascertain change by referring to rate of change.# Ascertain position of an object and describe its

position in space.# Describe the shape of an object seen from a different

position.# Describe the relationship between distance of a

moving object and time.


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#"Scientific Skills

Interpreting data includes finding a pattern of effects and

synthesizing a variety of information in order to make a

statement about their combined meaning. It may includemaking associations between variables and making sure that

the data support the hypothesized connections. It is critical to

relate findings to initial questions and observations. Any

information collected can be interpreted and communicated

orally or in writing.

Skills of interpreting data or information are important.

To acquire such data-interpreting skills, students can betrained to analyse data, diagrams, tables, graphs, pictures

and explanatory labels. Students are taught to identify

patterns or relationship between the variables concerned and

to make conclusions. It is necessary to emphasis that

conclusions made beyond what is provided for by the data

avoided. Students also are warned about conclusions which

lie beyond parameters or the data collected. Acquisition of

information interpreting skills can enhance critical thinkingskills because any conclusion supported by data lends

credibility to the information stated.

Example of interpreting data:

Examine the food label and list the information printed on

the labels.

Explaining patterns or relationship

based on information gathered


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##Scientific Skills

Why maize plants in the science garden which have had

fertilizer added to soil grow taller than those which have

not had fertilizer added to the soil.

Indicators for Interpreting Data

Collect various data and make statements aboutwhat they might mean.Identify pattern or design in the informationobtained.State the relationship between different series ofinformation.

Defining operationally can be defined as stating specific

information by describing what must be done and what should

be observed. In science, students need to define terms

operationally so that they are clear and not confusing. In

carrying out an experiment, operational definitions are needed

to communicate variables accurately. An operational definition

helps to convey clearly what are being observed or done so

that others will understand. An operational definition is

primarily a research tool and related to the concern for

controlling variables. The major function of operational

Stating specific information bydescribing what must be done and

what should be observed


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#$Scientific Skills

definitions is to establish the parameters of an investigation or

conclusion in an attempt to gain a higher degree of objectivity.

In carrying out an experiment, operational definitions

are needed to communicate variables accurately. For

example, in studying how exercise influence pulse rate, the

kind of exercise must be defined operationally so that the

reader knows exactly what exercise is required.

Example of defining operationally:

Describe the model of 3-dimensional insect to give an

operational definition.

Define electric circuit operationally.

Indicators for Defining Operationally

" Define terms in the context of personalexperience.

" State what is observed and what is done.


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Variables can be defined as the factors or aspects that can

influence results of experiment. In experiments, the

identification and testing of variables require careful analysisof the situation. There are three types of variables are

considered as follows:

" Manipulated variables: the factor or condition that is

manipulated or changes to test its effect on the

experiment.

" Responding variables: the experiment result that responds

or reacts to a factor or condition changed by experimenter." Constant variables: variables that keeps constant during

the experiment.

Controlling variables is also a kind of group process

because one may engage in several different behaviours in

an attempt to control variables. In general, this skill is any

attempt to isolate a single influent of a system so that its role

can be inferred. The process is an attempt to achieve a

circumstance or condition in which the impact of one variable

is clearly exposed. The use of experimental and control

circumstances, standardizing procedures and repeated

measures are only a few of the ways in which variables might

be controlled. Understanding the nature of the skill requires

analytical thinking in which the system under study can be

reduced to a set of interacting components.

Aspects that can influence

results of experiments


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#&Scientific Skills

Example of controlling variables:

State the manipulated variables for the swings of thependulums experiment.

Determined the constant variables for the experiment of

rusting factors.

Indicators for Controlling Variables

! Control the variable!Identify the variables to be studied!Identify the variables to be kept constant

Making hypothesis is known as making educated guesses

which can be tested based on evidence collected.

Hypothesizing suggests an explanation consistent with

available observations, questions, and evidence. When a

students makes a hypothesis, they link information from past

experiences that may explain both how and why events occur.

Inquiry starts when something catches our interest and takes

time to observe it very carefully. Hypothesizing arrives after

observe, comment, raise questions, and explore with

materials.

Formalized hypotheses contain two variables. One is

"independent" and the other is "dependent." The independent

Making educated guess which can be

tested based on evidencecollected


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#'Scientific Skills

variable is the one you, the "scientist" control and the

dependent variable is the one that you observe and/or

measure the results. Notice that, for the hypothesis statement,it contain the word if and then as examples above.

Example of hypotheses:

If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light, then people with

a high exposure to ultra violet light will have higher

frequency of skin cancer.

If leaf colour change is related to temperature, thenexposing plants to low temperatures will result in leaf

colour.

Indicators for Making Hypotheses

$ Suggest an explanation that is in line with proof.$ Suggest an explanation that is in line with science

principles or concepts.$ Use previous knowledge to come up with an

explanation.$ Be aware that there is more than one way to

explain a happening or event.$ Be aware that the explanation is only a

suggestion.


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#(Scientific Skills

An experiment seeks to find solutions to a problem or some

facts yet unknown. It involves testing for hypothesis and the

use of controls. Through experimenting, students relate all the

science process skills in a systematic manner. Usually

experimenting is synonymous with the algorithm called

scientific method which follows these five basic steps:

In experimentation each step emerges from the

previous one. The purpose of the process is to judge theextent to which a hypothesis might be true and to set a

standard whereby that judgement is made. Experimentation

should be reserved for the process of systematically

evaluating hypotheses. ,-./012/34135 perform a scientific

procedure especially in a laboratory, to determine something

or to evaluate the hypotheses. Actually, experimenting

activities require thinking skills that are more critical and

Problem Hypothesis Predictions

Test of predictionsEvaluation ofhypothesis

Investing manipulating variables and

testing hypotheses to make

conclusions


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$+Scientific Skills

The laboratory can be a very exciting place in which to work

but it can also be very dangerous if the safety rules are not

obeyed. There are rules that must be followed by students

while in the science laboratory.

1)

GENERAL RULES Never enter a laboratory unless given permission by

your teacher.

Apparatus and laboratory substances cannot be

carried out without the permission of the teachers.

