Module 7 – Nutrition · the maintenance requirement. In addition to maintenance, nutrients are required for growth, activity, pregnancy, lactation and changes in body condition

What to do?Nutrition is about understanding what andhow much to feed your animals. In order tostart planning your feeding program, youneed know three key things:

1. Know what you want to achieve ie knowyour product.

2. Know the nutrient requirements of yourstock. These will vary with:

• Physiological state.• Age.• Performance level.• Class of animal.• Climatic conditions – temperature,

windchill and frost.

3. Know your feed resource and how itgrows:

• Feed quality and quantity. • The regeneration time of specific

plants (required rest periods).• The maximum and minimum

heights/quantities of plant material tooptimise plant and animalperformance.

How to do it?Know what you want to achieve.

As with all aspects of managing anenterprise, it is critical that you know theend point of the production cycle ie what isthe product that you want to sell? If you candescribe the type of goat that you areaiming to turn-off the property, this will helpto guide your feeding decisions.

The sorts of things that you need to knoware:

• Liveweight targets.• Expected growth rates.• Condition score targets.

Other profit drivers that can be influencedby nutrition include:

• Fertility ie the incidence of multiplebirths increases with liveweight of thedoe; a rising plane of nutrition prior tothe commencement of joining willincrease ovulation rates.

• Maintenance of pregnancy, especiallyin the last 6 weeks. Goats can aborttheir kids to save themselves if putunder stress from lack of feed.

• Birthweight ie the nutrition provided toa doe in late pregnancy will have astrong influence on the birthweight ofher kid(s).

• Severe penalties for over-fat livestock.Feed on offer to animals destined forslaughter should be carefullymanaged to ensure that marketspecifications are met.

• Kid survival ie the mortality ofnewborn kids is directly affected bybirthweight and milk supply, both ofwhich are influenced by the nutritionof the doe.

Armed with this information you can thenstart to plan the annual feeding program.

The carcase on the left is emaciated and has beencondemned by an AQIS inspector while the carcase on theright is in ideal condition.

Module 7 – Nutrition

Module 7 – Nutrition 1

2 Module 7 – Nutrition

For further assistance in describing yourdesired product, refer to the MarketSpecifications section in Module 8 –Marketing.

To learn more about condition score andliveweight targets, fertility and kid liveweightand mortality, refer to Module 6 –Husbandry.

Know the nutrient requirements of yourstock

The minimum nutrient levels required toregulate basic bodily function, such asbreathing, blood circulation, bodytemperature, digestion, etc is referred to asthe maintenance requirement.

In addition to maintenance, nutrients arerequired for growth, activity, pregnancy,lactation and changes in body condition. Inaddition, extremes of weather can increasenutrient demand as the animal tries to dealwith excessive heat or cold.

The basic dietary components are:• Water.• Energy.• Protein.• Fibre/roughage.• Vitamins.• Minerals.

Like all other livestock, goats needquality feed to perform well.

Water

Water is essential for goats to survive andthrive. Both quantity and quality of waterhave an impact on stock performance.

The amount of water a goat needs to drinkdepends on:

• Physiological state (eg lactating, dry).

• Production levels (eg for a dairy goatas milk production increases, so toodoes water requirement).

• Activity levels (eg amount of walking).

• Environmental conditions (egtemperature, humidity, rainfall).

• Diet (eg dry feeds and salty feedsincrease water requirements).

• Water quality (eg as salt levelsincrease stock may require morewater).

• Availability of shade and shelter (egwithout shade on hot days, bodytemperature increases and, as aresult, goats need more water).

Water requirements and salinity tolerances:62

Class of goat Water Maximumconsumption salinity levelper head per (total saltsday (assuming ppm)dry feed diet)* (Scarlett

2002)**

Weaners 4-6litres 7,000ppm

Adult dry goat 5-7litres 14,000ppm

Doe with kid 5-10litres 10,000ppm

* The above requirements for waterconsumption could double if thetemperature exceeds 40ºC.

* * When fed diets with salty plant materialsuch as saltbush (Atriplex spp), blue bush(Maireana spp) or copper burr (Scerolaenaspp) the maximum salinity tolerances shouldbe reduced by 30%.

The figures in the table above are for goatson a dry feed diet (dry pasture, grain orhay). The reality of stock water intake is thatas the moisture content of the pastureincreases, stock get more of their dailywater requirement simply from the food theyeat, and hence require less actual drinkingwater.

62 McGregor, B. (2003). Nutrition of goats during drought. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.

For example in winter, when conditions aredamp and pasture is lush (often up to 85%moisture) stock can get a large proportion, ifnot all, of their water requirement from thepasture they eat. Whereas, in mid-summerwhen the atmosphere is dry and pasturesare dry (35% or less moisture content),stock will need to drink more frequently andgreater volumes of water to meet theirneeds.

Poor water quality can have a negativeimpact on water intake and stockperformance. Physical, chemical andbiological factors affect water quality.

• Physical – sediment/turbidity.

• Chemical – salinity, mineral content,acidity/alkalinity, chemical residue.

• Biological – algae and bacterial.

Poor water quality will often reduce waterintake levels, which in turn reduces stockperformance. Chemical imbalances can betoxic. Minor toxicities will reduce stockperformance and, in the extreme, can leadto illness and even death. Similarly,biological agents can produce harmfultoxins eg blue green algae. In some cases,diseases can also be carried in water andspread on consumption.

If unsure of the quality of your water supply,have the water tested. Many waterauthorities and government departments ofagriculture have some capacity to test waterquality. Alternatively there are privatecompanies which specialise in the provisionof water testing services.

Energy and protein

The items required in the largest quantitiesare energy and protein.

The energy component that ruminants useis referred to as metabolisable energy (ME),

and is measured in terms of megajoules(MJ). You will often see this written asmegajoules of metabolisable energy(MJME).

The main protein component that is ofinterest is crude protein. It is measured ingrams, but is also often referred to in termsof a percentage (%CP).

One of the advantages of the Australiangoat production system is that it is forage-based. Green pasture and shrubs aregenerally well-balanced in terms of theirenergy, protein, fibre, vitamin and mineralcontents. The limiting factor is more likely tobe the quantity available, rather than thenutrient balance.

Energy and protein requirement tables:63

Maintenance requirements:

Live weight Energy Protein(kg) requirement (g/day)

(MJME/day)

10 2.27 33.00

20 3.82 55.00

30 5.18 74.00

40 6.43 93.00

50 7.60 110.00

60 8.71 126.00

70 9.78 141.00

80 10.81 156.00

90 11.80 170.00

100 12.78 184.00

Note: the above figures are for goats in confined areasie minimal activity.


63 Information for these tables was sourced from: McGregor, B. (2003). Nutrition of goats during drought. Rural IndustriesResearch and Development Corporation.Greenwood, P. (1992). Dairy Goats: Nutrition. Agfact 7.5.5. New South Wales Agriculture.


Activity requirements:

Type of grazing Activity level Extra requirements above maintenance

Block or strip grazing Low Maintenance plus 25%Intensive management (maintenance x 1.25)

Hilly pasture Medium Maintenance plus 50%Semi-arid rangeland (maintenance x 1.50)

Mountain pasture High Maintenance plus 75%Arid rangeland (maintenance x 1.75)

Pregnancy requirements:

Stage of pregnancy Extra energy requirements Extra protein requirementsabove maintenance above maintenance

(MJME/day) (g/day)

First 3 months No extra energy requirements No extra protein requirements

Last 8 weeks 5.94 82.00

Milk production requirements:

Extra energy requirements Extra protein requirementsabove maintenance above maintenance

(MJME/day) (g/day)

Lactating doe 9.00 180.00

Assuming an average lactation length of 12 weeks, with a doe producing an average of 1.5kg milk/day with a milk solids test of 9.5%.

If you are a dairy producer, you may require figures for a range of production scenarios.Module 7 - Nutrition Toolkit 7 page 2 lists some useful references that are dairy-specific.

Growth requirements:

Growth rate g/day Extra energy requirements Extra protein requirementsabove maintenance above maintenance

(MJME/day) (g/day)

50 1.84 14.00

100 3.67 28.00

150 5.51 42.00

63 Information for these tables was sourced from: McGregor, B. (2003). Nutrition of goats during drought. Rural IndustriesResearch and Development Corporation.Greenwood, P. (1992). Dairy Goats: Nutrition. Agfact 7.5.5. New South Wales Agriculture.


Severe weather requirements:

If conditions are cold, wet and windy, extraenergy will be required by the goat to keepwarm. Under such circumstances, energyallowances should be doubled.64

To match the energy and proteinrequirements with appropriate feeds refer toModule 7 - Nutrition Toolkit 7 page 4.

When formulating a ration it is important toconsider how much a goat can physicallyconsume. Maximum intake is related tobody weight. A goat can physically only eatabout 3.5% of its body weight each day.The actual amount largely depends on thequality of the feed offered.

For example: to provide the nutrientsrequired to maximise the performance ofyoung kids it is recommended that thequality of the feed ration be at least10MJME/kg DM and 16% crude protein. Ifthe feed is of lower quality, the kidsphysically cannot eat enough to meet theirneeds.

If you are more familiar with dry sheepequivalents (dse) figures, you may find thedse table which appears later in this moduleuseful. Note: 1 dse requires 7.6MJME/day.

Fibre/roughage

Fibre is an important part of the goat’s diet.It is particularly important in the diet oflactating does, does in late pregnancy andyoung kids (prior to and post weaning). It isalso important to supply roughage if feedinga high starch diet eg grains.

In a lactating doe, one of the by-products ofthe fibre digestion, acetic acid, promotesthe production of milk fat (butterfat).Fibre/roughage should make up at least30% of the doe’s diet during lactation.65

Does late in their pregnancy requireroughage in the diet to promote themobilisation of the body’s reserves ofcalcium in preparation for lactation, whenthe demand for calcium often outweighsthat which is able to be supplied in the diet.

For young kids approaching weaning andafter weaning, fibre is essential to aid rumendevelopment.

