Module No

Module No.:M4.2

TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

(Target audience: Cargo handlers)

(Mode of transport: Sea)

What are radioactive materials?

Materials which emit radiation are called radioactive materials. Radiation is emitted as energy or particles. Many substances in nature are radioactive. Granite, tobacco, some natural ores, milk and beer contain naturally occurring radioactive materials. In fact, radiation is reaching us from the stars all the time. This is called the cosmic radiation. We have heard and read the names of materials like iodine-131, cobalt-60, uranium-235, etc. with symbols like 131I, 60Co and 235U. These and other such materials are examples of radioactive materials. Some times they are called radioisotopes. Most of the radioactive materials are artificially produced. Radiations find many useful applications. The quantity of a radioactive material is generally expressed in units of Becquerel (Bq), that is., kilo Bq for one thousand Bq, Mega Bq for one million Bq, etc.

Uses of radioactive material

We shall briefly discuss some examples of the useful applications of radiation. Radioactive materials are used in many fields, namely, health care, industrial process control, quality control of industrial products, power production, agriculture and consumer products in day-to-day use.

Healthcare applications

Medical Diagnosis

A clinical procedure called nuclear medicine is very effective is studying the functioning of internal tissues and organs. In this procedure the patient is first given some radioactive material orally or by injection. The material is directed to a specific tissue/organ which is to be examined. The doctor can view on a computer monitor not merely the organ under examination but also the functioning of the organ. That is, the doctor can see the insides of a patient’s body without surgery. Such an examination does not take much time.

Every day over 75,000 such diagnostic procedures are carried out the world over. This number is increasing because the diagnosis is more accurate, faster, painless and cost-effective. Even children undergo nuclear medicine procedures which are ideal for diagnostic study of heart, lungs, liver, kidney, thyroid, bone, intestines, brain, etc or detection of cancer.

Treatment of cancer

Large doses of radiation can kill cancer cells. For thyroid cancer radioactive iodine, called iodine-131, is administered to the patient. For treatment of tumours, the radiation from a radioactive material called cobalt-60 is used. Over 45,000 treatments are carried out in more than 50 countries.

Sterilization of medical products

Large doses of radiation can kill germs. Single use medical supplies, such as syringes, gloves, cotton and bandages are sterilized using radiation from cobalt-60. Most first-aid kits found in our homes are sterilised by radiation.

Preservation of food

Enormous quantities of food grains, vegetables, spices, etc. are wasted every year due to infestation. This wastage can be stopped by treating food with radiation. Cobalt-60 is used for food irradiation.

There are many more healthcare applications. For example, irradiated blood is used in life-saving blood transfusion as it reduces the risk of immunological reaction in the recipient.

Industrial applications

Process control

For controlling the filling level of soft drinks or beer in metallic cans, the filled cans are passed between a source of radiation and a radiation detector. The filled portion of the container stops the radiation and the unfilled portion allows all radiation through. The detector finds out the filling level. This device is called a level gauge.

Radioactive materials play a useful role in industrial process control. For determining the density of materials, for example, in the dredging of rivers and harbours, density gauges are used.

Thickness gauges are used for determining very precisely the thickness of metal sheets, plastic films, papers, etc.

For exploration of oil and construction of roads, moisture gauges are used.

Industrial radiography

Defects in the welding and casting of metal objects are detected without damaging the objects by using a source of radiation. The principle is similar to the common diagnostic X-ray examination. The radiation source is kept on one side of the object being tested and X-ray films on the opposite side. A pressure vessel or an industrial boiler that has been tested by radiography is much safer than one that is not. Industrial radiography assures the quality of the product and often saves life and property.

Power production

Radioactive material (uranium compound) is used as fuel in nuclear reactors to produce clean and cost-effective power which provides lighting and heating to our homes and work places, illuminates the streets, runs the trains, moves the elevators and escalators and enables the functioning of the communication systems.

Consumer products

Millions of smoke detectors operate the world over preventing fire accidents and saving lives and property. Smoke detectors use a small quantity of a radiation source.