Apparatus and laboratory substance may be used

only on the direction of teacher.

All apparatus and laboratory substances used must

be returned to origin place or as directed by theteacher.

Always return cleaned equipment to the correct

place.

Practical work can only be done with the knowledge

and consent of the teacher.

Apparatus that is damaged or broken should be

reported immediately to the teacher or lab assistant.

Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the

laboratory. Notify the teacher immediately of any

unsafe conditions you observe.

Students are required to maintain cleanliness and

order furniture so that organized and orderly

manner.

Be careful using a Bunsen burner especially when

you are wearing flammable clothing.


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$#Scientific Skills

1) Science Apparatus" There are various types of apparatus in a science

laboratory. The table below shows several common

types of apparatus used. Students should know

about apparatus and also need to know about the

general use of various apparatus.

Apparatus:CrucibleFunction:To heatup the chemicals

Apparatus:Test tubeFunction:To fill in the

chemicals

Apparatus:Evaporating dish

Function:Toevaporate liquid fromthe solution

Apparatus:Cork &rubber stopperFunction:Used toclog the test tube orconical flask

Apparatus:GlassslideFunction:Placing thespecimen for thepurpose of observationunder the microscope

Apparatus:Flat-bottomflaskFunction:To fill in thechemicals used in thepreparation of gas forwhich the processdoes not requireheating.


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Apparatus:SyringeFunction:Fortransferring liquids insmall amounts

Apparatus:StopwatchFunction:To measuretime

Apparatus: Test tubeholderFunction: To hold thetest tube

Apparatus:BeakerFunction:To fill inliquid and chemicals

Apparatus:ConicalflaskFunction:To fill inliquid and chemicals

Apparatus:FilterfunnelFunction:To filter themixture of solid and

liquid

Apparatus:Wire

gauze & tripod standFunction:Tosupport apparatusduring heating

Apparatus:Bunsen

burnerFunction:To providea flame

Apparatus:Test tuberackFunction:To hold thetest tube in an uprightposition


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2) Handling Instruments for measuring Quantities" In this section, students shall learn to use and handle

scientific instruments for measuring length, volume,

mass, time, temperature, electric current and voltage.

i. Ruler

Length (length) is the distance between two points. Inthe laboratory, long an object is measured using a

ruler. Meter long ruler (meter ruler) is one meter (m)

or 100 centimetres (cm). Each centimetre is divided

into 10 millimetres (mm). So, the length of the meter

rule is also equal to 1000 millimetres (mm).

The correct way to read the scale on a ruler is shown

in the diagram below. The eye must look

perpendicularly at the mark on the scale. This avoids

errors in measurement due to parallax. Parallax error

is due to the incorrect positioning of the eye. Another

reason for this is the object being not at the same

level as the markings of the scale.

1 cm = 10 mm

1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm1 km = 1000 m

Measurement of length


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$'Scientific Skills

"#$ %&''$%( )&*+(+&, (& '$-. - *%-/$

0$-*1'+,2 (#$ /$,2(# &3 (#$ %1'4$

ii. Callipers

For objects without any flat sides, we cannot use a

ruler to make measurements. There are two types of

callipers which are external callipers and internal

callipers. Both the callipers were used to measureinternal and external diameter of the object.

Callipers consist of a pair of steel jaws hinged at the

base. They are closed until the points just touch the

object to be measured. Then, when the callipers are

removed, the distance between jaws can be

measured with a ruler.


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0$-*1'+,2 (#$ $5($',-/ .+-6$($' &3 - 7$-8$'

0$-*1'+,2 (#$ +,($',-/ .+-6$($' &3 - 7$-8$'

iii. Micrometre Screw Gauge

A micrometre screw gauge is used for measuring the

diameter of fine wires, the thickness of paper and

similar small distances. The micrometre has two

scales the main scale on the sleeve and the circular

scale on the thimble. One complete turn of the thimblemoves the spindle by 0.50 mm. There are 50 divisions

on the thimble. Hence each division represents a

distance of 0.01 mm. A micrometre therefore allows

us to measure accurately up to 0.01 mm.


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i. Measuring cylinder

Volume, the amount of space occupied, is usually

measured with a measuring cylinder. Chemists use the

units litres (l) and millilitres (ml). Measuring cylinder

measures a range of volumes, and are accurate to 1 or 2

ml in 100ml. When using measuring cylinder, students

should place the cylinder on a firm level surface and

always read from the bottom of the meniscus. Avoidparallax error by looking

level across the liquid

surface.

9$-.+,2 (#$ 4&/16$

1*+,2 - 6$-*1'+,2

%:/+,.$'

ii. Burette

A burette is used to measure the volume of solution that

reacts with the known volume of the other solution already

put into the titration flask from the pipette. In a titration set-

up, a burette is clamped vertically to stand. To fill aburette,

Measurement of volume


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$*Scientific Skills

use a funnel to pour the liquid into the burette

until the level of liquid is above the zero mark

on the burette. Then open the tap so that theburette jet is filled with liquid and all the air is

removed. When the jet is full, the tap is close.

Weight of an object is the earth gravity on the object.

Meanwhile, the mass of an object is the quantity of matter in

the object. For these reasons, we need to use the scale /

balance is different for measuring weight and mass of an

object. Spring balance and triple beam balance are used to

measure mass of objects.

i. Measure the weight

Weight of an object can be measured with spring /

compression balance. This is because the earth gravity

acts to extend the spring6

Measurement of mass

The unit of weight and mass are:

Weight (Newton/ N)

Mass (Kilogram/ Kg)


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i. Mercury thermometer

Thermometers are calibrated to

give the correct temperature when

immersed in the liquid to a depth of

seven centimetres. To read the

temperature of a liquid correctly,

the thermometer should always be

immersed in the liquid as fast as possible.

ii. Clinical thermometer

Clinical thermometers are used to

measure human body temperature.

There is a constriction in the clinical

thermometer.

i. Ammeter

Ammeter is used to measure the size of an electric current.