High grain diets, such as those fed duringperiods of feed shortage, can causedigestive upsets. When high-starch feedssuch as grains are digested, acids areproduced as a by-product. Excessiveacidity in the rumen can cause problemssuch as acidosis or ‘grain poisoning’.Chewing fibrous material stimulates theproduction of saliva which contains naturalbuffering agents, thus combating risingacidity levels. It is recommended that theratio of concentrates (grain or pellets) toroughage should not exceed 2:1.66

In each of the above scenarios, you alsoneed to consider that fibre is slow to breakdown in the rumen. The breakdown of fibredoes supply some energy. However, toomuch fibre in the diet can actually restrictintake, which can be undesirable if theanimal has high energy requirements, suchas for growth, lactation or gaining condition.The key is to provide a balanced diet.

64 McGregor, B. (2003). Nutrition of goats during drought. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.65 McGregor, B. (2003). Nutrition of goats during drought. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.66 Greenwood, P. (1992). Dairy Goats: Nutrition. Agfact 7.5.5. New South Wales Agriculture.


Vitamins and minerals

In comparison to energy, protein and fibre,vitamins and minerals are usually onlyrequired in relatively small amounts. If goatsare being fully fed on high-quality greenpasture and browse, their requirements forvitamins and minerals are probably beingsufficiently met. Given a choice of feeds,goats will seek out what they lack.

However, there are some circumstanceswhere extra supplementation may berequired, such as if quality forage is in shortsupply, large quantities of supplementaryfeeds are being used, or where there aredeficiencies in the plant material being fed.In some cases, excessive levels of particularvitamins and minerals can cause toxicities.

How do you know if your enterprise isaffected by vitamin and mineraldeficiencies/toxicities?

• Familiarise yourself with thesymptoms and monitor stockperformance. Information aboutmineral deficiencies can be found inModule 7 - Nutrition Toolkit 7 page 14.

• Seek advice from a veterinarian oranimal nutritionist. Blood tests mayprovide some indication ofdeficiencies and toxicities.

• Soil and/or plant tissue tests canprovide additional information aboutmineral status of the feedbase. Seekan independent analysis of theresults.

• Local knowledge can be very useful,as mineral deficiencies are often veryspecific to a particular location,related to soil type and particulartypes of plants.

• Goats attacking trees may be lookingfor a mineral that is lacking in thepasture at the time.

If vitamin and mineral supplements arerequired there are many forms in which theycan be supplied eg licks, injection,drenches, rumen boluses and pellet orpowder form. Seek further advice from aveterinarian or nutritionist on the mostappropriate form for your circumstance.

Changing diets

When changing diets, there is often anadjustment period, during which time, someweight loss may occur. If managedcorrectly, this weight loss will be quicklyrecovered once the goat has fully adjustedto the new feed source.

It may take some time for the goats tobecome accustomed to the taste, smell andtexture of new foods.

The rumen microbes also need time toadapt to dietary changes, because it isthese microbes that facilitate the digestiveprocess. Some microbes are quite specificin the type of foods that they break downeg some break down sugars, some usestarches, others are cellulose-specific.67

Different microbes also have differenttolerances in terms of acidity levels in therumen – acid is a by-product of thedigestion of carbohydrates. Therefore, themake up of the microbial populationfluctuates depending on the rumenconditions and the feed source. When thediet changes, there can be a reduction inthe efficiency of digestion, whilst the relativenumbers of the different types of microbesadjust to suit the feed source.

When introducing new feeds to the diet, it isrecommended that the changes are madegradually to ease the adjustment process.This means starting with small quantities ofthe new feed and slowly building up theamounts toward the desired intake. Thisprocess can take 2-4 weeks depending onthe types of feeds being used. The higherthe starch content and the lower the fibre,the slower the introduction required.

67 Department of Natural Resources and Environment. (1997). Feeding Dairy Cows. Victorian State Government, Melbourne.

With high-starch feeds, such as grains andpellets, you may also consider incorporatingbuffering agents into the diet. The by-products of starch digestion are acidic.Buffering agents act to balance the acidproduction and maintain appropriate pHlevels in the rumen.

Your management of dietary change iscritical. The costs of getting it wrong can bereduced intake, reduced production levelsand/or health problems, such as acidosis orgrain poisoning. For more information onnutritional disorders refer to Module 7 -Nutrition Toolkit 7 page 14. For informationon introducing goats to feedlot diets, referto Module 7 - Nutrition Toolkit 7 page 20.

Buying supplements

When buying supplements be clear aboutthe type of nutrient(s) that you are trying tosource. You need to know your mostlimiting factor. Are you sourcing eitherenergy, protein, fibre or a combination ofthese ingredients?

The next step is to understand the feedquality of the product that you are buying iewhat are the energy, protein and fibrecontents of the feed? Module 7 - NutritionToolkit 7 page 4 can provide you with someinformation about the average nutritivevalue of some of the more common goatfeeds. However, within a particular type offeed there can be wide variation betweendifferent sources, so the only way to get anaccurate figure is to request a feed analysison the feed that you are purchasing. Manyfodder suppliers are now routinely supplyingthis information with their products.

In terms of getting value for money, buy theproduct that supplies the nutrient yourequire at the lowest price. Products withdiffering nutrient levels and prices can becompared by calculating the price in centsper unit of the nutrient. For example, if youare buying an energy supplement, calculateprice in cents per megajoule. If you wantprotein, calculate cents per gram of protein.All calculations should be done on a dry-matter basis. The table on the followingpage shows how to do this calculation forenergy supplements.

It is advisable to request a CommodityVendor Declaration or relevantdocumentation when buying feed to preventchemical residue contamination. For moreinformation on stockfeed declaration formsrefer to the Quality Assurance section inModule 3 – Industry obligations.


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Know your feed resource and how it grows

Quality and quantity

Having established the feed requirements ofyour goats, you now need to determine thequality and quantity of forage and/orsupplements required to fulfil those needs.

The standard unit of measurement for feedquantity is kilograms of dry matter (kg DM).Moisture content varies widely betweendifferent feed sources, and with time of year.Therefore, to allow comparison between feedsources, quantity figures are always quoted interms of dry matter.

Feed quality refers to the nutrient content ofthe feed source and these figures are alwaysrelated back to dry matter.

There are many ways to measure feed quality.Some of the most common units ofmeasurement are listed below:

Feed Explanation Unit of component measurement

Dry matter Amount of dry %(DM) material in a feed

Moisture Amount of %moisture in a feed

Metabolisable Amount useable MJ/kg DMenergy (ME) energy in a feed

Digestibility Portion of a feed % of DMthat is retained by the animal,the rest is passed out as faeces. Digestibility is directly relatedto the energy content of the feed.

Crude protein Total amount of % of DM(CP) protein in a feed

Neutral Total amount of % of DMdetergent fibre in a feedfibre (NDF)

This information can be obtained vialaboratory analysis of a feed sample. Manycommercial fodder suppliers will have thisinformation readily available for each of theirproducts.

The nutrient values of a range of commongoat feeds are listed in Module 7 - NutritionToolkit 7 page 4.

Palatability is also something that willinfluence a goat’s grazing habits and feedpreferences. Refer to Module 7 - NutritionToolkit 7 page 9 for further information.

Another issue to consider is plant toxicities.Some plants can be toxic to goats. Toxicitylevels vary and the effect on the grazinganimal may depend on how much of theplant material that they consume. Refer toModule 7 - Nutrition Toolkit 7 page 18 for amore information on toxic plants.

Maintaining your feed base

The key to maintaining your feedbase is goodgrazing management.

Before you start to think about grazingstrategies, you should first be aware of someof the grazing habits displayed by goats thatare different from cattle and sheep:

• Goats are able to utilise the foliage oftrees and shrubs, and will eat a widevariety of forage plants.

• Given the opportunity, goats are veryselective in the way that they graze.

• Goats are inquisitive and will samplenew things.

• They will select the most energy-denseparts of a plant eg seedheads.

• Goats show more of a preference forroughage than other domestic livestock.

Understanding the goat’s requirements andits grazing preferences is only part of thestory in terms of developing grazingstrategies. The other critical element isunderstanding the growth habits of plantsand how they respond to grazing.



To ensure plant persistence, you need to beaware of how hard a particular type of plantcan be grazed and how long it will take toreplenish its reserves and grow back to asuitable size for grazing. Constant heavygrazing will have a deleterious effect on mostplants and can lead to palatable plants beinggrazed out of a pasture mix.

Plant growth is driven by photosynthesis: aprocess where sunlight is intercepted by theplant’s leaves, converted into carbohydratesand used for the production of plant material.

The factors impacting on plant growth are:

• Moisture.

• Soil temperature.

• Nutrients.

• Soil conditions.

• Sunlight – leaf area.

The main ones that landholders can influenceare nutrient availability, capture of sunlightand to some degree soil conditions (eg acidity, drainage and compaction).

Moisture (unless you have irrigation) and soiltemperature are largely out of the farmer’scontrol.

Nutrient availability can be influenced byfertiliser application and actions whichpromote a healthy environment for soilmicrobes eg improving soil conditions.

Soil conditions can be altered by drainage,soil ameliorants (eg lime, gypsum), tillagereduction, trash/ground cover conservationand careful management of stock to preventpugging.

The amount of sunlight captured is related tothe management of leaf area. Think of theleaves of plants as solar panels that produceenergy. The more leaf area, the more sunlightis intercepted, the more carbohydrates areproduced, and the more leaf material isgenerated. Grazing and cutting are the mainmethods of manipulating leaf area, and this iswhere management can have a significantimpact.

Grazing temperate pastures

In temperate grass-based pastures it iscommon to think about pasture growth interms of the number of green leaves. Grasstillers are only able to maintain a certainnumber of green leaves before the oldest leafstarts to decay. Decaying leaves are of lowfeed quality and lower palatability, and thusrepresent wasted production. The aim is tograze as many green leaves as possible andminimise decay.

For example, perennial ryegrass has, at most,three active green leaves per tiller: the fourthleaf onward will be decaying. So the aim is tocommence grazing when there is an averageof three green leaves per tiller. Other common

temperate grass species function similarlyand hence a similar grazing strategy isappropriate: phalaris has a maximum of fouractive green leaves and cocksfoot and fescuehave at most five active green leaves.

Having determined when to commencegrazing, the next questions are when to takestock out and how long to spell the paddockbefore the next grazing. This is governed bythe rate of plant recovery and growth.

