Module 1.1 Foundations of Modern Psychology

Module 1.2 Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do

Module 1.3 Research Methods in Psychology

Application Module 1.4 Becoming a Critical Thinker

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Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes

What makes psychology a scientific discipline?

What is meant by “behavior” and “mental processes”?

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Module 1.1

Foundations of Modern Psychology

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Greek rootsPsyche – “mind”Logos – “study” or “knowledge”

Ancient Greek philosophersSocrates (ca. 469-399 B.C.)Plato (ca. 428-348 B.C.) Aristotle (ca. 384-332 B.C.)

Confucius (ca. 551-479 B.C.)

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Founded by students of Williams James

Founded by students of G. Stanley Hall

Founded by students of Wilhelm Wundt

Founded by Others

Clark University 1889University ofToronto 1890

Brown University 1892

Princeton University 1893

Trenton State College 1892

Randolf Macon Women’s College 1893

Wellesley College 1891

Johns Hopkins University 1883

Cornell University 1891

Yale University 1892

Columbia University 1890

University of Pennsylvania 1887

Catholic University 1891

Harvard University 1892

University of Michigan 1890

Indiana University 1887

University of Chicago 1893

University of Illinois 1892

University of Nebraska 1889

University of Kansas 1889

University of Iowa 1890

University of Wisconsin 1888

Stanford University 1893

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©2011 Cengage Learning

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Gestalt maxim“The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”

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John B. Watson

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Sigmund Freud

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1 Behavioral

2 Psychodynamic

3 Humanistic

4 Physiological

5 Cognitive

6 Sociocultural

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John Watson

B.F.Skinner

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Psychodynamic Perspective (1900 - Present)

Carl Jung

Alfred Adler

Karen Horney

Sigmund Freud

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Humanistic Perspective (1950s - Present)

Carl Rogers

Abraham Maslow

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Cognitive Perspective (1950s - Present)

Key Areas of StudyThinking ProcessesLearning and MemoryProblem SolvingLanguage Development

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Physiological Perspective (1950s - Present)

How do genes influence behavior?

How does the brain work?

How is behavior influenced by hormonal factors?

What is the role of neurotransmitters in behavior?

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Evolutionary Psychology (1980s - Present)

What role does evolution play in human behavior?

Might behavioral patterns in modern humans reflect the struggle for survival of ancestral humans?

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Sociocultural Perspective (Mid-1900s to Present)

What are the social and cultural influences on behavior?

How does behavior vary in relation to factors such as income level, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation?

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Year

Fla

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%)

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1950 1956 1962 1968 1974 19961980 1986 1992

Cognitive Approach

Behavioral Approach

Psychoanalytic Approach

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1870 1880

1875

First demonstration laboratories are set up independently by William James (at Harvard) and Wilhelm Wundt (at the University of Leipzig).

1879

Wilhelm Wundt establishes first research laboratory in psychology at Leipzig, Germany.

1881

Wilhelm Wundt establishesfirst journal devoted toresearch in psychology.

1883

G. Stanley Hall establishesAmerica’s first researchlaboratory in psychology atJohns Hopkins University.

1890

William James publishes hisseminal work, The Principlesof Psychology.

1892

G. Stanley Hall founds American Psychological Association.

1913

John B. Watson writes classic behaviorism manifesto, arguing that psychology should study only observable behavior.

1914

Leta Hollingworth publishes pioneering work on the psychology of women.1914 - 1918

Widespread intelligencetesting is begun by militaryduring World War I.

1916

Lewis Terman publishes Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, which becomes the world’s foremost intelligence test.

1920s

Gestalt psychology nears its peak influence.

1933

Sigmund Freud’s influencecontinues to build as hepublishes New IntroductoryLectures on Psychoanalysis.

1904

Ivan Pavlov shows howconditioned responses arecreated, paving the way forStimulus response psychology.

1905

Alfred Binet develops first successful intelligence test in France.

1908

Margaret Washburn publishes The Animal Mind, which serves as an impetus for behaviorism.

1909

Sigmund Freud’s increasing influence receives formal recognition as G. Stanley Hall invites Freud to give lectures at Clark University.

1941 - 1945

Rapid growth in clinical psychology begins in response to huge demand for clinical services created by World War II and its aftermath.

1947

Kenneth and Mamie Clark publish work on prejudice that is cited in landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation.

1950

Erik Erikson writes Childhood and Society in which he extends Freud’s Theory of Development across the life span.

1951

Carl Rogers helps launch humanistic movement with publication of Client-Centered Therapy.

1953

B. F. Skinner publishes his influential Science and HumanBehavior, advocating radicalbehaviorism similar to Watson’s.

1954

Abraham Maslow’s Motivation and Personality helps fuel humanistic movement.

1956

The cognitive revolution is launched at watershed conference where Herbert Simon, George Miller, and Noam Chomsky report three major advances in just one day.

1961 - 1964

Roger Sperry’s split-brain research and work by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel on how cortical cells respond to light help rejuvenate the biological perspective in psychology.

1963

Stanley Milgram conductscontroversial study of obedience to authority,which may be the mostfamous single study inpsychology’s history.

1971

B. F. Skinner creates furor over radical behaviorism with his controversial bookBeyond Freedom and Dignity.

1974

Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin publish their landmark review of research on gender differences, which galvanizes research in this area.