The ammeter must be connected in

series to the circuit. Electric current must

flow into the ammeter by the positive

terminal and leave by the negative

terminal. If it is connected the other way

aroubd, the pointer will deflect slightly

below the zero mark.

Measurement of temperature

Measurement of electric current


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ii. Multimeter

A multimeter is a multi-functional

electrical meter that can measurethe potential difference, current and

resistance. A rotating knob or

switch allows to select the quantity

that measured and the sentivity of

the instruments.

iii. Galvanometer

A galvanometer is used to detectelectric current, but not calibrated to

measure current. It has a scale and can

be used to compared current. It is easily

easily damaged because a few

thousands of an ampere can burn the

coil.

i. Voltmeter

The potential difference across two points in a circuit can

be measured by a voltmeter. The voltmeter must be

connected in parallel to the component

across which the potential difference is

being measured. The current must flow

into positive terminal (+) and flow out of

the negative (-) terminal.

Measurement of voltage or potential


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3) Handling Optical Instruments" For this section, students shall learn on how to handle

and use four types of optical instruments.

i. Magnifying Glass

A magnifying glass is a bi-

convex lens. Things look bigger

through the magnifying glass. In

order to look at the magnified

image clearly, the magnifying

glass was placed near the

object. Then, move it away from

the object until the image is clear and make an image is in

focus.

ii. Microscope

A microscope is to

magnify objects toosmall to see with the

unaided eyes. It is also

used to resolve

structural details of

small objects so that

adjacent objects can be

distinguished. Setting

up the microscope is askill which needs to be learned carefully.

a) Turn on the illuminator. When using the dimmer, it is

best slowly increase the light intensity as the lamp

heats up quite quickly.

b) Place a slide or specimen on the stage with the sample

directly above the aperture and, if possible, fasten it to


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the stage with the stage clips. Reminder: A cover slip is

always needed to allow for the best quality image.

c) Ensure the iris diaphragm is completely open, allowingthe maximum amount of light to reach the slide and the

lenses. Caution: Do not use the iris diaphragm to

control the light, it is to control resolution and contrast -

use the dimmer instead.

d) Rotate the nosepiece so that the objective lens with the

lowest level of magnification is directly above the

sample. Reminder: Using lower magnifications first

helps to select the part of the specimen of interest andthen adjust further.

e) Look through the binocular eyepieces and adjust the

iris diaphragm until the amount of light is satisfactory.

More light is better than less light, but the comfort of the

viewers eyes should also be taken into account.

f) Turn the coarse adjustment knob until the specimen

comes into broad focus. Caution: you should not use

the coarse focus with a high magnification objective forfear of the objective making contact with the slide.

g) Turn the fine adjustment knob until the specimen

comes into sharp focus.Caution: should not take a long

time to find focus, otherwise the high magnification

objective could also hit the slide. If you are having a

difficult time to find focus then restart with the lower

magnification objective.

78 The viewer should then be able rotate the nosepiece to

higher settings and bring the sample into more 93:

2;0/ :/491< =147 9 213129< 92;>34 ;? 0/?;@>A1356


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iii. Telescope

A telescope is used to magnify distant objects. There are

two types of telescopes; the refractor telescope

which uses glass lenses and the reflector telescope which

uses mirrors. Telescopes come in all shape and sizes. It can

be used to observe the moon, planets, star clusters, nebulae

and even galaxies.

Steps to use the refracting telescope:

a) Align the finderscope so that it is in line with and points

to the same thing that sees in the eyepiece. The best

way to do this is to find the lowest power eyepiece and

use it to find a bright object such as the Moon.

b) Once get the target (for example Moon) centred in theeyepiece of telescope, re-centre the Moon in the

eyepiece from time to time as the Moon is constantly

moving.

c) Finderscope should be at least one set of three thumb

screws holding the finderscope in place. Gently loosen

the screws on the finderscope and look through its

eyepiece until see the cross hair.


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d) Align the Moon on the cross hair by alternately

adjusting the screws until it stays centred.

e) Tighten the screws to hold the finderscope securelyand make it aligned with the telescope eyepiece.

iv. Binoculars

A pair of binoculars consists of two compact refracting

telescopes joined together. It has a same function as the

telescope with the advantage of giving both binocular and

stereoscopic visions. Binocular vision allows distances tobe judged and shapes to be perceived in depth whereas

stereoscopic vision allows seeing objects as solid shapes

in three dimensions.

Step to use the binoculars:

a) To use a pair of binoculars, account for a difference in

eye strength or vision. Centre-focusing binoculars have

an adjustment mechanism to compensate for eyes of

unequal strength.

b) Only one eyepiece is independently adjustable, and it

has a scale marked off in dioptres, the optical

measuring unit for spherical power.


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Maintenance is important to ensure that all equipment and

apparatus are in good condition and can be used.

Maintenance of science apparatus and laboratory substances

includes glass equipment, optical instruments, instruments

and chemicals. All equipment and apparatus should be

maintained so that long lasting and safe to use. Screeningequipment and apparatus must be carried out regularly and

systematically.

1) Glass instruments" Glass instruments commonly used are made from soda

glass and borosilicate glass. The cleft of glass

instruments can be improved and borosilicate glass

apparatus be sanded back with fine polish. Glassinstruments can be cleaned with a suitable detergent

and then washed with water.

Glass instruments Cleaning and storing

a) Beaker andmeasuring

cylinder

Stored on the shelvesaccording to the type and

size.

b) Tube andglass rod

Placed horizontally to preventbending. Hollow glass tubeshould be closed in both endsto prevent dust.

c) Burette andpipette

Stored in upright on theshelves.


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Burette or pipette must bewashed with dilute nitric acid

followed by water to avoidalkali attached to it.

d) Reagentbottles

Reagent bottles that werefilled with chemicals must belabelled.

Label that has been damagedshould be replaced with anew label.

e) Syringe Syringes should be washedbefore use in order to avoiddust.

Syringe needle must be keptin a locked and if not used,the piston must be separatedfrom the cylinder.

f) Glass slide Specimens glass slide mustbe labelled and sorted bycategory.