The recovery of temperate pasture grassesafter heavy grazing is initially quite slow therate of growth rapidly increasing as moreleaves appear, reaching a plateau, and thendeclining as decay begins to surpass newgrowth.


Sourced from the PROGRAZE® DPI Victoria, MLA 2005


Phase 1

• Very short pasture.

• Low leaf area, very little interception ofsunlight.

• Initial regrowth is often driven fromplant energy reserves.

• Slow pasture growth.

• High-quality feed, low quantity.

Phase 2

• Phase of greatest pasture growth.

• Increasing leaf area allows increasedphotosynthesis and thus increasedbiomass production and replenishmentof plant energy reserves.

• Good quality and quantity.

Phase 3

• High leaf area, but shading of lowerleaves and decay, reduces the growthrate.

• High quantity, low quality.

The aim of grazing management is to spendas much time in phase 2 as possible. This iswhere you get the greatest pasture growth,striking a good balance been feed quality andquantity.

As you can see in the previous diagram, thelower the level of leaf area remaining at theend of grazing, the slower the rate of plantrecovery. It is advisable to retain some leafarea at the end of the grazing period.

If pastures are subject to frequent heavygrazing, and are continuously kept in phase1, individual plants will begin to suffer, andsome will be killed. Loss of desirable plantspecies opens up the pasture to weedinvasion. Also with reduced plant cover, thesoil surface is exposed, increasing the risk oferosion.

At the other end of the scale (phase 3),prolonged periods of infrequent or lax grazinglead to large quantities of very low qualityfeed. In tall pastures very little light gets downto the growing points at the base of theplants, and lower growing species may becompletely shaded. As a consequence, low-growing plants often do not survive and theformation of new grass tillers is suppressed,and thus the pasture starts to thin out.

The rate at which each new leaf appears isgoverned by moisture and soil temperature. Ifone or both of these is limiting, the rate ofappearance of new leaves will be slow. Forexample in summer, soil temperature is not alimiting factor, but there is often a deficit ofmoisture, hence summer growth rates areoften slow. In spring, when soil temperatureand moisture conditions are optimum,pasture growth is very rapid. The frequency ofgrazing needs to be adjusted accordingly,with long rest periods between grazings whengrowth rates are slow, and more frequentgrazing when growth rates are high.

Managing rangelands

The key to successful rangelandmanagement is to match goat numbers withfeed supply. It is visual cues, such as plantnumbers and species present, that indicatehow the balance between feed supply anddemand is working. This balance will changewith the seasons, and hence may necessitateseasonal adjustments to stocking rate.

If you are unsure of the average carryingcapacity of your area, seek advice from thePastoral Lands Board or department ofagriculture or primary industries in your area.Local knowledge is a valuable resource andlocal graziers may be helpful in determiningcarrying capacity.

If you have some idea of the dry sheepequivalent or dry stock equivalent rating forarea (dse/ha) then you can estimate thenumber of goats that can be carried.

The table below gives some general guidanceof the dse rating for goats.69

Class of Dry sheep Weightgoat equivalent (dse) range

1 dry doe 0.75 30-40kg

1 breeding 1.5 (doe in a 40-60kgdoe herd producing

150% kids)

1 weaner 0.7 (weaning 20-40kgto one year old)

1 buck 1.5 60-80kg

These figures are intended as a guide only.The ratings will be affected by productionlevels, physiological state of the animal andframe size.

Establishing an appropriate stocking rate andlength of grazing period is aboutunderstanding the quantity of feed on theground, sometimes referred to as food onoffer (FOO). Feed quantity is estimated in kgDM/ha. The ability to accurately estimate feedquantity is a skill that develops with practice.There are a number of publications thatprovide sets of photo standards to help youwith this task. The photos illustrate whatdifferent fodder quantities (kg DM/ha) look likein different rangeland environments. You canuse these photos as a reference point to helpyou estimate the kg DM/ha in your paddocks.Such publications will be available throughyour local department of agriculture orprimary industry. Training courses are alsoavailable that teach fodder assessment skills. Knowing the amount of feed available and thefeed requirements of your stock (refer to feedrequirements tables displayed earlier in thisModule), you can easily calculate the amountof stock that can be run in a given area, for agiven period of time.

When making stocking rate decisions, it isimportant to consider weather trends, ieprobability of average rainfall, below-averagerainfall or above-average rainfall, and factorthese into your stocking rate calculations.

You also need to take into account the impactof non-domestic animals that are grazing thearea eg feral animals and native wildlife, asthey will also be contributing to the demandfor feed.

During the initial stages of enterprise change,from beef or sheep to goats, it is generally thecase that the stocking rate can be lifted forthe first 12-18 months. The reason that this ispossible, is because of the build-up ofbrowse previously untouched by sheep andcattle. Once a distinct browse line becomesapparent, the stocking rate must be reducedto avoid over-grazing.

Fodder utilisation will be strongly influencedby the presence or absence of availablewater. Goats will graze within range of waterpoints, therefore water points should belocated in the centre of grazing paddocks toencourage grazing across the entire area.69

This becomes particularly important insummer when any surface water has dried upand stock is reliant on defined water points.During these periods, the grazing pressurearound watering points will increase, and somonitoring of the feedbase and managementof stock numbers is critical.69

Monitoring has both an animal and anenvironmental component:

• Is the stock being adequately fed?Assess weight, condition andbehaviour (underfed does with kids atfoot may appear staggery and will notstride out).

• Is the environment being maintained ina healthy state? Look at the soilcondition and plant growth; look forsigns of degradation.


69 Blood, D. and Williams R. (2005). The Grazing of Goats in the Pastoral Areas of Western Australian. Best ManagementPractice – July 2005. Department of Planning and Infrastructure Western Australian Government; Pastoral Lands Board.


Signs of rangeland degradation:70, 71

• Increasing levels of bare ground.Reduced plant density and low levelsof plant litter on the soil surface.

• Lack of feed bulk, even at times whenthere is usually high plant growth.

• Reduced numbers of perennial plants.

• Increased presence of unpalatablespecies.

• Increase in the proportion of annualplant species.

• Increase in the proportion of broadleafweeds.

• Increase in presence of woody plants.

• Lack of regeneration of trees andshrubs.

• Browse line clearly visible at thehighest extremes that goats can reach.

In rangelands, the dietary preference forgoats is of the order: 30% grass, 40% non-woody broadleaf plants (forbs) and 30%browse (woody species).72

A recent Producer Initiated Research andDevelopment project analysed faecal samplesto determine the dietary preferences of goatsgrazing in rangeland conditions in southernQueensland during drought conditions. Theresults of the study showed that coming outof drought the goats tended to concentratetheir diet selection on herbage and browse.This allowed the grass species to regenerateat a far greater rate than those paddocksgrazed by sheep and cattle over the sameperiod.73

It is important to be able to identify thedifferent types of plants present on your landand understand the grazing preferences (whatis palatable and what is not?). The speciesmost at risk from overgrazing are the mostpalatable shrub and inter-shrub species.74

Module 7 - Nutrition Toolkit 7 page 9provides details of the relative palatability ofdifferent plants.

Monitoring means getting off the track andobserving the type and number of plantspresent, regeneration levels, ground cover,etc. Photo points can provide an excellentmeans of making comparisons over time.Select several reference points at differentlocations on your property, and take a photofrom that point at the same time each year oreach season. Observe the change over timeand take action as required.

If degradation is occurring, stocking rates inthe area may need to be reduced or the areacompletely spelled for a period of time toallow for plant regeneration. To encourageregeneration of declining species, spelling willbe necessary during the flowering period. Theperiod of spelling should allow time for theplant to set seed, for seed to ripen and thenfall to the ground; approximately 6-8 weeksfor grasses.75

70 Blood, D. and Williams R. (2005). The Grazing of Goats in the Pastoral Areas of Western Australian. Best ManagementPractice – July 2005. Department of Planning and Infrastructure Western Australian Government; Pastoral Lands Board.

71 Partridge, I. (1992). Managing native pastures, a graziers guide. Department of Primary Industries Queensland.72 Partridge, I. (1992). Managing native pastures, a graziers guide. Department of Primary Industries Queensland.73 Martin, G. (2004). Sustainable Meat Goat Management. Producer Initiated Research and Development Project –

G2001/Q14, Final Report, Meat & Livestock Australia.74 Brennan, G. (2005). Southern Rangelands Sustainable Production Systems Project Summary. Pastoral Memo – Southern

Rangelands. 11 No. 2, pp 2-7.75 Partridge, I. (1992). Managing native pastures, a graziers guide. Department of Primary Industries Queensland.

Tool 7.1 Finding further information (page 2)

Tool 7.2 Nutritive value of common goat feeds (page 4)

Tool 7.3 Palatability of plants commonly eaten by goats (page 9)

Tool 7.4 Nutritional disorders (page 14)

Tool 7.5 Toxic plants (page 18)

Tool 7.6 Feedlotting goats (page 20)

Case studiesPasture managementHelen Darlington (page 29)

Rangeland grazingWill Scott (page 31)

Toolkit 7 – Nutrition

Module 7 – Nutrition Toolkit 7 1

2 Module 7 – Nutrition Toolkit 7

Tool 7.1

Finding further information

References

Pastoral Memo – Southern Rangelands.Government of Western Australia,Department of Agriculture, Meekatharra.P.O. Box 108, Meekatharra W.A. 6642Tel: 08 9981 1105 Fax: 08 9981 1571Mark Alchin (Editor)Email: [email protected]

Western Division News Letter. NSWDepartment of Primary Industry.www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader.wdn

Australian Goat Notes. Simmonds, A.J.2001. Australian Cashmere GrowersAssociation Limited. This is a publishedcollection of papers and notes covering allaspects of goat production. Contributingpapers and notes from many of the statedepartments of agriculture, Rural IndustriesResearch and Development Corporation(RIRDC), breed societies and breedassociations.

Arid Shrubland Plants of Western Australia.1994. Mitchell, A.A. and Wilcox, D.C.University of Western Australia Press.

Water quality and provision for goats.McGregor, B. A. 2004. Rural IndustriesResearch and Development Corporation.

