Module 3 Investigating Issues in the Caribbean[1]

Ms. F. Hyatali

MODULE 3INVESTIGATION ISSUES

IN THE CARIBBEAN

CARIBBEAN STUDIES

Ms Fariah Hyatali- Naparima Girls High School

Research is the systematic investigation of a problem. It is the process of forwarding ideas to be tested in a systematic way, collecting raw data, converting this data to be understood and presenting conclusions.

Research is defined as a process of enquiry and investigation.

WHAT IS RESEARCH?


NATURE AND PURPOSE OF

RESEARCH


TRADITIONAL- Knowledge that would have been passed on from generation to generation. For example: Bush medicine.

EXPERIENCE- Knowledge comes through familiarity and practice.

SCIENTIFIC- Scientific knowledge is knowledge grounded in both reason and experience. It involves rigorous testing and empirical evaluation.

FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE


To engage in systematic enquiry.

To generate new knowledge.

To provide solutions to societal problems.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH


Reliability can be defined as the ability of another researcher to repeat the study exact and obtain the same results.

Validity is the degree of accuracy that reflects the reality of those being studied.

Objectivity refers to the ability to be open minded and free from personal and political bias.

Representativeness refers to whether the group being studied is typical of the larger group to which the social scientists can generalize their findings to the larger group.

TERMS IN RESEACH


THE RESEARCH PROBLEM


A research problem is an intellectual stimulus (hypotheses) calling for a response in the form of scientific inquiry.

Within every research problem there are variables. A variable is an empirical property that can take on two or more values. For example: Social Class- upper, middle, lower.

Dependent variable(ISSUE) is the variable that the researcher wishes to explain.

Independent variable (CAUSES) is the variable expects to explain change in the dependent variable. It is the presumed cause of changes in the values of dependent variables.

RESEARCH PROBLEM


DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES


RESEARCH OBJECTIVES


It must be relevant to the dependent variable identified.

It is directly linked to the research problem

It is informed by existing literature and academic

studies

It provides clarity as to what the study intends to

research and where the study will be conducted.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES


A research question involves the probing of the link of a independent variable with the dependent variable. It is gives the reader a clear idea of what you are attempting to find.

A problem statement is a statement that encapsulates delimitations of the study.

A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research problem, expressed in the form of a clearly stated relation between the dependent and independent variables.

RESEARCH QUESTION, PROBLEM STATEMENT & HYPOTHESIS


SOURCES OF INFORMATION


Existing literature and academic research Internet sources- Website, blogsOral histories- Biography, Auto biographiesNewspaper reportsMinutes of meetingsArchives

SOURCES OF INFORMATION


Surveys

Focus Group

Indepth InterviewsSecondary Data

Observation METHODS OF ENQUIRY


A survey is a study made up of a large group of

people in order to collect standardized information

from them

The Factual Survey- Government Census. Attitude Survey- To obtain opinions and

preferences. The Explanatory Survey- To gain more in-depth

answers.

Surveys generally use questionnaires (Mail/ Email) and structured interviews. (Face to face /Telephone Interview)

SURVEYS


The survey is said to very reliable. Use of the survey allows for large

quantities of data to be collected from a large sample but also in a fairly short space of time.

Generalizations can be made from findings of the research.

Data collected can be easily quantified and coded and with the aid of computers data can be analysed quickly and efficiently.

ADVANTAGES OF THE SURVEY METHOD


Validity of the findings from the survey is questioned. There is a low return rate for mailed questionnaires and many

of the questionnaires when returned are incomplete. There is little scope to give additional information by

respondents. Interviewer bias is another strong criticism against this

method. The presence of the interviewer may influence the respondent answers since they attempt to impress the interviewer and thus bias the data. (Hawthorne Effect)

According to some theorists, the findings from surveys tend to reinforce the existing status quo in society

DISADVANTAGES OF THE SURVEY METHOD


A focus group is defined as a form of qualitative interviewing that uses a researcher- led group discussion to generate data. (Morgan 2008, 352)

The advantage of using a focus group is that the researcher is able to hear a wide range of participants at the same time.

The focus group provides information and the researcher can determine the sample for in-depth follow up individual interviews.

One disadvantage of focus groups is the possibility of group bias. This is when an individual in group may be influenced by the consensus of the group not to share his or her true opinion. However this can be overcomed the use of individual interview to obtain the person’s feelings about such sensitive issues.

FOCUS GROUP


In-depth interviews are interviews in which participants are encouraged and prompted to talk about the topic under investigation without the researcher’s use of predetermined, focused, short answer questions. (Cook 2008).

AdvantagesThe researcher is able to retain some control over the direction

and content while allowing the respondents to be free in expressing his or her opinion.