Dials painted with luminous radioactive compounds are in common use. The dials can be read in the dark. If a power failure occurs in a theatre hall and we have to rush out for safety how do we find the exit? The “Exit” sign would go off because of the power failure! Many “Exit” signs we see in public halls glow due to the radiation from the radioactive material inside the signs. They will glow even if there is a power failure.

Radioactive materials are used in fluorescent lamps for improved efficiency.

Other uses

Radioactive material is used for determining the soil quality for agriculture and to study nutrient uptake by plants. Radioactive materials are used for detecting the presence of an element and the quantities in which it is present in a given sample. These are but a few of the uses of radioactive materials.

Not only hospitals and patients, but industrial establishments, agricultural scientists, manufacturers and users of the many industrial and consumer products and the many public utilities including communication systems operated by power delivered by nuclear plants depend on radioactive materials for the day-to-day necessities and conveniences. Radioactive materials are integral to the quality of life today.

Importance of effective and efficient transport

Radioactive materials have to be taken from the manufacturers to the users. Some of the radioactive materials have a short useful life. They are, therefore, rushed to the user by air.

For example, radiation sources used in nuclear medicine are transported in small quantities by air. If they are not used within a short period they lose their radioactivity and become almost non-radioactive substances! Because of the importance of the timing of use, patients are given appointments well in advance and the supply of the radioactive materials is scheduled accordingly. If the radioactive material does not arrive on time, patients travelling from far off places have to be sent back with a fresh appointment for a future date. The expenditure of time and money incurred in travelling and in hotel booking would be wasted. Most importantly, the diagnostic examination would be missed and the treatment that may be urgently warranted would be postponed.

Similarly, a cobalt-60 source intended for a cancer therapy facility or a sterilization plant which is transported in a package, designed to meet international standards of safety and approved by the concerned competent authorities, has to reach these places as per schedule.

If these packages are not delivered on time, many patients will go without the treatment, many tons of medical supplies or food products would miss the radiation processing. A delay in the delivery of fresh fuel to a nuclear power plant will result in reduced production of power. The consequences of reduced power are too obvious to warrant listing.

If radioactive materials are not taken to the user in a timely manner, it would result in considerable suffering. Such suffering should be prevented.

All the concerned organizations, viz., the manufacturer, the carrier, the handler and the customer play key roles in facilitating the transport of radioactive material for the various safe applications. Radioactive materials have been routinely transported for several decades. The transport of radioactive materials is governed by regulatory requirements.

Regulations for the transport of radioactive material

National Regulations

Transport of radioactive material is governed by national regulations of each State. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has developed Regulations for transport of radioactive material. Member States of IAEA adopt the IAEA Regulations within the frame work of the local laws. Consignors, carriers and the public authorities concerned with transport of cargo ensure that the shipments are made in compliance with the applicable national regulations. There could be some differences between the national regulations and the international regulations for the safe transport of radioactive material because of the difference in the legal system among the states.

International Maritime Organization (IMO)

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a United Nations agency. The regulations, standards and recommendations (IMDG Code) that it has developed, are recognized, followed, and observed by ships of many nations. This code includes provisions for the transport of radioactive material by sea.

In addition, there is the MERCOSUR/MERCOSUL agreement that concerns road, rail, air and sea transport among certain South American countries.

Regulatory requirements

Package design safety

The regulations focus on safe design of packages, operational control during carriage, documentation and approval requirements. Selecting the package of appropriate design achieves the desired design safety. The design requirements are based on the nature of the radioactive material that is to be transported in the package.

Radioactive materials in very small quantities are allowed to be transported in excepted packages.

Certain radioactive materials are nearly uniformly distributed in small quantities in a non-radioactive material. Such radioactive material is described as low specific activity (LSA) material. There are three sub-classifications of LSA materials, viz., LSA-I, II and III. Some non-radioactive materials carry radioactive contamination on their surfaces. Such objects are called Surface Contaminate Objects (SCO). SCOs are classified as SCO-I & II. LSA materials and SCOs are transported in Industrial Packages, IP-1/2/3.

Small quantities of radioactive materials such as radiopharmaceuticals addressed to a hospital and nucleonic gauges are transported in packages of simple design, known as Type A packages.

Larger quantities of radioactive materials such as teletherapy sources and spent fuel are transported in Type B(U) or B(M) packages.