Palatability and Potential Toxicity ofAustralian Weeds to Goats. Simmonds, H.Holst, P. and Bourke, C. 2000. RuralIndustries Research and DevelopmentCorporation.

The Glove Box Guide to Growth, Floweringand Seeding of Plants of the NSWRangelands. Milthorpe, P.L. and Wynne,M.J. 2001. New South Wales Department ofPrimary Industries.

The Glove Box Guide to Tactical GrazingManagement for the Semi-Arid Woodlands.Campbell, T. and Hacker, R. 2002. NewSouth Wales Department of PrimaryIndustries.

Sustainable Meat Goat Management. Meat& Livestock Australia Producer InitiatedResearch and Development, G2001/Q14.South Queensland Goatmeat Producers’Group – an analysis of manure samplesundertaken by members from the SouthQueensland Goatmeat Producers Group.The report outlines some interesting findingsabout what goats are actually selecting fromthe fodder on offer. This report is availablefrom Meat & Livestock Australia. For asummary of the financial component of thereport see Tool 2.8 page 13 in Module 2 –Financial Analysis.

Dairy Goats: Nutrition. Greenwood, P. 1992.New South Wales Agriculture. Agfact 7.5.5.A useful reference specifically targetedtoward dairy producers.

Managing Drought. Mackay, B. 2002. NewSouth Wales Agriculture. Third edition.

Rearing Orphaned Kids. Clarke, J., Thomas,I.R., Couchman, R.C. and McGregor, B.2001. B16. In: “Australian Goat Notes.” P.69. Australian Cashmere GrowersAssociation.

Courses and workshops

EDGEnetwork® courses are availablenationally. PROGRAZE® is a pasture coursefor temperate pasture areas. To find yourstate contacts for EDGEnetwork® contactMeat & Livestock Australia.

FOO project (Food On Offer) This is asimple tool for monitoring grazing days perhectare per 100 mm of rainfall. Contact theDepartment of Agriculture, WesternAustralia.

GrazingforProfit™ Training School –business school for grazing industry.Includes a nutrition and grazingmanagement component. ResourceConsulting Services (RCS), SandgateQueensland. www.rcs.au.com

Stocktake – learning to better manage feedavailability in rangeland areas. Contact theQueensland Department of PrimaryIndustries and Fisheries for moreinformation.

Grazing Land Management® – learningabout grazing strategies for rangelands.Meat & Livestock Australia, EDGEnetwork®

education package. Contact theQueensland Department of PrimaryIndustries and Fisheries for moreinformation.

Websites

Refer to Module 1 – Property planningToolkit 1 page 5 for instructions on how toconduct an effective web search.

Australian Animal Healthwww.aahc.com.au

NSW Department of Primary Industrywww.dpi.nsw.gov.au

Department of Primary Industries, Victoriawww.dpi.vic.gov.au

South Australia Research & DevelopmentInstitute www.sardi.sa.gov.au

Primary Industries and Resources SouthAustralia www.pir.sa.gov.au

Department Primary Industries, Water &Environment, Tasmaniawww.dpiwe.tas.gov.au

Department of Agriculture Western Australiawww.agric.wa.gov.au

Queensland Department of Primary Industryand Fisheries www.dpi.qld.gov.au

Northern Territory Department of BusinessIndustry and Resource Developmentwww.dpi.nt.gov.au

Rural Industries Research and DevelopmentCorporation www.rirdc.gov.au

Meat & Livestock Australiawww.mla.com.au



Tool 7.2

Nutritive value of common goatfeeds (average values)76

Feed type Energy Crude protein

MJ ME/kg DM % of DM

Pasture and fodder#

Buffel grass 8.8 11.2

Curly windmill grass 8.9 12.5

Guinea grass* 9.8 16.2

Johnson grass 7.0 6.9

Kangaroo grass 7.5 5.4

Lucerne (early vegetative stage – 30cm) 10.0-11.0 22.0-28.0

Lucerne (late vegetative stage – 45cm) 9.0-10.0 18.0-24.0

Lucerne (early flowering – 50cm) 8.0-9.5 15.0-22.0

Lucerne hay 8.5 20.0

Mitchell grass 7.5 9.2

Pangola grass* 6.9 2.8

Paspalum 7.8 9.1

Purple pidgeon grass 7.4 7.7

Queensland bluegrass 6.0-6.8 1.9-3.9

Rhodes grass 7.6 7.3

Temperate pasture mix: lush, green pasture 10.0-12.0 15.0-22.0

Temperate pasture mix: early summer pasture 7.0 10

Temperate pasture mix: late summer pasture (dry) 5.0 5.0

Temperate pasture mix: hay 1-9 5-10

Woollybutt 8.3 8.5

# The nutritive value of pasture and fodder species changes throughout the year. For example, the feed valueduring the vegetative stage of plant growth will be distinctly different to the reproductive (flowering) stage.Environmental conditions can also affect the nutritive value of feed eg frost. These factors need to be taken intoaccount when assessing the value of pastures and crops as potential sources of goat feed. A feed analysis willbe required to determine the exact feed quality.

* Results of a single test only.

76 The data in these tables has been sourced from: McGregor, B. (2003). Nutrition of goats during drought. Rural IndustriesResearch and Development Corporation. NSW Department of Primary Industries. (2005). Website: www.agric.nsw.gov.au/tools/fes/indexKaiser, A.C., Pilz, J.W., Burns, H.M. and Griffiths, N.W. (2003). Successful Silage Top Fodder. New South WalesAgriculture and Dairy Research and Development Coorporation.



MJ ME/kg DM % of DM

Concetrates

Barley 12.0 10.0-14.0

Cottonseed – meal (mechanical protein extraction) 3.0 44.0

Cottonseed – meal (solvent protein extraction) 11.0 46.0

Cottonseed – whole 14.0 23.0

Molasses 12.9 6.2

Oats 12.0 5.0-12.0

Triticale 12.0 8.0-14.0

Wheat 12.0 9.0-13.0

Nutritive value of common goat feeds(average values) continued



MJ ME/kg DM % of DM

Trees and shrubs†

Golddust wattle leaves(Acacia acinacea) 7.2 14.7

Mulga leaves(Acacia aneura) 6.5 12.0

Silver wattle leaves(Acacia dealbata) 8.3 14.8

Mimosa bush leaves(Acacia farnesiana) 7.9 23.0

Myall spp. leaves(Acacia species) 8.5 13.0-16.0

Rosewood leaves(Alectryon oleifolius) 6.6-8.5 8.0-13.0

Boonery (Alectryon oleifolius ssp. canescens) 7-9 10.5-13.0

Kurrajong leaves(Brachychiton rupestre) 7.0 15.0

Scarlet bottlebrush leaves(Callistemon macropunctatus) 6.2 7.0

Wild orange leaves(Capparis mitchelli) 9.0-10.1 12.0-16.0

Belah leaves(Casurina cristate) 8.0 9.4

Swamp sheoak leaves(Casuarina glauca) 8.5 15.4

Tree lucerne (tagasaste) leaves(Chamaecytisus proliferus) 8.0 13.0

Sugar gum leaves (green)(Eucalyptus cladocalyx) 8.9 9.3

Sugar gum leaves (dead) 7.4 4.9

Sugar gum bark 6.8 1.8

Wilga leaves(Geijera parviflora) 9.0 15.0


† The nutritive value of fodder species changes throughout the year. For example, the feed value during thevegetative stage of plant growth will be distinctly different to the reproductive (flowering) stage. Environmentalconditions can also affect the nutritive value of feed eg frost. These factors need to be taken into account whenassessing the value of fodder species as potential sources of goat feed. A feed analysis will be required todetermine the exact feed quality.



MJ ME/kg DM % of DM

Trees and shrubs†

Manuka leaves(Leptospermum juniperinum) 8.6 6.4

Gruie / Emu apple leaves(Owenia acidula) 8.9-10.1 10.0-14.0

Pine tree leaves(Pinus radiata) 7.2 9.0

Peppercorn tree leaves(Schinus molle) 10.2 20.3

Tamarisk leaves(Tamarisk parviflora) 9.0 20.2

† The nutritive value of fodder species changes throughout the year. For example, the feed value during thevegetative stage of plant growth will be distinctly different to the reproductive (flowering) stage. Environmentalconditions can also affect the nutritive value of feed eg frost. These factors need to be taken into account whenassessing the value of fodder species as potential sources of goat feed. A feed analysis will be required todetermine the exact feed quality.




MJ ME/kg DM % of DM

Weeds‡

Saffron thistle leaves (Carthamus lanatus) 12.1 14.4

Spear thistle leaves (Cirsium vulgare) 11.3 20.2

Artichoke thistle leaves (Cynara cardunculus) 11.5 14.8

Boxthorn leaves (Lycium ferocissimum) 12.4 28.3

Boxthorn stems9.2 11.6

Horehound leaves(Marrubium vulgare) 10.9 23.3

Sweet briar leaves (Rosa rubiginosa) 10.5 20.7

Blackberry leaves (Rubus fruticosus.) 10.5 21.0

Young blackberry stems 10.5 21.0

Old blackberry stems 7.4 6.1

‡ The nutritive value of weed species changes throughout the year. For example, the feed value during thevegetative stage of plant growth will be distinctly different to the reproductive (flowering) stage. Environmentalconditions can also affect the nutritive value of feed eg frost. These factors need to be taken into account whenassessing the value of weeds as potential sources of goat feed. A feed analysis will be required to determinethe exact feed quality.


Tool 7.3

Palatability of plants commonlyeaten by goats 77


77 Allen, C., Holst, P. and Campbell, M. (1999). Weed Control Using Goats. 3rd Edition. New South Wales Agriculture.

Scientific name Common name Highly Palatable Moderately Eaten

palatable palatable occasionally

Acacia aneura mulga mature - young -

Acacia escelsa ironwood - - - all stages

Acacia homalophylla yarran - - all stages -

Acacia mearnsii black wattle - flowering - -

Acacia parodoxa kangaroo thorn - - - all stages

Acacia spp.(other) various names - - all stages -

Apophyllum anomalum warrior bush all stages - - -(broombush, currant bush)

Atalaya hemiglauca whitewood all stages - - -

Atriplex spp. saltbush - - all stages -

Brachychiton kurrajong all stages - - -populneum

Callitris columellaris white cyprus pine - - - all stages

Callitris endlicheri black cyprus pine - - all stages -

Capparis mitchellii white orange - all stages - -(orange bush)

Cassia artemisioides silver cassia - - - all stages

Cassia eremophila punty bush - - - -(desert cassia)

Cassinia spp. dolly bush, - - - isolatedchinese shrub plants(c.aculatua), siftonbush (c.aculatua), biddy bush, sticky cassinia

Casuarina cristata belah all stages - - -

Chamaecytisus lucerne tree all stages - - -proliferus (tagasaste)

Trees and shrubs§

§ Within some species, palatability may vary between cultivars/varieties.