Interviews are advantageous to researchers because allows the researcher the flexibility to probe the respondent for details.

Within the interview setting the researcher is able to pick up on spontaneous reactions which can be very useful in the data collection stage.

This method is very popular in the qualitative world because it is cost effective and provides rich descriptions necessary for qualitative analysis.

IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW


The participant and researcher is limited by the recall of the participant,

The ability of the participant to articulate his or her experiences within the timeframe of the interview and the ability of the researcher to ask the right questions to prompt a more detailed discussion that would aid analysis. The recall of information is a different process from actually observing the phenomena first hand.

Also the issue of interviewer bias comes into play as the interviewer can influence the responses. Despite an interviewer attempts to eliminate the communication of personal views, non verbal communication can override those attempts. Even the interviews gender or ethnicity can lead respondents giving answers they feel the interviewer might want to hear.

DISADVANTAGES OF IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS


ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

Collects a large quantities of data from huge sample of people in short period of time

Doesn’t provide indepth data.

There is little personal involvement of the researcher in the data collection thus reducing interviewer bias

Research assumes what is important to test thus resulting invalid results

The data derived can be easily quantified.

Respondents may lie. They may forget events and give inaccurate information. They can leave out question.

The study is reliable as it can be repeated by another researcher to test the findings

One can identify the causal relationship and correlations of variables

QUESTIONNAIRE


The researcher joins the group being studied and participates in the activities of the group. This can either be overt or covert observation depending on the researcher.

AdvantagesInteractionists consider this the best means of obtaining

a valid picture of reality. The researcher is better able to understand the group’s

behaviour or the phenomena being studied since they experience many of the experiences, as that of the observed group.

Participant observation provides in-depth information that serves in generating new hypotheses or is useful in falsifying existing theories.

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION


Method is very time consuming and demanding on the researcher. Scope for use of this method is seen as limited since many areas cannot be studied using participant observation e.g. criminal activities. Samples are too small for generalizations to be made from findings. Validity may also be questioned since the presence of the researcher would result in the group acting differently from the norm. This method is seen as being too subjective. Going native!Recording of the data is very problematic. This method lacks reliability.

DISADVANTAGES


The researcher does not participate in activities of the group but merely watches and records the activities of the group without interference.

AdvantagesReduces bias in study as compared to the use of

participant observation. Recording of data would be easier since researcher not

involved in the group’s activities but is at a distance. The researcher is less likely to get emotionally involved

with the group and study is more objective in nature.

NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION


The validity of the data is compromised by the fact that the researcher draws conclusions about people’s behaviour with whom he did not interact. Personal bias can infiltrate.

Putting people under laboratory condition creates artificial reactions. (they will put on a show for you, natural reaction will not be seen) Hawthorne Effect

DISADVANTAGES


Secondary sources consist of data that have already been produced often by other persons.

Official Statistics- Census- population statistics that is taken up every 10 years. Advantage- Can assist in developing government policy. Disadvantage- Often distorted by government.

Historical Sources- these are documents that can assist the researcher in recreating the past. For example: Parish records, birth certificates, receipts. The problem is that they open to interpretation.

Internet sources- One must be extremely cautious in using that material. One must verify authorship, the authority of the author, the organization the author represents and objectivity of the research.

SECONDARY SOURCES


PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES


Primary Data- This is information that consists of data that are collected by the researchers themselves during the course of their study.

Questionnaires InterviewsObservation Longitudinal StudiesCross- Sectional Studies

PRIMARY SOURCES


Secondary sources of data is information that already exists about the phenomenon being investigated.

Official statistics- Census ReportsDiaries/ Journals/ Auto biographiesBooksOfficial documents/ records

SECONDARY SOURCES


A cross-sectional study is involves observation of a sample or cross section of population or phenomena that are made in one point in time. (Barbie 2009) For example the Census gives a snap shot view of the society at that point in time.

The issue with Cross- sectional studies is that the conclusion can only account for that period in time.

You cannot generalize the findings. However it is useful for understanding causation.

CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY


In contrast to Cross sectional studies, Longitudinal studies involves the study of a group over a period of time, where data collection is done in intervals.

A Longitudinal Study is designed to permit observations of the same phenomenon over an extended period.(Babbie 2009)

First used to measure changes in public attitudes- more reliable since same people would be used, the changes would not result from composition of sample. It is a form of research where quantitative data is collected in social surveys.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES


LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

Advantages DisadvantagesAttitudinal change can be readily seen

Time consuming

Valid data is obtained Impractical to locate sample over a period due to death, migration, refusal to participate- sample attrition *

Large number of variables can be collected over the time span and pinpointed at a later date

Behaviour will be altered over time

*Sample attrition:- depletion of original sample size, loss of members of the sample. Ms Fariah Hyatali- Naparima Girls High School

A population is the group from which the researcher will choose the sample.