Empty glass slide should becleaned with alcohol and keptin a box.

g) Small glassinstruments

(petri dish,tubespecimens)

Stored in the tray

Cannot store in high place or

mixed with other equipment.


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Instruments Cleaning and storing

a) Galvanometer Galvanometer terminalsshould be cleaned to avoidrust and sensitive enoughwhen installed wires.

The adjustment must work toensure that the galvanometerreading can give accuratereadings.

Make sure that thegalvanometer is not storednear the magnetic sources.

b) Ammeter andvoltmeter

Direct current of ammeter andvoltmeter can only be usedfor direct current circuits only.

However, alternating currentof ammeter and voltmeter canbe used for direct currentcircuit if used other pointer.

c) Thermometer Must be stored in appropriatecontainers becausethermometer bulb is madefrom glasses and it is thin andfragile.

Thermometer should not beused as a rod to stir thesolution.

After used thermometer clinic,the thermometer should becleaned with alcohol.

d) Vanier calliper Should be kept in desiccatorto avoid rusting.


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If rusty, Vanier callipers needto be scrubbed with fine sand

paper and stored in originalcontainers.

e) Micrometrescrew gauge

Micrometre screw gaugeshould be lubricated with oiland kept in a box.

f) Balance Should be kept in storage orin the preparation room and

away from corrosivechemicals.

Mechanical balance shouldbe lubricated with a little oil ina regular basis.

Electronic balance should beplaced in a specific and notencouraged to be transferredbecause it is sensitive and

easily damaged by vibration.

g) Stopwatch Should be stored its boxes

after used. For digital stopwatch, battery

must be removed if not usedin the long term.

4)Chemicals" Stocks of chemicals must be checked regularly to

determine whether the material safely used. Older

stock must be used first. Toxic and hazardous

chemicals must be strictly controlled, by controlling the

quantity and kept in a locked cabinet. Besides that,


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chemicals that are sensitive to light should be kept in

dark glass bottles to avoid sunlight.

Chemicals Storing

a) Inorganicchemicals

Inorganic chemicals shouldbe stored separately fromorganic chemicals.

Chemicals and shelves mustbe labelled according to thename of the metal.

b) Organicchemicals

Organic chemicals are usuallystored in alphabetical order inplace that is separate fromother materials.

Most of the organic chemicalsare volatile or poisonousliquid, so store used to storechemicals must have goodventilation.

" Storage Regulations

Storage of chemicals must follow the regulations as

follows:

i. Stocks of chemicals must be stored in chemical

storeroom with good ventilation.

ii. This chemicals storage rack should have a barrier to

prevent the bottle falling.


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iii. A volatile and hazardous liquid should be stored in a

fume chamber.

iv. Toxic materials shall be kept in a locked cabinet andlabelled as toxic substances.

v. The use of toxic substances must be recorded.

vi. Chemicals that expired and cannot be used must be

disposed properly.

Chemical reagent bottles must be clearly labelled and

the label should be continuously checked. Details of thelabel are as follows:

Label on reagent bottles for concentrated chemicals or

corrosive must be printed in red.


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" Lab safety is an integral part of performing science

experiments in school and one that can prevent injuries

and accidents. Proper lab safety involves many

procedures and precautions, as well as equipment and

gear, so dedicating an entire lesson to reviewing lab safety

will help students to absorb the information. Presenting the

information in an entertaining and active manner, or bymotivating students with bonus points, can help engage

them in the activities.

" Science substances in the science laboratory must be

handled properly and safely. Incorrect in handling science

substances such as handling of chemicals, radioactive

material, biological, electric devices and hazardous

chemical substances can lead to the following hazards:i. Fire and explosion caused by reactive materials.

ii. Burns caused by corrosive chemicals.

iii. Allergy to the science substances.

iv. Injuries caused by chemical spills and splashes.

v. Pollution to the environment.

vi. Poisoning due to inhaling poisonous gas.

vii. Hazard caused by exposure to radiation.

1) Handling of chemicals" Chemicals safe to use if handled properly. There are

some chemicals that have certain features such as

flammable and explosive, corrosive, toxic and

irritating. Symbol of hazardous chemicals shown in

figure below:


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Symbol Description

Poisonous

Self-explanatory. Whereasmost chemicals are fairlydangerous if ingested orinhaled, many of these aredangerous even on contact.

Environmentalhazard

Relatively rare with laboratorychemicals (most of which

pose some environmentalhazard if not got rid ofcorrectly), these requireparticular care to be taken ondisposal.

Corrosive

Avoid contact with the skin.Bear in mind that these can(under some circumstances)rust chemical cupboards.

Explosive

Self-explanatory, though fairlyseldom seen in the averagelab. Bear in mind that noiseand movement can alsotrigger explosion (not justsparks/flames).

Flammable/extremelyflammable

Chemicals to be stored inflame-resistant cupboards.Volatile solvents can be aparticular problem as they areprone to spread around fromunsealed containers. Thiscovers pyrophoric materials.


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Irritant orharmful

This symbol covers a widerange of (sometimes relatively

minor) hazards - withprecautions such as avoidcontact with the skin, do notbreathe, etc.

Oxidisingchemical

Oxidising chemicals arematerials that spontaneouslyevolve oxygen at room

temperature or with slightheating, or that promotecombustion.

Radioactive

Designates those substanceswhich have measurableradioactivity. Caution! Avoidexposure.

PoisonousGas

Used for transport of apoisonous gas - on gascylinders, or sometimes as anindicator on vehicles.

Poison

More general symbol for thetransport of poisonousmaterials (not necessarily agas).


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Dangerouswhen wet

Generally means that it willreact fairly violently with

water.

FlammableGas

Safety symbol used for thetransport or storage of aflammable gas.

Non-flammableGas

Safety symbol used in thetransport of non-flammable(and hence often non-hazardous, at least out in the

open) gases

OrganicPeroxide

Chemical safety symbol usedin the transport and storage oforganic peroxides


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i. Hazardous chemicals

" All chemicals are dangerous if not handled in the

correct way. This is because the chemical isflammable, corrosive and toxic and reacts to

produce other substances that cause harm. Some

are very active reactions to cause an explosion and

fire. The table below shows examples of the harmful

chemicals commonly used in schools.