Chenopodium nitre goosefoot all stages - - -nitrariacem (nitre bush)

Crataegus spp. hawthorn - - all stages -

Cytisus scoparius scotch broom all stages - - -

Dodonaea attenuata narrowleaf hop bush all stages - - -

Dodonaea viscosa hop bush - flowering - -

Eremophila longifolia emu-bush all stages - - -

Eremophila mitchellii budda - - - all stages

Eucalyptus albens white box - flowering - -

Eucalyptus yellow box - - sucker -melliodora regrowth

Eucalyptus red box - flowering - -polyanthemos

Eucalyptus populnea bimble box - - - all stages(poplar box)

Eucalyptus spp. box, gum and sucker - all stages -mallee leaves

Geijera parviflora wilga - - - all stages

Gomphocarpus narrowleaf - - - isolated fruticose cotton bush mature

plants

Heterodendrum rosewood all stages - - -oleifolium

Trees and shrubs§ continued

§ Within some species, palatability may vary between cultivars/varieties.




Brassica tournefortii wild turnip all stages - - -

Carduus nutans nodding thistle - flowering - -

Carduus slender thistle - - all stages -pycnocephalus

Carthamus lanatus saffron thistle - flowering - -

Chondrilla juncea skeleton weed - flowering - -

Cirsium vulgare spear thistle(black thistle) - flowering - -

Craspedia spp. bellybuttons - flowering - -

Echium plantagineum paterson’s curse - flowering - -

Erodium spp. crowfoot - flowering - -

Hypericum perforatum St. John’s wort - - - all stages

Lactuca serriola prickly lettuce all stages - - -(milk thistle)

Lepidium spp. peppercress - flowering - -

Maireana spp. blue bush, - - all stages -cotton bush

Marrubium vulgare horehound - flowering - -

Medicago falcate yellow flower lucerne all stages - - -

Medicago sativa lucerne flowering - - -

Muehlenbeckia lignum all stages - - -cunninghamii

Onopordum spp. scotch thistle - flowering - -(illyrian)

Owenia acidula gruie (colane) all stages - - -

Phytolacca octandra inkweed - flowering - -

Plantago spp. plantain - flowering - -

Pteridium esculentum common bracken - - - all stages (but mainly mechanical damaged)

Rosa rubiginosa sweet briar all stages - - -

Rubus spp. blackberry all stages - - -

Herbs




Rumex crispus curled dock - flowering - -

Sclerolaena birchii galvanised burr - - - all stages

Silybum marianum variegated thistle - all stages - -

Sisymbrium spp. mustard weed - flowering - -

Solanum carolinense Carolina horse - all stages - -nettle

Trifolium spp. clovers - - - mature

Urtica incisa scrub nettle, - all stages - -tall nettle

Ventilago viminalis supplejack all stages - - -

Verbena bonariensis purpletop - flowering - -

Herbs continued




Aristida spp. wire grass - - all stages -

Chloris spp. windmill grass - flowering - -

Cyperus spp. nutgrasses all stages - - -

Danthonia spp. wallaby grass - flowering - -

Eragrostis australasica canegrass - - all stages -

Hordeum leporinum barley grass - - all stages -

Juncus spp. rushes - - flowering -

Lolium spp. ryegrass all stages - - -

Nassella trichotoma serrated tussock - - - all stages

Poa labillardieri poa tussock - - all stages -

Sporabolus caroli yakka grass - flowering - -(fairy grass)

Stipa spp. speargrass - - all stages -

Grasses and rushes

Having read through these tables andidentified plants from your area, you shouldcheck for any toxicity issues. Refer toModule 7 - Nutrition Toolkit 7 page 18 formore information and references thatprovide listings of toxic plants.


Tool 7.4

Nutritional disorders78

This tool below will help you to identify andmanage the following nutritional disordersthat can occur in goats.

• Bloat

• Grain poisoning

• Copper deficiency

• Selenium deficiency

• Cobalt deficiency

• Iodine deficiency

• Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiencyThis summary provides details of theprevailing conditions under which eachproblem is likely to occur, explains how todiagnose the problem and lists preventativemanagement strategies.

Bloat

Conditions when likely to occur:

• Consumption of large amounts oflush, green, leguminous feed orlucerne hay.

Diagnosis:

• Clinical signs: gases form in therumen causing distension on the leftupper side. Death can occur quicklyas pressure builds on the diaphragmcausing failure of heart and lungs.

• Pasture assessment: at-risk pasturesare those with a high proportion oflegume, lush and in vegetativegrowth.

Treatment:

• Cooking oil or a bloat oil product canbe administered to break up thegaseous foam in the rumen.

Preventative management strategies:

• Avoid grazing high-risk pasture.

• Provide access to roughage in theform of hay or dry pasture.

• For producers adopting intensiverotational grazing, slow the rotation sothat goats are grazing more maturepasture. This may reduce risk but willnot eliminate it.

• In intensive grazing or strip grazingsituations, daily spraying of bloat oilon high-risk pastures prior to grazingmay be cost-effective. This strategywill not be cost-effective or practicalin many situations. Bloat oil in watertroughs may be considered if wateravailability is controlled. Bloat blocksare less reliable.

• During periods of lush pasture growthmaintain regular routine and intake offood and water.

Grain poisoning


• Ingestion of large quantities of grain ina short period of time, resulting in anexcessive build-up of lactic acid inthe rumen.

• Changing from one type of grain toanother too quickly.

• Rapid increase in the level of grainfeeding.

Diagnosis:

• Kicking at the belly, obvious pain anddiscomfort, grinding of teeth, standingdejectedly, not moving, sometimesbloated and scouring.


• Change the diet slowly; any change infeed type or amount of ration shouldbe gradual.

78 The information presented in this tool has been sourced from a number of references:Simmonds, J. (Editor). (2001). Australian Goat Notes. Australian Cashmere Growers Association. Hungerford, T.G. (1990). Diseases of Livestock. Ninth edition. McGraw-Hill. Vincent, B. (2005). Meat Goats Breeding, Production and Marketing. Land Links.

• Provide fibre in the diet.

• Use a buffer in the ration.

Copper deficiency


• Copper deficient regions such ascoastal sandy soils, granite soils andpeat swamps; exacerbated by excessmolybdenum or lime application.

• Deficiency typically occurs after anextended period of green feed.Copper is more available in dry feed.

• Growing stock and breeding stock aremore susceptible to copper deficiencythan other stock classes.

Diagnosis:

• Biopsy: Liver copper levels are verylow, eg 2.6-17.2mg/kg (normal levelsare greater than 40mg/kg).

• Blood samples should be taken fromhealthy goats and compared withthose from affected goats. Normalserum or plasma copper levels are500-1100mcg/litre.

• Soil: copper levels in the soil arepoorly correlated with animal status,so do not use soil test to assessanimal copper status. Soil copperlevel of 5ppm is adequate, but 4ppmmolybdenum reduces availablecopper by 50%. Sulphur levels of2g/kg or above also reduce copperavailability.

• Abattoir: collection of liver samples iffield biopsy not possible.

• Clinical signs: rough dull coat, poorgrowth, scouring, anaemia and poorreproductive ability.

• Kids may have an erratic swaying gait(swayback), usually weak and in poorcondition. This is followed byparalysis.

• Confirmation of copper deficiencyshould be through blood sampling aproportion of the herd. Having donethis, the most appropriate level ofcopper supplement can bedetermined.


• Treat stock with a copper injectionprior to the high risk periods of winterand spring. Alternatively, coppercapsules can be used to providelonger-term (12 months) prevention.

• If copper levels in the herbage arelow, top dress pasture periodicallywith copper (usually 5–7 years).

• When applying molybdenum to apasture, also add copper, if copperlevels are marginal in the herbage.

• Discuss dosage and managementoptions with your veterinarian andagronomist. Be aware that toxicitycan be induced by overdosing withcopper supplements.

Selenium deficiency


• Selenium-deficient regions, such ascoastal sandy soils, New South Walestablelands, acidic soils, sedimentaryand granite soils, usually in highrainfall regions, exacerbated by high-superphosphate application andclover dominance. Refer to Module 6– Husbandry, Toolkit 6 page 10 formore detail on selenium deficientregions.

• Typically deficiencies are greatestwhen feed is lush.

• Young growing stock are most at risk.

Diagnosis:

• Blood biochemistry: preciseinformation on goats is not available.New Zealand work suggests that



goats have a higher requirement forvitamin E than sheep and this mayalso be true for selenium.

• Clinical signs: stiff-legged gait, archedback and death.


• Both selenium and vitamin E arenecessary.

• Selenium can be administered as oraldoses, injection or slow-releasepellets lodged in the rumen.

• Selenium is potentially an extremelytoxic substance and must beadministered with care. Note thatselenium supplements are commonlyfound in clostridial vaccines andanthelmintic drenches, so take carenot to oversupply.

• Selenium should be administered todoes prior to joining and again onemonth before kidding.

• Treat kids at marking. Repeat dose forkids at weaning, with further doses at3, 6, 9 and 12 weeks up to joining.

• Slow selenium pellets or long-actinginjections can be used for longer-termprotection.

• Top-dress pasture – the decision totopdress should be made on thebasis of cost/benefit analysis. It isusually too expensive to treatpastures, except in high stocking ratesituations. Selchip™ at 300gms/ha isa cost effective product.

• Vitamin E is administered by injection.It can also be mixed with a grainration and fed immediately.

• Discuss dosage and managementoptions with your veterinarian andagronomist.