1978

Herbert Simon wins Nobelprize (in economics) forresearch on cognition.

1980s

Increased global interdependence and cultural diversity in Western societies spark surge of interest in how cultural factors mold behavior.

1981

Roger Sperry wins Nobel prize(in physiology and medicine)for split-brain studies.

1988

Research psychologists formAmerican Psychological Society(APS) to serve as an advocate for the science of psychology.

Early 1990s

Evolutionary psychologyemerges as a major newtheoretical perspective.

1990s

The repressed memoriescontroversy stimulatesinfluential research byElizabeth Loftus and otherson the malleability andfallibility of human memory.

Late 1990s

Martin Seligman launches the positive psychology movement.

2000

Eric Kandel wins Nobel Prize (in physiology and medicine) for his research on the biochemistry of memory.

2002

Daniel Kahneman wins Nobel Prize (in economics) for his research on decision making.

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Module 1.2

Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do

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Year

AP

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ip (

tho

usa

nd

s)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

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10%Government agencies

9%Nonprofit organizations

6%Schools

40%For-profit/self-employment

35%Colleges, universities, medical schools

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52.7%Clinical

11.3%Counseling

4.6%Industrial/Organizational

4.0%School

3.1%Developmental

2.2%Educational

1.6%Health

1.5%Experimental

1.1%Cognitive

17.9%Other

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Mary Whiton Calkins Margaret Floy Washburn

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Gilbert Haven Jones Kenneth and Mamie Phipps-Clark

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Source: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resource Statistics, Science and Engineering Degrees, by Race/Ethnicity of Recipients, 1992-2001, NSF, 04318, Project Officers Susan T. Hill, and Jean M. Johnson (Arlington, VA), April 2004.

11.3%Hispanic (Latino)

4.6%African American

4.0%Asian and Pacific Islander

1.0%American Indian

85.0%White (non-Hispanic)

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Pe

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80

1970 2005YearSource: Cynkar, 2007

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Module 1.3

Research Methods in Psychology

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Anxiety

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How Affects

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School

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Developing a Research Question

Drawing on theory, observations, experiences, or common beliefs to formulate a researchable question

Forming a Hypothesis

Reframing the question so that it becomes a specific prediction that can be tested through research

GatheringEvidence

Testing the hypothesis

Drawing Conclusions

Using statistical methods of analysis to determine whether the data support the hypothesis

4

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Hypothesis: Students who study over a span of 3 weeks before a test perform better than those who wait until the night before

MethodData

Collection AnalysisReport

Findings

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Detailed case histories are completedfor youngsters referred to counseling because of excessive aggressive behavior in school. The childrenare interviewed, as are their parents and teachers.

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Population

Nonrepresentative Sample

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Negative Correlation Positive Correlation

Strength of Relationship

Increasing Increasing

High Moderate Low HighModerateLow

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Positive CorrelationHigh scores on X are associated with high scores on Y,and low scores on X are associated with low scores on Y.

# of Cigarettes Smoked

X

Blood Pressure Reading

Y

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Negative CorrelationHigh scores on X are associated with low scores on Y,and low scores on X are associated with high scores on Y.

Amount ofcaffeine Ingested

X

# of HoursSlept

Y

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SuccessfulStudents

UnsuccessfulStudents

Always or Almost Always in Class

Sometimes Absent

Often Absent

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Allows for investigation of cause-and-effect relationships

Independent variables: Manipulated variables

Dependent variables: Measured variables

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Independent Variable

DependentVariable

ExperimentalGroup

ControlGroup

ExtraneousVariables

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Random AssignmentParticipants

Independent Variable: Control Group

Independent Variable: Experimental group

Measure dependent variable Is there a significant difference between the two groups?

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Absence of Pain = Dependent Variable

IndependentVariable

Experimental Group

Control Group

No Treatment

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A physiologist sets out to determine whether the caloric content of food (high-calorie versus low-calorie) is a determinant of the amount eaten by rats who have been subjected to 48 hours of food deprivation.

Which one is the dependent variable?

Amount eaten by rats

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Independent Variable #1

Independent Variable #2

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Dependent Variable #1

Dependent Variable #2

WorkerSatisfaction

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Experiments may not reflect

behavior in real-life settings

Ethical Concerns

Practical Realities

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Williams, L.E. & Bargh, J.A. (2008). Experiencing physical warmth promotes

Interpersonal warmth. Science, 322, 606-607. doi: 10.1126/science.1162548

Author’s names: Last name followed by initials

Date of publication

Title of Article

Name of journal in italics

Journal volume number in italics

Pages in journalwhere article appears

Digital Object Identifier

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Code of ethicsE.g., when deception can be used

Ethics review committees

Important ethical requirementsInformed consentConfidentiality

Ethical guidelines for animal research

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ApplicationModule 1.4

Becoming a Critical Thinker

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Question everything

Clarify what you mean

Avoid oversimplifying

Avoid overgeneralizing

Don’t confuse correlation with causation

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Consider the assumptions upon which claims are based

Examine sources of claims

Question the evidence upon which claims are based

Consider alternative ways of explaining claims

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Don’t suspend your skeptical attitude when online!

Most trustworthy online information comes from well-known scientific sources