Chemicals Harmful effects Storage and

disposalAsbestos Asbestos

dusts irritateeyes, lungsand skin. Itcan causelung cancer ifinhaled for thelong term.

Wet theasbestos andinsert it into thepolythene bagand labelledbefore disposal.

Benzene(C6H6)

Highlyflammableand toxic ifswallowed,inhaled orabsorbedthrough theskin. Nature

carcinogenic.

Keep a coolplace. Do notmix withchlorine andother oxidizingagents.Benzene wastemust be

disposed of inunused land.

Bromine(Br2)

Vapour is veryirritating to theeyes, lungsand skin.Liquidbromine istoxic and

Mix alkalinesolution withplenty of waterand pour downin the drainduring disposal.Disposal shall


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nerve cellsand cause

blindness anddeath.

Naphthalene(C10H8)

Dangerouswhen inhaled,swallowedand contactwith the skin.Use goggles

and gloveswhen usingnaphthalene.

Never mixedwith strongoxidizingagents. Moistenwith water andstored in

polythene bagsbeforedisposing.

Potassium,sodium,calcium,lithium

Burst andburned whenreacted withwater. Reactwith tetrachloromethane.

Stored inparaffin oil. Addto absoluteethanol beforedisposal.

Magnesium,zinc,

aluminium

Easily to firewith brightflame.

Kept away fromoxidizing agentssuch as nitrate,chlorate andperoxide.

Sulphur Explosion andcombustionoccurs whensulphur isheated andproducedsulphurdioxide thathighly toxic.

Kept away fromoxidizing agentsand avoidheating.Sulphur mustbe stored in acool placed.


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ii. Handling of chemical spills

" Any chemical spillage is dangerous and requires

immediate action. These spills can produce toxicfumes as well as cause of fire and accidents.

Rubber gloves should be used during clean up any

spills. The table below shows the procedure for

handling spills.

Substances Procedure

Solids thatstable at roomtemperaturesuch as zincpowder.

This substance is swept withsuitable tools, collected andplaced in appropriate wastecontainers.

Acid Acid solution spills should bewashed with water and pipedto the drain.

Solid or solution of sodium

bicarbonate can be used toneutralize the remaining acidspill and then wash with water

Oily materialssuch ascoconut oiland grease

Oil spillage should be wipedwith a cloth or clean with thesand sprinkled on the spill.

Spill area should be cleanedwith soap and water.

Volatilesolvents

If it is small spills, wiped witha cloth and throw the clothinto a suitable wastecontainer.

Large spills are cleaned witha mop until dry. Mops usedshould be cleaned.


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3) Handling of biological" Safety precautions should be emphasized in handling

biological materials such as microorganisms, insects,

parasites and small animals.

i. Safety precautions in handling microorganismsSome bacteria, fungi and viruses are dangerous.

Handling this material should be done with caution

and the following are the steps to be taken when

handling microorganisms.

Before starting work, make sure there is

adequate supply of antiseptic.

All surfaces, chairs and work areas should be

cleaned with antiseptic detergent before leaving

the laboratory.

After used the pollutants, put in a polythene

bag and tied up neatly before being disposed of

in the trash. Fridge and the tools used to store the culture

medium must be cleaned with antiseptic.

While doing the cleaning, lab coat, gloves and

goggles should be used.

Hands should be washed thoroughly with soap

and antiseptic before leaving the laboratory.

All spills and accidents must be recorded.

ii. Safety precautions in handling insects and smallanimals.In order to handling insects and small animals,

several safety precautions should be taken as

follows:

Insects and small animals should be placed in

safe containers such as cages or aquariums.


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Experimental animals may carry pathogens, so

handling must be done safely, such as wearing

gloves. Any wounds on the hands should be wrapped

completely before studied on insects and small

animals.

Any bites and scratches by experimental

animals must be treated with antiseptic and

medical treatment should be taken.

Carcass experimental animals shall be

disposed of in a safe manner, such as landfills

and completely burned.

4) Handling of electric devices" The use of electrical devices can cause accidents if

not follow the rules or appliances are not maintained

properly. To prevent accidents caused by incorrect of

handling electrical equipment, the following stepsshould be taken:

Never touch electrical equipment with wet hands.

When working with electricity do not stand on

metal, wet concrete or wet ground. It is wiser to

stand on a rubber-mat or a dry wooden platform.

Faulty electrical appliances and equipment must

be properly handled and repaired promptly.

Proper maintenance of electric wiring and fuses is

essential. Fuses should not be replaced with ones

of higher amperage or with thick wires or tin foils.

Disconnect electrical gadgets when not in use.

Electric wires or cords, if faulty, should never be

used until repaired.

Electric gadgets should be repaired only by a

qualified person.


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5) Handling of hazardous experimental substances" Accidents can occur in the handling of science

equipment and materials when conduct the

experiment if students are careless and do not take

proper measures. There was an experiment

conducted in the laboratories that are potentially

harmful. specific measures should be taken as

shown:

Experiment Handling procedure

Hydrogenflame

Experiments involving hydrogen gasis hazardous. Open flames must beavoided. Mixture of hydrogen andoxygen will explode when ignited.

Heating ofchlorate

Heating chlorate with oxidizedmaterials such as phosphorus orsulphur can cause explosion. Make

sure that the mixture does notcontain phosphorus chlorate andsulphur.

Heating ofammonium

nitrate

Any experiment involving theheating of ammonium nitrate shouldbe avoided as these materials mayexplode when heated, even in smallquantities.

Reactionsinvolvingreactivemetals

Experiments involving reactivemetals such as sodium or potassiumshould use a small quantity. Tongsshould be used to take or transferthis material.


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Experimentusing

concentratedacid

For the experiment that useconcentrated acids, do not pour the

water into concentrated acid. Ifconcentrated acid should be diluted,pour acid slowly into the water.Never add concentrated acid tochlorate. Use a dropper whentransferring concentrated acidsduring the experiment.