Cobalt deficiency


• Cobalt deficient regions such ascoastal calcareous sands, high-rainfallgranite soils and krasnozem soils,exacerbated by liming and highsuperphosphate application,especially in lush seasons. Refer toModule 6 - Husbandry Toolkit 6 page 10for more information.

• It has not been diagnosed in goats.

Diagnosis:

• Blood biochemistry: vitamin B12deficient plasma, with levels less than0.2mcg/ml indicate deficiency. Anormal liver contains 0.32-2.0mcg/gram of cobalt.

• Pasture cobalt levels can beassessed, but are rarely tested. Levelsbelow 0.8 parts per million indicatedeficiency.

• Clinical signs: ill-thrift, weepy eyes,severe wasting and eventually death.

• Clinical response to deficiencytreatment can be tested by comparinga treated mob with control (untreated)mob. Treatment group would receiveeither a vitamin B12 injection orcobalt pellets.


• Vitamin B12 injection will provideprevention for about 8–12 weeks.Slow release cobalt pellets can beused for longer term prevention.

• Top-dressing pastures with cobaltgives variable responses. Cobaltlevels in pasture can be tested –below 0.8 parts per million indicates adeficiency.

• Discuss dosage and managementoptions with your veterinarian andagronomist.

Iodine deficiency


• Iodine deficiency occurs especially inmountainous areas such as on theGreat Dividing Range in Victoria andcoastal New South Wales.

• Iodine levels tend to be low in lushclover-dominant pastures with ahistory of high superphosphateapplication.

Diagnosis:

• Clinical signs: thyroid gland swellsproducing a goitre; this is only aproblem in new born kids. Adultsappear to tolerate seasonal deficits.


• Drenching is recommended. Avoidfeeding iodine as a lick as it isimportant to accurately control intakeby the doe.

• Pregnant does grazing in high rainfallareas should receive a drench ofiodine once or, in some cases, twiceduring the last two months of theirpregnancy.

• Feed seaweed.

Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency


• Goats eating plants that are rich in theenzyme “thiaminase”, such asbracken fern, mulga fern, rock fernand nardoo.

• After a dry period, the plants listedabove will get away more quickly thanother pasture species. Stock eatingthe fresh growth of these plants are atrisk.

• Feeding large quantity of molasses, ora sudden increase in concentrates.

• Sudden changes of diet may

predispose to thiamine deficiency,especially in young stock.

Diagnosis:

• Clinical signs include:

o stargazing – head up and tiltedback,

o disorientation and aimlesswandering,

o apparent blindness, oscillatingeyes, may appear cross-eyed,

o lying down, head thrown back andstiff legs, convulsions and coma.


• Graze goats on fern-free paddocksuntil there is sufficient pasture orother grazing opportunities.

• Make available alternative feed iegood-quality hay so that stock areless likely to eat fern.

• Reduce the amount of fern on theproperty.



Tool 7.5

Toxic plants

It is important that you are able to recognisethose plants in your area that are toxic,particularly those which are toxic to goats.

In terms of managing the threat posed bytoxic plants there are a number of factorsthat you need to consider:

• Poisonous plants may include pasturespecies at certain growth stages,native species and garden plants.

• When animals are hungry they maygorge themselves on things that theywould otherwise avoid. Therefore, donot introduce hungry goats to areaswhere toxic plants are known to begrowing. If in doubt, let a few tastersin for a short period of time to checkthat the area is safe.

• Goats are curious animals and theywill readily try something new. Beaware that goats may start eatingpoisonous plants when moved to anew area.

• Goats grazing in a particular area forextended periods may becomeaccustomed to eating small amountsof toxic plant material, but new mobsintroduced to the area will not havethe same tolerance and can beadversely affected by eating the sameplants.

• Herbicide treatments tend to increasethe palatability of plants, includingtoxic plants.

• The relative toxicity of plants may varyaccording to the season and thestage of plant growth.

• Wilting in dry conditions and rapidgrowth after rain can increase thetoxicity of a plant.

• Nitrite poisoning can be a problemwhen grazing green oat crops andother specific plants, such asvariegated thistle, nitrogen-fertilisedryegrass, capeweed and mintweed.

• Some plants may only be toxic whengrowing in a particular soil type.

• Some plant toxins can be cumulative:the damage to internal organs maynot be noticed immediately, but maydevelop over time.

• Applying fertiliser to promote lushgrowth may increase toxicity egapplications of urea can increase therisk of nitrate poisoning.

• Stressful growth conditions, such asdrought and insect attack, may causetoxins to concentrate in the plant.

• Small amounts of toxic plants fed in awell mixed feed or as part of apasture diet may be tolerated.

• Animals suffering from mineraldeficiencies may develop cravingswhich cause them to eat plants thatthey would normally reject.

• Plant parts can vary in their relativetoxicity. In some plants it may only bethe seeds or the bark that is toxic.

There are a many good references that canhelp you to understand which plants aretoxic, the level of toxicity, the impact ofconsumption by stock and theenvironmental factors that promote toxicity.Some useful titles include:

• Everist, S.L. (1981) ‘Poisonous Plantsof Australia’ Angus & Robertson

• McBarron, E.J. (1983) ‘PoisonousPlants: A handbook for farmers andgraziers’ Inkata press

• McBarron, E.J. (1976) ‘Medical andveterinary aspects of plant poisoningin New South Wales’ New SouthWales Agriculture

• Simmonds, H. Holst, P. Bourke,C.(2000) ‘The palatability and potentialtoxicity of Australian weeds to goats’RIRDC

• Colby, P. (2000) Natural Goat andAlpaca Care. Landlinks

• Vincent, B. (2005). Meat GoatsBreeding, Production and Marketing.Land Links.



Tool 7.6

Feedlotting goats

The information presented in this tool hasbeen generously provided by the Universityof Queensland. We would like to thank tothe authors, Mark Flint and Peter Murray, fortheir cooperation. The document wasoriginally produced by the University ofQueensland and published by theQueensland Department of PrimaryIndustries.

DPI notes

Management guide for lot feeding goats

Mark FlintA and Peter MurrayB

Introduction

This guide discusses what you need toknow to operate a commercial goat feedlot.

Animal welfare in commercial goat feedlotscan be found in Code of Practiceconcerning the welfare provisions forlotfeeding goats (in preparation, to bepublished by the Department of PrimaryIndustries, Queensland).

What is lotfeeding?

Lotfeeding is the confining of grazinganimals (in this case goats) for intensivemanagement, primarily for optimal growthnecessary for the economic preparation ofanimals for slaughter.

What problems may occur?

The key problems associated withmanaging goats in a feedlot include:

• The high occurrence ofmalnourishment and exhaustion,aggression and disease induced bystress.

• The difficulty of containing agileanimals, particularly individual goatsthat have little respect for normalstock fences or have had little orminimal handling prior to pre-feedlothabituation.

• Specific handling techniques requiredto move and care for goats.

• The unique nutritional requirementsof these animals.

Critical to planning a lotfeeding facility isdefining specific outcomes. These includedetermining access of lotfed goats tomarkets, the potential profitability oflotfeeding under the given conditions, andcontingency plans in case lotfeeding isdetermined to be unprofitable.

If lotfeeding is not likely to be profitable oradvantageous, then it may be better to:

• Sell goats without lotfeeding them.

• Maintain these animals on poorquality pastures until quality foddercrops and/ or pastures becomeavailable.

• Agist goats.

A School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia B School of Animal Studies, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Queensland 4343, Australia

Costs of lotfeeding goats

The purchase of stock and the cost offeeding will be the major economic outlaysonce the feedlot itself is established. Feedcan cost over $200 per tonne, and evenbetween September and March when goatsgrow best, it will take between 7kg and14kg of feed to produce 1kg of carcase.Naturally, such estimates vary seasonallyand with locality. Costs of vaccinations anddrenching, running the feedlot (including theemployment of staff, transport of goats tothe abattoir), slaughter and processingcosts, and risk assessments (mortality andmarket guarantees) should be consideredbefore proceeding.

Selecting goats for the feedlot

Suitable animals must be selected. Loss ofstock due to poor pre-feedlot selection mayresult in significant economic losses.

Here are some essential factors:

• Identification – by law, goats cannotbe sold or held without appropriateidentification. This may take the formof earmarking, tattooing or a plasticear tag.

• Body condition – goats in a feedlotmust be in good physical condition.Feedlots are used to finish goats forslaughter, not to revive goats in poorcondition. Reviving goats isunprofitable and poses a risk thatdisease may spread if the animals arein poor condition on entry to thefeedlot.

• Temperament – do not choose ‘wild’or skittish goats for a feedlot. Evenwith pre-feedlot habituation, a goatthat does not respect fences or willnot tolerate interaction with humanswill not perform well in a feedlot.

• Conformation – choose goats withgood conformation. This includes a

natural shaped back (not too flat andnot too curved) and good feet. In afeedlot, animals undergo a rapidincrease in liveweight which placesmore pressure on their limbs andtherefore the goat must not showsigns of lameness from weightbearing. If a goat is limping, checkbetween the hooves for abscesses,foot rot or soft-tissue damage. If thehoof is healthy, then check the leg formuscle, tendon or skeletal damage.

• Age – lotfeeding is designed tomaximise the growth of young goatsduring their rapid growth phase ofdevelopment (around 6 months ofage, or the first summer after birth).Lotfeeding is of little benefit to oldergoats and although they will respondwell to high-quality feed andintensive management, theirliveweight gains are less. Two goodindicators of age are;

o horn size (the larger the horns, theolder the goat; naturally this isbreed-dependent) and

o the number of adult teeth. This issimilar to sheep where eachadditional adult toothapproximately equals an extra sixmonths of age up to maturity.

• Mouth — check the mouths of goatsfor overshot or undershot jaws, andlook for ‘broken-down’ teeth becausethese may impede feed intake.

• Entry liveweight – markets determinethe entry liveweight (carcase weight)of goats being finished in the feedlot.Market requirements should beknown before the start of lotfeeding.

• Castration status – in a feedlot, entiremales are likely to have higherliveweight gains than castratedmales.



Pre-feedlot habituation

Lot feeding of goats includes both a pre-feedlot habituation phase and a feedlotphase.