Uranium-233, Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239, are radioactive materials which are also described as fissile materials. Packages containing fissile materials and those containing uranium hexafluoride are transported in packages designed specifically for these materials.

The regulations specify the requirements relating to the type of the package, labelling and marking and documentation to be provided by the consignor and the responsibilities of the consignor and the carrier.

Handling of radioactive cargo

Because of the national and international regulations, transport of radioactive cargo is becoming more common. The benefits from radioactive materials can reach the public. There is, in fact, no additional cost involved in familiarising the cargo handlers with handling radioactive cargo.

Before forwarding the package, the consignor

a) measures the radiation and contamination levels and the temperature on the external surface of the package to assure that the regulatory limits are not exceeded and

b) marks and labels the package.

How can you know that it is safe to handle a package? It is through the markings and labels that packages communicate with the outside world. The labels and markings

· announce the package “Type”

· describe the contents

· indicate the radiation level outside the package and

· suggest emergency response needs.

Markings

The packages are marked in addition to being labelled. The UN number appropriate to the radioactive content should be marked on the package and included in the transport documents. For example, the UN number of a Type B(U) package containing a cobalt 60 source used for teletherapy or sterilization of medical products is 2916.

Labels on packages, freight containers and vehicle

The labels are to be affixed outside the packages. There are three kinds of labels which can be affixed on packages. They are called Category I- WHITE, Category II- YELLOW and Category III- YELLOW. A package with Category I-WHITE label will have very low levels of radiation. A package with Category II-YELLOW and category III-YELLOW can have relatively higher levels of radiation at the surface.

The labels describe the package contents and the radiation levels outside the packages. In the case of categories II-YELLOW and III-YELLOW, the transport index of the package is also stated on the label. The transport index (TI) is a measure of the maximum radiation level at one metre from the external surface of the package. The TI of a Category I-WHITE package is always zero. The maximum possible value of TI of a Category II-YELLOW package is 1.0. The corresponding figure for a Category III-YELLOW package is 10.0. With the help of the pictures given below one can identify the category of a package.

Category I-WHITE label Category II-yellow label Category iii-yellow label

The label for packages containing fissile material and the picture of the placard for large freight containers and vehicles are also shown below.

Criticality Safety Index label for

Placard for large freight containers

packages containing fissile material

and for vehicle

Placard for freight container with radioactive material of single United Nations number

Transport documents

Regulations require comprehensive documentation that provides all details about a package. The consignor should include in the transport documents

a) a signed declaration certifying that the package meets the regulatory requirements,

b) specific instructions to the carrier regarding routine operations, if any,

c) conditions for storage, loading and securing of the packages on the conveyance and

d) emergency instructions.

Accumulation of packages in conveyances and storage areas

Accumulation of packages in a vessel and storage areas is regulated. Transport index is used for controlling accumulation of packages in a vessel as shown in the table below.

Each package containing fissile materials in quantities and/or concentrations above certain specified limits is assigned a number called the Criticality Safety Index (CSI). The CSI is determined by the designer and the package design is approved by the Competent Authority. The total number of packages containing fissile materials transported in a vessel is also restricted as shown in the table below.

Type of freight

Container or

conveyance

Limit on total sum of TI in a freight container or aboard a vessel

Limit on total sum of CSI in a freight container or aboard a vessel

Not under exclusive use

Under exclusive use

Small freight container

50

50

Not Applicable

Large freight container

50

50

100

Hold, compartment or Defined deck area of a vessel

Packages, overpacks and small freight containers

50

50

100

Large freight containers

200

50

100

Total vessel

Packages, overpacks and small freight containers

50

200

In a group of such consignments the sum of CSI should not exceed 50 and the groups should be separated at least by 6 m.

200

In a group of such consignments the sum of CSI should not exceed 100 and the groups should be separated at least by 6 m

Large freight containers

200

No limit

In a group of such consignments the sum of CSI should not exceed 50 and the groups should be separated at least by 6 m.

No limit

In a group of such consignments the sum of CSI should not exceed 100 and the groups should be separated at least by 6 m

[Exclusive use means the sole use, by a single consignor, of a conveyance or of a large freight container, in respect of which all initial, intermediate and final loading and unloading is carried out in accordance with the directions of the consignor or consignee.]