Experiment

involvingbromine

Electrolysis of lead bromide (II) will

produce bromine gas. Brominevapour harmful to eyes, lungs andskin. Experiment involving liquid orvapour of bromine must be carriedout in fume chamber. In the redoxexperiment, bromine water is safe tobe used compared to liquid bromine.

" Hazardous experiments should be conducted by theteacher in a demonstration. During a demonstration,

following steps must be followed:

Distance between students and demonstration

material should be appropriate.

Make sure students in a small group during the

demonstration.

Make sure that safety precautions are used.

The place where the demonstrations carried out shallbe suitable either outside or in the laboratory science.

Teachers must always be with students in the science

laboratory.


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~ ~ PANIC BUSTERS ~ ~

What do I do when

A fire occurs?In the event of a fire, alert the teacher and leave

the laboratory immediately.

My clothes are on fire?Stop-Drop-Roll! Stop immediately,

drop to the floor, and roll. This is the quickest way to smother a

fire.

My lab partners clothes or hair is on fire?Grab the nearest

the blanket, and use it to extinguish the flames. Inform the

teacher.

A chemical comes in contact with eyes? Wash your eyes

with water for at least 15 minutes. Inform the teacher.

I spill a chemical on my body?Rinse the affected area for at

least 15 minutes. Inform the teacher.

I spill a chemical on the floor?Keep your classmates away

from the area, and alert the teacher immediately.


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Activities

In order to enhance students knowledge about the

scientific skills, there are some exercises and web

pages recommended for students to try by their own

as follows:

1) http://www.epa.gov/region03/ee/chesapeake/game

1.htm

2) 744.BCC===614/9@7D1;6@;2CAE1


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Scientific Method - Designing and Conducting an

Experiment


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HYPOTHESIS

1) Juabita planted seeds with an

oblong shape in three

containers. She placed ten

seeds with the pointed end

facing down in one container.

In the second container, she

placed ten seeds with the

pointed sideways in a third

container. All the seeds werecovered with soil. Each

container was given equal

amounts of water and light

each day. Within three weeks,

ten plants were growing in

each of the container.

2) Dylan calculated

the density of water and of

four solid objects. He then

placed the objects in a tub

filled with water. Dylan

observed that the objects

that were denser than

water sank to the bottomof the tub. The object that

was less dense than water

floated to the waters

surface.

3) Shari set up plastic bowling pins 0.5m from the end of a ramp. She

rolled a ball down the ramp into the pins. She then counted how many of

the pins the rolling ball moved. She repeated this three more times using

balls of different masses. Shari observed that the ball with the greatest

mass moved the most pins.

Write a hypothesis for each investigation above.

1. Hypothesis: .

2. Hypothesis: .

3. Hypothesis: .


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SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Find all the terms associated with the scientific method.

C Y D E L B A I R A V S U E P S A I

D H R A F O X L Q I T S R R E C X N

A O A O T E C L Y E N A O J Q I E D

N O H R E A W M P O P B M S U E U E

A Q H T T H X S I M L N L E I N O P

L M V J E S T T O E M O D L P T N E

Y W B O S M A C M W I L C B M I O N

S K K Y Q V C I K B T H Z A E S I DI P O V R G E I H E A O P I N T S E

S J P E R C U Q F Z A O Y L T S U N

U S S A N E N R G I X S Z E Z Y L T

X B P E N O Q E E R T L S R R A C X

O H I K C N I K H H Y N O E F H N A

S C I N F E R E N C E K E R C R O I

S S C Y T N E D N E P E D I T O C S

I N Q R S I S E H T O P Y H C N R M

H S X N S E L U R Y T E F A S S O P

N J Z S I X S T N E M I R E P X E C

ANALYSIS EXPERIMENTS RELIABLE

CHARTS GRAPHS SAFETY RULESCOMPARE HYPOTHESIS SCIENCE

CONCLUSION INDEPENDENT SCIENTIFIC METHODS

CONTROL INFERENCE SCIENTISTSDATA OBSERVATIONS STEPSDEPENDENT PROBLEM THEORY

EQUIPMENT PROCESS VARIABLES


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Scientific Reasoning Skills

Although the goal of education is to develop thinkers and

lifelong learners, few classroom activities encourage students

to monitor of improve their own thinking about and regulating

ones own thought processes, is a skill that differentiates

expert from novice learners. Expert learners employ effective

learning techniques, monitor their own learning, and develop

and adapt strategies to become more effective learners. The

activities in this chapter require students to think about their

own thinking, with the goal of developing better metacognitive

skills and becoming more effective learners.

Novice learners rarely evaluate their comprehension,

examine the quality of their work, or make adjustments in their

learning strategies. They are generally satisfied with

superficial explanations and do not strive to make connections

or understand the relevance of material learned. By contrast,

expert learners think about their thinking, know when they

dont understand something, reflect on the quality of their

work, make revisions in learning strategies as they proceed,

search for deeper explanations, and strive to understand how

concepts are interrelated.

Metacognition involves the development,

implementation, and evaluation of a learning plan. During

development, learners establish goals (what needs to be


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learned and to what depth), determine relevent prior

knowledge and skills, define task requirements (time,

schedule, evaluation criteria), and select resources (books,peers, authorities, electronic references) that will assist them

in reaching their goals. During implementation, learners apply

strategies (eg., concept mapping), evaluate the effectiveness

of these strategies (using formative assessments including

self-questioning), and modify their plans as necessary. As

individuals become more skilled with metacognitive strategies,

they gain confidence and become independent learners,

determining and pursuing their own intellectual needs.

This chapter focuses on the identification and

development of essential reasoning skills, and much of the

rest of this book deals with specific strategies. Teachers

should implement learning activities that develop these skills

and instruments that assess them. As students learn to

identify and develop their reasoning skills, they become more

effective and independent learners and better able to use thestrategies introduced throughout this book.

Inductive reasoning (drawing conclusions from the

natural world through observation and experimentation) is the

process of making generalizations from specific information.

By contrast, deductive reasoningderiving testable predictions

about cases from established principles) is a process of

making specific conclusions by the application of generalprinciples. Scientists and others employ both in their work and

everyday lives.