Pre-feedlot habituation is a necessaryprocess if animals are to be accustomed tofeedlot facilities prior to lot feeding. It isparticularly important when using goats offeral origin or goats from large extensivehusbandry systems due to their ‘flighty’nature when introduced to intensivemanagement systems. Pre-feedlothabituation reduces stress and encouragesanimals to eat the maximum amount of feedfrom their first day in the feedlot. Stressorsmay include a new ration, high stockingdensities compared to extensive grazing,and new facilities and managementpractices.

1. Pre-feedlot drenching and vaccinating

Prior to entry to the habituation yards, eachanimal should be drenched and vaccinatedto control internal parasites and reduce therisk of disease transmission betweenanimals. Do this as the goats are beingweighed into the pre-feedlot facility. Thesehandling procedures should accustomgoats to the human interactions they willexperience in the feedlot.

2. Stocking density and duration in pre-feedlot habituation

Goats should be held at about 64 goats perhectare for a period of five days.

3. Pre-feedlot weighing and identificationof shy feeders

Records of each goat’s performance shouldbe recorded. Weigh the goats at the start ofpre-feedlot habituation and periodically toidentify the change in liveweight for eachgoat during the habituation period. If a goatlooses weight during this pre-feedlothabituation period, it may indicate theanimal’s future performance in the feedlot,poor health status and/or poor adaptationto the ration. If a goat loses excessive

weight during the pre-feedlot habituationperiod (for example, greater than 200g/day)then it should not be entered into thefeedlot.

4. Pre-feedlot water and feed ration

Goats need access to a minimum of 4L ofcool, clean water per head per day. Thisrequirement may be greater than 4L ofwater per day during summer and lowerduring winter.

During the pre-feedlot habituation goats areto be grazed on pastures similar to thosethey have been recently grazing and fedchaff or hay on the first day to provide asafe gut fill (about 2% of liveweight perhead), then fed their feedlot ration (seeSection 7.2 below).

Feedlot

1. General hygiene provisions

Feed troughs should be covered to preventgoats from standing in and contaminatingthe feed. Contaminated or uneaten feedshould be removed daily to allowcontinuous access of fresh feed.

Hay, if fed, should be provided in elevatedhay racks. Spilled residues must beremoved daily to avoid contamination.Constructing a cement pad under thetroughs and racks will allow for easiercleaning of spilled feed.

Water troughs should be cleaned everysecond day. Constructing a cement padunder the troughs will minimise mud (andcontamination) from overflowing water.

2. Feedlot drenching and vaccinating

Goats should be treated with the followingveterinary chemicals:

• 7ml of Virbac First MectinDrench™ orany similar drench registered for useon goats to control internal parasitesincluding lung and intestinal worms.

• 1ml of Ultravac 6 in 1® vaccine at thestart of the pre-feedlot habituationperiod to control the followingbacterial diseases.

• Caseous lymphadenitis (caused byCorynebacterium pseudotuberculosis),enterotoxemia (caused byClostridium perfringens type D).

• Veterinary tetanus (caused byClostridium tetani).

• Black disease (a non-enteric,clostridial infection caused bysporulated organisms within Kupffer'scells in the animal’s blood and liver).

• Malignant oedema (caused byClostridium septicum).

• Blackleg (caused by Clostridiumchauvoei).

• Use selected chemicals for control ofexternal parasites such as lice andticks if necessary.

Treatments may incur withholding periodsso carefully read labels before use.Withholding periods vary significantlybetween treatments and should be knownbefore application. Follow safetyprecautions. Always read the label.

3. Weighing goats

Each goat should be weighed on entry intothe feedlot and again each week with theminimum of disturbance. If weekly weighingis likely to cause disturbance, then it maybe necessary to weigh less frequently.Disturbances may result in decreased feedintake and decreased performance.Weighing should occur at the same timeafter the same practices have occurred; thatis, if goats are fed before weighing on oneweek, then they should be fed beforeweighing every week for the duration of thelotfeeding period. This is to ensure that gutfill is approximately the same at eachweighing, and no change in regime occursthat may induce stress among the goats.

Records of liveweight change should bekept for each goat.

4. Monitoring the health of the goats in thefeedlot

Signs of illness and stress-inducedstarvation in the goats should be checkeddaily. If any goat is sick or not eating, itshould be removed from the pen andplaced in an isolation pen where it is notstressed by competition from many goatsand is not able to infect the rest of thefeedlot flock.

Sick goats or shy-eaters may be subject toaggressive dominance by other goats. Thiscan be disastrous in a feedlot situation. If indoubt as to the health status of a goat,consult a veterinarian.

5. Feedlot pen stocking density and pensize

In a feedlot, goats can be stocked at theequivalent of 1667 goats per hectare aslong as a pre-feedlot habituation stage hasbeen undertaken. This stocking density isthe equivalent of 5.9m2 per head and isapproximately the same as therecommended density for lambs in afeedlot. Pens should be rectangular andapproximately 42m by 60m to createmanageable groups and to mimic ‘natural’flock sizes of around 400 goats per pen.

6. Lotfeeding duration

Goats should not be lotfed for a periodexceeding 35 to 42 days, as goats easilyget bored and stressed in feedlots. Novelenvironmental stimulation (toys) helps toreduce boredom and stress. Toys may takethe form of a pile of stacked railwaysleepers and old car tyres or mounds of soilto climb on, or suspended plastic milkbottles and pipes to mouth and butt. After35 to 42 days the relative increase in feedcosts are likely to exceed any additionalliveweight gains and may even make theprocess unprofitable.



This period may be longer if cheaper feedcan be obtained and/or goats areintroduced to the feedlot at a lower startingliveweight but be aware that additionalnovel environmental stimulation will berequired for such animals to combatboredom and stress. Liveweight gains maynot be as great after 35 to 42 days.

Currently, premium prices are not paid forbig goats; premium prices are paid forgoats that can be sent to specific exportmarkets (that is for the majority of the year,goats around 35kg liveweight).

7. Water and feed ration/formulation

7.1 Water

Lot-fed goats may require up to 4Lwater/day. Goats will accept a level of up to1.5% (5000mg NaCl/L) salt in their drinkingwater if the amount of salt is slowlyincreased up to this maximum saltconcentration. This will allow the use ofwater from bores in feedlots. However,clean cool water (with a salt content of lessthan 2000mg NaCl/L) is preferred as it aidsdigestion and reduces the risk ofintroducing water-borne diseases.

7.2 Feed combinations to maximisegrowth

Because rapid growth is required, it isusually an advantage to feed a mixture ofhay and grain ad libitum. A cereal grain andlegume hay is suggested at a ratio of 70:30cereal grain:hay.

Take precautions when starting to grainfeedto minimise the risks of lactic acidosis, liverdamage and urinary calculi.

A mash containing a mixture of chaff andgrains may provide a complete diet,available in a constant ratio without allowinganimals to select components of the diet.This may also ensure that the goats eat thedesired energy and protein levels requiredfor rapid growth.

A young, rapidly growing goat can eat over1.3kg of high quality ration per day andgrow at over 200g per day. It is vital thatanimals are provided with more than thisamount of ration if growth is not to belimited. Rations should consist of 90% drymatter (DM), 30 to 35% Neutral DigestibleFibre with a crude protein content between15% and 17% and a metabolisable energy(ME) content of 9-12 mega joules ME/kgration (DM). Additives to the ration such asminerals, salt, sodium bentonite, vitamins,urea and a coccidiostat may be required.Before lot feeding goats, consult anexperienced small ruminant nutritionist.

In the confines of a feedlot, goats shouldnot have access to toxic shrubs, trees orplants that may poison them.

Further reading

Bell, A. K., Shands, C. G., and Hegarty, R.S. (1998). Feedlotting lambs. AgnoteDAI/42, NSW Agriculture, Armidale.

Flint, M. and Murray, P.J. (accepted 2002).Codes of Practice concerning welfareprovisions for lot feeding goats, Departmentof Primary Industries, Queensland.

Flint, M. and Murray, P.J. (2002). Facilitiesguide for lot feeding goats, DPINote XXXpublished on DPI’s web site and DPI’sPrimeNotes CD-ROM.

Kondinin Group (1998). Lotfeeding lambsresearch report. Farming Ahead 76: 64-77.Kondinin Group, Cloverdale.

Nolan, C. and Dunlop, L. (1996). Lambfeedlotting in Queensland. QueenslandDepartment of Primary Industry, Brisbane.

Primary Industries and Resources SA(1997). Feeding sheep, Bulletin 2/94.Primary Industries and Resources SA, PortLincoln.

Acknowledgment

This DPI Note provides information andadvice from Mark Flint’s PhD researchproject with the University of Queensland,Gatton Campus.

To access DPI’s information and services

• DPI Call Centre: Phone 13 25 23(Queensland residents) between 8 amand 6 pm weekdays; non-Queensland residents phone 07 34046999; email [email protected]

• DPI’s web site: www.dpi.qld.gov.au

DPI Notes

Guide for lot feeding goats: – facilities

Mark FlintAB and Peter MurrayA

This guide discusses what you need toknow to operate a commercial goat feedlot.

Animal welfare in commercial goat feedlotscan be found in Code of Practiceconcerning the welfare provisions forlotfeeding goats (in preparation, to bepublished by the Department of PrimaryIndustries, Queensland).

What is lotfeeding?

Lotfeeding is the confining of grazinganimals (in this case goats) for intensivemanagement, primarily for optimal growthnecessary for the economic preparation ofanimals for slaughter.

Pre-feedlot habituation yard constructionand facilities

Prior to lotfeeding, goats should behabituated to the facilities they willencounter on introduction to the feedlot.

1. Fences

Goats should be held in a habituationeducation yard with 7 or 9 strand plain wireelectric fences during the pre-feedlothabituation process to teach them torespect (keep away from) fences. The fenceshould be constructed with alternating liveand earth wires (top wire earth), with thegaps between each wire decreasing downthe fence (wires 1-2, at the top, have a gapof 20cm, whereas wires 8-9, at the bottom,have a gap of 5cm). The bottom wire (whichis an earth) touches the ground. The fenceshould be electrified to 9000V. The goatsshould be stocked at 64 goats per hectare.