The sampling frame is the list of members of the population that satisfies the requirements of the study.

A sample is a small proportion of an entire population that will be used in the research.

A sampling unit is the member of the population to be studied.

SAMPLING


1) It is costly to use an entire population2) It is time consuming on the researcher 3) Impractical to survey the entire population4) Since only a small number within the group is used it is then possible to make generalisations of the population once a representative sample is chosen.

WHY CHOOSE A SAMPLE?


1) Random:-this is where each and every member of the population has an equal and fair chance of being selected. E.g Play Whe, Picking from a hat

2) Systematic:- this is where every nth term is used from a list of items from the population. E.g. choosing every 3rd person from the roll to form the sample.

3) Stratified:- this is where the population is divided into different layers(age, sex, religion, race) and then the sample is taken. This would be a more representative sample as the same proportion chosen from the group would be reflected in the sample group.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING


Quota:- it is considered stratified sampling but the selection within the strata are non random. E.g. a pharmaceutical company conducing research on 50 people who are over the age of 50 and strictly women.

Mud/Snowball sampling:- the sample is formed based on contact to one individual who will in turn direct/ introduce to other members of the sample. Obviously this method will be non- random and hence unrepresentative. E.g. Rapists, burglars, heroin users, collectors of Ancient Greek coins.

NON-PROBABILITY


Convenience/opportunity sampling:-involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a sample population selected because it is readily available and convenient.

NON-PROBABILITY


Tabular- TablesGraphic- Bar charts, histograms, line graphs, pictures, mapsText- Thematic and content analysisTrends/ patterns- A trend is the latest development or finding

about a phenomenon. It is the general tendency of the finding. Pattern is an arrangement of repeating theme in your study.

ComparisonsCategorization

PRESENTATION OF DATA


Main findings of in relation to the research objectives Identify areas of contention in relation to research objectivesHighlight new and interesting findings Identify limitations of the study- MethodologySuggest areas for further research

CONCLUSION/ RECOMMENDATIONS


American Psychological Association- (APA) Modern Languages Association- (MLA) Chicago Manual of Style- (Chicago)

What is a bibliography?A bibliography is a list of sources used in conducting the

research project. It is arranged using an appropriate referencing style.

What is referencing?Referencing is an appropriate style of academic

acknowledgement of the authorship of pieces of literature used in your study.

REFERENCING STYLES


You must receive consent of research subjects.Respect for privacy and confidentially Must maintain integrity and transparency of the research

process. Eg. Acknowledge false starts and flaws in methodology

Avoid plagiarism of other researchers intellectual property.

ETHICAL ISSUES


Theoretical assumptionsPractical restraintsCost TimeEthical issues

WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE OUR CHOICE OF RESEARCH DESIGN?


Quantitative

Emphasizes the collection of data and concentrates on measuring phenomenon.

Generates statistical data.

Uses scientific methods: Experiments, Surveys.

Uses the hypothetico- deductive method.

QualitativeIt involves examination of

less tangible aspects- values, ideas. Etc.

Research is conducted in natural settings.

Inductive reasoning is used.

The methods are descriptive and narrative.

The interpretation can be difficult.

QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE


Advantages Disadvantages

1) Output of research is close to reality

Subjective and unreliable

2) In-depth feelings and meanings

Not scientific and measurable

3) rich description Cannot generalise and easy to mis-interpret

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS


Advantages Disadvantages

1) used to study trends and test hypothesis

Lack depth

2) reliable and representative

Output of research has no meaning

3) easy to analyse and objective

No focus on the individual

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS


Surveys- A survey is a study made up of a large group

of people in order to collect standardized information

from them. The survey usually involves the use of

questionnaires or structured interviews. Questionnaire- These are a series of pre-set questions

that are handed out or mailed to respondents to be completed and returned to researcher.

Structured Interviews- These are questionnaires that are administered orally by an interviewer to respondents.

GLOSSARY


Secondary Data- This is the use of data that already

existed by researchers in the course of their study.

Research Methods- These are the tools or instruments

utilized by sociologists in gathering data.

Triangulation- the use of both quantitative and

qualitative methods.

GLOSSARY


Methodology involves the principles of research, how we go about creating knowledge.

Method- Is the research instrument that will be used to collect data.

Data is the raw facts and figures which when analysed is transformed into information (processed data). There are two types of data:- quantitative and qualitative.

GLOSSARY


Documents

Module 3 Investigating Issues in the Caribbean[1]