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In an effort to categorize reasoning and learning

skills, a committee of psychologists and educators, directed

by Benjamin Bloom, developed a taxonomy of effective,

psychomotor, and cognitive skills. The taxonomy of cognitive

objectives became widely used by educators and curriculum

developers. Recently, experts have proposed modifications,

but although I see merit in the revised classification, theactivities in this book use the original format because of its

familiarity and widespread acceptance in literature and

practice. Although designed as a hierarchy, the elements are

not strictly hierarchical in practice, so the position within the

hierarchy should not be overemphasized. Blooms taxonomy

gives us the opportunity to examine our teaching emphasis,

and it is noted that most secondary instruction focuses on

basic knowledge ad comprehension and gives minimal

attention to the development of higher-order reasoning skills.

Fortunately, the sciences provide as environment that is

conducive to the development of these skills, and many

teachers capitalize on this to help develop critical thinkers.


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(A) Blooms Taxonomy, 1956. (B) Revised Taxonomy, 2001.

Expert learners use metacognitive strategies to

monitor and improve their learning, employ inductive and

deductive logic to make discoveries, and exhibit knowledge,

comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and

evaluation as they study and work in addition, theydemonstrate critical thinking, creativity, fluency, flexibility,

originality, lateral thinking, transferability, and elaboration.

Critical thinking is the process of analyzing and

evaluating information on the basis of evidence and logic.

Critical thinkers evaluate statements, opinions, and

hypotheses by collecting, analyzing, and evaluating data,

issues, and arguments from different sources and

perspectives. Critical thinking is used to identify

misconceptions in science.

A B


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Creativity may involve insight, inventiveness,

imagination, innovation, originality, initiative, and

resourcefulness to develop new hypotheses, products, or

ways of thinking. It is difficult to teach creativity, but teachers

can provide activities that help develop the requisite skills of

fluency (the ability to generate many ideas), flexibility (the

ability to see things different perspectives), and elaboration(the ability to build on existing ideas). Fluent individuals

generally consider many options and think outside the box.

Brainstorming activities are helpful for accomplishing this.

Flexible thinkers can analyze problems and issues from a

variety of perspectives.

This chapter provides lateral thinking exercises,

designed to help students approach problems from a varietyof perspectives. Finally, much emphasis is given in this book (

and in the companion books Hands-On Physics Activities with

Applications and Hands-On Chemistry Activities with Real-Life

Applications) to transferabilitythe aptitude for applying ideas

across a wide variety of contexts.


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Any discussion of thought processes requires first agreeingon terms and interpretations. Perhaps the most widely used

classification of human thought is one known as Blooms

taxonomy. Benjamin Bloom and his team of researchers

wrote extensively on the subject, particularly on six basic

levels of cognitive outcomes the identified: knowledge,

comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and

evaluation. Blooms taxonomy is hierarchical, with knowledge,

comprehension, and application as fundamental levels, andanalysis, synthesis, and evaluation as advances levels. When

educators refer to higher-level reasoning, they are generally

referring to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Skills


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Verbs Commonly Associated with Levels of Reasoning

The following questions from a physics test on motion

represent all six levels of Blooms taxonomy. A rationale is

provided for each classification, but alternative classifications

are possible depending on the prior knowledge of the

students. For example, the comprehension question could be

considered a knowledge question if students had memorized

a textbook explanation. After reviewing the physics questions

on motion below, classify the chemistry, biology, and earth

science questions, the questions are written so each set has

representatives from all six levels of Blooms taxonomy. Note

that it is not necessary to understand the content of these

questions in order to identify the level of reasoning they

represent.

Knowledge

when what

where who memorize name order cite copy define describe label list

match record

recount repeat show specify

Comprehension

associate classify

convert describe differentiate discuss distinguish estimate explain express extend group identify

indicate order

paraphrase predict report summarize

Application

apply calculate

chart choose compute construct demonstrate determine develop examine illustrate interview modify

operate prepare

produce relate report show

Analysis

analyze arrange

categorize classify compare contrast correlate detect diagram differentiate dissect test survey

outline order

investigate inventory interpret identify

Synthesis

adapt assemble

collaborate compose construct create design develop devise formulate generalize generate hypothesize

imagine integrate

speculate revise reorganize propose

Evaluation

argue assess

conclude convince criticize decide deduce defend determine infer interpretjudgejustify

persuade rate

rank recommend relate value


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)#Scientific Skills

Blooms

Taxonomy

Questions Rationale

Knowledge Write the formula that describes themotion of a falling object near theEarths surface?

This requires recalling thememorized formula.

Comprehension Explain why objects fall more slowly onthe Moon than on Earth?

This requiresunderstanding thedifference between themasses of the Moon andEarth and how affectsacceleration.

Application A baseball falls from a height of 30 m.Ignoring air resistance, calculate thetime ball hits the ground.

This requires applying akinematics equation toderive the answer to thisproblem.

Analysis A bullet is fired from a rifle aimed atthe horizon, and at the same time asidentical bullet is dropped from thesame height as the muzzle of the gun.Ignoring air resistance, compare andcontrast the trajectory of both

bullets and the time requires to hitthe ground.

This requires examiningthe similarities anddifferences of thetrajectories, anddistinguishing relevantfrom irrelevant

information to answer thequestion.

Synthesis Bawling balls, basketballs, baseballs,

golf balls, and ping pong balls at thesame rate in a vacuum. Develop ahypothesis that predicts the orderthey will hit the ground if droppedfrom a height of 1000m in air. Explain

you reasoning.

This question requires

generating andsubstantiating ahypothesis based onestablished principles,prior knowledge, andexperience.

Evaluation Legend has it that Galileo investigatedthe motion of falling bodies by

dropping cannon balls from the leaningtower of Pisa. In reality, his studies ofmotion were conducted by rollingobjects down declined planes. Discussthe advantages this method may have

held for Galileo.

This requires judging themerits of Galileos

approach using criteriaand logic.


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)$Scientific Skills

Determining Levels of Reasoning Required by

earth Science Questions.