2. Feed and water troughs

Facilities used during this period (water andfeed troughs) should be the same as (or atleast very similar to) those to beencountered in the feedlot to helpfamiliarise animals with the eating anddrinking facilities in the feedlot. Both feedand water troughs should be designed to beeasily cleaned. Water troughs should supplya minimum of 4L of water per goat per day.Feed troughs should be designed to provide5cm of trough space per goat with adlibitum feed.

3. Pre-feedlot habituation pen shelter

Goats need access to shelter from adverseweather conditions. Shelter from the wind,rain, direct sun and cold should be sufficientto cover all goats in the yard at the sametime.


AB School of Animal Studies, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Queensland 4343, AustraliaA School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia


Feedlot pen construction and facilities

A goat feedlot requires several basicfacilities including individual rectangularyards (42 x 60m) each with feed troughs,water troughs, suitable environmentalenrichment and a central shelter (runningNorth-South to provide continual protectionfrom the East-West track of the sun), accessto laneways leading to handling yards andloading ramps. A feedlot should include atleast one, and preferably several, isolationpens with separate water and feed sources,loading ramp and drainage system to avoidany contamination of healthy goats in otherpens by sick goats (figure 1). In manycases, lamb feedlots will be modified toaccommodate goats, and this may result insignificant savings in establishment costs.

Figure 1. A potential goat feedlot design.

1. Fences

Feedlots should be fenced with at least1100mm high (100 x 50mm mesh) weldmesh topped with fabricated wire netting tocreate a 1500mm high goat-proof fence.Weld mesh fences need to be checked dailyto ensure that no goats have their headcaught. No gaps should be left under theweld mesh or other escape routes leftavailable to the goats. Any gap largeenough for a goat to put its head through, islarge enough to become a potential escaperoute, or goats may get their heads caught.Angled strainer posts can be climbed bygoats, so posts should be external to theweld mesh. Plain wire electric fences of 9strands are usable in a feedlot, but are notadvised. Do not electrify weld mesh. Ifgoats get their heads caught in anelectrified weld mesh fence, it is likely to befatal.

2. Feed and water troughs

Feed troughs (either as open troughs orself-feeders, Plates 1 and 2) should be fixed400mm above the ground with a cover toprevent goats from standing in andcontaminating the feed. A minimum feedtrough length of 5 cm per head isrecommended. Hay racks should beelevated to goat head height. The base ofthe rack should be approximately 800mmabove the ground. Designs and dimensionsfor home-made self-feeders and hay racksare given by Bell et al. (1998).

Feed troughs do not have to becomplicated or expensive. They may beopen-style feeders with a cover to preventgoats from jumping into the trough.

Water troughs should be fixed at 400mmabove the ground and supply clean water ata minimum rate of 4L of water per goat perday.

3. Shelter in a feedlot

Goats do not like rain, extreme heat orextreme cold. The feedlot should provideshelter for goats that protects them fromthese types of adverse weather conditions.

Shelter should be an open awning designthat allows for unimpeded ventilation whilestill providing sufficient space so that eachgoat may have shelter during adverseweather without overcrowding occurring.

Shelter should provide 1.0 square metre ofspace per goat.

The awning of the shelter should extendNorth-South to provide goats withmaximum coverage from the midday sunand also so that the pad can dry out.

For sheltering from cold, the awning shouldprovide a wind break by having walls thatprevent the unimpeded flow of air while stillfacilitating ventilation – for example,wooden barriers (short walls) andcorrugated iron sheeting, such as the typesused in cattle feedlots.

For sheltering from heat, enough space pergoat should be provided so that body heatradiation from surrounding goats does notadversely affect the individual.

For protection from wet conditions,adequate floor drainage should be madeavailable and the feedlot should beconstructed with a ground slope of 3º to aiddrainage.

4. Feedlot pen enrichment

All pens should be enriched with ‘toys’ tohelp alleviate boredom and disruptivebehaviours in the goats. Toys do not haveto be expensive or complex. Toys may takethe form of a pile of stacked railwaysleepers and old car tyres or mounds of soilto climb on, or suspended plastic milkbottles and pipes to mouth and butt. Theaddition of a new toy each week shouldcontinue to stimulate further interest andprevent boredom.

Before constructing a goat feedlot, accessto markets should be assessed todetermine if the enterprise will beeconomically viable.

Licences for the feedlot

In Australia, Government agriculturedepartments and local shire councils havespecific requirements for environmentalaspects of lotfeeding. These include effluentmanagement, site location and waterderivation. Before lotfeeding, consult theappropriate local authorities for approval.

The predisposition of a site to environmentaland community problems, particularly thosecaused by groundwater contamination, soilerosion and dust pollution is a vitalconsideration in assessing its suitability forlotfeeding.



Further reading

Bell, A. K., Shands, C. G., and Hegarty, R.S. (1998). Feedlotting lambs. AgnoteDAI/42, NSW Agriculture, Armidale.

Flint, M. and Murray, P.J. (accepted 2002).Codes of Practice concerning welfareprovisions for lot feeding goats, QueenslandDepartment of Primary Industry, Brisbane.

Kondinin Group (1998). Lotfeeding lambsresearch report. Farming Ahead 76: 64-77.Kondinin Group, Cloverdale.

Nolan, C. and Dunlop, L. (1996). Lambfeedlotting in Queensland. QueenslandDepartment of Primary Industry, Brisbane.

Primary Industries and Resources SA(1997). Feeding sheep, Primary Industriesand Resources SA, Port Lincoln.

Acknowledgment

This DPI Note provides information andadvice from Mark Flint’s PhD researchproject with the University of Queensland,Gatton Campus.

To access DPI’s information and services

• DPI Call Centre: Phone 13 25 23(Queensland residents) between 8 amand 6 pm weekdays; non-Queensland residents phone 07 34046999; email [email protected]

• DPI’s web site: www.dpi.qld.gov.au


Case studyPASTURE MANAGEMENT

NAME: Helen Darlington

PROPERTY NAME: Yarrabee

PROPERTY LOCATION: Goombungee, Queensland

PROPERTY SIZE: 250ha

NUMBER OF GOATS: 300-600

MAIN GOAT ENTERPRISE: Boer goat stud

TARGET MARKET: Export breeding-stock markets – stud Boer does andbucks

Domestic breeding-stock markets – stud andcommercial Boer bucks

SECOND GOAT ENTERPRISE: Boer cross goat enterprises

TARGET MARKET: Export breeding-stock markets – Boer cross does

Domestic prime goatmeat market wethers

Export meat market – cull stock

OTHER FARM ENTERPRISES: Bacon pigs, beef cattle

Although Helen’s enterprise is focused on stud breeding, it is run as commercially as possible,under intensive grazing conditions. The property is a mix of natural and improved pastures,supported by an average annual rainfall of 580mm, falling predominantly in summer.

When asked to outline her philosophy on grazing management, Helen explained that her intentis to supply adequate nutrition for her goats from clean pastures, whilst grazing in a mannerwhich does not degrade the land – avoiding overgrazing or physical damage. To achieve this,Helen finds it necessary to spell paddocks from goat grazing for an average of four to sixmonths each year. If there is evidence of overgrazing, Helen’s strategy is to move the stock onand/or feed supplements

Aside from overgrazing, Helen cautions of the need be aware of the physical damage whichgoats can do as a result of camping and playing behaviour. The examples that Helen gaverelate to erosion issues. She explains that “goats have the ability to damage fragile hilly areasdue to their resting habits (they usually congregate to rest in the same area on the side of a hilland have a tendency to scrape a “nest” in the ground and therefore loosen up the soil). Younggoats enjoy playing and rolling down slopes and so have the potential to erode soil over time.”In these circumstances, fencing may be required to control access, or the paddock rested toallow time for groundcover to re-establish.

Internal parasites are another issue influencing Helen’s grazing strategy. Parasite burdens aremonitored and if problems arise, goats are moved to a cleaner paddock. On this property,cattle provide a valuable break in the grazing routine.


Fodder crops are also an integral part of the system. If rainfall permits, forage crops are grownas an alternative feed source, taking the pressure off when pasture growth is limited.

Helen describes grazing management “as a balancing act to constantly monitor the influences(rainfall, drought, stocking rate, goat behaviour and worm burden) that affect the pasturequality and/or land stability. Similarly, there is a continual need to juggle the number of goatsand length of time that they remain in a paddock. This is important goat husbandry and isaffected by nutritional requirements, worm burden status and markets. (Markets affect this dueto the number of surplus goats being retained on the property at one time, in preparation forthe next outlet).”

Case studyRANGELAND GRAZING

NAME: Will Scott

PROPERTY NAME: Wynyangoo Station and Narndee Station

PROPERTY LOCATION: Mount Magnet, Western Australia

PROPERTY SIZE: 387,200ha

NUMBER OF GOATS: 25,000 – 45,000

MAIN GOAT ENTERPRISE: Meat

TARGET MARKET: Export trade – live goats and carcases

Will operates a free-range grazing system. The herd is dominated by females, with theexception of kids and 5% breeding males.

Internal fencing is a thing of the past. Stock are now controlled by the strategic establishmentof watering points, with trap yards located at water. The watering points have been located toencourage even grazing across the property. Over the course of a year, goats will usually travelwithin a radius of 5km of water, and it was with this in mind that Will planned the layout of hiswater supply.

Will has found that the grazing behaviour of female goats has facilitated the regeneration ofmany rangeland plants. He explains that with the removal of bucks, females become moreterritorial and less inclined to mob together, reducing the grazing pressure on a given area.Females are much less destructive than male goats and tend to graze more at ground level.They are gentle grazers, sampling from a wide range of plants, without stripping individualplants. This allows plants to set some seed, thus facilitating the renewal process. Willcontrasts this with his experience in running a sheep enterprise on this land, where the sheepran in mobs and tended to overgraze particular species.

Will believes that the key to sustainable management of the rangeland environment ismonitoring and balancing fodder availability and stock numbers. If the system is in balance,the enterprise can function profitably and sustainably.


Documents

Module 7 – Nutrition · the maintenance requirement. In addition to maintenance, nutrients are required for growth, activity, pregnancy, lactation and changes in body condition