In a storage area, packages, overpacks and freight containers containing fissile material should be grouped together. The sum of the CSI in a group should not exceed 50. A spacing of at least 6 m between such groups should be maintained.

Non-compliance

Any instance of non-compliance with the Regulatory requirements identified during transport should be brought to the notice of the consignor by the carrier. The carrier, consignor or consignee, as appropriate should take immediate steps to mitigate the consequences of non-compliance, investigate its causes and take appropriate actions to remedy the causes of the non-compliance and to prevent recurrence and communicate, as soon as practicable, to the competent authorities on the causes of non-compliance and on corrective and preventive actions taken.

Responsibilities of the staff

Specific role for the acceptance staff:

Verify the following for compliance in respect of each package/shipment:

· Description of the material in the shipment (e.g. 131I / 99Mo);

· Type of packages to be shipped (e.g. Type A);

· Activity, isotopes (e.g. 131I: 3.7 GBq);

· Shipper’s declaration;

· Labels on packages, containing all required information (TI and category);

· Markings on the package;

· Certificate of conformance with contamination limits;

· Information on action to be taken in the event of an emergency;

· Conditions for storage, loading and securing of the packages on the conveyance.

The specific role for the cargo handlers and the driver is to obtain information on the following:

· Information on action to be taken in the event of an emergency;

· Conditions for storage, loading and securing of the packages on the conveyance.

Checklist for routine operations

When a package containing radioactive material is received for transport the cargo official should confirm that the shipment is made in conformity with the relevant regulations. For enabling the official to complete this task quickly and without error a brief checklist is given below:

Sr.

No.

Item to be checked

Yes /No

1

The address on the package is consistent with the address given in the transport documents.

2

The transport documents have the addresses of the consignor and of the consignee

3

The package is labelled and marked as described in the transport documents

4

The UN number with the prefix “UN” is stated in the transport document

5

The proper shipping name of the consignment is stated in the transport document

6

The transport documents include a declaration by the consignor to the effect that the package has been prepared, marked and labelled according to the relevant regulations

7

The T I of the package, where applicable, has been noted in the cargo office records

The CSI of the package, where applicable, has been noted in the cargo office records

8

If the shipment is in transit -

8.1

If in-transit storage is required -

8.1.1

the package has been off-loaded from the vehicle / vessel and taken to the transit-storage area

8.1.2

The sum of the CSI in any group of packages in the storage is …. and within the regulatory limits

8.1.3

The receipt and transit-storage details of the package have been recorded

8.1.4

The package has been forwarded, as appropriate, on the next leg of the shipment

8.1.5

Details of the shipment leaving the port on the next leg of the shipment have been recorded.

8.2

If in-transit storage is not required –

8.2.1

The package has been forwarded, as appropriate, on the next leg of the shipment

8.2.2

The sum of the TI on the conveyance is …. and within the regulatory limits

8.2.3

The sum of the CSI on the conveyance is …. and within the regulatory limits

8.2.4

Details of the shipment leaving the port on the next leg of the shipment have been recorded.

9

If the port is the destination of the shipment:

9.1

The package has been off-loaded from the vehicle/ vessel and taken to the storage area

9.2

The receipt and storage details of the package have been recorded

9.3

The consignee has been advised to take delivery of the package

9.4

The package has been delivered to the consignee

9.5

If the package has not been collected by the consignee within the stipulated period-

9.5.1

The matter has been reported to the national competent authority for transport of radioactive material and advice has been sought

9.5.2

Pending advice from the national competent authority the package is kept in storage

9.5.3

The package is ultimately disposed off as directed by the national competent authority

Radiation protection

Radiation protection

Time, distance and shielding

During storage and handling of radioactive cargo -

a) minimize the time spent in the vicinity of radioactive cargo

b) maximize the distances of routinely occupied areas from radioactive cargo and

c) take advantage of shielding provided by walls and other cargo

Segregation during transport and storage in transit

The following requirements for segregation during transport and storage should be satisfied:

a) Radioactive cargo should be segregated from undeveloped films.

b) Packages, overpacks and small freight containers accumulated in a storage area should be segregated from other dangerous goods.