Classify the earth science questions below with thelevels of Blooms Taxonomy that they best represent.

Reminder: it is not necessary to understand thecontent of these questions in order to identify thelevel of reasoning they represent.

1. Explain why the air pressure in Death Valley (280feet below sea level) is greater than on top of

Mount Whitney (14,495 feet above sea level).2. Design a barometer using only the following items:

plastic soda bottle, balloon, straw, and tape.

Illustrate your design with an annotated diagram.3. Define standard atmospheric temperature andpressure (STP).

4. Assess the benefits and shortcomings ofbarometric and global positioning system altimeters

for use in private aircraft.5. A mercury barometer reads 760mm (1 atmosphere).

What minimum height would the barometer need tobe to measure this pressure if it were made using

water, knowing that density of mercury is 12.56times that of water?

6. A noodle dish cooked at sea level is fine, while thesame dish cooked for the same length of time a

10,000 feet is crunchy. Analyze the differencesbetween the two cooking environments, and offer anexplanation for the difference.


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)%Scientific Skills

Science may be defined as the development and organizationof knowledge of the physical universe through observation,

experiment, and reason, and the body of knowledge gained

from such activities. The word sciencecomes from the Latin

scientia, meaning knowledge, because science is a way of

knowing about the physical world. One of the primary ways

scientists discover new knowledge is through inductive

reasoning: the logic of developing generalizations,

hypotheses, and theories from specific observations andexperiments. The premises or observation support the

conclusion or generalization but do not ensure it. The

following examples of inductive reasoning illustrate how it is

used to develop reasonable, although not certain,

conclusions.

Physicists have repeatedly measured the acceleration

due to gravity at sea level to be 9.8 m/s2, and this value is

now an accepted constant, even though it has not been tested

everywhere that is at sea level on the Earths surface. As with

all other conclusions derived by induction, it is possible thatthis generalization is flawed. It is possible, although extremely

unlikely, what newer measurements will show different values

at places not yet measured.


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)'Scientific Skills

Developing a Periodic Table by Inductive Reasoning

(Chemistry)

Materials: Paint chips (available from a home improvement or paintstore)

The pioneering Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev analyzeddata of the elements and found that when arranged at predictableintervals. Mendeleyev developed a table in which he arranged

elements with similar properties in columns of ascending atomicmass. His table provided a general summary of the elements, hadtremendous predictive value, and is widely used in its revised form,the periodic table of the elements.


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)(Scientific Skills

In this activity, you will engage in an analogous

process as you arrange paint color chips into anorganized periodic table. Your instructor will provide

you with an envelope containing paint chips of a varietyof colors and intensities. Apply the following rules as youarrange the chips.

The basic color of a paint chip represents it

chemical properties. For example, all blue paintchips can be considered to have similar properties,

significantly different from those of red chips. Thebasic color of a chip is analogous to melting point,ionization energy, conductivity, or some otherperiodic property.

The shade of a paint chip is analogous to atomi

mass. Thus, a light blue paint chip represents anelement of lower atomic mass while a dark blue paint

chip represents an element that has similar

properties as the light blue chip, but with higheratomic mass.Arrange all chips with similar colors in the same

column (family) and all colors with similar intensity(shade) in the same row (series). In the real Periodic

Table of the Elements, properties gradually change frommetallic to non-metallic as you proceed through a seriesfrom the left to the right across the table. You may

illustrate this concept by arranging your columns in thesequence of the visible spectrum: red-orange-yellow-green-blue-violet. Place the reddest colors on the, left

of your table and the most violet colors on the right.


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))Scientific Skills

Whereas inductive reasoning draws general principles fromspecific instances, deductive reasoning draws specific

conclusions from general principles or premises. Apremiseis

a previous statement or proposition from which another is

inferred or follows as a conclusion. Unlike inductive

reasoning, which always involves uncertainty, the conclusions

from deductive inference are certain provided the premises

are true. Scientist use inductive reasoning to formulate

hypotheses and theories and deductive reasoning whenapplying them to specific situations. The following are

examples of deductive reasoning:

Physics: Electric Circuits

First premise: The current in an electrical circuit is

directly proportional to the voltage and inversely

proportional to the resistance (I=V/R).

Second premise: The resistance in a circuit is

doubled.

Inference: Therefore, the current is cut in half.


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)*Scientific Skills

Chemistry: Element Classification

First premise: Noble gases are stable.Second premise: Neon is a noble gas.

Inference: Therefore, neon is stable.

Biology: Plant Classification

First premise: Monocot flower parts are in multiples

of three.Second premise: Apple flowers have five petals.

Inference: Therefore a le trees are not monocot.

Astronomy: Planetary Motion

First premise: The ration of the squares of the periods of any

two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their average

distances from the sun. T12/R1

3= T22/R2

3

Second premise: Earth is closer to the Sun than Mars.

Inference: Therefore, Earth orbits the Sun faster than Mars.


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*+Scientific Skills

Deducing the Wavelength of Sound (Physics)

Materials needed: tuning forks, 1L graduatedcylinder or equally deep sink or container, 1 or 2

diameter PVC or glass pipe; or use the simple dataprovided.

The following premises apply to a pipe that has

one end and one sealed end:Premise 1: A resonant standing wave isestablished when two sound waves of the same

amplitude and wavelength travel in oppositedirections.

Premise 2: Sound waves reflect off the sealedend of a tube.

Premise 3: A tube with one open end resonates

when its length is one quarter the wavelength ofsound (1/4!)

Inference: The wavelength of soundis four times the shortest length of

pipe that resonates. We cantherefore determine the wavelength

of sound by finding the shortest

length of pipe in which the sound willresonate and multiplying its length by

four.

"%U


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*#Scientific Skills

Lateral thinking is the ability to approach problems from avariety of perspectives rather than only from the single most

obvious approach. Consider the following question:

The standard way to approach this question is to

calculate the distance relative to a point on the Earths surface

by multiplying the speed of the jet (800km/h) by the time in

flight (3 hours). Alternatively, you could calculate the speed

relative to the Earths center

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