c) Packages, overpacks and freight containers containing radioactive material and unpackaged radioactive material should be segregated during transport and during storage in transit from workers, members of the public, undeveloped photographic films and other dangerous goods. The segregation distance should be determined as follows:

a) for workers in regularly occupied working areas the distance should be calculated using a dose criterion of 5 mSv in a year and conservative model parameters;

b) for members of the critical group of the public, in areas where the public has regular access, the distance should be calculated using a dose criterion of 1 mSv in a year and conservative model parameters;

c) for undeveloped photographic film, the distance should be calculated using a radiation exposure criterion for undeveloped photographic film due to the transport of radioactive material of 0.1 mSv per consignment of such film; and

d) for other dangerous goods the distance should be calculated in compliance with the applicable regulations.

An expert on transport of radioactive material should be consulted in this regard, if necessary.

Radiation protection programmes

The Regulations require that a radiation protection programme (RPP) be established by the carriers of radioactive material. The purpose of an RPP is to ensure that the radiation doses received by individuals are kept within the regulatory limits. Dose is measured in units of Sievert (Sv), that is, milli Sv for one-thousandth of a Sv and micro Sv for one-millionth of a Sv, etc. The radiation protection programme should include a training programme for the concerned personnel. Record keeping is an important element of any radiation protection programme. A sample RPP is given in the appendix I.

Emergency situations

The cargo personnel should be familiar with the response actions to be implemented in emergency situations involving packages containing radioactive material. Packages may be received at a cargo complex in a damaged condition. While handling packages, they may be dropped or run over by vehicles like fork lifts causing damage to the packages. During storage, fire may brake out and a package containing radioactive material may get damaged. In an emergency situation, the cargo handler should observe certain basic precautions:

· Do not panic

· Rescue the injured

· If there is fire

· Fight fire

· Try to remove packages containing radioactive material from the fire zone

· After fire is put out, allow the packages to cool before approaching them

· Measure the radiation level around the packages approaching them from a safe distance

· If the package is visibly damaged, cordon a few metres around it, determining the safe distance on the basis of the measured radiation levels

· Place a placard warning the possibility of radiation hazard if the cordon is breached

· Note down the available particulars about the package

· Inform the managers about the particulars of the package including the names and addresses of the consignor and the consignee and the details of the consignment as read from labels affixed on the exterior of the package

· Act as directed by a radiation protection expert.

Conclusion

Radioactive materials have several beneficial applications. So, they have to be transported from the supplier to the user. They are transported in packages which are designed and constructed to meet international standards. Regulations require that radioactive materials have to be marked, labelled and declared as such in the transport documents. It is the responsibility of the consignor to ensure that relevant regulatory requirements are met. Familiarity, on the part of the cargo personnel, with the regulatory requirements and the simple precautions outlined in this material will contribute to the safe and unhindered movement of radioactive materials.

EXERCISE 4.2

EXERCISE 4.2.1 Give three examples of the need for transporting radioactive material.

ANSWER

EXERCISE 4.2.2 What is the unit in which the quantity of the radioactive content in a package (activity) is specified?

ANSWER

EXERCISE 4.2.3 A radiation monitor shows that in a storage area the radiation level at 2 m from a stack of packages is 0.008 mSv/hour. If a worker stays at that distance for a total of 100 hours in a year, what is the total dose that the worker will receive in one year?

ANSWER

EXERCISE 4.2.4 What are the international regulations that apply to transport of radioactive material by sea?

ANSWER

EXERCISE 4.2.5 What are the national regulations in your country governing the transport of radioactive material?

ANSWER

EXERCISE 4.2.6 The packages to be loaded in a vehicle are described below. If the number of packages that can be loaded in a vehicle should be so limited that the sum of the transport indexes of the packages should not exceed 50, state whether all these packages can be loaded in a single vehicle and explain your answer.

T.I. of

package

0.5

0.2

0.8

1.2

0.3

0.9

0.4

1.2

1.1

1.4

Number of

Packages with

The specified T.I

8

12

4

8

15

5

6

7

4

6

ANSWER

EXERCISE 4.2.7 What information do you expect to find in the labels and markings on packages containing radioactive material?

ANSWER

EXERCISE 4.2.8 While handling packages containing radioactive material, a fork-lift runs over and damages a small package. What action will you recommend?

ANSWER

Appendix I

Sample RADIATION PROTECTION PROGRAMME FOR A cargo carrier

I-1.This is an operating manual on the radiation protection programme of XYZ Cargo Carriers. The institution undertakes to implement the provisions of this manual.

Scope

I-2.The XYZ Carriers move typically 5000 packages containing class 7 goods per year. The packages carried are of different types, namely Industrial Packages, Type A and Type B(U)/(M). The maximum TI encountered is 5.

Nature of activities

I-3Packages containing radioactive material are received, stored and loaded in vehicles for onward transport. Packages from outstations are received and stored and either forwarded for onward transport or handed over to the consignee, as the case may be. Before accepting a package, the staff will verify the packages relating to the shipment for regulatory compliance:

I-4The cargo handlers and the drivers obtain the instructions on storage, loading and securing the packages on the conveyance and emergency response.

Management of the RPP

I-5.The RPP would be implemented by Mr. A, who is trained in radiation protection.

Dose assessment and optimization

I-6.The radiation adviser for XYZ Cargo Carriers is Ms. B. It is determined by Ms. B that the maximum radiation dose that any individual employee of XYZ Cargo Carriers, at the present workload, would receive would be less than 1 mSv in a year. Area monitors and contamination monitors recommended by Ms. B for routine verification of dose rates and emergency response are available. These monitors are calibrated as recommended by Ms. B. Packages, conveyances and workplace are monitored by Mr. A every Monday to verify the continued validity of the results of the initial dose assessment.

I-8.The doses to cargo handlers and public are kept as low as reasonably achievable by:

· Using a trolley to move the packages to the storage area and the loading area;

· Keeping the packages in the storeroom in the shielded;

· Increasing segregation distances beyond minimum requirements where possible;

· Minimizing the presence of workers within a distance of 5 m from the packages.

Surface contamination

I-9.If damage to packages is suspected, Mr. A would check for contamination. If the measured contamination level is more than the regulatory limits, Ms. B will be contacted and matter reported to consignor.

I-10.Checks for contamination of the working area and the cargo hold, fork lifts and other loading equipment will be made on every Monday and the results recorded and retained.

Segregation and other protective measures

I-11.The storage area is 10 m from the office. The packages are stored for a maximum of 3 h per day. The maximum TI number at this distance would be limited to 10. This is the maximum TI anticipated for present operations.

Emergency response

I-12.In the event of an accident (falling, crushing or fire), Mr. A would -

· Take care of people in need of help (first aid, emergency medical help);

· Assess the risk of fire and use the fire extinguisher, if appropriate;

· Call the radiation specialist for help;

· Inform the concerned airport authority and/or relevant public official;

· Clean up the area, and collect the damaged packages, if any and obtain a certificate from the radiation specialist that the area is safe for normal use again;

· Resume operations as normal;

· Arrange for the safe disposal of any radioactive waste, as recommended by the radiation specialist;

· Inform the competent authority of the incident.

I-13.These instructions are displayed prominently in the storage bay, the loading area and the conveyance so that, in the absence of Mr. A, any other responsible person would be able to implement these measures.

I-14.Emergency contact details:

Telephone numbers

Person

Office

Residence

Mr A

##########

##########

Ms. B, Radiation specialist

##########

##########

Others

##########

##########

Training

I-15.The employees of XYZ Cargo Carriers listed below are engaged in handling packages containing radioactive material have received the appropriate training:

Ms. ……………………

Mr. ……………………

Mr. ……………………

· They can fulfil the duties assigned in this RPP.

I-16.The training that they have received fulfils the applicable requirements of the competent authority and the policies of XYZ Cargo Carriers. They will be subject to retraining every two years.

Management system for procedures and practices

I-17.The RPP is part of the system of management system documents of XYZ Cargo Carriers, and is subject to all the requirements of management system for procedures and practices, such as document/version control, document review, issuing and review of instructions and procedures, follow-up of non-conformances, etc.

I-18.This radiation protection programme, Version No. ………… is approved

Signature……………….,

date: …….

(Name and Designation)